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Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School

2007

Real-Time Construction Project ProgressTracking: A Hybrid Model for WirelessTechnologies Selection, Assessment, andImplementationAmine Ghanem

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

REAL-TIME CONSTRUCTION PROJECT PROGRESS TRACKING: A HYBRID MODEL FOR WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES SELECTION, ASSESSMENT, AND

IMPLEMENTATION

By

AMINE GHANEM

A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2007

ii

The members of the Committee approve the Dissertation of Amine Ghanem defended on June 8, 2007.

________________________ Yassir A. AbdelRazig

Professor Directing Dissertation ________________________

Jeffrey R. Brown Outside Committee Member

________________________ John O. Sobanjo

Committee Member

________________________

Wei-Chou V. Ping Committee Member

Approved: ___________________________________________________________ C. J. Chen, Dean, College of Engineering, Florida State University The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

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To My parents,

Abdallah and Aicha And my sisters

Lina, Dima, and Nadine Who made all of this possible

For their endless encouragement and support

And also to My fiancé

Nermine Majzoub For her love and patience

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I thank Allah for His continuous bounties and guidance

in my life.

This dissertation concludes a learning journey at Florida State University. I

am grateful to many individuals who contributed to my learning experience at

Florida State University.

I would like to express my sincerest thanks to many key people: At the top

of the list, my advisor, Dr. Yassir AbdelRazig for his valuable guidance,

inspiration, and advice. Sincere appreciation is also extended to my committee

members: Dr. Jeffrey R. Brown, Dr. John O. Sobanjo, and Dr. Wei-Chou V. Ping,

who gave their time and input to my research. I would like also to thank Dr.

Garold Oberlender for his unconditional support and valuable advice and

feedback.

The assistance offered by Sperry & Associates and Haskell Company to

collect valuable data should be gratefully acknowledged here.

This research would not have been possible without the people who took

part of the survey I performed, and to whom I have promised anonymity. I am

also very thankful to my colleagues Dr. Mohamad El-Gafy, Mr. Rassem Awwad,

and Mr. Hassan Ghanem whose help in some of the conceptual thinking was

invaluable.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ....................................................................................Page ix List of Figures .....................................................................................Page xi Abstract ..........................................................................................Page xiii Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................Page 1 1.1 Background .......................................................................Page 1 1.2 Problem Statement............................................................Page 4 1.3 Research Objectives .........................................................Page 6 1.4 Research Methodology......................................................Page 7 1.4.1 Problem Identification...................................................Page 7 1.4.2 Model Formulation .......................................................Page 8 1.4.3 Model Implementation..................................................Page 8 1.5 Dissertation Organization ..................................................Page 10 Chapter 2 Prior Research Efforts............................................................Page 12 2.1 Project Tracking ................................................................Page 12 2.1.1 Technology in Material Tracking........................................Page 15 2.1.2 Technology in Equipment and Labor Tracking ..................Page 17 2.2 Computer & Wireless Integrated Construction ..................Page 18 2.3 Bar Code ...........................................................................Page 20 2.3.1 Bar Codes Applications in Construction ............................Page 21 2.4 RFID ..................................................................................Page 22 2.4.1 Tags or Transponder.........................................................Page 22 2.4.2 Antenna .............................................................................Page 23 2.4.3 Reader...............................................................................Page 24 2.4.4 RFID Applications in Construction.....................................Page 25 2.5 Construction Site Information ...........................................Page 26 2.5.1 Construction Site Information Needs.................................Page 27 2.5.2 Construction Site Information Users..................................Page 28 2.6 Survey of Wireless Technologies in Construction .............Page 29 2.6.1 Wireless Technologies in Construction..............................Page 29 2.6.2 Barriers to Wireless Applications in Construction ..............Page 30 Chapter 3 Background .......................................................................Page 32 3.1 Wireless Technologies ......................................................Page 32 3.1.1 Mobile Hardware ...............................................................Page 32 3.1.1.1 Personal Digital Assistants...........................................Page 33 3.1.1.2 Handheld Computers ...................................................Page 33

