Food Landscapes

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A l a n d s c a p e m o d e l f o r i n t e n s i v e f a r m i n g

F o o d L a n d s c a p e s

Cora Lawton

LAND 8000, 2012


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AcknowledgementsThis research project would not have been possible withoutthe support of many people. I would like to express mygratitude to my super visor, Renee Davies who was abundantlyhelpful and offered invaluable assistance, support andguidance. I would also like to acknowledge my father DonaldLawton, Gary Swindale and Lindsay Winchester, whoseknowledge and expertise into the Poultry Industry has beenan invaluable asset for this stu dy. I would also like to expressmy love and gratitude to my mother, Lorraine Lawton andfather for their understanding & endless support, through theduration of my studies.


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1.0 Introduction ....................................................................... 5

2.0 Rationale ......................................................................... . 9

3.0 Quadruple Bottom Line Research .......................................27

4.0 Systems approaches .......................................................... 41

5.0 Case Studies ..................................................................... 47

6.0 Research Findings Analysis ................................................61

7.0 Design Interventions ......................................................... 65

8.0 Site selection ....................................................................75

9.0 Design Model .................................................................. 83

10.0 Design Model Calculations ............................................... 115

11.0 Quadruple Bottom Line Analysis ....................................... 121

12.0 Design Model Principles ................................................... 125

13.0 Design Testing ................................................................ 127

14.0 Design Model Testing Calculations .................................... 147

15.0 Reflection ....................................................................... 149

16.0 Conclusion ...................................................................... 151

17.0 Future ............................................................................. 153

18.0 References ...................................................................... 155

Contents


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Picture retr ieved from: http:/ /www.wallpapergate.com/wallpaper2706.html


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1.0 Introduction

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1.1 Abstract

With rising meat consumption worldwide, particularlyin developing countries, ther e is a need to explore newapproaches in designing farms to produce affordablemeat within a framework of improved environmentalsustainability.

New Zealand has a strong agricultural history. As worldleaders in research and development, agriculture shapedour nation structurally and socially and will continue todo so into the future. To facilitate the continued supplyof affordable meat exploration of initi atives in design tosupport sustainable agriculture is required.

This is a research project that has used landscape designmethodology to analyse and quantify existing intensivefarming models for chicken meat production (broilersheds) and explores potential design interventions that cancontribute to improved quadruple bottom line outcomesin intensive farming practice in New Zealand. Systemapproaches such as industri al ecology, cradle to cradle,permaculture and zero energy buildings were incorporatedinto a design model that reduces the intensive farmingfootprint concurrently improving the interconnectionsbetween the multiple inputs and outputs required for suchfarming practices, within the site, and broader environment.

Comparison of quantitative data on aspects such aswater, energy, biodiversity and waste between the existingintensive farm model and the sustain able design modelhas shown that the inclusion of landscape architecturaldesign methodology into an intensive farm developmentcan improve sustainability in an economically viable wayand contribute to a more appropriate approach to foodproduction and land use.


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1.2 Question

7

H o w c a n L a n d s c a p e D e s i g na n d s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h e s

i m p r o v e t h e o v e r a l ls u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f i n t e n s i v ef a r m i n g i n N e w Z e a l a n d ?

- Highlighting the contribution landscape architecture can make to agro-economics -


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1.3 Aim

To produce an intensive farming design model using existing

broiler shed sites, that encapsulates the cradle to cradle,industrial ecology, permaculture and ZEBs (Zero EnergyBuilding) principles and decreases the demands intensivefarming has on nonrenewable resources to produce verylittle if no waste.

This will ensure: The continuation of affordable meat production. Improve profitably for the farmers. Improve environmental conditions in and surrounding

these farms. Improve the amenity. And positively effect the health of animal within intensive

farms.

1.4 MethodologyMy research project comprised of three stages:

Research and analysis

In depth research and analysis of the quadruple bottomline issues, systems approaches, case studies an d existingbroiler farming methods to develop criteria for a designmodel of intensive broiler farms.

Design Model

The development of the design model on an existing sitein Christchurch utilising the best landscape architecturalpractice and technologies to create a factory farm which

achieves the goal of improving the quadruple bottom lineissues.

This was then calculated, quantified and compared withthe running costs of the sheds that already exist on the

site. This determined improvements could be made to the

existing costs and ecology in and surrounding the site.

Design Model Testing

The design model was then tested on another site in SouthHead, Auckland to demonstrate how it can successfully beadapted to different site conditions/parameters and stillachieve the same outcomes.

1.5 Initial QuestionsMy initial research was based on the following questions:

Can ecological planning define and enhancelocating of factory farms?

Can research and analysis of existing factoryfarms and their issues provide opportunities foridentification of environmental and ecologicalimprovements?

How can these opportunities drive designinterventions to produce a factory farm modelthat can improve health, ecological health,aesthetics and perceptions of factory farming?

An d could th is mo de l be ap pl ie d th ro ug ho utNew Zealand and the world to improve farming

methods/techniques and the associated(generally negative) perceptions of factoryfarming?

Through research and analysis in the first phase of my

project this then lead to:

Can and should landscape architectural designcontribute to improved intensive farmingpractice?

Can design interventions be quantified andimprove economic, social, environmental andanimal welfare impacts?

Which finally lead to my research question on the previouspage.


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2.0 Rationale

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2.1 Issue

Intensive farming is a very con troversial topic worldwide.They continue expand throughout the world and in NewZealand as the demand for affordabl e meat continues togrow. This expansion is due to th e effectiveness they havein producing affordable meat for the world that ensureshigh protein and nutritious food is available at an affordableprice, without intensive farms the less fortunate would beunable to eat meat.

Althou gh they are effe cti ve i n p rod ucing affo rda ble meat ,they are highly debated as a lot of environmental and animalwelfare issues accompany them. Animals grown in thesefarms are often confined to small spaces and never feel orexperience the sun or natural environment. If these farmsare not constructed, designed or maintained appropriatelythey can also have detrimental impacts on our environmentthat effect the health of the communities surrounding them.

My father found a niche in agricultural buildings in theconstruction industry back in the 1980s and has spent over30 years specialising in them. It was because of this they

have been a prominent feature of my life and I spent mychildhood earning pocket money working with my father onthese construction sites.

New Zealand has a strong depend ency on these farmseconomically and our presence within the world of factoryfarming is also promin ent, in 2011 we produced 90 millionchickens (NZ Herald, 2011) and in 2007 we produced760,000 pigs (Statistics NZ, 2010), so it is imperative thatchanges be made to the designs of these farms.

The main concern in the public eye is the welfare of theanimals in these farms, the pollution they cause to ourenvironment and the effects t hese farms have on the healthof people living around them. Although there are manydownsides to this farming technique I believe that the farmshave one strong point; they are confined to smaller areas,unlike traditional sheep and cow farming in NZ. I havenoticed however, that intensive farms are not being utilisedto their full potential by providing ecological services (eco-services) that could halt or reverse the effect intensive

farms have on our environment that will in turn improve thehealth of the surrounding ecology and society.

Animal welf are also h as a st ron g p resenc e wi thi n mystudies. Research has defined that eco-services canimprove the environment within the sheds which improvesthe welfare and psychology of the animals within the sheds.In addition there are p otentials to improve to efficiency ofthe farms themselves through design interventions thatcan assist in reducing energy costs (cooling for example).By incorporating eco-services into the project I havecreated multiple benefits for farmers/owners, animals, endpurchasers of the product and the environment.

Food supply, animal welfare, environment and human healthare all inter-linked through factory farmin g and I believethat through Landscape Architecture approaches I haveaddressed and improved the issues of these farms in NewZealand that could potentially be used throughout theworld.


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If you dig a fork into

food you, dig a fork intothe earth

(Jeavons, 2011)

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Adva ntag es Dis adva ntages

I t c ontrol s the f ood supply dec li ning starva tion . Helpe d to sprea d d isea se , f am ine a nd ma lnut ri ti on .

Provided a food surplus that led to the creation of cities. The shif t from foragers to farmers made the physicalcondition of humans deteriorate and made us moresusceptible to disease.

Allowed spe cail isa tio n o f l abour i.e. bui lde rs, plu mbe rs,laywers, architects etc.

Farming made people dependent on their crops anddomesticated animals.

Farming supported populaces not directly involved with foodproduction.

Caused a social division bet ween societies.

Increased food supply which enabled more children tosurvive.

Farming led to slavery.

It can be practiced all over the world. Farming is physically hard work.

Made art, science, technology, urban life and oth eraccomplishments of civilization possible.

Radically changed the environment.

Populations could survive temporary declines in foraging andhunting.

Wars over land.

