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8/4/2019 The Case for Urban Agriculture: Regenerative, Human Scale Food Production in Urban Landscapes
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THECASEFORURBANAGRICULTURE:
REGENERATIVE,HUMAN-SCALEFOOD
PRODUCTIONSYSTEMSIN
URBANLANDSCAPES
By
TAMMYL.PARKER
Athesissubmittedinpartialfulfillmentof
therequirementsforthedegreeof
MASTERSOFSCIENCEINLANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
WASHINGTONSTATEUNIVERSITYDepartmentofLandscapeArchitecture
August2010
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TotheFacultyofWashingtonStateUniversity:
ThemembersoftheCommitteeappointedtoexaminethethesisofTAMMYL.PARKER
finditsatisfactoryandrecommendthatitbeaccepted.
__________________________________________
JolieB.Kaytes,M.L.A.,Chair
__________________________________________
JessicaGoldberger,Ph.D.
__________________________________________
PrestonAndrews,Ph.D.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
IwishtothankProfessorJolieKaytesforhercreativeandprofessionalassistanceand
supportthroughoutthewritingprocess.Ialsowanttothankmycommittee,AssistantProfessor
JessicaGoldbergerandAssociateProfessorPrestonAndrewsfortheiradviceandguidance,as
wellasAssociateProfessorDavidGreenwoodforhiscounsel.Forhisprofessionalguidanceand
supportIwishtothankRobertCrawleyandforherpatienceandunderstanding,myboss,Randi
Croyle.Finally,Iwanttothankmylovingandsupportivefamilyandfriendsforbelievinginme.
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THECASEFORURBANAGRICULTURE:
REGENERATIVE,HUMAN-SCALE
FOODPRODUCTIONSYSTEMS
INURBANLANDSCAPES
Abstract
ByTammyL.Parker,M.S.
WashingtonStateUniversity
August2010
Chair:JolieKaytes
Urbanagriculturehasalonghistoryandhasseenagreatresurgenceinthepastfew
years.ForthefirsttimesinceEleanorRooseveltplantedhervictorygardenduringWorldWar
Two,theWhiteHouselawnissportingagarden(Burrosn.pag.).Schoolgardensandprison
gardensarebecomingmorecommonandcommunitygardenplotshavewaitlistsofwouldbe
gardeners.TheAmericanCommunityGardenAssociationwebsitelistsamongthemany
benefitsofcommunitygardening:communitydevelopmentandsocialinteraction,increased
self-reliance,reductionoffamilyfoodbudgets,productionofnutritiousfood,beautification
ofneighborhoodsandcreationofopportunityforexercise,recreation,therapyand
education.Anyoneofthesebenefitswouldbeanassettoalandscapearchitectsurban
designproject,buthowdoesalandscapearchitect,trainedtodesignmainstreamcommercial
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projectsusingornamentalplants,introduceelementsoffood-productionsystemsintotheir
designssuccessfully?
Thisthesisexamineshowelementsofurbanagriculturecaninfluencelandscape
architecturedesignsforthebettermentofthepractice.Throughsitevisitstolongstanding
publicschoolandprisongardensIanalyzeaspectsofgrassroots,human-scalefood
productionprojectsthatcanbeputtouseinlandscapearchitecturedesign.
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......iii
ABSTRACT...iv
LISTOFTABLES..............................................................................................viii
LISTOFFIGURES............................................................................................ix
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................1
Connections..........................................................................2
2. METHODOLOGICALFRAMEWORK..........................................6
Implications7
ResearchMethodology.........................................................8
3. HISTORY.....................................................................................13
England.................................................................................13
AlternateEnglishThinking..........................................14
France...................................................................................15
AlternateFrenchThinking..........................................16
UnitedStates........................................................................18
GardenBasedLearning..............................................19
HistoricMovementsinUrbanAgriculture............................20
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WarGardens..............................................................22
PostWarIndustrialization..........................................23
UrbanAgricultureasaSocialMovement...................24
4. PRISONGARDENS......................................................................28
WashingtonStateSustainablePrisonsProject.....................32
StaffordCreekCorrectionsCenter.......................................34
Narrative....................................................................38
MotherEarthFarm...............................................................41
Narrative....................................................................46
5. SCHOOLGARDENS.....................................................................50
SchoolGardenVisits.............................................................55
OrcaGarden...............................................................56
Narrative..........................................................64
MontlakeElementarySchool.....................................66
Narrative..........................................................73
6. CONCLUSION.............................................................................76
Findings................................................................................80
WORKSCITED...............................................................................................84
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LISTOFTABLES
1.SevenMovementsofCommunityGardens..............................................21
2.SummaryTableofFindings.......................................................................79
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LISTOFFIGURES
1. DetroitAppropriationGarden...............................................................17
2. GardenBasedLearning.........................................................................19
3. ReliefGarden........................................................................................20
4. VictoryGarden......................................................................................22
5. StaffordCreekCorrectionCenter.........................................................34
6. StaffordCreekGreenhouse..................................................................35
7. RetainingWallBehindaGreenhouse....................................................36
8. InmateatWork.....................................................................................37
9. MotherEarthFarm................................................................................41
10. OrcaElementaryGarden......................................................................56
11. MontlakeElementaryGarden..............................................................66
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Dedication
ThisthesisisdedicatedtomyparentsforteachingmeIcouldaccomplish
anythingIsetmymindtoandfortheirlove
andemotionalsupport.
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CHAPTERONE
Introduction
InthispaperIconsiderthelinksbetweenlandscapearchitectureandurbanagriculture
andexploreopportunitiesforlandscapearchitecturetolearnfromthedifferentformsofurban
agriculture.ThroughmyresearchIwilldeterminesocialand/ororganizationalstructureswithin
thediversefieldofurbanagriculturethatcreateoutcomesthatwouldbebeneficialor
informativetolandscapearchitecture.
Urbanagricultureincludesanyprocessthatproducesormarketsfoodthroughoutan
urbanorperi-urban(urbanedge)areatoconsumerswithinthatarea.Itisanintensivesystem
ofproductionthatusesandreusesurbanresourcesandwastestoyielddiversecropstomeet
thedemandsoflocalconsumers.ForthepurposesofthispaperIwilldefineurbanagriculture
astheproductionofanyfoodproductthatisgrowncloseenoughtomarkettogofromharvest
tomarketonthesameday(Cheemaetal.3).
Urbanagricultureiscloselylinkedtomultipleurban,ecological,socialandeconomicsystems.
Itofferseconomicbenefitsforboththefarmersandtheircommunities.Itenhancesthequalityof
lifeandcontributestoimprovedpublichealth(Cheemaetal.xviii).Urbanagriculturedrawspeople
outdoorstoworkonacommoncauseandconnectwiththeirneighbors.Overtime,thisdeepens
communitytiesandreconnectspeopletothenaturalcyclesoftheearth-planting,growingand
harvesting.
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Whileurbanagricultureistheoverarchingtermforgrowingandmarketingfoodinurban
areas,gardeningisamorepersonaltermthatanindividualmightuseinreferringtoherselfor
himselfasaparticipantinanurbanagriculturalsystem.Gardeningempowerspeopleandenhances
self-sufficiency.Gardenersoftensavemoneywhilegrowingtheirownfoodandenhancetheir
healthbyeatingmorefresh,healthyproduceandgettingplentyofexerciseintheactofgardening
(Cheemaetal.6).Therearealsopoliticalbenefitsfromgardening,asnewlyempoweredcitizens
becomeinvolvedinciviclifeandforgegroupstostandupfortheirownneedforaccesstolandand
resources(Durlach22).Ingrowingtheirownfood,thesecommunitiesbegintoexperiencea
greaterresiliencytothevagariesoftheeconomy.Byproducingfoodonahumanscale,peopleare
betterabletorelatetotheirfoodandwhereitcomesfrom.
Connections
Thehealthproblemsassociatedwithfood,suchasobesityanddiabetes,suggestsa
disconnectbetweenpeopleandtheirfood.FoodecologistKloppenburgtellsusthatdistancing
disempowers(36)andthatProvidedwithanapparentcornucopiaofcontinuouslyavailable
foods,fewconsumershavemuchknowledgeofthebiological...implicationsoffood(36).By
reconnectingwiththeprocessoffoodproduction,includingthegrowingoftheirownfood,people
canbegintoseethelinkagesbetweentheirfoodandthemselves.Inanevaluativestudyof
communitygardensintheMadison,Wisconsinareaitwasdeterminedthatparticipantsin
communitygardenprojectsconsumedovertwicetheamountofvegetablesasthenon-gardening
controlgroup(Lackeyn.pag.).
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Similarly,instancesofsocialisolationalsosuggestaneedtoreconnectpeopletoasocial
networkwithintheircommunity.InthebookLoneliness:HumanNatureandtheNeedforSocial
Connection,PatrickandCacioppostatesocialisolationhasanimpactonhealthcomparabletothe
effectofhighbloodpressure,lackofexercise,obesity,orsmoking.(5).Theystatethatatanyone
momentroughlytwentypercentofthepopulationoftheUnitedStatesfeelsufficientlyisolated
forittobeamajorsourceofunhappinessintheirlives.(5).Latertheauthorsmention:Youare
fundamentallyasocialbeing.Thekeytoitallistoformstrongsocialtiesthataremeaningfuland
satisfying,bothtoyouandtothosearoundyou,nearandfar(220).Theyalsooffertheideaof
promotingconnectionisrarelydiscussedalongsidetheheatedissuesofthecostof
pharmaceuticalsandothermedicalinterventionsnecessarytodealwithanincreasinglylonely,
isolated,andagingpopulation.(251).IfoneoffivepeopleintheUnitedStatesfeelsisolated
enoughforittobeamajorsourceofunhappinessintheirlife,thenitisclearthatsocialisolationis
aproblem.Thisisaneedthatcouldbeaddressedbycommunitygardensandsimilarconceptssuch
asCommunitySupportedAgricultureenterprises.Inastudyontheroleofconnectiontonatureby
psychologistFrantzet.al,welearnthat:
Whenpractitioners[designers]thinkofhowtocreatesettingstohelpclients
feelbetter,theymaywanttothinkofmorethansimplyhownaturecanrestore
depletedattentionalcapacityandreducestress.Theymayalsowanttothinkofhow
peopleneedtofeelasenseofbelongingtosomethinglargerthanthemselvesand
thatthisneedmaybefulfilledthroughasenseofbelongingorconnectednesstothe
naturalworld.(635)
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Whatcanurbanagricultureoffertoafrequentlylonely,isolatedurbanpopulace?Urban
gardens,inanycontext,arebastionsofsocialinteraction.Theyofferplacesforneighborsto
congregateandgettoknowoneanother.Theshyareabletooccupythemselveswiththeirtasksin
thegardenuntiltheyarecomfortableenoughwiththepeopletheyseearoundthemeachdayto
formfriendships,andmoresociabletypesareimmediatelyaffordedareadygroupofnewfriends.