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3.1.1.3 Pen Tablet/Touch PC...................................................Page 33 3.1.1.4 Rugged Notebooks ......................................................Page 34 3.1.1.5 Wearable Computers/Digital Hardhats.........................Page 34 3.1.1.6 Digital Pen....................................................................Page 34 3.1.2 Networks............................................................................Page 35 3.1.2.1 Wireless Wide Area Networks......................................Page 36 3.1.2.2 Wireless Local Area Networks .....................................Page 36 3.1.2.3 Satellites Networks.......................................................Page 38 3.1.3 Mobile Applications ............................................................Page 39 3.1.3.1 CAD Applications .........................................................Page 39 3.1.3.2 Data Capture Applications...........................................Page 39 3.1.3.3 Project Management Application..................................Page 40 3.2 Technology Assessment Methods.....................................Page 40 3.2.1 Assumptions and Fundamentals of Utility Theory .............Page 41 3.2.2 Types of Utility Functions .................................................Page 43 3.2.3 Hierarchical Structure of MAUT.........................................Page 45 3.2.3.1 Defining Evaluation Objectives ....................................Page 45 3.2.3.2 Defining Alternative Attributes......................................Page 45 3.2.3.3 Attribute Characteristics ...............................................Page 46 3.2.3.4 Assigning Attribute Weights .........................................Page 46 3.2.4 Analytical Hierarchy Process.............................................Page 48 3.2.4.1 Setting Priorities ..........................................................Page 49 3.2.4.2 Pairwise Comparison Scale.........................................Page 49 3.2.4.3 Eigenvector Prioritization Method ................................Page 50 3.3 Computer Construction Simulation....................................Page 53 3.3.1 General Modeling and Simulation Systems.......................Page 53 3.3.1.1 GPSS...........................................................................Page 54 3.3.1.2 HOCUS ........................................................................Page 54 3.3.1.3 ITHINK.........................................................................Page 55 3.3.1.4 SLAMII.........................................................................Page 55 3.3.2 Construction Simulation Using Networks...........................Page 55 3.3.2.1 Cyclone........................................................................Page 55 3.3.2.2 RESQUE.....................................................................Page 56 3.3.2.3 COOPS........................................................................Page 57 3.3.2.4 CIPROS ......................................................................Page 57 3.3.2.5 STROBOSCOPE ........................................................Page 57 Chapter 4 Real time project progress tracking model ........................Page 59 4.1 Framework for real time project progress tracking.............Page 59 4.2 Hardware and Software Selection .....................................Page 61 4.2.1 Hardware Selection......................................................Page 61 4.2.1.1 Computer Alternatives .................................................Page 61 4.2.1.2 Wireless Infrastructure Alternatives.............................Page 64 4.2.1.3 Smart Chips Alternatives .............................................Page 65 4.2.2 Software Selection .......................................................Page 66

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4.3 Implementation Steps........................................................Page 66 4.3.1 Work Progress Measurement ......................................Page 69 4.4 Construction of Data Management System ......................Page 69 4.4.1 Data Dictionary..................................................................Page 70 4.4.2 Project Database...............................................................Page 73 4.4.2.1 Database Queries ........................................................Page 74 Chapter 5 Technology Selection and Assessment..................................Page 77 5.1 Assessment Model ............................................................Page 77 5.1.1 Defining the Problem.........................................................Page 77 5.1.2 Explanation of Model Attributes.........................................Page 79 5.1.3 Defining Attribute Measuring Scales..................................Page 82 5.2 Utility Function Survey.......................................................Page 83 5.2.1 Measuring Weights............................................................Page 84 5.2.2 Consistency Checks..........................................................Page 86 5.3 Procedure for Constructing Single AUF.............................Page 89 5.3.1 Multiple Attribute Utility Function Development .................Page 91 5.4 Sensitivity Analysis ............................................................Page 96 5.4.1 Effect of Changing Cost.....................................................Page 96 5.4.2 Effect of Changing Risk Weight.........................................Page 98 Chapter 6 Steel Construction Process Case Studies..............................Page 100 6.1 Case Study........................................................................Page 100 6.1.1 Case Study 1: Turbocor Project ........................................Page 100 6.1.2 Case Study 2: Jefferson County High School Project........Page 102 6.2 Steel Construction Process Overview ...............................Page 104 6.2.1 Preplanning and Fabrication..............................................Page 104 6.2.2 Shipment and Unloading ...................................................Page 105 6.2.3 Steel Erection ....................................................................Page 106 6.3 Model Existing Steel Construction Processes ...................Page 106 6.4 Productivity Measurement .................................................Page 108 6.4.1 PEB Simulation Model.......................................................Page 109 6.4.2 Process Inefficiency...........................................................Page 112 6.5 Steel Construction Process Updated.................................Page 114 6.5.1 Development of a Data Flow Diagram...............................Page 114 6.5.2 Proposed Process .............................................................Page 116 6.5.3 Simulation Model...............................................................Page 118 6.6 Simulation Outputs ............................................................Page 120 6.7 Proposed Model Benefits ..................................................Page 122 6.7.1 Function A: Site Inspection Savings ..................................Page 129 6.7.2 Function B: Problem Solving Savings................................Page 130 6.7.2.1 Cost Benefit Analysis ...................................................Page 132 6.7.2.2 Sensitivity and Break-Even Analysis ............................Page 133 6.7.3 Function C: Wireless Data Access Savings.......................Page 134