2.2 Background History

2.2.1 Farming HistoryFifty thousand years ago the world began to change

and larger animals started disappearing whilst smalleranimal populations increased. This instigated a changewithin the way mankind gathered their food. Huntergatherer communities began to disappear as farmingemerged offering a solution to feed larger populationsand allowing them to reside in one region, this was whenfarming urbanisation established. Farming villages startedappearing around 9000-7000BCE in Europe, Asia and theMediterranean with the domestication of grains and animalslike pigs, sheep, cows and goats. (Tauger, 2010)

Subsequently with the development of farming camethe expansion of populations and to feed these growingpopulations. Farms quickly expanded so native forestswere cleared to satisfy the growing populations, which had

devastating effects on the environment. Farming has astrong presence in t he history of the development of todaysworld, without farming we would n ot have been able to buildcities. Although there are advantages of farming they arestrongly accompanied by disadvantages that have caused alot of todays environmental problems. These have exploredin the besid e table. (Tauger, 2010)

Was the invention of farming the right choice? Withoutit we would have never had all of the bad things likepatriarchy, inequality, war and famine, and as far as theplanet is concerned farming has been a big loser. Butwithout it we would have never had cities. Farming wasconceived to make settlement possible and this lead to the

creation of urbanity and development of new machineryand technologies that made farming easier but in turn ithad massive impacts on the environment. Farming is hereto stay in the near future and changes to farming methodsneed to be made to contin ue the supply of affordable foodto urban r egions. (Tauger, 2010)


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Adva ntag es Dis advantages

Reduction of animal movement reduces the effect large herdshave on the environment.

Reduction of animal movement impacts on their health andwelfare.

Saves labour. Saves labour.

Allows close mon ito rin g o f fe eding, weig ht gai n a ndproduction.

Close confinement leads to diseases and the need forantibiotics that affects our health.

T he ef fi ci en t u ti li sat io n of fe ed save s e ne rg y. T hey ar e m or e e ne rg y i nt en si ve i.e. th ey ne ed co ns ta nt po werfor lighting and cooling.

Cheap food production. Typically control all aspects of production (animal rearing,

feeding, slaughtering, packaging and distribution). VerticalIntegration.

They produce affordable meat. They produce less nutritious meat.

Produce huge volumes of food. Transport and distribution over vast distances.

They are efficient and have the ability to produce anddistribute huge quantities of food

Force smaller farms out of business.

Employment is c reated for surrounding communit ies No close connections with the surrounding communit ies .

Animal con fineme nt lead s to wa ste con fineme nt to cer tai nareas.

Concentration of animals leads to mass production of wastecausing pollution to leak into lakes, soil, rivers and groundwater putting communities at risk.

Farm land size masses are smaller. Monoculture to feed the animals large areas of landare turned into crops that devastates the surroundingecosystems.

2.2.2 Intensive FarmingAfte r t he sec ond wor ld war the pac e of agr icu ltu re in

developed counties picked up dramatically. Along with thisnew technologies were discovered like chemical sprays andequipment that allowed land concentration and reducedfarm labour. (Tauger, 2010)

The intensive farming style was introduced around thisera (middle of the 20th century) when antibiotics werediscovered. It was developed in U.S.A for poultry and eggsand offered an even more intensified farm. The farmingstyle quickly caught on and spread through out the worldand across agriculture sectors like pigs, turkeys, sheep andbeef. (Tauger, 2010)This style of farming reduced animal movement improvingthe conversion efficiency of feed into an affordable meat

product. It allowed close monitoring of animals and theirfeed, saving energy, but consequently the equipment andhousing needed to be built and the feed transported longdistances, making the process a energy intensive farmingstyle. ( Tauger, 2010)

Factory farming also reduced labour and brought aboutcapital investment. Now a majority of these farmsthroughout the world are owned by large cooperationsthat control the overall process of meat production fromthe feed through to the slaughtering. This has had a hugeimpact on smaller farms and farming communities thoughout the world. (Tauger, 2010)

Presently intensive farming is concentrated on money andthere is pressure to increase the productivity of them but inways that are more environmentally sustainable.There are a lot of advantages and disadvantages (as seen inbeside table) of intensive farming.

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1800s

Bushescleared,timber

usedformilling

1823

ThefirstDairyfarm

establishedattheWaima

te

MissionStation

1847

JohnGebbieproduced

1,088kgofcheeseand

317kgofbutter

1850

o

nwards

Secondhalfofthe19th

centurysheepwoolbeca

me

NZsmostimportantexport

andlargesheepstations

wereformed

1848

Dairyfarm

inWaikauaiti

establishedtosupplylarge

volumesofdairytoDunedin

1871

Firstco-operativedairyfarm

establishedonOtagoPeninsu

la

producing5tonnesofcheese

in

thefirstyear

188

1

NZRefrigeratingcompanyformed

18

82

FirstsuccessfulexporttoBritain

1891

71cheesefactoriesand3

creameriesestablished

1919

Halfofthecownowmilked

by

machine

1950

Allcowherdsmilkedby

machine

1980s

Factoryfarmingarrivedin

NZ

Ear

lydayswerehardforsettlers,a

lotof

persistenceandhardworkwas

requiredtoclearland.Familieslived

inthe

simplestdwellingsandsurvived

withanassemblyoflivestock,their

mainsourceoffoodwasbirds,wild

pigsa

ndcouldgrow.Theywerevery

isolatedandhadlittleornocontact

withotherpeople

Duringthesettlingperiodthe

po

pulationtendedtoconcentrate

inthesouthwherethelandwasnot

inhabite

dbymudanddensebush.As

theyearsprogressedthepopulation

movednorth

Sheepw

erebreedforwoolexport

butoverpopulationleadtoa

disposalproblem

UndertheSoldierSettlement

A

ctCrownandprivateland

wa

sbroughtandsubdivided

intofarms.9500soldierswere

eventuallyplaced,butthescheme

pushedupthevalueofland

Developinglandmeantdeveloping

districtsthroughbuildingroads,

bridges,housesandeventually

airports

Refriger

ationtransformedNZlife

andb

ecameaflagshipforour

future

ThetwoWorldWarswere

accom

paniedbycallstoproduce

allthemeatwecouldforexportto

Britain

Refrigeration,warsandaeroplanes

havehelpedtoturnNZintooneof

thewo

rldsleadingmeatexporters

History

Socialresponses

2.2.3 New Zealand Farming History

Picture retrieved from: http://www.constellations.co.nz/index.php?sec=3&ssec=12&r=780#780


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New Zealand has a strong Agricultural history that hasshaped our nation structurally and socially. Farming helpedform New Zealand into the nation that it is today. (Cross,1990)

New Zealand Statistics state that agriculture productioncontributes to 48% of New Zealands export earnings, wehave a population of approximately 8.5 million cattle, 30million sheep and produce 90 million chickens and 760,000

pigs a year and 11% of our population works within thesector of agriculture. From these statistics you come tothe realisation of how depended our nation is on agricultureproduction. New Zealand is also ranked within the top threecountries with the highest levels of meat export per capitaof population. (Cross, 1990)

World War I and II impacted on New Zealand immensely,after the outbreak of the first world war New Zealand wascontracted to supply all th e meat we could produce forBritain. Once the war and contract had ended there wasa surplus of 180,000 carcasses causin g meat prices toplummet. This had a huge impact on our economy as many

new farmers (mainly returning soldiers who took up farmingafter the war) were forced to abandon their land. (Cross,1990)

After the sec ond wor ld war aer ial topdre ssi ng double d g ras sproduction, meaning we could provide more meat. Couldthis have lead to the depletion of our soils and waterwaysthrough leaching?

Acco rding to the Selw yn Dis tri ct Cou nci l Abo ut 90% of NewZeal and ins ects, 80% of t ree s, ferns and flower ing pla nts ,

25% of bir d spec ies , a ll 60 rep til e spec ies , f our rem ain ing

frogs and two species of bat, are found nowhere else on

earth. This is remarkable internationally; Britain in contrast

has onl y t wo e nde mic spe cie s, one pla nt and one ani mal .

Althou gh we a re very depe nda nt on our agr icu ltu re sec tor,New Zealand has also become highly reliant on our tourismand filming industries for our pristine, unique, naturalenvironment but if our farming methods continue to depleteour environment these economic sectors will be adverselyeffected.

Working with intensification to identify

environmental and social gains at the sametime as capturing economic efficiencies

is more likely to suppor t biodiversity than

simply attempting to stem or reverse

intensification (Moller et al, 2008)

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Taranaki

Lack

ofsurroundin

gvegetat

ion

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Tahuna

Novegeation


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Pukekohe

Mas

sivero

ofexpa

nse

19


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Huapai

Nove

geati

ononsite

Dete

rioration

of

str

uctu

res


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Nonativ

eveg

etation

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Eco

-services?