AspoliticalleaderstalkaboutthehealthcarecrisisgoingonintheUnitedStates,weneedto
addressnotjustthehealthvalueoftheexerciseandfreshfoodgrownintheU.S.,butthe
happinessgrowninthegardenaswell.Inasocietythatissofrequentlybusyandisolated,urban
gardensareaplaceforpeopletoreconnectsocially,aswellasnutritionally.InLackeyscommunity
gardenstudyitwaslearned,Manygardenersfoundsocialandpsychosocialbenefitsthrough
participationintheprogram.Someclientsdescribedhowthegardenshadbecomesocialhubsin
theirneighborhoods,drawingthesupportofformalandinformalgroups(n.pag.).Whilethese
gardensmeetasignificantsocialneed,theydosowhileconcurrentlymeetinganimportanthealth
andnutritionneed,makingthemallthemoreeffectiveatoolforurbanimprovement.
RobertThayer,ProfessorEmeritusofLandscapeArchitectureattheUniversityof
CaliforniaatDavis,writesThelandscapeofthenextfourorfivedecadeswillundergo
considerablerapidevolutionarychangeasastrangeadmixtureofglobalandlocalaffairstugs
ontheformativedimensionsofourwild,rural,andurbanlandscapes(20).Hereferstothe
wayinwhichourworldhasbecomeaglobalmarketplaceandyet,forthefirsttimeweare
facinganenergycrisis,whichthreatensthesystemthroughwhichwecurrentlyprocurethe
thingsweneed.Aspetroleumbecomesincreasinglyexpensivewewillneedandwanttobuy
moreitemsfromwithinourlocalareaandurbanagricultureisanimportantpartofthat
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picture.Thisisnotaminorroleforlocalfoodsystemstoplay.Byprovidingasourceoffresh,
localfoodgardensservetoincreasecommunityresilience,ortheabilityofasystem,from
individualpeopletowholeeconomies,toholdtogetherandmaintaintheirabilitytofunction
inthefaceofchangeandshocksfromtheoutside(Hopkins12).If,asRobHopkins,the
founderoftheTransitionmovementclaims,theAgeofCheapOilisinfactathand,thenfora
societyutterlydependentonit,thismeansenormouschange;butthatthefuturewithlessoil
couldbepreferabletothepresent,ifweplansufficientlyinadvancewithimaginationand
creativity(17).Urbanagricultureisalogical,creativeresponsetothechangescurrentlyat
hand.
Urbanagriculturehastheabilitytoaddresscurrentsocial,economic,recreational,
emotional,healthandnutritionneedsallatonce.Foronesocialresponsetofillsomany
nichesforsucharelativelyminorcostasisassociatedwithagarden,thisisanissuethat
landscapearchitectureneedstogivedueconsiderationtoandexaminewhereourrolewithin
itmightlie.
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ChapterTwo
MethodologicalFramework
Theprimaryquestionunderlyingthisstudyiswhataretheimplicationsofurban
agricultureforlandscapearchitecture?Thefollowingquestionsassistinunderstandingthe
precedingquestionandwillbeexploredthroughresearchandsitevisits.Whatarethegoals
ofurbanagricultureprojects?Howarethosegoalsmet?Howareurbanagricultureprojects
managedandfunded?Dotheseformsofmanagementcreateanyoftheirownproblems?
Whatistheroleofvolunteersandpaidemployeesinanurbanagricultureproject?Howisthe
seasonalnatureofurbanagricultureaddressed?Whatistheimpactoftheseprojectsontheir
surroundingcommunities?Howdotheseprojectsimpactpeople?Whatistheimpactofthese
projectsonthesenseofplaceintheircommunity?Whatistheimpactoftheseprogramson
thenutritionoftheirsurroundingcommunities?
Eachurbanagricultureprojecthasitsownreasonforbeingandeachtypicallyaddresses
multiplegoalswithinitscommunity.Formanyurbanites,theseprojectsaretheonly
opportunitytheyhavefordaily,personalinteractionwithnature,theirfoodandtheir
neighbors.Thelonghistoryofurbanagriculture,coupledwiththerecentresurgenceof
interestinit,bearwitnesstothesignificanceofthismovementonAmericanculture.
Landscapearchitectureseekstocreatedesignsthatimpactpeopleandcommunitiesand
throughananalysisofthesemoreunderstandable,human-scalefoodproductionsystemswe
cangainabetterunderstandingoftheelementsthatmaketheseprojectssuccessfulandthat
mightbetransferabletothedisciplineoflandscapearchitecture.FrommyliteraturereviewI
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haveconcludedthatlittleresearchhasbeendoneontheimpactofurbanagriculturalsystems
onthedisciplineoflandscapearchitecture.
ImplicationsByincreasingunderstandingofspecificurbanagricultureprojects,thisstudywillshow
specificmethodsofincreasingcommunityandculturalrelevancyoflandscapearchitecture
projects.Throughthelensoffoodproductionsystemsonascalecomparabletoahuman
being,itwillbepossibletolookatlandscapearchitectureandseeopportunitiestoincreasea
projectsrelevancytothecommunityinwhichitisplaced.Iamnotsuggestingthatevery
urbanlandscapemustbebasedinafoodproductiondesign,merelythatelementsoffood
productionsystemshavetheabilitytoenhanceadesignandincreaseitsimportancetothe
communityitisdesignedtoserve.Isuspectthatbyincludingfoodsystemsinadesignitis
possibletoaddressabroaderrangeofsocietalissuesthanhavebeentraditionallyconfronted
bylandscapearchitecture.Thestudyofurbanagriculturemayintroduceus,asdesigners,toa
moreorganicmeansofsitedesignthanwehaveconsideredpreviously.AsIshallusetheterm
inthispaper,byorganicIrefertoasystemofdesignanalogoustolivingformsand
possessingastructureorplanthatperfectlyfulfillsthefunctionalrequirementsoftheoriginal
designpurpose(Dictionaryn.pag.).Sinceurbanagricultureisdifficulttomeasureandtakes
manyfrequentlychangingforms,organicisadesignconceptthatseemsespecially
appropriatehere.
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ResearchMethodology
OriginallyIenvisionedthisprojectasbeingaboutthecreationofafoodsystems
curriculumforlandscapearchitecturestudents.Ibeganwithaneedtoknowaboutany
landscapearchitectureprogramsthatofferedanyleveloftraininginfoodsystems.I
consideredsurveyinguniversitylandscapearchitectureprogramsintheUnitedStates,but
quicklyrealizedthatthiswastoobroadforthetimeIhadavailableinwhichtocompletethis
project.Iinsteadchosetoutilizeane-maillistserveforlandscapearchitects.Isentouta
requestforinformationonlandscapearchitectureprogramsthatofferedclassesor
curriculumonfoodsystems.Iheardbackfromsixprogramsthatofferedsometypeoffood
systemscourseworkwithintheirlandscapearchitecturecurriculum,butIalsoheardfrom
manymorelandscapearchitectswhoexpressedinterestinsuchtrainingandafeelingthat
suchtrainingwaslackingintheirownbackgroundsandwouldbeuseful.
FromthisinitialinquiryIagaindecidedtonarrowmyfocusandlookatfoodsystemsand
theirpossibleimplicationsforlandscapearchitecture.Consideringtheburgeoninggrowthof
urbanagricultureintheUnitedStates,withallthatthattermcovers,Idecidedtoconcentrate
onpublicsitesofurbanagriculture.Iengagedinanextensiveliteraturereview,beginning
withthehistoryofurbanagricultureasitrelatedtotheUnitedStates.FromthatpointIchose
toconductsitevisitsfocusedonprisongardensandschoolgardenprojects.
IdeterminedIwantedtoconductinstrumentalsitevisitsbecauseIwantedmystudyto
beaninvestigationthatwouldallowmeinsightintounderlyingprinciplesofeachtypeof
gardenIstudiedthatIcouldthenapplybacktolandscapearchitecture(Stake,1995).Iwanted
tofindoutwhatpeopleactivelyinvolvedineachofthesegardenshadlearnedalongtheir
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wayandwhatadvicetheywouldoffertosomeoneelseinterestedinasimilarundertaking.I
wantedtolookoutsidethelandscapearchitectureprofession,toseewhatwasbeingdoneby
urbanagriculturalistswhodidnotpossesseyesinfluencedbyyearsofdesigntraining,but
createdfromtheirownexperienceandtheexperienceofthosetheyworkedwith,their
intendedendusers.
IchosethetwocategoriesofgardensbecauseasIstudiedurbanagricultureIsaw
interestingthingshappeningintheseareasthatIdidnotfeelwerebeingaddressedinanyof
thelandscapearchitectureliteratureIencounteredorclassesIhadtaken.Iwonderedwhat
thesegrassrootsformsofgardeninghadtooffertolandscapearchitectureasadiscipline.
IfocusedmyliteraturereviewfurtheronthesetopicsandfromwhatIdiscoveredinthat
processIbegantonarrowdowneachfieldtochoosesitesthatinterestedmeandthatIcould
visitpersonally,tobetteraidmyowngrowthandunderstandingofthetopicathand.I
determinedthatIwantedmysitestobeinWashingtonstate,oratleastthePacific
Northwest.Iwantedmysitestoeachbeagrassrootsoccurrencethathadnothadthe
influenceofalandscapearchitectintheirplanningorcreationandIwantedeachsitetohave
anestablishedhistorythatspokeofitssuccessinaccomplishingitspurposes.Ididnot
determineasetlengthofhistory,asIwantedtostudythebestpracticesofsomeofthe
longestestablishedprogramsthatmetmyothercriteriawithoutbeingboundbyanarbitrary
measureoftime.
OnceIestablishedmysitesIdeterminedthatIwantedtoallowforsnowballing;ifin
studyingonesite,IlearnedofanotherrelatedsitethatmetmyothercriteriaIwantedtobe
abletoincreasemyunderstandingbyincludingthesesecondarysitesaswell.Ideterminedto
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conductmyonsiteanalysisthroughvisualobservationofatypicalmomentinthelifeofthat
siteanditsusers.Sincemyprimarygoalwitheachcasewastoincreasemyunderstandingof
thatsite,Iwantedtoallowforanorganicabilitytostrayfrommyplannedinquiryandfollow
anynewobservationsIcameacrossduringthecourseofthesitevisit.
IdevelopedagenerallistofquestionsIneededtofindanswerstoateachsite,and
anotherlistthatwasmorespecifictoeachtypeofsite.WhenIvisitedasiteItooknoteson
paperasItoured.Iwaslookingtoanswerthefollowingquestionsformyself:
Whatmotivatedinvolvementfortheparticipantsinthisproject?
Whatisthisproject'smission/goal?
Whatarethekeyrolesofparticipantsinthissite?
Whataretheproject'sprimaryfundingsources?
Howfaraheaddotheybudgetforthisproject?
Whatsortofmanagerialhierarchydoestheprojectemploy?
Hasthathierarchyevercreatedproblemsinachievingtheproject'sobjectives?
Whathavebeentheproject'sbiggestsuccesses/challenges?
Havetherebeenanyunusualoutcomesthatwerenotexpected?