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6.7.3.1 Cost Benefit Analysis ...................................................Page 136 6.7.4 Function D: E-Document Management .............................Page 137 Chapter 7 Conclusions and Recommendations......................................Page 139 7.1 Summary of the Research.................................................Page 139 7.2 Research Contribution.......................................................Page 140 7.3 Limitations .........................................................................Page 142 7.4 Recommendations for Future Work...................................Page 142 APPENDICES .....................................................................................Page 144 A Smart Chips...............................................................................Page 144 B Survey .....................................................................................Page 152 C Case Study Documents.............................................................Page 160 D Simulation Input/Output Files ....................................................Page 176 REFERENCES .....................................................................................Page 190 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ....................................................................Page 198

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LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Tracking Methods ..................................................................Page 13 Table 3.1: Pairwise Comparison Scale Presented by Saaty ...................Page 50 Table 3.2: Approximated Random Indices RI .........................................Page 52 Table 4.1: Rugged Mobile Device Comparison.......................................Page 63 Table 4.2: Database Dictionary...............................................................Page 71 Table 5.1: Attribute Measures.................................................................Page 82 Table 5.2: Assessment of UL...................................................................Page 90 Table 5.3: Assessment of UH ..................................................................Page 90 Table 5.4: Single Attribute Utility Functions ............................................Page 93 Table 5.5: Technology Alternatives.........................................................Page 94 Table 5.6: Alternatives Measures............................................................Page 94 Table 5.7: Utility of Alternatives Case Study 1 ........................................Page 95 Table 5.8: Utility of Alternatives Case Study 2 ........................................Page 95 Table 5.9: Utility Variations Based on Costs Changes............................Page 97 Table 5.10: Utility Variations Based on Risk Weight Changes................Page 98 Table 6.1: Productivity Ratings ...............................................................Page 109 Table 6.2: Simulated Productivity Results...............................................Page 121 Table 6.3: LCC Input Data ......................................................................Page 123 Table 6.4: LCC Calculation .....................................................................Page 124 Table 6.5: LCC Summary Case Study 1 .................................................Page 127 Table 6.6: LCC Summary Case Study 2 .................................................Page 128

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Table 6.7: Benefits Calculation of Function A Case Study 1...................Page 129 Table 6.8: Benefits Calculation of Function A Case Study 2...................Page 130 Table 6.9: Benefits Calculation of Function B Case Study 1...................Page 131 Table 6.10: Benefits Calculation of Function B Case Study 2.................Page 132 Table 6.11: Cost Benefit Analysis of Function B Case Study 1...............Page 132 Table 6.12: Cost Benefit Analysis of Function B Case Study 2...............Page 132 Table 6.13: Benefits Calculation of Function C .......................................Page 134 Table 6.14: Rework & Process Elimination Savings Case Study 1.........Page 135 Table 6.15: Rework & Process Elimination Savings Case Study 2.........Page 135 Table 6.16: Summary of Benefits of Function C Case Study 1 ...............Page 135 Table 6.17: Summary of Benefits of Function C Case Study 2 ...............Page 135 Table 6.18: Cost Benefit Analysis of Function C Case Study 1 ..............Page 136 Table 6.19: Cost Benefit Analysis of Function C Case Study 2 ..............Page 136 Table 6.20: Benefits Calculation of Function D .......................................Page 137 Table 6.21: Summary of Benefits Case Study 1 .....................................Page 137 Table 6.22: Summary of Benefits Case Study 2 .....................................Page 138

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Construction Labor Productivity ............................................Page 2 Figure 1.2: Research Methodologies .....................................................Page 9 Figure 2.1: Basic Barcode Structure .......................................................Page 20 Figure 2.2: Antenna Sealed with RFID Tag ............................................Page 23 Figure 2.3: Handheld Stationary Readers...............................................Page 24 Figure 2.4: Digital Hardware Used in the Construction ...........................Page 29

Figure 2.5: Cutting Edge Tools Used in the Construction ......................Page 30