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Middle

ofnowhere

Noprotection

Parakai

2.2.5 Photo Essay Conclusion Minimal if no vegetation. If vegetation does exist it typically consists of hedges that are not used to their full potential.

They are generally situated within flat agricultural landscapes. They are not being utilised to their full potential to provide ecological connections and habitats to improve biodiversity. They are situated within exposed areas with little or no protection from the environment. Eco-services are not being utilised. They all comprise massive roof expanses that are not protected from environmental effects and weathering.

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2.3 Resource Management Act

The RMA (Resource Management Act) has set out a rulesand regulations surrounding broiler shed sites and theiractivities these are: Sites must be selected carefully. Activities must be retained within their sites. Odours and dust must be retained within their sites. Waste management is the sole responsibility of the

owner, but it can be a valuable by pro duct of birdproduction as it can be applied to pasture or croplandsaccording to guidelines for nutrient management.

Waste is typically sold to other producers for landapplication or commercial composting facilities.

Carcasses must be disposed of in a way that preventenvironmental and health problems.

Good waste management and disposal practices. Efficient Storage facilities for waste.

Control of discharge to the air, including odour, dust andparticles.

Best practice is to avoid adverse environmental effects.

It is vital that my intensive farming model fits within theseguidelines set out by the RMA.

Through a document I accessed online (Bowler, 2008) thatwas in breach of the RMA I di scovered: Poultry consents account for 3.5% of Rural effluent

discharge resource consents in New Zealand. It was estimated that in 2008 poultry waste accumulated

to 190000 tonnes.

Table 3 states the nutrient values of manures andcomposts.

Table 4 calculates the amount of complaints r elated toodour discharge within New Zealand.

This document is vital to my research as it allowed me tocalculate the projected waste New Zealand poultr y farmsproduce a year and how much of each nutrient is produced.I believe the RMA could improve their regulationssurrounding broiler shed sites to encompass the utilisationof eco-services to improve the biodiversity of New Zealand.

As dis cussed fur the r i n t his pro jec t I feel the ir reg ula tio nsare to lenient and their objectives should be changedto improve the aesthetics and systems requir ements ofintensive farming.

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Picture retr ieved from: http:/ /www.wallpapergate.com/wallpaper2706.html

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3.0 Quadruple Bottom Line Research

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From my rationale investigations I was able to define fourdistinct aspects that need addressing in intensive farmingthese were:

Environment Economic

Animal Welfare Social

I defined these as the Quadruple Bottom Line issues andeach aspect has been researched and analysed further toform the basis of improvements for my d esign model ofexisting intensive broiler shed sites.

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3.1 Environment

They also play a vital role in storm water management by: Binding soil and preventing erosion.

Up-taking pollutants through roots (phytoremediation). Reducing the amount of pollutants entering waterwaysthrough contaminant absorption.

Preventing raindrop erosion. Reducing water quantity through water uptake. Providing a surface for micro organism contaminant

processing. Aiding in slowing the water flow rate.

Conclusion

It was crucial for my design model to realise the fullpotential land, water and the environ ment together have forenriching the life and fabric of communities.

The below table shows how trees, vegetation and foliagecan benefit the health of surrounding communities(including animal), economics and environments and offactory farm

HEALTH BENEFITSV is ua l be ne fit s Ae st he tic i mpro ve me nts a nd bi od iv ers it y

attraction

B et te r a ir qu al it y R ed uc ti on of a ir po ll ut io n a nd gr ee nh ou se ga se s

N oi se re du ct io n D en se ve ge ta ti on fo li ag e p ro vi de s a s a no is ebarr ier

ECONOMICBENEFITS

Reduction of energyconsumption in build ings

Shading of buildings in summer and protectionfrom cold winds in winter

Property value increasesVegetation enhances the properties landscapeand reduces the energy consumption and costthroughout the year

ENVIRONMENTALBENEFITS

R ed uct ion o f a i r p o l lu t ion Th e p h otosyn th es is p r ocess r em oves p o l lu tants

form the air

Heat reductionThe evapotranspiration process coolssurrounding environments and vegetation shadessurfaces.

S t or m w a te r re d uc t io n T re e s, v eg e ta t io n a n d f o li a ge ha v e t h e c a pa c it y tointercept slow and f i lter storm water

This table has been altered from Table 2, pg.88, CamargoBarrera, 2011)

As sta ted in the New Zealand fa rming his tory, a gricu lturehas adversely effected our environment and biodiversity. It

is important that changes be made to agriculture and thedevelopment of factory farming to improve the environmentin and surrounding sites. Landscape architects need toaddress the inter-relations within the landscape before farmingexacerbates the devastation of waterways, loss of nativeflora and fauna and green house impacts. Our clean greenimage relies so much on our natural biological and ecologicalsystems.

It is important that the structures and layout of factory farmsform a part of nature and no longer conflict with it. Throughecosystem services many of the environmental, social, animaland economic issues can be addressed that will not only havea positive effect on the biodiversity, but it will also benefit thecommunity by improving the visual impacts of factory farming

and will hopefully change peoples negative perceptions ofthis style of farming.

Typical environmental problems caused by intensive farming:

Pollution of water ways. Aerial pollution including unpleasant odours. Dust emissions. Noise. Release of chemicals. Encouragement of flies and other unwanted pests. Release of ammonia.

3.1.1 Trees and Vegetation

Trees and vegetation form an integral functio n of thelandscape and ecology, but they also have the capacit y topositively improve the atmosphere, property values, ecologyand aesthetics of intensive farming whilst controlling theindoor and outdoor temperatures, reducing air pollution and

dust; and attenuating storm water and shed washout runoff.

Health Benefits

It is through the visual benefits of trees and vegetationthat psychological advantages arise. The mare presenceof vegetation improves health in humans and animals byproviding cooler and cleaner air whilst reducing noiselevels. This consequently reduces the stress levels ofhumans and animals improving their mental health.

Economic Benefits

Trees and vegetation improve indoor and ou tdoortemperatures by allowing warm winter winds and sun topenetrate buildings whilst blocking hot summer windsand sun. They also influence the wind movement aroundsites (as shown in diagrams 3.1.2 and 3.1.3). The correct

placement of trees and vegetation within a site can havehuge economic benefits, not only on energy consumptionbut they also enhance property landscapes and make themmore attractive increasing their value.

Acco rding to Cama rgo Bar rer a the cor rec t p lac emen t o ftrees and vegetation have the potential to save 0.7-40% onenergy. During the summer they can reduce air conditionerconsumption by 25-8 0% and in winter they save energy byprotecting buildings from cold winds, reducing the need forenergy to heat buildings.

Environmental Benefits

Trees and vegetation benefit the on site and surrounding

environment immensely. They contribute to the biodiversityby:

Providing food, nesting areas and habitats for fauna andinvertebrates.

Contributing to the vegetation patch network.

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Summer Breezes Captured

Winter Winds Deflected

N

3.1.2 Wind movement diagrams

Wind flow diagram

Filtration of air flow through strategic plant placement

Planting that reflects seasonal weather conditions

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Summer Shade

NN

Winter Sun

3.1.3 Shade diagrams

31

Deciduous planting allows warm winter sun and winds to heat broiler sheds Deciduous planting prevents hot summer sun and winds from heating broiler sheds


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Currently the global food shortages have caused meatprices to double. The United Nations have stated thatone in seven people go to bed hungry every night (thatis approximately 1 billion people) making hunger theleading cause of death in the world. This means worldmeat consumption is destined to rise and with currentlyhalf of the meat produced being consumed by developingcountries it is crucial that affordability is maintained.

Acco rdi ng to Joh n Jeavons (2012) , 216,0 00 bab ies net (bi rthles s deaths) are bor n d ail y and to con tin ue sup ply ing thi s

pop ula tio n w ith food u sing t odays method s we nee d an

add iti ona l 3 4,000 far mer acr es a day meanin g the glo be

only has 49 years left of farmable soil. Also 70-80% ofwater used by people is utilised in food production and in

2025 i f we mai nta in our cur ren t f arm ing meth ods in 202 55 billion people will not have a sufficient amount of water

avai lab le to the m. This means thatthe world populationgro wth is out pac ing food p roduc tio n (Jeavons, 2012) andthis could have a disastrous impact on societies as it couldlead to food shortages and result in wars.