Whatarethefuturegoalsfortheproject?
Myprisonspecificlistincludedtheseadditionalinquiries:
Whodoestheworkatthesite?
Howareparticipantsselectedforinvolvement?
HavetherebeenanyInstitutionalimpactsoninmatebehaviorasaresultofthis
project?Ineithertheparticipantsornon-participants?
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Whatvariousprojectsareapartofthissustainabilityprogram,bothatthissite
andatothersitesinthesystem?
Hasthisprojectproventobecostefficient?Howso?
Arethereanyrelatedprogramsforpost-releaseparticipants?
Howdoesthisprogramimpactinmatenutrition?Whatpercentofaninmate's
diettypicallycomesfromfoodproducedon-site?
Myschoolspecificinquiriesincludedthefollowing,inadditiontothegeneralqueries:
Whodoesthework?(oversight,planning,actualgardening,upkeep,etc.)
Howdoesthesitecontinuetooperateoverthesummerbreak?
Whatmotivatesparticipantinvolvementinthisproject?
Whatsortoffeedbackfromthecommunity-students,parents,hasbeen
received?
Istherealotofenthusiasmamongprojectparticipants?
Howdoesthisprojecttieinwithcurricularobjectives?Isthereanutrition
componenttothisproject?Howdoesthatwork?(Specifically,istheproduce
usedinschooldining?)
InanalyzingandinterpretingthecommunicationsandobservationsIhadwiththesites,
aswellasmypreviousresearch,IsoughttofirstaddressmyexperienceatthesiteandwhatI
learnedfromit:thefacts,lookingforcommonalitiesbetweenthecases,aswellasmajor
differences.FortheschoolsIvisitedIexaminedthedemographicdatafortheareaincluding:
racialmakeup,medianhomesaleprice,averageadjustedgrossincomeandaverageresident
age.Sincetheabilityofaschooltoofferaprogram,suchasagarden,couldbeinfluencedby
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thedemographicsfortheneighborhoodinwhichtheschoolwaslocated,Ifeltthisdatawas
essentialtomyresearch.ToprocurethatinformationIusedanonlinedatafinder,City-
data.com,whichgetsitsinformationfrompubliclyavailablerecords.
Iwassearchingforgeneraltrendsineachcasethatwouldshowhowthatsiteconducted
itsmissionandhowthosegeneralitiesmightinfluencelandscapearchitecture.Ialsolooked
forsustainableeconomicimpactsandproductivityissuesineachsitethatcouldbesignificant.
Ifollowedupthisobjectivedatawithmyownnarrativeimpressionsandobservationsthat
wouldaidmeinunderstandingpracticalapplicationsforlandscapearchitecture,asasitesimpact
onavisitorisavitalcomponentofitssuccess.Ichosetoutilizenarrativeasatooltocapturethe
immeasurablebenefitsofurbanagriculture,whicharedifficulttoassesswithstandardquantitative
metrics.Landscapearchitectsseektocreatelandscapesthattellameaningfulstoryandthrough
myownnarrativeIhopedtocapturethatstoryasIexperiencedthesite.
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ChapterThree
History
Aslongastherehavebeenurbansettlements,therehasbeenurbanagricultureinsome
form.Withindustrializationcamerapidincreasesinurbanpopulationsandtheinfluxofnew
urbandwellershadtofeedthemselves,greatlyexpandingthescaleofurbanagriculture.Prior
totheIndustrialRevolution,thebiologicalsystemthatencompassedurbanagriculturewasan
ecologicallyclosed-loopwheremostwasteproducts,suchasanimalmanureandcropresidue,
wereorganicinnatureandcouldberecycledbacktothesoilasaregenerativefertilizer
(Cheemaetal.12).Increasingindustryoftenproducedwastethatwasnon-organicandmore
complicatedtorecyclesuchasindustriallubricantsandotherpetroleumbasedproducts
(Cheemaetal.13).
Alongwithindustrializationcametheseparationofpeoplefromtheland(Cheemaetal.
13),withtownplannersseekingtoseparateagricultureouttotheruralareasandcommercial
productionbeingcontainedwithintheurbanarea(Cheemaetal.13).Newhygieneprinciples
suchasindoorplumbingandamunicipaldesireforcleancitiesdiscouragedurbanfarming
andcreatedwastemanagementsystemstodisposeofconcentratedwaste(Cheemaetal.13).
England
Initially,thefirstgardensallocatedbymunicipalitiesfortheuseoflandlesscitizens
occurredinEngland.Between1754and1815,asEnglandtransitionedtoacommercialand
industrializedformofagriculture,ruralfamilieswereoftendisenfranchised(Durlach8).During
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thisperiodtheEnclosureActsprivatizedthecountrysideandcommonsintoindividualparcels
(Durlach8).Withindustryofferingjobsandtheirpropertyseized,youngpeopleandpeasants
wereluredintothecity,creatingcongestedurbanareas.BeforethistimeBritainscitieshad
designatedblocksofopenspacethatcitizenscouldcultivateaskitchengardens.Asurbanland
increasedinvaluetheseopenspaceswereconsumedbydevelopment(Durlach8).Urbanites
wouldsometimesjointogethertorentperipheralurbanpropertyforgardensbutdevelopment
pressureincreasinglypushedthatlandfartheroutintothesurroundingcountrysideuntilitwas
unfeasibleforacity-dwellertoworkit.
Inthelate18thcentury,somelandownerswouldrentpatchesoflandforusebyprivate
gardeners.Strictruleswereplaceduponsuchactivitiesoutofconcernthatworkinginsuch
gardenswoulddistractworkersorevenallowthemtheself-sufficiencynottoworkatall
(Durlach9).TheseplotsweresopopularthattheAllotmentActsof1887and1890were
passed,creatingallotmentgardensforthelaboringpopulation.Theseactsrequiredurban
boroughsanitationauthoritiestomakeavailablespaceforcommunitygardens,otherwise
knownasallotments(King7).SimilardevelopmentswereoccurringacrossEurope.
AlternateEnglishThinking
In1898,inEngland,EbenezerHowardauthoredatheoryforaradicallydifferentkindof
town:thegardencity.InHowardsvision,alargeragriculturalzonesurroundedthemain
populationcenter,wherethepopulatedtownareaservedasareadymarketforthefarmer.In
thiswaythecity-dwellershadreadyaccesstothepleasuresandbeautiesofthecountryside.
Includedintheplanwasanefficientrailsystemtofacilitateeaseoftransportinandaroundthe
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city(Newton453-4).Five-sixthsoftheareainandaroundthesecitieswastobedesignatedfor
agricultureandresidentsweregiven20by130footplotsinwhichtogrowfood(Bohn,Howe
andViljoen99).TheGardenCityrailservicewastoavoidovercrowdingwithinagricultural
lands.Howardalsoclaimedtherailsystemwouldreducethecostoftransportationoffoodand
allowforrecyclingcitywaste.Howardstheorieshadwidespreadeffectontownplanning
acrossEurope,but,accordingtoBohn,HoweandViljoen(99),internationallyitwasthe
theoriesofLeCorbusier,asdelineatedinTheCityofTomorrow(LeCorbusier,1929)thathad
themostimpactoninternationalarchitectureandurbanplanninginthetwentiethcentury.
France
Parisinthe19th
centurywasknownthroughoutEuropeforitshighlyintensiveagricultural
production,whichtodayisstillreferredtoasFrenchgardening.One-sixthofthecityofParis,Le
Maraisorthemarsh,producedannuallymorethan100,000tonsofhighvalue,outofseason
saladcrops(Cheemaetal.31).Thissystemwasamodelofinnovativeandintensiveuseof
resourcesathand,exploitingthestablemanurethatwasproducedinabundance.Before
modernmethodsofsanitationweredeveloped,urbanagriculturewastheprimarymethod
usedtodisposeofurbanwastes.Inenergy,massandmonetaryterms,theinputsandoutputs
oftheParisianurbanagro-ecosystemexceededthoseofmostexamplesofpresent-day,fully
industrializedcropproduction(Cheemaetal.31).SomuchwasproducedthatParisexceeded
itsownlevelofconsumptionandvegetableswereexportedasfarasLondon.Towardstheend
ofthe19thcenturythissystemofFrenchgardeningpeaked,ascarsreplacedhorsesandanimal
manurewasnolongerreadilyavailableforfertilizer.Aslandvaluesincreased,areaswithbetter
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climatesandlowerpropertyvaluesoutsidethecitywereabletoout-competeParisthanksto
efficientnewformsoftransportationthatcouldquicklyhaulproduceacrossthecountrysideto
market,makinglocalproductionseemquaintandinefficient(Cheemaetal.31-32).
AlternateFrenchThinking
InTheCityofTomorrowLeCorbusierdescribeshisGardenCityasmorecondensedand
verticalthanHowardsdesign.Heenvisionedoverone-thirdofatypicalhousingplotbe
designatedtocommunityfarmingwithafarmerinchargeofevery100plots.Intensive
cultivationwouldbeundertakenandorchardswouldseparatethefarmedareasfromthe
housing(LeCorbusier218).Hespelledoutseveraldifferentplansofusethatwouldinteract
witheachotheroverafabricofcultivatedfarmlands,creatingwhatwerefertotodayasperi-
urbanagriculture,oragricultureimmediatelyadjacenttourbanareas.Hisideawasthat
housingwouldbebuiltinsunandairinfusedcellsstackedinthree-storybuildings,eachwith
itsownhanginggardenthatwouldprovidetheownerwithaprivatespaceforrelaxingor
diningandthatrequiredminimalmaintenance(LeCorbusier217).Aroundtheseapartment
buildingshecalledforareasofopenspaceforrecreationandorchardsadjacenttosurrounding
allotmentgardensthatwouldbesupervisedbyafull-timefarmerwhowouldseetotheheavy
workofplowingandwatering.Thisgardenspacewouldalsoallowforstorageofexcess
produceforwinter(LeCorbusier218).
InthisgardencityschemeLeCorbusierbelievedhehadsolvedtheproblemsinherentin
thesprawlingmoderncitiesthatweregrowingcommonacrossthedevelopedworld.He
suggestedthatthisdesignplanwouldturninhabitantsofhiscitiesintoagriculturallabourers,
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theproducerthatwasdisappearingfromthecountryside.Healsosuggestedthatthisdesign
wouldallowitsinhabitantsmoreroominwhichtoliveandplayandmoreefficientuseoftheir
timeandenergy(LeCorbusier215-218).LeCorbusierwasavisionarymanitwouldseem,as
todaycitiesaroundtheworldareadoptingaspectsofhisplanandincorporatingthemintotheir
cityplan.ACNNArticlebyShaikhmentionsthatCuba,JapanandChinaallhavesuccessful
urbanfarmsandVancouver,CanadaevenhasanOfficeofUrbanAgriculturewithinthe
government.DevelopingcountriessuchasKenyaareexperimentinginurbanagricultureand
manycitiesintheUnitedStates,suchasChicago,DetroitandNewYorkallhavesignificantcity
farmprojects(Shaikhn.pag.).Germanyalsohassomeinterestinginterestingandprogressive
urbanagricultureprojectstakingplace(Schroedern.pag.).