Figure 2.6: Barriers to Wireless Applications in Construction .................Page 31 Figure 3.1: Types of Mobile PC’s............................................................Page 35 Figure 3.2: Types of Utility Curves ..........................................................Page 44 Figure 3.3: Sample Comparison Matrix...................................................Page 49 Figure 3.4: Normalized Matrix.................................................................Page 50 Figure 3.5: Eigenvector Matrix ................................................................Page 51 Figure 3.6: Transition Matrix ...................................................................Page 51 Figure 4.1: Model Framework .................................................................Page 60 Figure 4.2: Data Exchange and Reporting..............................................Page 67 Figure 4.3: General System Configuration..............................................Page 68 Figure 4.4: Database Management System............................................Page 70 Figure 4.5: Project Database Tables and their Relationships .................Page 74 Figure 4.6: User Interface .......................................................................Page 75 Figure 4.7: Project Updates ....................................................................Page 75

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Figure 4.8: Erection Drawings.................................................................Page 76 Figure 5.1: Analytic Hierarchy Process ...................................................Page 78 Figure 5.2: Hierarchy of Influence as Applied in the Study .....................Page 81 Figure 5.3: Job Title Survey Respondents ..............................................Page 84 Figure 5.4: Pairwise Comparisons ..........................................................Page 85 Figure 5.5: Consistency Checks .............................................................Page 89 Figure 5.6: Cost Analysis ........................................................................Page 97 Figure 5.7: Risk Weight Analysis ............................................................Page 98 Figure 6.1: Different Construction Phases ..............................................Page 102 Figure 6.2: Aerial View of JCHS Site ......................................................Page 103 Figure 6.3: MSC Panel Fabrication.........................................................Page 103 Figure 6.4: Tilt-Up Panel Wall Erection ...................................................Page 104 Figure 6.5: PEB Fabrication....................................................................Page 105 Figure 6.6: Unloading Steel Members.....................................................Page 105 Figure 6.7: Erection.................................................................................Page 106 Figure 6.8: Materials and Information Flow.............................................Page 107 Figure 6.9: Shipping Simulation Model ...................................................Page 111 Figure 6.10: Erection Simulation Model ..................................................Page 112 Figure 6.11: To Be Materials and Information Flow ................................Page 115 Figure 6.12: Copying Information to the RFID Tags................................Page 117 Figure 6.13: Proposed Shipping Simulation Model .................................Page 119 Figure 6.14: Proposed Erection Simulation Model..................................Page 120 Figure 6.15: Cost-Benefit Chart for Two Variables..................................Page 133

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ABSTRACT

A construction project is considered as a process that involves many

activities and a large amount of information of various types that are related to

each other. Successful project management requires controlling all aspects of a

construction project: quality and quantity of work, costs, and schedules to

guarantee the success of the project. So the construction project control aims to

effectively obtain real-time information of activities taking place on the site.

Meanwhile, paper-based documents of project management used are becoming

ineffective and can’t get quick responses to the office and project control center.

Integrating promising information technologies such as radio frequency

identification (RFID), mobile computing devices, and wireless technology can be

extremely useful for improving the effectiveness and convenience of information

flow in construction projects. The probable benefits are potentially enormous, but

the barriers associated with technology adoption within the construction industry,

currently outweigh this potential.

This research develops a control system for construction projects. The main

objectives of this research include (1) developing a framework for real time

construction project tracking; (2) applying such a system that integrates RFID

technology with mobile computing and wireless technology to increase the

efficiency of jobsite communication and data collection; (3) designing a database

system for construction activities and updates, providing real-time information

and wireless communication between offices and sites, subcontractors and

suppliers; (4) developing a hybrid model for wireless technologies selection,

assessment and implementation; (5) applying the model on pre-engineered steel

construction projects and performing life cycle cost and cost benefit analysis.

This model will greatly increase productivity and efficiency, will reduce labor

hours and time required for tracking.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Construction is one of the largest industries in the United States, and its

second largest employer after government agencies. According to an

employment report from the U.S. Bureau Labor Statistics, construction

employment in the U.S. in the second quarter of 2005 account for roughly 7.2

million, or 5.4 percent of non-farm payroll employment (U.S. Census Bureau

2004). Moreover, the value of construction invested, a measure of the amount

spent on design, engineering, and construction, totaled $ 1 trillion in May 2004,

according to the Census Bureau. This amount is equivalent to roughly eight

percent of the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP). However the construction

industry has suffered from low performance due to low productivity, high accident

rates, late completion, and poor quality (Kashiwagi et al., 2004). In 2003, the U.S.

Bureau of Labor Statistics showed that labor productivity in construction has

been lagging behind other U.S. industries (see Figure 1) for the past 40 years.

A study performed by Nuntasunti (2003) summarized five factors

preventing the construction industry from improving performance: 1)

Fragmentation of the construction industry; 2) project specific nature of

construction; 3) temporary nature of relationships; 4) competitive bidding system;

and 5) stand alone islands of communication.