New Zealand is far from exempt of this crisi s, thousands offamilies obtain food grants and charity every year to feedtheir families. In 2006 when our economy was boomingWork and Income supplied 12,000 food grants in Hamiltonalone, and this was at a t ime when our economy wasbooming. (Collins, 2011)

As sta ted above the demand for soi l i s g rowi ng vast ly, t her eis now very little land left within the world for conversionto farming. According to Jeavons (2012) soil is now eighttimes the value of gasoline making it one of the most

expensive commodities on earth. Not only is the price ofsoil increasing but existing farmland is also facing problemsas the soil has been over worked and fertilised causing itto become toxic. We need soil to feed people, and this iswhy intensive farming is so vital to the continuation of foodsupply to the world. It condenses agricultural productionto smaller areas allowing horticulture production to remainwithin soil. (Jeavons, 2012).In order to retain soil and grow grains etc that we need tofeed the growing populations and animals, we desperatelyneed to start growing soil. This is where Jeavons Bio-intensive farming method comes into play, it has thecapacity to produce higher food yields at a realistic price.It also has the ability to produce 9 kilograms of soil per 500

grams of food produced. How?

By producing a deep soil structure for quadruple nutrientcycling.

Producing compost for microbe nutrition, soil waterretention and soil antibiotic.

Close plant spacing providing improved plantenvironments.

Companion planting for pest minimisation Using easily accessible seeds. Utilising the whole system.

It is of utmost importance that changes be made to ourfarming practices as Only through greater investment in

sus tai nab le agr icu ltu re a long -ne gle cted are a ca n n ations

ensure both food security and competitiveness on the

intern ationa l m arkets .(Brit, 2011)

New Zealand could have the potential to dou ble foodproduction to supply affordable meat for our nation andthe world, immensely improving our economics, but is itpossible for us to do this without having detrimental effectson our pristine natural environment?

It is not only the world economics that impact on intensivefarming but also just the day to day running of an intensivefarm influences the price of meat. According to figuresreceived from a chicken farm in Christchurch it currentlycosts $21 per m2including GST to provide gas provide electricity clean chlorinate water

spread shavingsThis farm and most broiler shed sites are fortunate in a wayas they have the use of natural bo res that supply water totheir chickens. On average a 6 week old bird (the age reachbefore slaughter) consumes 7.5 litres of water. All the watercollected from the washout of the sheds is directed intosumps in the ground and then sprayed over the fields withinthe site. This farm produces approximately 85,000 birds ayear, so according to these figures the typical production ofone chicken (excluding food) is 65 cents.

It is important to maintain a understanding of these figuresas they have been improved upon to pr ovide a profitabledesign model for intensive farm owners that continues toprovide affordable meat to the world and also has the abilityto maintain or improve New Zealands export earnin gs.

3.2 Economic

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3.3 Animal Welfare

Animal welf are is a pa rt icu lar ly con troversia l topic o fintensive farms. In the initial stages of my research I hada choice between an intensive pig farm in Christchurchor broiler shed sites through out New Zealand. Half waythrough my research it became apparent that the pigshed was unavailable, so I continued my desi gn modeldevelopment with the broiler shed options.

I had however already completed a considerable amount ofresearch into both pig and chicken welfare that exposed the

similarities between each species.

I separated my research into typi cal chicken and pigbehaviour categories (pages 34 and 35). To help mevisualise and interpret my research into pig and chickenbehaviour I produced diagrams (on pages 36 and 37) thatpulled out important aspects in animal welfare within meatproduction. From this I discovered that both species havesimilar intensive farming welfare issues like:

Physical instability caused by rapid growth and weightgain.

Mortality rates.

Animal management. Overstocking, dehydration and frustration from food

restrictions. Inadequate inspections and culling. Pre-slaughter stress and slaughter methods. Cannibalism. Handling methods. Ventilation and air temperatures. Lighting. Waste management.

There is currently code of welfare for fully housed broilerchicken farms to follow (Animal Welfare, Broiler Chi ckens:Fully Housed, Code of Welfare 2003). This code applies to

all per son s r espons ible fo r the welf are of bro ile r c hic ken s

in contro lle d e nvi ron men t b roi ler pro duc tio n sy ste ms. Itis intend ed to enc our age all tho se res pon sib le for its

imp lem entation to ado pt the hig hes t s tan dar d o f husb and ry,

care and handling, to equal or exceed the minimum

sta nda rds . (Animal Welfare Act, 2003)

This is a complex code that ensures the correct treatmentof the chickens from hatching through to slaughter. It

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was written by a working group established by the PoultryIndustry Association of New Zealand Inc. and has been

rev iewe d by repr ese nta tives of t he ind ust rie s, vete rin ari ans ,

adv iso rs , anim al sci ent ist s, welf ari sts and member s o f the

gen era l p ubl ic. (Animal Welfare Act, 2003)

Tegel demands that all their growers follow this code. Iffarmers follow this code it eradicates most of the negativeaspects of intensive farming in New Zealand, but therecould still be improvements made to the welfare of the

animals living within these environments by enhancing theenvironment surrounding them.

New Zealand has a high st andard of animal welfareand failure to follow animal codes results in large finesor incarceration and this is why we differ from other(particularly poorer) countries as we have protectionsin place for the animals and consumers can be ensuredthat by buying New Zealand meat, they are buying meatproduced in a lawful, animal friendly manner.


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Typical Pig Behaviour

Pigs live complex and emotional lives. They are traditionallyforest dwellers and their excellent sense of smell allowedthem to take full advantage of their environment by foragingand rooting for animal and plant matter. Pigs are highlysocial animals with females living in large groups whilstmales tend to be more solitary or monopolise a group offemales. Contrary to belief pigs like to bask in the sunshineand cool off in mud baths when it gets hot, they do not likeliving in muddy pens.

Domestication of pigs occurred approximately 10,000B.C in South East Asia. They were a common feature inearly agricultural societies mainly because they are high ly

res ist ant , matu re qui ckl y, have lar ge lit ter s and they can

sus tai n them selves on low qua lit y f eedstu ffs . (Grandin, 2011)

Recommended handling techniques (as per Temple Grandin)

Frequent and visual and close human contact. Regular positive contact. Tactile, auditory and visual interactions. No pushing, hitting and slapping. Minimise pigs fear making them easier to handle. In

fearful situations they will behave in a self protectivemanner by fleeing or fighting back.

Allow them to adjust and familiarise themselves inunfamiliar environments.

They can suffer from boredom so novel objects withintheir pens can offer entertainment.

Minimise negative interactions.

They are more difficult to handle in dark conditions.

Image retr ieved from http:/ /www.puttingfarmersf irst.ca/the-face-of-giving-pigs-in-tanzania-this-chr istmas/

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Typical Chicken Behaviour

Arc hae olo gic al evid enc e sugg ests c hic kens were fir stdomesticated around 5300BC in China from the red

jun gle fowl (Gallus gallus). The y l ive in flo cks of e xte nde dfamily members. Individual chickens dominate other birdswithin these flocks creating a pecking orders. Thesedominant individuals have priority over access to food andlocations for nesting and separate the flocks into smallergroups during the day. They are smart creatures and canrecognise up to 100 dif ferent chicken faces which is anecessity for the pecking order.

Chickens are omnivores eating small seeds, h erbs andleaves, grubs, insects and even small mammals like mice,and typically scratch and peck the soil to expose theirfood. They are also boisterous creatures using their callsto display power, locate themselves, mating and warn forpredators.

Althou gh the y a re a fl igh tle ss bird t hey sti ll attempt to f lyby running and flapping their wings to escape predatorsand explore their surroundings. They also use their wings,heads and necks to promote convective heat loss.

They have panoramic vision of 300 degrees and fullspectrum colour vision. Domesticated chickens aretypically less active than th eir wild ancestors, they havefewer social interactions, are less likely to explore for

food and are less aggressive towards predators (includinghumans). They generally have a short lifespan of 5-7 years.(Grandin, 2007)

Recommended handling techniques (as per Temple Grandin)

They are typically calmer and less affected if they arehandled in the dark.

To prevent dislocation of hips or any other injuries it isbest to catch the bird with two legs and maintain them ina upright position.

Environmental enrichment provides extra stimulationin their home environment, which may effect theirexpectations on environmental complexity and enhance

their ability to adapt. This is why birds in outdoorenvironments and low stock densities are generally lessfearful.

Appropriate environmental enrichments during housingmay better enable birds to cope with stressors that theyface during catching, transportation and pre-slaughterhandling.

Regular handling before catching can reduce fear. Lighting should be increased to encourage movement. Inspections at an early age reduces fear and stress

response. Stock people should walk within three metres of each

bird daily.