DetroitAppropriationGarden
Figure1
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UnitedStates
IntheUnitedStates,thefirstappropriatedgardens,allotmentgardens,werecreatedfor
economicreasonscausedbythedepressionof18931897.DetroitmayorHazenS.Pingree
requestedthatownersofvacantlandatthecitiesedgelendtheirpropertytotheunemployed
togrowfoodtosupportthemselvesthroughthecomingwinter.Thecityplowed430acres.On
plotsofone-quartertoone-halfacreinsize,945familiessettoworktogrowtheirownfood.
Thecityrequiredhalfofthelandtobeplantedinpotatoesand14,000bushelsofpotatoes
weregrown.ThecityofDetroitspent$3,000ontheprojectandproduced$12,000worthof
potatoes.(Durlach13).Today,Detroitisagainhometoathrivingrevivalofurbanfarming
(DetroitAgriculture).Othercitieswentontoimitatethisprojectinsimilareconomiccrises.An
importantaspectoftheseprogramswastheirtemporarynature.Assoonasthecrisispassed
andtherealestatepricesrecovered,thegardenswereforfeit.Whilethisworkedwellfor
recruitinglandownersindifficulteconomictimes,astheyknewitwouldnotcostthem
anything,theshort-termnatureofthesegardensmeantthattheyweretemporarysolutionsto
theneedsofthepoor.
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GardenBasedLearning
Figure2
GardenBasedLearning
Whilethepoorweregardeningasameansofsurvivalinthe1890s,educationreformers
promotedschoolgardensasaninteractiveteachingvenuethatcorrelatedwithschoolsubjects
andtaughtcivicsandgoodworkhabits(Lawson21).Theinclusionofchildreninthegardenisa
recurringthemeacrossthehistoryofgardenprograms,buttheperiodfrom1890totheearly
1920swasthemostnoteworthyeraforsuchprojects.Becausegardeningwasconsideredan
appropriatetooltoaddressarangeofsocietalills,childrensprogramsenjoyedbroadsupport
andwerepromotedbycelebritiesofthedaysuchaslandscapearchitectFrederickLaw
Olmstead,socialreformerJacobRiisandPresidentWoodrowWilson(Lawson52).
In1914theschoolyardgardenconceptbecameanationalmovementwiththe
establishmentoftheFederalBureauofEducationsOfficeofSchoolandHomeGardening
devotedtoitspromulgation.Thisnationalofficesuggestedthat:Gardenprogramsneedto
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demonstratetheirpopularappealandeducationalworthifschooladministratorswereto
acceptgardeningintothecurriculumandbudget(Lawson66).Citingtherelativelowcostof
gardening,theofficeurgedlocalschoolboardstoofferfinancialsupport,andmanyschool
boardsrespondedbyaddingadedicatedgardenertotheirfaculty(Lawson66).
Regardlessofwhetherlocalschoolboardstookgardeningintotheirbudgetorcurriculum,
gardenprogramsreliedonabroadnetworkofsupport.Collaborativeunionsbetweenschools
andphilanthropicandcivicorganizationswerecommonandfrequentlynecessarytoget
projectsstartedandtosustainthem(Lawson66).
ReliefGarden
Figure3
HistoricMovementsofUrbanAgriculture
OnefoundationalworkfrequentlycitedbystudiesonthetopicofU.S.community
gardeningisthe1979geographyMastersthesisofThomasBassettattheUniversityof
California,Berkeley.Inthisthesis,Bassettexaminescommunitygardensbygroupingtheir
historicalgeographyintowhathereferstoasmovements(Bassett1).Hedelineatesseven
suchmovements,eachcorrespondingtoaperiodofsocio-economiccrisisthatplacedgreat
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stressontheculturalframeworkofthecountry(Bassett2).Hecontendsthatcommunity
gardenshaveservedasabufferingmechanismthatlendssupporttotheAmericansocial
systemduringtimesofeconomicandsocialdistress(2).UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz
AssociateProfessorofCommunityStudiesMaryBethPudupstatesthatBassettswork
remainsthestandardinterpretationasdoeshisnotionthatcommunitygardensintheUnited
Stateshavebeenresponsestocrisisandemergency(Pudup1229).
SevenmovementsofcommunitygardensasoutlinedbyBassett:
Title Year Event
PotatoPatches 1894-1917 Panicof1893
Schoolgardens 1900-1920 Characterformationofchildren
GardenCityPlots 1905-1920 Urbanbeautification
Libertygardens 1917-1920 WorldWarI
Reliefgardens 1930-1939 GreatDepression
Victorygardens 1941-1945 WorldWarII
Communitygardens 1970-present Urbansocialmovements Table1
Thesemovementsarehelpfulindiscerningthehistoricalphasesofthecommunity
gardeningorurbanagriculturemovement.Theyserveasatimelinetoitsevolutioninthe
UnitedStatesaswellasmakingclearthelinkbetweennationalcrisisandsocietalresponse.
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ofnecessityduringtheGreatDepressionandagainduringWorldWarTwo.In1944withthe
nationonceagainatwar,20milliongardensproduced44%ofthefreshvegetablesinthe
UnitedStates(Durlach17).
OneofthefewvictorygardensthatcontinuedonafterthewarwasinDavis,California,
nearbytotheUniversityofCaliforniasSchoolofAgriculture.Thegardensinfluenceonandby
theuniversitygaveitasubstantialinfluenceinsuburbansubdivisiondesign.Onesubdivision,
VillageHomesinDavis,wasanopen-spacedesign,whichincorporatedorchards,vineyardsand
communitygardensownedandmanagedbytheneighborhoodresidents(Cashdan,Paxson&
Frances23-25)aswellasdesignatedopenspace.BecauseDaviswashometoalandgrant
university,thesubdivisionsnearbyhadaninfluenceonstudentswholivedandstudiedthere,
providingthemwithafunctionalexampleofhowsuchahuman-scaledurbanfoodsystem
couldwork(Durlach21).Thedesignsofthesesubdivisionswouldgoontoinfluencecommon
landsonsuburbanlayoutsacrossthecountry(Durlach21).
Post-WarIndustrialization
Urbanhouseholdfoodproductionandperi-urbanmarketgardeningweresignificant
industriesintheU.S.upuntiltheendofWorldWarTwo,whenAmericaturneditswartime
munitionsfactoriestofertilizerproductionfacilitiesandsettoworktoindustrializeitselfona
majorscale.Asignatureofmodernlifebecamecompartmentalization.Citiesandtownstookto
separatinghomefrommarketplace,workplacefromopenspace.In1973SecretaryofAgriculture
EarlButzcommandedfarmerstocompartmentalize,toseparatelivestockfromcropsandtoget
bigorgetoutandPlantfencerowtofencerow(qtd.InPhilpott).Thesepost-warfragmented
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farmswereconsideredhallmarksofmodernityandinzoningandplanningagriculturebecame
somethingquaintandbackwards,notsuitableforthepolite,moderncompanydesiredintowns
andcities.Smallfarmsontheedgesoftownsweredevelopedintohousing,pushingagriculture
fartherout,fartherfromtheconsumer(Durlach21).
UrbanAgricultureasaSocialMovement
Inthe1960sanewenvironmentalawarenessgrewoutofsocialupheaval,beginningwith
RachelCarsonsseminalworkSilentSpring,whichwasthefirsttogetpeoplethinkingaboutthe
stateoftheenvironmentandtheearthsabilitytosustainlife.Thepopulationgrowththat
cameoutofthepostwaryears,coupledwithpeoplesemergentthinkingaboutthe
environmentandthecivilrightsmovementofthe1960screatedanewpoliticalenvironment.
Thegrowthofthesuburbsalsoledtomorevacantlandinthecitycenters.Togetherthesetwo
events,theempowermentofnewpoliticsandtheopportunitiesofvacantlandhavecreateda
historicallyunprecedentedseriesofclassandracialcoalitions(Durlach20).Thesenew
alliancesbegantobringurbanneighborstogethertoplantandmaintaincommunitygardens
andmanagetheirpubliclandswhilesettinggoalsfornewwaysofrebuildingtheir
neighborhoods.
Thisnewmixofenvironmentalconcernandpoliticalactioncreatedrenewedinterestin
allotmentgardensinEnglandandsawthecreationofthefirstmodern-eracommunitygardens
intheU.S.intheearly1970s.Thesecommunitygardensdifferedfromallotmentsofthepast
inthattheiremphasislayinregeneratingcommunity.Thetermcommunitygardenhascome
tomeangardenscreatedbygrassrootsinitiativesasopposedtothepublicgardensofthe
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1890sand1950s,whichwerelargelytheresultoffederalandlocalgovernmentfundingand
organization(Hassell91).Inresponsetothegrowingnumberofcommunitygardensacrossthe
countryandacorrespondingincreaseinnumbersofcity-basedcommunitygarden
organizations,theAmericanCommunityGardeningAssociationwasformedin1979(American
CommunityGardeningAssociation).TheACGAwascreatedtounitethethousandsofprograms
thathadsprungupacrossthecountry,toprovidelandandresourcesforpeoplewithoutlandof
theirown,andasanorganizationalbodyforallcommunitygardengroups.TheACGAwasa
meanstoassisturbanfarmersandgardenersingrassrootsorganization.Forthefirsttime,the
gardenersthemselveswereorganizingtheirowngardens.
Duringthe1970sand1980scommunitygardensincreasinglyservedastoolstorebuild
communitiesthatwerebeingtornapartbyurbanrenewalprojects,decliningurbanpopulation,
abandonedpropertiesandracialtension.Byworkingtogetherongardenprojects,neighbors
couldtakepersonalstepstoaddressinflation,theenvironment,andsocialanomiewhilealso
contributingtoaneighborhoodrenaissance(Lawson206).Manyofthesameoutcomesthat
motivatedgardenersofthepreviouscentury,suchasfresh,economicalfoodandself-
sufficiency,werestilldesiredbythesenewgardeners,buttheywerenowacknowledgedasa
partofthesocialprocessinherentinnegotiatingcommunalgardenspace(Lawson206).Inthe
1970sand1980sthefocuswasoncreatingcommunityamongstthegardenersandbetween
thegardenanditsneighborhood,cityandsocietyingeneral.Wherepreviousgenerations
gardenprojectshadtypicallybegunwithatopdownapproachofanoutsideorganization
developingthegardenforthegardeners,theseprojectsofthe70sand80ssawhigherratesof
userinvolvementandplanningandwerelocallycontrolledandmaintained(Durlach21-22).The
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UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculturehadanUrbanGardeningProgramofitsownfrom
1976until1993.In1973,theMasterGardenerProgramwasbegunbyExtensionagentsof
WashingtonStateUniversityasaresponsetopublicinquirytheyreceivedfrompeopleseeking
assistanceintheirgardens(Gibbyetal.n.pag.).