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Image retr ieved from http:/ /rationald iscoveryblog.com/post/26930208435/problem-solved-the-chicken-came-f irst


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3.3.1 Behavioural chart

Pig

SocialEmotion

ForestDwellers

Chicken

Omnivores

Flocks ofextendedfamilies

Largefamilygroups

Solitarydominant

male

Environment

Sunshine

Peckingorder

Intelligent

Recognitionskills

JungleDwellers

Insects,

seeds,plants,small

mamals

Sunshine

Bathe

Bathe

Runand flapwings asdefence

Foraging androoting

Scratchand peck

Flapwings topromoteheat loss

Boisterious

Explore

Explore

Excellentsense of

smellAnimaland plant

matter

Panoramic,colourvision

Panoramic,colourvision

Highlyadaptable

Recognitionskills

Aggresi ve ifthreatened

Aggresi ve ifthreatened

Chicken

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3.3.2 Welfare issues for factory grown animals

Pig

Chicken

Environment EmotionsHunger

AirTemperatures

AirTemperatures

Stockdensities

Pen sizes

Mortalityrate

Mortalityrate

Health

Growthrate

Growthrate

What arethey being

feed?

What arethey being

feed?

Boredom

Boredom

Handling

Handling

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3.3.3 Pig Handling

Regular visual contact Novel objects Lite environment Regular movement Familiar surroundings/environment Positive human-pig interactions

Hitting, slapping, pushing an yelling= Negative interactions

Dark environment Constant containment Unfamiliar surroundings Positive human-pig interactions

Happy, content pig

Fearful, unhappy pig

Easy handling

Hard handling

Improved Growth Reproduction Meat quality Pig welfare

Poor Growth Reproduction Meat quality Welfare

Healthier human-piginteractions

Inadequate human-piginteractions

Productiveworking

environment

Stressfulworking

environment

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3.3.4 Chicken Handling

Encouragement of exploring andwalking

Naturally lite environment Positive human-bird interactions Daily inspections and human

contact Pecking and scratching

opportunities Pecking orders

No opportunities to explore andwalk.

Dark environments Negative human-bird interactions Irregular inspections and human

contact No pecking and scratching

opportunities No opportunities for pecking orders

Happy, healthy chicken

Unhappy, unhealthy chicken

Healthy bird and workenvironment

Unhealthy bird and workenvironment

Productiveworking

environment

Improved Growth Meat quality Bird welfare

Unproductiveworking

environment

Poor Growth Meat quality Bird welfare


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3.4 Social

Intensive farming impacts on the social welfare ofcommunities surrounding their sites and the worldpopulation. These impacts are not all related to theenvironmental and health impacts these farms have ofthe surrounding communities, but also the mental welfareperceptions and monopolies surrounding intensive farming.

One positive strong argument encompassing intensivefarming is their ability to continue supply of affordablemeat to the world. But accompanying this positive is thegenerally negative perceptions society has on the industry,particularly surrounding animal welfare and the quality ofthe meat supplied by these farms. Not only is it the qualityof the meat that impacts on our health, but these farms also

the impact on the health of the environment, especially onthe communities surrounding them.

They create copious amounts of pollution and theirvisual representation brings about negative responses.In response to this they are commonly hidden throughvegetation and the methods of meat production are oftenconcealed, which causes more stress for society as theyare unsure of what is going into their meat and how theanimals are being treated.

This also impacts on the owners and employees who workwithin the farms and industry. They have stress pressuresfrom the outside world and also have to work withinmanufactured environments. Animal handling can also be

a stressful task, this accompanied with the manufacturedenvironment can have harmful effects on workers health.

Anothe r downside towards intens ive farming a re thecompanies that monopolise or control the market.

Acco rdi ng to the Tegal (2012 ) we bsi te they are NewZeal and s m ark et-l ead ing , fu lly integr ate d poul tr y p rod uce r.

The company is involved in the breeding, hatching,

pro cessin g, mar keti ng and dis tri but ion of pou ltr y p rod uct s

across both t he Nor th and Sou th Isl and s. Also theiroperations include four major processing facilities, smallervalue-added processing plants, feed mills and breeding

& hatching facilities. In all, Tegel employs around 1,700

people . Another two companies that are also majorchicken producers within New Zealand ar e Ingham andBrinks, but their websites did not allude to how theircompanies are run or which aspects of chicken farming they

control.

Currently within New Zealand, Tegal, Ingham and Brinks (themajor chicken producers in New Zealand) lease the shedsoff the farmers, so it like a commercial area within ruralregions. They also pay farmers remuneration for managingthe farm. This is why saving on energy consumptionand costs is so vital for the farmers as it provides themwith opportunities to improve their profitability throughecosystem services and increase their property valuesthrough aesthetics.

Society is also concerned for the fairness to the farmerswho produce the chickens and employees of the industry.This shows the impacts societ y has on the employees as

the less money farms and incorporations make the lessmoney an employee is paid.

Monopolies also set the price in which the chickens aresupplied to the market and then on top of th at you havethe supermarkets putting their mark up on the meat asthe farmers are unable to sell directly to the public. Massmeat production continues the supply of affordable meatand I believe if farms were to become privatised it couldhave a damaging effect of the price of meat and cause anundesired price increase to the public.

I guess this leaves the question are the monopolies a goodor bad aspect of intensive farming? And I presume that thisis one major concerns for society when it come to intensivefarming.

Anothe r dema nd from society is fre e rang e ch icke ns.Currently the price difference is for free range is NZD$5-$10 more per kg. That may not be much of an increasefor wealthier families, but it would impact hugely on theless fortunate who already struggle to feed their families.Consumer demands set the market for meat and if we allstarted consuming free range chickens it would decreasethe production of intensively farmed animals, which could inturn increase the price of chicken.

From this it is clear that social issues have huge impactson intensive farming and to their continuation of affordablemeat supply to the world.

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4.0 Systems approaches


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Through my quadruple bottom line research investigations Iwas able define systems approaches that could dramaticallyimprove the negative aspects of intensive farming. Theseinclude:

Cradle to cradle which imitates natures highly effectivesystem of nutrient flow and absorption in which the conceptof waste does not exist.

Industrial ecology that utilises waste from outsi deindustries as resource in another industry, creating anoverall closed circle.

Permaculture an approach that aims to design humansettlements and agricultural systems that mimic therelationships found within natural ecologies.

Z.E.Bs (Zero Energy Buildings) which utilise naturalresources to heat, cool and power buildings.

These systems approaches were applied to my designmodel to minimise their impacts on the environment, reducetheir use of nonrenewable resources and minimise thewaste they produce.

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4.1 Cradle to Cradle

This systems approach aims to har nes s and max imi ze l oca lnatural ene rgy flows (p31, McDonough, 2002). Our typical

approach to design and development overwhelm and ignorenatural and cultural (or animal welfare) diversity, that resultsin environments with less variety making them homogenous.

To prevent anymore unnecessary harm to ou r naturalenvironments considerations need to be taken into ourtypical building process that scrapes away the ground toreveal a bed undisturbed soil, removes trees and vegetationthat destroys habitats for natural fauna and then erectsmodular homes or buildings with little or no regard tothe environment around it. Typically (as stated in 3.1Environment) designers rarely take into consideration theways sun mig ht pro duc e heat for the hou se or how tre escould provide protection from wind, heat and cold and how

soi l a nd wate r h eal th can be pre ser ved now and for the

future (p33, McDonough, 2002).

Conventional agriculture systems also seem to work withinthese typical guidelines. They typically create mono-cultural landscapes that benefit only one species anddeplete soils of nutrients and saturate them with chemicals.It is because of this peo ple generally dont want to livenear them because of chemical ru noff, smell and othereffects of farming. It is also through cultivation of onespecies that we have drastically reduced the r ich network ofservices causing side effects in which the entire complexecosystems are replaced with relatively un-complex manmade ones. (McDonough, 2002)

Todays intensive farming infrastructure is generallydesigned to chase the economi c growth at the expense ofhuman and ecological health, cultural and natural richness,and even enjoyment and delight. (McDonough, 2002)

Althou gh intens ive farm ing has inc rea sed to feed mor e

children, more children go to bed hungry and they areexposed to more substances that lead to genetic mutations,

cancer, asthma, allergies, and other complications thatindustrial contamination and waste cause through poordesign. (McDonough, 2002)

Acco rdi ng to McDono ugh and Bra ung ar t ( 2012) eff ici entagriculture can deplete local landscapes and wildlife. Theycontrasted two regions East Germany with West Germany.Traditionally, the amount of wheat produced in easternGermany was only half that of western Germany, because theagricultural industry in the west is utilises more modern andefficient ways of producing wheat. It was thought that theeastern regions inefficient and more old-fashioned agricultureis better for the environmental health as it has larger wetlandareas that have not been drained and overtaken by mono-cultural crops, and they contain more rare species, comparedwith the more developed western lands. These wild marshesand wetland areas provide vital habitats for breeding, nutrientcycling, and water absorption and purification. This studyshows how important and more beneficial it is to createfarming models that consider environmental effects.

This has been applied to my design model of an intensivefarm. By providing abundant daylight within daylight hours Ihave diminished the need for fluorescent light, which becomesa perk for animals, employees and has the capacity to lurepotential employees and thus has a positive effect witheconomics and aesthetics of intensive farming.

An example of thi s mode l i n w hic h l ife is cent red aro und the

community and environment would be the Herman Millercomplex designed by McDonough and Braungart. It took 10%more money to build than a typical industrial complex wouldhave cost but it is built in a way that replenishes, restores andnourishes the on site and surrounding environments.

We need to start imitating natures highly effective cradle to

cradle system of nutrient flow and metabolism in which veryconcept of waste does not exist. (McDonough, 2002)

By utilising th e cradle to cradle systems approach mydesign model has produced an intensive farm that enrichesthe local species, and i nvites them into my cultivatedsite and gains profits and pleasures from the diversity ofnatural energy flows. My design model also engages withan abundance of diverse materials, options and responsesfor creative and elegant landscape solutions. Anotherimportant aspect of my design model is how it respectsdiversity and engages with the local material and energyflows, and quadruple bottom line issues, instead of viewingitself as autonomous entity that is unconnected to thelandscape surrounding it.

We need to start producing buildings like

trees and cities like a forests.(McDonough, 2002)


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4.2 Zero Energy Buildings

Acco rdi ng to Torce lli ni, Der u & Craw ley (2006 ) A zeroenergy building (ZEB) is a residential or commercial building

with greatly reduced energy needs through efficiency gainssuc h that the bal anc e o f en erg y n eeds c an be sup pli ed with

ren ewab le tec hno log ies .

The zero energy building concept is to construct buildingsthat can meet all of their energy requirements from lowcost, locally available, non polluting, renewable sources.

This means a ZEB generates enough energy on site to equal

or exceed its annual energy use (Torcellini et al, 2006).

This concept also tries to Minimize overall environmentalimp act by e nco ura gin g e ner gy- eff ici ent bui ldi ng des ign s

and red ucing tra nsp or tat ion and conver sio n loss es.

(Torcellini et al, 2006)

There are four kinds of Z.E.Bs they are as follows:

Net Zero Site Energy: A site Z.E.B produces at least asmuc h e ner gy as it use s in a yea r, wh en acc oun ted for at

the site. (Torcellini et al, 2006) Net Zero Source Energy: A source Z.E.B produces

at least as muc h e ner gy as it use s in a yea r, wh en

acco unt ed for at the sou rce . S our ce ene rgy r efer s to

the primary energy used to generate and deliver the

energy to the site. To calculate a buildings total source

energy, imported and exported energy is multiplied by

the appropriate site-to-source conversion multipliers.

(Torcellini et al, 2006) Net Zero Energy Costs: In a cost Z.E.B, the amount of

mon ey t he uti lit y pays the bui ldi ng owner for the ene rgythe building exports to the grid is at least equal to the

amount the owner pays the uti lit y fo r the ene rgy ser vic es

and ene rgy use d over the yea r. (Torcellini et al, 2006) Net Zero Energy Emissions: A net-zero emissions building

pro duc es at lea st as muc h e mis sio ns- fre e rene wab le

energy as it uses from emissions-producing energy

sou rce s. (Torcellini et al, 2006)

Energy costs in New Zealand continue to increase and onaverage there has been an increase of 12% this year (. If wecontinue to construct buildings that are energy demanding,this will increase the demand for supply which will resultin more power stations and ongoing maintenance and thecontinuance of upgrades to the national grid. By designingbroiler sheds to be more energy efficient the farms canreduce the energy costs by moving towards on-site orlocally generated power. This is why my design model willutilise a Net Zero Energy Cost Z.E.B

New Zealand is unique in a way as most of our electricity isprovided by renewable resouces like hydro power. Howeverour systems are often put on warnings when th e levels ofour lakes are low, meaning fossil fuels are depen ded on topick up the slack. On-site solar generation can reduce thedependance these farms have on our power systems andeven have the ability to store energy incase of power cuts,that have huge impacts on th e chickens welfare within thesheds. (Bra zier, 2012)

It is possible to design a zero energy broiler shed, butas I am not an Engineer or Architect I am limited to thelandscape, but this in itself provides a lot of p otentials likeeco-services that can benefit the buildings, chicken welfareand energy consumption of these farms.

This method of design also has the ability to create anindoor environment that is warm and dry and eliminatehealth risks without the need for heating.

Image retr ieved from http:/ /www.utengineers.com/index.php?p=1_5_Zero-Energy-Build ing

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4.3 Permaculture

Permaculture provides us a way to design ou r lives andenvironment using ethic as a starting point. The wordis derived from Permanent and Agriculture and theunderstandings came out of the ecology movement inthe 1960s when the generation was dissatisfied with thedirection peoples lives and environment were taking.

Bill Mollison and David Holmgren wrote down things theysaw happening in natural forests. Although forests neverremained the same, they had lasted th ousands of yearsand stayed. The things that they saw happening quicklybecame the foundations for Permaculture. (Baxter, 2008)

Their findings of the natural forests included: Ever changing ecosystems. The natural ecosystems were made up of thousands or

millions of elements. Every element, plant, tree, animal, insect, trees etc are

doing many things within the ecosystem and diversity isessential for continued survival.

Every element is supported by other elements. Within every ecosystem there is zone patterns (areas that

different elements have adapted too). These systems can survive and change without external

help. There is no pollution and they have Zero Waste.

Acco rding to Kay Bax ter (20 08) the re are five zones within a

Permaculture Design.

Zone 1: Is the most productive area and needs to bevisited everyday. This is the most intensively gardenedarea and the whole and will be raised beds with mulchand irrigation. According to John Jeavons if you are anaverage gardener you will need 100m2 of bio-intensiveraised beds to feed one person for a year.

Zone 2: This is the area that can be visited less regularlyand often consists of fruit trees. Generally the plantingin this zone can survive without constant attention.

Zone 3: Generally contains crops or less attentivehorticulture practices.

Zone 4: Forage farming. Zone 5: The completely wild area where no human

intervention should take place.

Typically all broiler farms are located within the ruraldistricts and although they are a form of income for theowners, the properties are mainly utilised as lifestyleblocks. From my analysis of broiler shed farms over theyears I have observed that most if not all farms havelivestock (sheep and cows), horses, goats and I h ave alsoseen pigs on these sites.

As the bro ile r shed s a re a utomated and not to timeconsuming, this provides an opportunity for permacultureand could allow the property owners to become more selfsufficient and the land holding as a whole to become moreenvironmentally sustainable, whilst allowing the owners to

continue obtaining an income.

Images retrieved from http://exodusbrand.com/2012/03/14/permaculture-farm-in-wales-zoning-101/


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4.4 Industrial Ecology

Industrial Ecology attempts to provide a new conceptualframework to understanding the impacts industrial systems

have on the natural environment. It aims to implementstrategies that reduce the environmental impacts ofproducts and processes associated with industrial systemsand it has the ultimate goal of sustainable development.(Garner et al, 1995)

It studies the physical, chemical and biological interactionsand interrelationships within and between industrialand ecological systems. It also involves identifying andimplementing industrial systems that emulate ecologicalsystems. (Garner et al, 1995)

The impacts industrial regions have on the environmentare systematic so they require a systems approach th atcontinues to connect industrial practices, human activities,environmental and ecological processes. The systemsapproach also provides a holist ic view of environmentalproblems, identifying and exposing problems that need tobe solved. (Garner et al, 1995)

Beside is a table I have compiled based on Table 1 fromGarner et al, that depicts the organisational hierarchies ofmy design model site in Christchurch.

The overall goal of industrial ecology is to stop the linealnature of their systems that u se raw materials, products,by-products that produce waste. We need to look at waysof reusing these waste products so industrial systems canintegrate with other industrial systems that optimise the use

of waste and by products from oth er systems, leaving zerowaste.

Political Entities Social Organisations Industrial Organisation Industrial System Ecological System

UNEP(United NationsEnvironmentalProgramme)

World population ISO(International Organisation

for Standardisation)

Global human material andenergy ows

Ecosphere

New Zealand Government Cultures Trade associations Sectors (transportation,healthcare)

Biosphere

Environment ofCanterbury

Communities Corporations (Tegal, Ingham,Brinks)

Cooperations/institutions Biogeographical region

Waimakariri Council Product systems Divisions Product systems Biome landscape

Individual voter Households Product development (food,breeding)

Life cycle stages/units Ecosystem

Individuals/Consumer Individual farm owners Organism

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5.0 Case Studies


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5.1 The Ford Factory,

Rouge River, Dearborn, Michigan, USA

Ar ea :

600 Acres

Completed:

2000

Designers:

William McDonough + PartnersNelson Bryd WoltzD.I.R.T Studio Landscape Planning Partners

Strengths:

A 10 acre gre en roo f that save s the company mil lio nsof dollars a year. Water can be purified on site beforeentering the Rouge River instead of being removed andtreated off site. The vegetation cools the buildings insummer by absorbing the solar energy (via photosynthesis)and insulates them in winter, and absorbs airborne toxinsaround the site.