Communityleadershipdevelopedaroundgardensasgardenersparticipatedinthe
processesofcommunityoutreach,negotiatingwithcityagenciesfornecessaryresourcesand
frequently,infightingwiththecitytodefendthegardenagainstdissolution(Durlach20-21).In
theearly1990stheACGAwaspressuredtobroadenitsmission,toincludecommunity
development,socialjustice,educationandenvironmentalisminresponsetothetrendsseenin
communitygardening(Lawson238-9).Inthe1990sthenumberandtypesofgardensincreased
(Lawson238)andincludedunderthetermofcommunitygardenwereneighborhood
gardens,institutionalgardensthatofferedhorticulturaltherapyprograms,andschoolgardens,
aswellasotherstypesofprojects,suchasprisongardens.
ACGAmembersinthe1990sweremostactiveincommunityorganizing,assistingwith
landacquisition,followedbyprovidingassistancewithhorticultureissuesandeducation
programs.Theseactivitiesstillrepresenttheprimaryservicesofferedbymemberorganizations
oftheACGA.Byexpandingtheirworkincommunitydevelopmentandbecomingincreasingly
politicallysavvy,gardenorganizationshavebeenabletoexpandtheirinfluenceintomunicipal
planningandfundingandtheiractivelobbyinghasincreasedawarenessamongpolicymakers
forthenecessityforgardenfundingandsitepermanence(Lawson243).Inexercisingpolitical
clouttheseorganizationsareabletobettermeettheneedsofthememberstheyserve.
Additionally,gardenorganizationsinthe1990sgrewadeptatcollaboratingwithother
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organizationstoaccomplishsharedvisions.Mostalsoinsistedthatgardensmustbeestablished
bythemembersthemselves,notsimplygiventoresidentsfromanoutsidebenefactor.Tothat
end,theACGAcreatedamentorshipcurriculumfornewgardenorganizationscalledFromthe
RootsUp.Thefollowingfivecorebeliefsthatgroundedthisprogramwere:
1. Therearemanywaystostartacommunitygarden.
2. Inorderforagardentobesustainableasatruecommunityresource,it
mustgrowfromlocalconditionsandreflectthestrengths,needsand
desiresofthelocalcommunity.
3. Diverseparticipationandleadership,atallphasesofgardenoperation,
enrichandstrengthenacommunitygarden.
4. Eachcommunitymemberhassomethingtocontribute.
5. Gardensarecommunitiesinthemselves,aswellaspartofalarger
community.(qtd.InLawson244)
Thesebeliefssayverylittleaboutgardening,choosinginsteadtofocusontheskills
requiredtomakeacommunitygardensuccessfulatempoweringlocalgardengroups.Itwas
thistypeofthinkingthatfounditshomein1990surbanagriculturesettingsanditsummarizes
themovementinthe1990s.
InlookingbackontheurbanagriculturemovementsofthepastwecanseeBassetts
sevenmovementsandthecrisiseachwasrespondingto:financialdepression,war,character
developmentandfinally,thesocio-economicdifficultiesofourmodernera.Ineach
circumstanceurbangardenprojectswereresponsestochangewiththegardenservingto
bufferthedifficultiesoftheday.
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ChapterFour
PrisonGardens
Thegardenshidden...possibilitiesmayemergeinextremesituations....
Indefiantsituations,humansdisplayasurprisingresourcefulnessindesignand
function,informalarrangement,andintheappropriation,gathering,anduseof
materials.Recognitionofourowncreativityunderadverseconditionsheightens
oursatisfactioninbeinginsuchagarden.Asweknow,theseedsofcertain
plantswillgerminateonlywhenexposedtotheheatoffire;thehorrible
inhumaneconditions...unlocksomethingdormant,allowingittosproutasa
defiantgarden(Helphand6).
InlookingatgrassrootsurbanagriculturalmovementsIwasmostintriguedbythe
programsthathadthemostpotentialforgood,withthelowestinvestment.Ihadread
somethingaboutWashingtonStatesSustainablePrisonsprojectanditmadesensetomefrom
aneconomicandanecologicalperspective.Aprojectsuchasagarden,inaprison,seemedto
makemoresensethananythingIcouldthinkof.AsIlookedintoitfurther,Idiscoveredthere
waslittlewrittenonitandIdeterminedthatthiswouldbesomethingIwantedtolearnmore
about.Inmymind,ifanyoneneededthesimplepleasuresfoundinagarden,aprisonerwould.
Italsoseemedthatitwouldmakesensefromaneconomicstandpoint.Ifagardeninaprison
couldprovebeneficialtotheinmatesandeconomicallyfeasibletotheDepartmentof
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Corrections,thissystemwouldcertainlyofferbenefitsworthexaminingforlandscape
architecture.
Writingaboutprisonersandgardens,KennethHelphand,inhisbookDefiantGardens:
MakingGardensinWartimestates,Recognitionofourowncreativityunderadverse
conditionsheightensoursatisfactioninbeinginsuchagarden(6).Hegoesontosay,the
humanbenefitsofgardeningaremoreclearlyseeninimpoverishedenvironmentsthatlackthe
amenitiestomakelifepleasant.Gardenspromisebeautywherethereisnone,hopeover
despair,optimismoverpessimism,andfinallylifeinthefaceofdeath(7).Helphandsstudyof
gardensconstructedintheadverseconditionsofwar,prisonsorghettospointstothepositive
powerofagardentoinspirehopeinthebleakestconditions.Initsverynature,agardenisa
hopefulplace;whenweplantwehopetheseedswesowwillgerminate,theplantswillsurvive
andthriveandthatwewillbearoundtowitnessthesemiracles(Helphand7).Ingardeningwe
cancreatepeacefulsolaceinachaoticworld.Gardenscreatedbyimprisonedpopulationsare
importanttoexaminebecausetheyofferhopeinthebleakestofconditions.
NancyFlinn,authorofThePrisonGardenBook,listsfourgeneralbenefitsofaprison
havingagardeningprogramforitsinmates.Theseincludethemeaningfulworkitprovidesthe
inmates,thefooditproducesfortheinstitution,thejob-preparatoryeducationthatinmates
gainwhilegardeningandadditionally,gardeningisanopportunitytosucceedforapopulation
whomaynothavehadmanysuchopportunities(16).Anotheradvantageofaprisongardenis
seeninresearchconductedbyMoore,aprofessorofarchitectureattheUniversityof
Nebraska-Lincoln,whichshowedthattheviewsofferedoutofaprisoncellarerelatedtothe
numberofsick-callsreceivedbytheinfirmary,withprisonerswhohaveaviewofplantsbeing
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lesslikelytobeill(24).LaterresearchbyWest,agraduatestudentattheUniversityof
Washington,confirmedthecorrelationbetweenthenumberofsick-callstothetypeandquality
oftheinmatesviewsfromtheircells;thosewithmorenaturalisticelementsintheirview
makingthefewestsuchcalls(qtd.InUlrich204).Accesstovisuallycomplex,naturalisticviews
withintheprisonenvironmenthasalsobeenshowntohavearelaxingeffectonbothinmates
andprisonstaff(Lindemuth89).
RikersIsland,thelargestjailcomplexintheUnitedStates,situatedbetweenManhattan
andQueens,hashadahorticulturalprogramforinmatessince1996(Jiler13).Administered
anddevelopedbytheHorticulturalSocietyofNewYork,theprogramsgoalistoreduce
recidivism,orreturnoffenders.Onjusttwoacresoflandinmateslearnhorticultureskills,plant
science,andecology,aswellasgardendesignandconstructionskills(Jiler13).Aftertheir
release,formerprisonershavetheopportunitytoreturntotheprogramtoworkaspaid
interns,gainingexperiencethatwillhelpthemre-integratebackintosociety.JamesJiler,the
DirectoroftheHorticultureSocietyofNewYorksjail-to-streetGreenHouseprogramand
authorofthebookDoingTimeIntheGarden,tellsusthatRikersIslandisthebiggestfarmin
NewYorkCityandproducesasmuchas40,000poundsofproduceannually(24).Thisoutputis
poweredbythelaborsoftheinmateworkers.Thistypeoflaborbyinmatesisnotuncommonin
prisonsandjailsacrosstheUnitedStates.WhatismoreunusualistheeffortRikersmakesto
connecttheinmateslabortoskillsthatwillhelpthelaborersgainemploymentoncetheyare
freed.JilertellsusthattheRikersprogramincorporatesaneclecticmixofgardentherapy,
scienceandEnglishliteracy,lifeskilldevelopmentandjobenrichmentwithprogramsforjob
placementonceastudenthasservedhis/hersentence.(Jiler28).
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Oneproblemwithintheprisonsystemisthatofmentalhealthissuesintheincarcerated
population.JilertellsusthatIn1999,theBureauofJusticeStatisticsreleasedareportthat
estimated283,000inmatesnation-widewerementallyill,almost16%ofallpeoplebehind
bars(35).Asearlyas1798Dr.BenjaminRush,knownatheFatherofAmericanPsychiatry
publishedaccountsofenhancedhealingamongtheeconomicallydisadvantagedpatientswho
workedinthehospitalfoodgardenstohelppayfortheircarewhencomparedtothewealthier
patientswhoserecoverywasconfinedtotheirrooms(qtd.InJiler34).Beyondthebenefitsof
exercisingoutsideinthesunandfreshair,caringforplantshasbeenfoundtoreducestress,
increaseself-esteemandimprovementalfocus.PsychiatristKarlMenningerlabeledthe
intangiblebenefitofferedbynatureadjunctivetherapyandstatedthatithelpspatientswith
depression,angerortraumaissues(qtd.InJiler34).
Anotherissueinthecorrectionssystemisthatofrecidivism.TheU.SBureauofJustice
Statisticscalculatesthattwo-thirdsofreleasedinmateswillberearrestedwithinthreeyearsof
leavingprison(Jiler13).Iftheseinmatesexperiencedonlyfutilitywhileinprison,isolatedfrom
theircommunityandfamily,itisdifficulttoimaginethemfeelinganydifferentlyoncetheyare
backonthestreet,withnojobandacriminalbackground(Jiler84-85).Itisalsoplausibleto
thinkthatthelives,whichledthemtoprisoninthefirstplace,werenothighlysatisfyingorfull
ofpossibility(Jiler17,28).Combinethesefactorsanditiseasytoseewhyconvictsarelikelyto
endupbackintheprisonsystem.Gardeningwhileinprisonoffersapositiveexperienceanda
chanceforprisonerstolearnskills,contemplatetheirownplaceinthenaturalorderoflifeand
increasetheirownsenseofselfworthandempowerment(Jiler34).InthecaseoftheRikers
Islandprogram,inmateshavetheopportunitytointeractwiththeirenvironmentandnurture
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relationshipswiththoseorganismsaroundthem,betheyplant,animalorhuman.Withinthese
interactionstherearechoices,rewardsandconsequences,bothtangibleandintangible.These
inmatesaregivenanopportunitytohaveapositiveimpactontheirworld,andthatcanbe
enoughtostartthemonapathtoabetterfuture.InastudyofaprisonprograminParis,Texas,
participantsinatwelvemonthhorticulturaltherapyprogramhadarecidivismrateof26%
comparedto49%forparoleesnotinvolvedintherapeuticactivities(Jiler38).
WashingtonStateSustainablePrisonsProject
FollowingthepathforgedbyRikersIsland,atwo-yearpartnershipbetweenEvergreen
StateCollegeandtheWashingtonDepartmentofCorrections(DOC)isworkingtomakethe
stateprisonsystemmoreenvironmentallyfriendly.FundedbyagrantfromtheDepartmentof
Corrections,theprogramseekstomaketheprisonsystemmoreeconomicallyand
environmentallysustainableandalsotoprovidejobtrainingtooffendersabouttore-enterthe
jobmarket.TheDOCalsoseesthisasameansofcuttingcosts.Theprojectunitesscientistsand
conservationgroupswithinmatesandprisonstafftoconductresearchandworkonrestoration
projects(TheEvergreenCollegeandWADOCn.pag.).
OneoftheWashingtonStateSustainablePrisonssitesistheMcNeilIslandCorrections
Center(MICC),locatedinsouthernPugetSoundbetweenTacomaandOlympia.Thisprojectis
enteringintoitssecondyearofproduction.Duringitsfirstyearin2009,theinmatesproduced
5,000poundsoffoodwhichwereusedtosupplementsoupsandsaladsinthefacilitiesFood
Servicesunit(TheEvergreenCollegeandWADOCn.pag.).Thisgardenprogrambeganonshort
noticewithfundingfromWashingtonStateCenterforWomensHorticultureProgramandis
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operatedbytheLawnsandGardensSupervisorandanoffendercrew.Nochemicalsareusedin
thegarden;onlygrassclippingsandwaterareaddedtothesoil.InOctoberof2009,aseriesof
soilworkshopswereofferedtotheLawns&Gardencrew.Taughtbyagraduatestudentfrom
EvergreenCollege,thecrewlearnedsoilscienceandsoilmanagementandwasgiventhe
trainingandknowledgetopreparefor2010sgarden(TheEvergreenCollegeandWADOCn.
pag.).
TheSustainablePrisonsProjectcurrentlyinvolvesfourprisons,butadministratorshave
hopesofiteventuallybecomingastatewideprogram.Withinthefourinvolvedprisons,tasks
includethecultivationoforganicproduce,beekeeping,vermiculturecompostingand
separationofrecyclablesfromtheprisonwastestream(TheEvergreenCollegeandWADOCn.
pag.).
RelatedprojectsintheSustainablePrisonsProjectincludegrowingendangerednative
plantsforprairierestorationincollaborationwithTheNatureConservancy,assistingin
breedingendangeredspottedOregonfrogsandthefarmingofmossesforthehorticultural
trade.Alloftheoffendersinvolvedintheseprogramsreceivespecializedtrainingandguidance
fromscientistsandeducatorswiththeprogramsmainfocusonjobtrainingandrecidivism
reduction(TheEvergreenCollegeandWADOCn.pag.).Theseprogramsalsosavethestate
moneyandbecauseofthistheyaremorelikelytocontinuetobeabletoassistinpreparing
offendersforre-entrytosociety.
IdiscoveredtheWashingtonStateSustainablePrisonsInitiativethroughanarticleon
grist.com,whichledmetotheEvergreenCollege,throughwhichIarrangedtovisitthefacility
onMay12,2010.
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StaffordCreekCorrectionsCenter
Figure5
StaffordCreekCorrectionCenter
UponarrivingattheStaffordCreekfacilityIwasallowedtotakeinonlymynotebookand
pen,mycamerahadnotbeenpre-approvedandwasnotallowedinside.Inaccessingthe
gardensitewepassedthroughthreedouble-gatedholdingpenswherewehadtowaitinside
forthenextpassagewaytobeopenedbeforeus.The210-acregrounds,hometonearly2,000
maleinmates,wereprimarilymadeupoflarge,flatexpansesofgreenlawnwithdormitories
andbuildingsashortdistanceapart.Thegardenwasoutbehindthemaincampusofthe
facility,nestledamongsttheshopbuildings.Themaingardenareawaslittlemorethananacre,
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butalargetrafficcircleacrossthedrivehadjustbeenplowedandplanted,doublingthe
plantingarea.Acrossfromthegardenareawastherecyclingfacility,whereinmatessort
throughtheprisonsrefuse.ThisrecyclingprojectonStaffordCreekscampushassavedthe
facilitynearly$200,000ayearjustbyrecyclingtrashinsteadofpayingtohaveithauledtoa
landfill(Oppmannn.pag.).
StaffordCreekGreenHouse
Figure6
ThevisitbeganwithalecturebytwoNatureConservancyemployeeswhometusthere.
Theywerespeakingonthenativeplantsthattheseinmatesweregrowinginthegreenhouses
tobeusedinstatewiderestorationprojects.Oncethelecturewascomplete,theinmateswent
toworkinthenext-doorgreenhousepottingseedlingsfortheproject.
TheGrounds&NurserySupervisormentionedhisfrustrationwiththedifficultyof
motivatingtheinmatestodothemoretedioustaskssuchasweeding.Ifhewasnotwatching
overthemallthetimetheytendedtoslackoff,asmanydidwhentherewerevisitors,suchas
thegrouppresentthisday.Whilethesupervisorwasbusydirectingthemenswork,Iwasable
towalkaroundthegreenhousesandlookatthegardens.
Largebedscontainedvariousvegetablecrops:berries,broccoli,brusselssprouts,
cauliflower,onions,beans,corn,strawberries,raspberries,etc.Thesefoodcropsare
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intercroppedwithornamentalsandpottedflowersnearthegreenhouses.Theoldestplanting
bedsare5or6yearsofageandirrigationisconductedwithsprinklers.Whilethereisa
rainwatercollectiontankonsite,ithasnotbeenusedduetoalackofhardwaretogetthe
wateroutofthetank.
Thesupervisormentionedtheyhaveneverbeenabletogrowenoughonsiteto
significantlyimpactthediningfacility,buttheproducesupplementstheinmatesdietsandall
produceisconsumedon-site.Also,heallowstheinmatestosnackontheproduceastheywork.
Thefacilityproducesallofitsowncompostfromkitchenwasteandthis,coupledwiththe
recyclingprogram,hassignificantlyreducedtheamountofwasteproducedatStaffordCreek.
Retainingwallbehindagreenhouse
Figure7
ProgramfundingcomesfromaDepartmentofDefensegrant,theNatureConservancy,
andfromtheDepartmentofCorrections.Thegoaloftheprogramisandnatureandscience
educationandjobtrainingfortheinmates,aswellasteachingthemtogivebacktothe
community.Itishopedthattheinmateswilllearnskillsthatwillenablethemtobeproductive
oncetheyarereleased.Thesupervisorsaidsomeofthemenwereveryinterestedinthework,
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butmanywerenotandonlywantedtoearntheir42centsanhouraslaborers.Themenwho
arereallycommittedtotheprogramareassignedthemoretediousandimportanttaskssuchas
sowingseedsandthinningseedlings.Abigproblemwithintheprogramisthatoncethemen
getveryinterested,theirgoodbehaviorisrewardedbytransferringthemtoalowersecurity
facilitybeforetheyarereleased,thusendingtheirworkinthegardenprogram.Thisalsomakes
itdifficultfortheprogramtohavethenecessarytimetoimpactthemeninameaningful
manner.
Inmateatwork
Figure8
ThereisnoworkreleaseprogramofanysortatStaffordCreekthatenablesthemento
transitionbackintosociety.TheprisonisaDOCinstitution,andoncetheyarereleasedthey
becomeamatterforthelocalwelfareauthorities,frequentlyhomelessandlikelytocommit
furthercrimesduetoalackofsupport.
Financially,theprogramdoesnotcosttheDOCanythingextra.TheFortLewismilitary
basepaidforthegreenhouses,whichareusedtogrowplantsforprairierestorationworkon
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themilitarybase.TheNatureConservancyalsopaysfortheplantsraisedbytheinmatestobe
usedinConservancyrestorationprojects.Bytheendoftheyearthegardenprojectwillbe
relocatedacrosstheprisongroundstomakewayforachairfactory.Thesupervisormentioned
hisdisappointmentatthis,buthopesthattheycanmakethegardenworkinthenewlocation.
Asfarasplantingdesignwent,thesupervisorhasultimateauthoritybuttriestoallowthe
mentotakesomeownershipinwhattheygrowandwheretheygrowit.Hefrequentlyhasto
leavethemenunsupervisedforperiodsoftimewhileherunserrandsorworksonmattersin
anotherarea.
Duringaconversationwithanothergraduatestudentinvolvedintheproject,itwas
mentionedthathefeltthatifaprogramsuchasthisdidnotbenefittheinmatesitwasmissing
itsmark,thatsuchaprogramshouldbeprimarilytherapeuticinnatureandeverythingelsean
off-shootofthat.Thisstudentwouldliketoseeanexpansionintheproductionendandnotbe
limitedtofoodproduction.AtStafford,severalfeltaneedtoexpandtheprogramtooffercut
flowerstovisitorsandotherinstitutionsandrecommendthatsuchgardenprogramsbeamore
centralpartoftheprisonsystem.
Narrative
Myfirstimpressionofthegardenareawasgenerallypositiveduetothemultitudeof
pottedflowersaroundthegreenhouses,givingtheareaapleasantandunexpectedlycheerful
air.Therewerealsolargepottedfruittreesandpottedvinesbeingtrainedtoclimbupthefront
ofthegreenhouses.Oneinmatetoldmehehadbeenreadingagardenbookandaskedmy
opinionofthegarden.SeveralotherinmatesalsoreallywantedtoknowwhatIthoughtofthe
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gardenoncetheyheardwhoIwas.WhatIfoundinterestingwasthattheydidnotrefertoitin
apossessivemanner,asthoughitwastheirpersonalwork,butinamoregeneraltoneinwhich
oneinquirestoknowifavisitorappreciatesthecommunityparkintheirneighborhood.Igot
thefeelingthatthesenseofownershiptheyexperiencedwiththisprojectwasmoreofa
generalsensethatthisentirefacilitywashometothem,andassuchtheyhopedIapprovedof
thegardenpartofitinwhichwewerestanding.WhileIdidnotfeelasenseofownership,I
couldtellthatthosewhospoketomeweretrulyinterestedingardeningandcuriousaboutmy
beingastudentinterestedinthisproject.Itfeltlikethisgardenhadcertainlypiquedtheir
interestandtheywerecurioustoknowmore.
AsIwatchedthemenworking,Inoticedthatthreemenwhowereplantingseemedquite
involvedintheirwork.Theothers,about12,workedforalittlebitintheothergreenhouseand
thenseemedtodisappear,withaboutthreeremainingbehind,doingalittlework,cracking
jokesandchatting.Thereseemedtobeagenerallypleasantenergyabouttheplace,whichI
hadnotexpected.