It is predicted that the green roof will last twice as long as aconventional industrial roof.

The iconic green roof also helped transform the green roof

industry of America.

The green roof is accompanied with wet meadow gardens,porus paving, hedgerows and bi o-swales that attenuate,

cleanse, and convey storm water across the site.

Utilising phytoremediation to cleanse polluted soils.

Skylights reduce the use of artificial lights.

The design applies landscape based infrastructure toprovide a cleaner and healthier working environment foremployees.

The linearity and scale of the site help to shape anindustrial strength landscape that knits buildings and sitetogether in a tightly woven fabric.

The design team consists of professionals like chemists,toxicologists, biologists, landscape architects andengineers that set goals and strategically measuredprocesses of the site including social, economical, andecological that then i nformed standards to measure air,habitat, community, energy use, employee relations,architecture, and, not least of all, production.

It is also interesting how they measure the health of thesite in respect to living things, like how many worms areon site (per cube of soil), the diversity of birds and insectson the land, the aquatic species in near by river and theattractiveness of the site to local residents.

Weaknesses

Althou gh the y have gon e to gre at len gth s to revi tal ise the

environment on and sur rounding the site, Fords SUVs andoversized vehicles still have a substantial impact on theenvironment making their green efforts limited to the sitegrounds and facilities.

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Images retr ieved fromhttp:/ /www.mcdonoughpartners.com/projects/view/ford_rouge_center_landscape_master_plan


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5.2 Nicks Head Station

Poverty Bay, North Island, New Zealand

Ar ea :

3,000 Acres

Completed:

2010 - ongoing

Designers:

Nelson Bryd Woltz

Strengths:

Combines the restoration of wildlife structures withsustainable agriculture and livestock.

Combines ethics and the pleasures of aesthetics (Meyer,2010).

It restored a once vibrant tidal, coastal wetland that wasdrained by previous owners for grazing.

Design interventions and changing management practiceswere motivated by desires to develop ecologicalconservation projects that are interwoven with agriculturaluses to enhance biodiversity within agricultural landscapes.

The design created a complex mosiac of g ardens groves,croplands, pastures, upland forests, lowland marshes,productive fields and wildlife corrid ors that create aheterogenic landscape that provides an array of habitats.

The design addressed multiple agendas similar to mineby celebrating the Maori cultural landscape and restoring

ecologies and habitats for endangered species thatintegrate with an active, working and profitable agriculturaloperation.

Thomas Woltz successfully awoke the owners of NicksHead Station to their impact their daily lives and running ofthe farm was having on the environment.

The design team consisted of many people from variousprofessions including ecologists, biologists, landscapearchitects and the owners of the property.

Weaknesses

Althou gh the y succ ess ful ly addres s al l t he typ ica l a spe ctsof an agricultural farm, informatio n fails analyse how thedesign has addressed the welfare of the animals.

Anothe r a rea wher e there wa s an absenc e of info rma tio nwas how the farm is now managed. Have they been ableto utilise ecosystem services to i mprove the welfare for thefarmed animals, employees and owners of the site?


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5.3 Zero Energy House

Pt. Chev, Auckland, North Island, New Zealand

Ar ea :

411m2

Completed:

July 2009 - ongoing

Designers:

Shay Brazier, Jo Woods, A Studio Architects.

Strengths:

The site was carefully selected to maximise sol ar energy notonly for power but also for heating in the house to preventthe need for heating systems within the building.The north facing roof of the house is constructed with photovoltaic panels that will gener ate enough power to powerappliances, lights and hot water cylinder.

The house aims to be healthy, comfortable, and pleasant tolive in with minimal impact on the surrounding environmentduring and after construction and throughout itsfunctioning life.

The building envelope is con structed in a way that allows

higher insulation levels. The cladding is also constructedwith untreated timber (Macrocarpapa). The windows are alldouble glazed and there will be a small green roof.

Weaknesses

To construct the New Zealands first Zero Energy ho me a lotof analysis and research went into the design with it takingthree years to just design the house. If it takes 3 years tofinalise a Z.E.B house how lo ng would it take to finalise aZero Energy intensive farm?

Althou gh the pro jec ted ene rgy cos ts have yet to becalculated to see if it really is a zero energy building, littlestudy and research has been put into the significance ofeco-system services could provide to the property (apartfrom the solar energy and the green roof).

More research could have been applied to the green roofand how it could h ave been utilised to maintain an averagetemperature around solar panels to maximise the energy

uptake.

Graph retr ieved from http:/ /www.zeroenergyhoue.co.nz

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Images retr ieved from http:/ /www.zeroenergyhoue.co.nz


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5.4 Kulundborg

Kulundborg, 120km west of Copenhagen, Denmark.

Ar ea :

N/A as it combines many industrial sites.

Completed:

1972 ongoing.

Designers:

Managers between a few enterprises in the region in 1972.

Strengths:

In 1961 Stratoil began the movement by laying water pipesto Lake Tisso to access water for th eir refinery.

As sta ted above t he move ment s tar ted whe n S tra toi lentered into an agreement with Gypoc. Stratoil suppliedGypoc with excess gas from their production to dry theirplasterboards in their ovens.

In 1973 Dong Energy also conn ected to the Statoilwaterpipe.

This movement has continued to grow into a mass web ofenterprises that use waste produced from other companiesto produce their products.

This symbiosis has now grown into a local collaborationwhere private and public enterprises buy and sell residualproducts.

It keeps the geographical distance between the enterprisesremains small.

All of t he member s of the symbiosis focu s on t he large,continues waste streams to maintain su pply demand toother members.

The main driver for thi s system back when it wasestablished was to reduce the costs by seeking income-producing applications for unwanted products.

This then started to expose the environmental benefits thissystem creates i.e. no waste.

Image retrieved from http://www.lampindex.com/2011/10/the-kalundborg-symbiosis/


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5.5 Greening Waipara

Waipara Valley, North Canterbury, New Zealand

Ar ea :

1500 hectares, 80 vineyards.

Completed:

September 2005.

Designers:

Bio-Protection Research Centre, Lincoln University.

Strengths:

The movement conserves the remaining undisturbedhabitats of the region and introduces additional biodiversityin both native and non-native plant species.

Contributes natures services to the vin e yards likebiological control of pests, pollination improved soilcondition, conservation and eco-tourism.

Natures services add economic value to the vineyardsand farms whilst reducing their reliance on herbicides andpesticides.

Natures services improve wine production.

Encourages the growth of native flora and fauna.

Vastly improves the resource value of the landscape.

Minimises pollution to streams.

Allows wine to be grown in a sust ainable wa y.

New movement that is leading the world of viticulture.

Creates a Point of Difference by providing for theenvironment and not polluting it.

The movement is driven by research th at assesses howfast plants grow, what insects and diseases t hey getattacked by and the survival rate of each species. Nectaris also collected to analyse the abundance of sugarsthat determines how useful each plant is in helping withbiological control agents like lady birds.

Insect distribution is continually measured to see how fareach species will travel to control pests.

By engineering this landscape with natures services,Waipara has become attractive, adding value to it s naturalheritage and the publi cs eye.

It exposes the importance landscape value has on thepublic. Landscapes are valued by their monetary value,but this movement aims to explore the real value of amenityfor the public in alliance with natures services. How muchis this landscape really worth? What is the real cost of it(environmentally, economically and socially) to the region?

And sho uld it be use d a s a model for the pol icy make rs(council/government) of New Zealand.

The movement has exposed the willingness the general

public in Waipara have to improving our environment, whilststill earning a living.

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The project

The Waipara Valley inNorth Canterbury isNew Zealands fastest-growing wine region,with around 80 vineyardscovering 1500 hectares.Greening Waipara is aworld-leading, researchdriven project that aimsto restore functionalbiodiversity to agriculturalecosystems by way ofecological engineering making them more

sustainable, profitable andmarketable. The projectis based at the Bio-Protection Research Centre,Lincoln University andsince it began in September2005, 52 Waipara Valleyproperties have joined the project and over 25,000 nativetrees, shrubs and groundcovers have been planted.

The need for change

Agriculture, including viticulture, damages biodiversityand has caused major declines in New Zealands nativeplant and animal populations. By conserving our remaining

undisturbed habitats and introducing additional biodiversityin the form of both native and non-native species, theservices that nature provides for free to the arable, pastoraland horticultural sectors can be enhanced. Natures servicesinclude biological control of pests, pollination, improvedsoil quality, conservation and eco-tourism. These servicesadd value to vineyards and farms while reducing reliance onherbicides and pesticides.