Thisvisitleftmewithmixedfeelings.Whileitispossibletoseeagreatpotentialinthis
typeofaproject,thisparticularprojectappearedtobemissingthemark.Thelimitedamount
oftimethattheinmatesspendinthisprogramreducestheirbenefitfromit.Theydonothave
thetimetoexperienceasenseofownershipintheprojectnorgainvaluableskillsfromthe
work.Becauseofthesetwopoints,thisprojectisindeedmissingitsmarkinprovidinga
therapeuticbenefittothemeninvolvedinitandthesupervisorscommunicationgavethe
sensethathefeltthistoo.Hementionedthathewaslookingforwardtoworkingoutsidethe
prisonsystem.Whenaskedwhy,hewouldonlysayhewanteddosomethingthatwouldbe
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morerewarding.Iftheprojectisunabletoinspirethemanwhoisleadingit,howcanithopeto
inspirethosewhoareworkingbeneathhim?
Acommonthemeintheprisongardenliteratureisthatofthenecessityofvisionary
leadershiptomaketheseprojectswork.AtRikersIsland,thegardenwasbegunbythe
PresidentoftheHorticulturalSocietyofNewYork,whobroughttheideaandaplantothe
CommissioneroftheRikersIslandcomplexandwasabletosellittohim(Jiler10).Becausethe
meninchargeoftheprogramwereinspiredbyitandpossessedthepowertomakeithappen,
thatprogramisnowrenownforitssuccess.
MystudyofthisprojectwaslimitedandIcannotbegintounderstandittothedepthit
deservesfromthetimeIspentthere,butthetakeawaymessageformewasthatforaproject
suchasthistosucceeditneedsvisionarysupport.Theremustbesomeonewithintheprison
system,withinthefacilityitself,whorecognizestheimportanceandpotentialthegarden
programholdsandmakescertainitreceiveswhatitneedstobesuccessful.
Theadministrationsdecisiontorelocatethegardentomakewayforachairfactory
beliedthegeneralsensethat,likesomanyothercommunitygardenprojects,thisonewasnot
valuedasaserious,contributingelementofthefacility.Withoutaleaderwhoplacesahigh
levelofimportanceontheprogramitislikelytobeatemporarydiversionthatkeepsthe
inmatesbusy,butmissesthemarkasfarasjobtrainingandtherapygoes.
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MotherEarthFarm
MotherEarthFarm
Figure9
ThenextprisongardenprogramIsawwasnotactuallyonaprisonground.Ifirstheard
aboutMotherEarthFarmfromthegraduatestudentwhoassistedmewiththeStaffordCreek
site.MotherEarthFarmisanaffiliateofEmergencyFoodNetwork(EFN),anorganizationthat
workstoprovidefoodtoPierceCountyfoodbanks.EFNhasseveraldifferentprojectsthathelp
themtomeettheirmissionoffeedingtheareashungryincludingacanneryprojectwhere
donatedfreshfoodsarecannedforlaterdistribution.Thefarmmanagertoldmethespecifics
ofthefarmandthefollowinginformationcomesfromourcommunicationsofthatMay14th
,
2010,unlessnotedotherwise.
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SignoutsideMotherEarthFarms
MotherEarthFarmbeganwhenthepropertyowner,whosefamilyhadfarmedthesitefor
manyyears,wasapproachedbyhergrandson,whowasworkingforEFNandsawan
opportunityfortherundownfarmtogivebacktothecommunityandstayinagriculture.Once
theownersgrandsonhadsecuredhisgrandmothersinterestintheprojectheapproachedhis
friendtomanagethefarm.Thiswomanhadbeeninvolvedinguerrillagardeningforyearsand
hadworkedpreviouslywithGuadalupeGardens,ahomelessgardenCSAproject.Sheisabig
proponentofweavingpeopleintoagarden,orgettingasmanypeopleinvolvedaspossible,and
wasinterestedintheopportunitytogrowfoodonalargerscaleandhaveagreaterimpactona
community.Thisexperiencedurbanfarmerlookedthesiteoverandtoldherfriendthatit
wouldtakeaboutsevenyearstorebuildthesitessoilfertilityandgetthefarmfullyupand
running.Intheenditonlytookfive.Thepropertyiscomprisedof8acresinaresidentialareaof
thePuyallupValleyandfirstbeganoperationinMayof2000.
ThemissionofMotherEarthFarmisfirst,togrowfreshproduceforthoseinneed,and
second,toeducatethecommunityonhowtogrowthatproduce.Toaccomplishthesecond
goal,thefarmmangerutilizestheassistanceoffemaleinmatesfromtheWashington
CorrectionalCenterforWomenatPurdywhoworkonthefarmfortyhoursperweek.The
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womenreceive42centsanhourfortheirworkandalsoreceivecollegecredit.Theirprogram
runsfromMarchthroughNovemberandonlywomenabletokeepthatcommitmentare
eligibletoparticipate.Themanagermentionedthatpriortothisarrangement,whichbeganlast
year,thewomenwouldcomeworkfortwo-weekperiods,anditwasnotsufficienttimefor
theseinmatestogainasenseofownershipoverthefarmortheirwork.Withthislonger
commitment,thewomenareveryenthusiasticandgrowvestedintheirlabors-somuchso
thatsomereturntovolunteeronthefarmoncetheyarereleased.
Greenhouseinfrontoffield
Beingontheworkcrewatthefarmisarightthattheinmatesmustearnandbecauseof
that,boththeirinvestitureinthesiteaswellastheprogramsoverallmoraleisquitehigh.
Thesewomenstayontaskandtheirbehaviorandattitudesreflecttheirenjoymentand
appreciationfortheprogram.TheDOCpays$50,000ayeartofundthesupervisorofthe
program,butfeelsitismoneywellspentbecauseofthereductionintherecidivismrate.While
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thereisnorealmonitoringprogramforthesewomenoncetheyarefree,farmvolunteers,
someformerprisonersandothers,oftentakethatuponthemselves,watchingoutforthe
womenandhelpingthemfindjobsaftertheyarereleasedfromprison.
Themanagersaidsheusedtobeabletofeedtheinmatesmorefreely,untilalawsuit,
unrelatedtothisprogram,causedtheDOCtofearthattheremightbejealousyfromother
inmatesoutsidetheprogramandthatthespecialfoodsprogramparticipantsenjoyonsite
mightconstitutefavoritism.Currently,byservingonlyteamadefromplantsonthefarm
theyareabletoskirtthisissue.TheDepartmentofCorrectionsdefinestearatherlooselyand
theprogramisableusethatlaxdefinitiontothebenefitofthelaborers.
Littlegreenhouse
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Inadditiontothefemaleinmates,MotherEarthFarmalsoservesasafieldtripsitefor
localschoolkids,whoenjoylearningaboutthefoodsystemfromthefarmandfromthe
manager.Forschoolchildren,thefarmoffersmanyimportantlessonsaboutthefoodsystem
andThemanagerdoesallshecantogetthekidsinvolvedandeatingastheytour.Thelocal
DistrictCourtsendsoffenderstothefarmtoservecommunityservicesentencesandsomelocal
businessesalsosupporttheiremployeesinprovidingweeklycommunityserviceatthefarm.
Thesevolunteersarethemajorityofthelaboronthefarm.Themanagerspositionispaidand
full-timeandshealsohasafull-time,paidassistanttohelphergettheworkdone.Emergency
FoodNetworkpaysfortheirsalaries.Intheearliestdaysofthefarmitwasdifficulttogetthe
necessaryfundsfromEFN,buttodaythefarmleadstheprogramsfundraisingefforts,asthe
valueofsuchasystemgrowsmoreapparenttodonors.ThemanagerreportstoEFNsExecutive
Director.
Futuregoalsforthefarmaresimplytokeepimprovingatwhattheyarealreadydoing.
Theyproduceanaverageof150,000poundsofproduceperyear,includingvegetables,fruit,
herbsandhoney.Theyalsohopetocontinuetoenhancevolunteeroutreachinaneffortto
engagemorepeopleinsolvingthelocalhungerproblem.
Themanagersaidthebiggestlessonshehaslearnedfromtheprojectwasthetransition
processfrombeingasolofarmertoacommunityfarmer.Shehashadtolearntoteachandlet
go,ornottomanagetotightly.Shehasfoundthatbeingrigiddoesnotworkandhashadto
learntorelinquishcontrolandletwhatneedstohappen,happeninitsown,bestway.
Shestatedthattherecipientsofthefoodareaverygratefullot.Eachyearshevisitsthe
foodbankandspendstimetalkingtothosewhoarebeingfed.Shehasfoundthatgenerally
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theyareveryimpressedtoknowthattheirfoodisveryfreshandgrownlocallyandtheyenjoy
itsflavorandvariety.
Herbandflowerbeds Tulips
Narrative
IfoundthisprogramatMotherEarthFarmtohaveadecidedlydifferentnaturethanthe
programatStaffordCreek.Itisnotsurprisingthatthisshouldbeso,consideringStaffordCreek
isonsiteataprisonandMotherEarthFarmisnot,butitseemedtomethatthebasic
fundamentalsofthetwoprogramswerethedifferencehere.AtStaffordCreekthemen
involvedareonlyinvolvedforashorttimeandmuchofwhattheydoisdistantfromtheirlives.
Growingseedlingstorestoreaprairieisnotlikelytoapossesshighlevelofrelevancyinthelife
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ofaninmate,whilefeedingthehungryoftheircommunityismucheasiertorelatetofor
someonewhomayhaveexperiencedsomeofthedifficultieslifeoffersfirsthand.
MotherEarthFarmalsohastheadvantageofitssetting.Surroundedbymountains,fresh
airandsuburbanhomes,MEFhasthefeelofapeacefulretreatfromacrazyworld.Withoutthe
prisonsrazorwireandarmedguards,thisisatherapeuticsetting.Themanagerisacaring
person,whilecertainlynotsomeonetobepushedaround,shegivesthesensethatshetruly
cares,notjustfortheearthandherfarm,butforpeopleaswell.Shetoldmethatthisisan
attitudethatisfosteredatthefarmandmanyvolunteersgooutoftheirwaytoassistinmates
withfindingbothjobsandhousingwhentheyarereleased.Thisfarmisabridgeforinmates,
helpingthemtogivemeaningtotheirlivesandcreatingrelationshipsbetweenthemandthe
communitytowhichtheyaresoontoreturn.
IcouldfeeltheStaffordCreekSupervisorsconcernfortheinmateshehadchargeoveras
well,butIcouldalsosensehisownfrustration.Hisprogramcouldnotofferinmatesalong-term
solutiontotheirsituationandhedoesnothavethepowertochangethat.Theycannotspend
enoughtimeintheprogramtolearnjobskillsortoexperiencethesenseofsatisfactionthat
comesfromseeingagardenstartasafieldofbaredirtinthespringandmakeitthroughtoa
lushandvibrantgreenswardbyfall.Withouttheseexperiences,agardenisjustalaborcamp,
pullingweedsjustachoreandfoodproductionbutaby-product.Itisessentialthatthese
programshaveavailabletothemtheresourcestobuildsuccessandtheleadershiptoengage
theheartsoftheinmates.Withoutthesefactors,theprogramisunlikelytoachieveitsfull
potential.Oneclearneedforthesuccessofaprisongardenprogramisstrongleadershipwithin
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theprisonsystemthatsupportsthemissionoftheprogramandfostersrelationshipsthatwill
supporttheinmateswhentheyreturntotheoutsideworld.
Chiveswithhoneybee
Additionally,MEFmanagersmessagetodesignerswastoteachandletgo.Ifadesign
projectistobecomeavaluedpartofacommunity,thenthatcommunityneedstofeelthat
theyareessentialtoitsdesignandcreation.Itispossiblethatasdesignerswewillneedtolearn
anewwayofworking.Insteadofgoingouttoasite,talkingtocommunitymembersandthen
creatingwhatwehearthemtellustheywant,perhapswewillneedtolearntoallowthe
creativespaceforthemtobecomemoreinvolvedinthedesignprocessaswell.Community
gardenprojectsaredirty,productivecreaturesthatrequireamoreorganicprocessthan
landscapearchitectsareaccustomed.Farmersandgardenersunderstandthenecessityof
learningasyougo,makingchangesandlettingthegrowthprocesshappen.Withinanurban
agriculturesetting,adesignmustproducetobeconsideredasuccess,notjustlookgood,and
weasdesignersmustlearntorespectandworkwiththatprocess.
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Itwouldbeaninterestingtopicforfurtherresearchtocomparethegardeningstylesof
menversuswomen.TheStaffordCreekCorrectionsCentergardenispretty,butcomesacross
asprimarilyfunctional.Therearepotsfullofflowers,buttheylinetheareassmallareaswhere
peoplearelikelytocongregate;thegreenhouseentrancesandpatios.Thelinesofcropsare
straightandasenseoforderpermeatesthesite.AtMotherEarthFarm,whichismuchmorea
traditionalfarmthanStaffordCreek,theflowersareprofuseandunkempt,plantedforthe
nourishmentofthebees,andalsoonesenses,thenourishmentoftheheart.Whilethefarmis
comprisedprimarilyofrowcrops,themoreornamentalfrontzonealongthedrivewaycallsyou
tomeanderthroughtheflowersandherbs,tosmelltherosesandtastethemint,tositata
picnictableandenjoyyourlunch.Itwouldbeinterestingtoseeifthereisagender-based
corollaryinthesedesignoccurrences;domentendtocreatemoreefficientandfunctional
spacesthanwomen?Dowomentendtoallowmoreroomfortheprocessesoflifetohappen?
AtRooseveltIsland,wheretheybothsexeshaveequalbutseparateaccesstothegarden,has
theirbeenanynoticeabledifferenceinthedesignscreatedbyeachgroup?
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ChapterFive
SchoolGardens
Beginninginthe1500s,thepopularityofgardensinEuropeanschoolsbegantoincrease.
Originallythisbeganonlargeestatesforthepurposeoftrainingofoverseers(Greene8)but
outofthispracticegrewagriculturalcollegesandfarmschools.Thecurriculumattheseschools
wasofferedtochildrenofestatelaborersovertheageoffourteen.Fromtheseschoolsarose
programsinruralareastotrainchildrenintheuseoftheirenvironmentsothattheymight
drawfromitbothwealthandhappiness(Greene8).Thegoaloftheseprogramswastoslow
theflowoflabortotownsandcitiesandbuilduptheagriculturalwealthoftheseruralareas
andtheirrespectivenations.
Significantphilosophers,suchasComenius,Rousseau,Gandhi,MontessoriandDewey
promotedschoolgardensandtaughtthateducationshouldbeinteractiveandsocial,basedon
actualexperiences,ratherthanateachersinterpretationofasubject(Subramanian3).Inareas
wherefarmsandnaturewherereadilyavailabletochildren,thegoaloftheschoolgardenwas
tobeutilitarianandteachthroughexperiencewithagoalofconnectingchildrentonatureand
ofshapingtheirmoralcharacter(Subramanian2-3).
Bythelate1800smostEuropeancountrieshadmandatedsomeformofgardentraining
inelementaryschools(Subramanian3).Atthattime,Switzerlandwasthefirstandonlycountry
toplacepedagogicalemphasisongardeningasameansofdevelopingpowersofobservation
andexperientiallearning(Greene12).Attheturnofthecenturyneweducationaltheorieswere
takinghold,suchasMariaMontessorisbeliefthatitwasnecessarytofirsteducateachilds
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sensesbeforehisintellectandJohnDeweysbeliefthatgardeninghelpedchildrentorelate
schoollifewiththeirhomeenvironment(Subramanian2).Asthisnewbeliefinexperiential
learningcaughton,thekindergartenmovementdevelopedbyFriedrichFroebel,anotable19th
centuryGermanpedagogue,begantoreachacrossEuropeandtotheUnitedStates
(Subramanian3).Froebelcausededucatorstobeginlookingatchildren,notasreceptaclesof
informationbutrather,asflowerstobenurtured.AustraliaheldaSchoolGardenConferencein
1903thatledtotheacceptanceofschoolgardensasidealtoolsfortheintegrationof
educationalcurriculumandconceptsofconservationandnaturalstewardship(Subramanian3).
In1904CanadaestablishedschoolgardensineachoftheprovincesofOntario,Quebec,
NewBrunswick,NovaScotiaandPrinceEdwardsIsland(Greene13).Thegardensweretheidea
ofDr.JamesRobertson,aformerCommissionerofAgricultureandDairying,whohadgoneon
todirecttheMacdonaldFundandwasthePresidentofMacdonaldCollegeatSte.Annede
Bellevue(Greene13).TheMacdonaldFundsgoalwastobettereducatetheruralpopulationof
Canadaandtheschoolgardenswereafundamentaltoolinaccomplishingthatgoal(Greene
14).Withinafewyearsthevariousprovinceshadpassedordersincorporatingthesesuccessful
gardensintotheireducationalsystems.ThisactsetCanadaaheadoftheworldinthe
acceptanceofandutilizationofschoolgardensasameansofeducatingchildrenandpreparing
skilledfarmers(Greene17).Ofthesegardensitwassaid:
Thegardenisbecomingtheouterclassroomoftheschool,andits
plotsareitsblackboards.Thegardenisnotaninnovation,oran
excrescence,oranaddendum,oradiversion.Itisahappyfieldof
expression,anorganicpartoftheschoolinwhichtheboysandgirlswork
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amonggrowingthingsandgrowthemselvesinbodyandspiritualoutlook
(Cowley401).
In1891HenryLincolnClapp,whohadjustreturnedfromaEuropeantourofschool
gardens,beganthefirstschoolgardenintheUnitedStates.Mr.ClappwasMasterofthe
GeorgePutnamSchoolofRoxbury,Massachusetts,thefirstofficialU.S.schoolwithagarden.
(Greene7-8).Intheyearsthatfollowed,citiesacrosstheU.S.begantoembracethisconcept
andthepopularityofschoolgardensspreadquickly,thoughthisinitialmotivationwasfor
aestheticratherthaneducationalreasons(Subramanian3).
IntheUnitedStatesthemostsuccessfulearlyschoolgardenwastheBoysGarden,
establishedbytheNationalCashRegisterCompanyofDayton,Ohioin1897.Thecompany
presidentsawaneedandcreatedalargegardeninaroughneighborhoodasanexperimentto
giveopportunitytothelocalboysandinstillagoodworkethic.Thisgardenprojectwasso
successfulthatitwascontinuedonformanyyears(Greene20).
Asanincreasingnumberofschoolsbegantoembracegardens,teachingcollegesbeganto
providetrainingtoteachersinschoolgardening.By1909severalcollegesofferedsummer
coursesforteacherswiththeUniversityofPennsylvaniaofferingacourselinkedtoa
Philadelphiaschoolgarden,whichservedastheclasslaboratory(Greene22).Cornells
AgriculturalCollegealsoofferedrelatedcoursesandpublishedmanybulletinsdirectedat
creatingandsustainingpublicinterestinschoolgardens(Greene23).
SchoolgardeningintheUnitedStates,originallyintroducedforaestheticpurposes,has
beenstrongestduringperiodsofwar-correlatingwiththegeneralhistoricriseofcommunity
gardeninggenerallyduringthosetimes.Weseeitpeakfirstin1918duringWorldWarOneand
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thenagainduringWorldWarTwo,butwaninginthe1950swiththenewemphasisonnewand
moderntechnology.WhenAmericansarepushedintofocusingonfood,suchasduringthe
rationingofwartime,theinstancesofcommunityandschoolgardenspeak(Blair17).
In1995,CaliforniasStateSchoolSuperintendentDelaineEastinmandatedagardenin
everyschoolinanefforttocreateopportunitiesforourchildrentodiscoverfreshfood,make
healthierfoodchoices,andbecomebetternourished(qtd.inUniversityofCalifornian.pag.)
WhileCaliforniahasnotyetreachedEastinsgoal,muchgrantmoneywasawardedtowardthat
endinthestateandinotherstatesaswellfollowinghermandate.Themoneyhasgoneto
createKindergartenthrough12thgradegarden-basedcurriculumsaswellasforthe
establishmentofthegardensthemselvesonschoolgrounds(UniversityofCalifornian.pag.).
UniversityofCaliforniaBotanicalGardenAssociateDirectorSusanMeuxWhitesaid:
Thisisamovementallacrossthecountry...Moreandmoreevidence
showsthatgettingchildrenoutoftheclassroomisapowerfullearningstrategy
thattakesadvantageoftheirenthusiasmandinterest.Outofdoors,alotofnew
observationsandquestionscomeupthatreinforceandaddtothelessons.
(UniversityofCalifornian.pag.)
Childrentodayoftenlackpersonalexperiencewiththeintricaciesofnature.Therecent
successoftheRichardLouvbookLastChildintheWoodsspeakstothedawningrealizationthat
childrennolongerpossessthenaturalunderstandingofpreviousgenerations,whospentlarge
portionsoftheirdayoutdoors.Louvstates:
Withinthespaceofafewdecades,thewaychildrenunderstandand
experiencenaturehaschangedradically.Thepolarityoftherelationshiphas
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reversed.Today,kidsareawareoftheglobalthreatstotheenvironmentbut
theirphysicalcontact,theirintimacywithnature,isfading.Thatsexactlythe
oppositeofhowitwaswhenIwasachild.(Louv1)
Amere17%oftheU.S.populationlivesinnon-metropolitanareas(U.S.Departmentof
Agriculture)wheretheyhavedailyaccesstonature.TheNationalInstitutesofHealthstates
thatamongchildrenagesixtonineteen,17%areoverweight(StatisticsRelatedtoOverweight).
A2002studyconductedbytheCentersforDiseaseControlandPreventionstates:
61.5%ofchildrenaged9-13yearsdonotparticipateinanyorganized
physicalactivityduringtheirnonschoolhoursandthat22.6%donotengagein
anyfree-timephysicalactivity.Improvinglevelsofphysicalactivityamongthis
populationwillrequireinnovativesolutionsthatmotivatechildrenandthat
a