Building biodiversity backinto the wine experience

Contacts

Bio-Protection Research CentreProf. Steve WrattenPO Box 84Lincoln University 7647Ph: (03) 321 8221Email: [email protected] BarnesResearch AssistantPh: (03) 321 8452Email: [email protected] District Council, Dale McEnteeBiodiversity AmbassadorPO Box 13, Amberley 7441, North CanterburyNew ZealandPh: 027 733 [email protected]:

www.bioprotection.org.nz/greening-waiparahttp://ecovalue.uvm.edu/newzealand/http://www.waiparawine.co.nz/research/greening_waiparawww.lincoln.ac.nz/story13772.htmlwww.lincoln.ac.nz/story_images/1028_NewsUpdate

Native undervine plantsshow promising results

Research has identified threespecies of native plant thatare likely to be effective forundervine planting in Waiparaand other areas. Bidibid (Acaenainermis purpurea), shore cotula(Leptinella dioica) and creepingpohuehue (Muehlenbeckiaaxillaris) have all demonstratedgood survival and growth rates.

After two years of research, thethree most successful plants

Formed a dense andspreading cover beneaththe vines; eventually thiswill reduce the need forherbicide applications

Increased the diversity and abundance of beneficialinsects and spiders

Were unlikely to enhance pest leafroller populations invineyards

Enhanced the lifespan of key parasitic wasps which killleafrollers: bidibid and creeping pohuehue were the bestin this respect

Increased soil moisture levels

Reduced runoff and improved soil aggregationand porosity

Conclusions and considerations

Establishing native groundcovers within a vineyard canprovide a multitude of ecological and economic benefits.

However, it requires a significant investment of time andcapital. Native plants can be costly and effective weedcontrol is essential in the first couple of years a commercially-available seed supply would makea big difference.

Contact: [email protected] Bio-Protection Research Centre

The native Hells Bells (Anaphalioides

bellidioides) growing beneath thevines at The Mud House vineyard,

Waipara.

Jean Tompkins

Omihi Primary School students plant stage one of their new

biodiversity trail on the school grounds.

Image retr ieved from http:/ /bioprotection.org.nz/symbiosis/


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5.6 Pig City

A st udy commis sioned by t he Dut ch Min ist ry of A gri cul tur ein the Netherlands

Ar ea :

It was a study that compri sed of 76 towers which were 622metres high measuring 87x87m

Completed:

2000.

Designers:

MVRDV

Strengths:It combines organic farming with concentration ofproduction activities.

By compacting the production methods it avoids the needfor transportation and distribution.

The model successfully utili ses most of its waste and whatcant be utilised is a valuable asset for other industries.

It successfully addresses the animal welfare and economicissues.

It addressed the issue of food and energy supply the pigs

would require in order to produce the final meat product.Because of this it demonstrated to the public how importantit is to condense animal meat production in order tominimise the amount of land required to farm these animals.

It calculated all of the space, energy an d food required toproduce the final meat product. Considering the overall

requirements in meat production.

Weaknesses:

The study addresses all of the stages it requires to producethe meat product, however I feel it unrealistic. It wouldrequire a lot of money and it could not be implementedwithin New Zealand.

There were a couple of aspects of t his model which are tooimpractical, like constructing a glass dome over the meatproduction.

It is something that may be achievable in the far future,

but my design model aims to provide a solution for todaysproblems that can be easily implemented.


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5.7 Asphof Hen Unit

Rothenfluh, Switzerland

Ar ea :

1000m2

Completed:

2002

Designers:

Mangold Wood Construction, Hochschule Wadenswil,Matthias Eglin

Strengths:

Extensive green roof (living roof) appears on 2 levels of achicken coop that houses 2000 chickens.

The living roof provides temperature and ventilation controlfor the bio hen unit.

Specific plants atop the hen coop results in happier hens.

This extensive living roof was successfully constructed onload bearing limitations of 100kg per m2.It reduces the temperature by 7 degrees within the sheds insummer.

In winter improved heat insulation helps ventilate thebuilding.

The quality of life for the hens has improved, increasing

their productivity through greater egg laying capacity.

It calculates the extra cost for this living roof to be US$8m2

.

The living roof allowed integration with the surroundingenvironment by utilising planting materials that occurrednaturally within the site, blending the shed in with thesurroundings.

Images retrieved fromhttp://www.greenroofs.com/blog/2010/04/17/gpw-asphof-hen-unit/

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6.0 Research Findings Analysis


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From my research and analysis in intensive farming Iexposed issues that my design model needed to address.

These were:

Health Handling Stock densities Air temperatures Transportation Building footprints Biodiversity Pollution Waste management Gas emissions ProfitThese all have unique characteristics that presentopportunities for design interventions to halt or evenprevent the negative aspects of intensive farming. They areas follows:

Health

Relates to a lot of issues within intensive farming like thehealth of the animals, biodiversity, surrounding communitiesand the world in general as it is vital to keep producing anaffordable meat product.

Handling

Ani mal handling is a ve ry controversia l topi c i n r elat ion tointensive farming. There are so many negative responses

to intensive farming regarding the welfare of animals

as stated earlier within my r esearch, this is why it is soimportant to provide a design model that improves the shed

environments for animals.

Stock Densities

As sta ted within han dling thi s i s al so anothe r c ont rove rsi altopic for intensive farming. My design model will improvethe environment for animals living within high densities.

Ai r Tempe ra tu re s

Outside temperatures have a significant effects on thetemperatures within the sheds. By improving external airtemperatures you can influence indoor temperatures.

Transportation

Althou gh int ens ive farms offe r s olu tio ns for land s izes ,foodstuffs and products are often transported over longerdistances.

Size

The size of the farm is a positive aspect en light of theenvironment, but it can have detrimental effects on animalwelfare and the biodiversity by producing large amounts ofpollution through waste and gas emissions.

Biodiversity

By improving the biodiversity within intensive farm sites youcan improve regional ecological connections and provideheterogenic landscapes that supply an array of habitats.

Pollution

Is a major negative aspect of intensive farming and byimproving other issues with in sites and will improve or evenhalt the pollution created by intensive farms.

Waste Management

As w ith pol lut ion thi s i s a nother major key neg ati ve a spe ctof intensive farming. Presently the broiler sheds wastewithin New Zealand is handled in a way that providesfurther income for the farmers. They generally on sell theirwaste to farmers to spread on their fields for nutrients, butdoes this cause more poll ution for our water ways?

Gas Emissions

These are side effects of having larg e populations of animal

within small areas. Chickens create high amounts ofammonia.

Profit

It is important that intensive farms provide a desirableprofit for farm owners that will have a positive effect onemployees wages. This however needs to be balanced asto much profit could effect the price of meat.

To help further understanding of these issues and thereinfluences on my research analysis I created a table(beside) that informs how each of th ese issues influence myresearch analysis areas.

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Quadruple Bottom Line Analysis

Issues Environment Economics Social Animal Welfare

Positive Negative Positive Negative Positive Negative Positive Negative

Health

Handling

Stock densities

Air temperatures

Transportation

Size

Biodiversity

Pollution

Waste management

Gas emissions

Proft

6.1 Research Findings Table

This table was produced to provide an in-depth analysis ofhow my research impacts on the main issues of intensivefarming. As stated in the table these were; Health;Handling; Stock Densities; Air Temperature; Transportation;Size; Biodiversity: Pollution; Waste management; GasEmissions and Profit.

Alo ng the top I h ave p osi tio ned the qua dru ple bot tom lin eissues along with positive and negative. The colouredboxes indicate whether the issue has a positive of negativeimpact on the quadruple bottom line issues and thiswas utilised for my design model to determine designinterventions that could mitigate the negative issues of

intensive farming.All of t hes e i ssues are int ric atel y i nte rconne cted and byimproving one issue of intensive farming you can improveor influence another, achieving a sustainable intensivefarm model that addresses all of the quadruple bottom lineissues.


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The completion of this table allowed me to deviselandscape design interventions that will be utilised in thedesign model to mitigate mo st, if not all negative aspects ofintensive farming. These include:

Livings roofs

Swales/rain gardens/wetlands Vegetation Amenity Structural layout Micro-climates Eco-services

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7.0 Design Interventions


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Design Intervention Opportunities to address Quadruple Bottom Line

IssuesIssues Living roofs Swales/rain

gardens/wet-lands

Vegetation Amenity Structurallayout

Micro-climates Eco-services

Health

Handling

Stock densities

Air temperatures

Transportation

Size

Biodiversity

Pollution

Waste management

Gas emissions

Proft

7.1 Design Intervention Table

Documents

Food Landscapes