A construction project essentially involves a large amount of information of

various types. This is due to the fact that different parties perform independent

tasks on a project to produce a single final product. Since the design of a project

must somehow be communicated to many parties on the construction site, it is

important that clear information, coherent and efficient communication exist to

ensure successful work by all participants in the project. The specifications must

2

be translated into information that all parties can use in fulfilling their tasks.

Hence, the need for drawings, contracts, specifications, building codes, and other

forms of information emerges. At the same time, the performance of the project

must also be communicated back to management so that it can be controlled

effectively.

Figure 1.1: Construction Labor Productivity Index versus All Non-farm U.S. Industries

As projects become more complex, the amount and detail of the

information required increases. This increase in turn makes the process of

storing, retrieving, and analyzing the control information more complicated and

subject to mistakes. A large amount of information is created by independent

organizations and individuals involved in the project.

One commonly cited means of overcoming labor shortages and improving

productivity, cost effectiveness, and competitiveness is through the use of

advanced technologies such as information technology (Johnson and Tatum

3

1993). Information technology (IT) was developed as a means of meeting

complex information demands and of automating the tasks associated with them.

Advances in IT promised great leaps in productivity in the late 20th century,

however few industries have truly profited from IT’s promises. In the same

manner, automation technologies such as robotics offered similar benefits to the

construction industry with few tangible benefits yet realized (Skibniewsky and

Hendrickson 1990, Farid 1993).

The construction industry lags behind other industries in adopting

innovative new technologies. The need to accelerate the rate of technological

adoption in the construction industry has been well documented in the literature

(Mitropoulos and Tatum, 2000). This adoption comes from continuously seeking,

recognizing, and implementing new technologies that improve construction

processes (Laborde and Sanvido 1994). Each technology has its own technical,

economic, and risk considerations that make the selection process a difficult one.

The selection decision involves many tradeoffs among technology attributes.

Unlike the structured environment and highly repetitive processes in

manufacturing, construction poses many barriers to the implementation of

advanced technologies. Characteristic fragmentation, diversity, and fierce

competition of the construction industry combine to make research and

development (R&D) difficult (Tucker 1988). In a fiercely competitive environment

with thin profit margins, individual firms, especially the smaller ones, simply can’t

afford to conduct R&D or pay added regulatory costs of introducing new

technologies. In 1997, the industry spent only 0.6 percent of total revenues on

R&D, whereas most other industries committed 4 to 6 percent. An unfocused and

uncoordinated effort among the various R&D sectors makes this chronic under-

funding worse. The National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST), the

Department of Transportation, and the Department of Energy sponsor conduct,

or cost-share with industry and academia research activities. The National

Science Foundation (NSF) funds more than 70 percent of academia’s

construction R&D efforts. The Army Corps of Engineer’s Engineering Research

and Development Center and the Naval Facilities Engineer Command’s

4

Engineering Service Center conduct lion’s share of government R&D. The

construction industry has barely just begun to examine ways of integrating its

management processes with information technology into a unified system. Non-

profit organizations such as the Construction Industry Institute (CII) and the

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) are spearheading these

efforts through their FIATECH (Fully Integrated and Automated Technology) and

CONSIAT (Construction Integrated and Automation Technology) programs,

respectively, and are starting to address the barriers that stand in the way along

with research in Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) in construction at other

institutions (O’Connor and Dodd 2000).

1.2 Problem Statement

During the construction phase of a project it is essential that efficient and

timely flow of information prevail throughout the process. The construction

industry is dynamic by nature and requires that all parties be kept informed of

activities that can ultimately affect the cost, schedule or performance of the work.

The paper-based documentation of site processes is ineffective anymore as it is

unable to deliver just in time information. At the same time paper documentation

can’t get the quick response from the office to the construction site and vice

versa. As a result, a gap in time and space between the job site and office

causes the lack and confusion of data and information. The effectiveness of

information and data acquisition influences the flow of information between the

office and the construction site. Field supervisory personnel on construction site

spend between 30-50% of their time recording and analyzing field data

(McCullouch 1997) and 2% of the work on construction sites is devoted to

manual tracking and recording of progress data (Cheok et al. 2000). Accuracy of

the collected data depends on judgments and writing skills of the people

collecting data (Liu 1995). In addition, since most data items are not captured

digitally, data transfer from a site to a field office requires additional time. When

the required data is not captured accurately or completely, extra communication

5

is needed between the site office and field personnel (Thorpe and Mead 2001).

These extra efforts are time consuming and waste of money. These inefficiencies

are embedded and distributed among many different activities and project

participants, and hence, the project team is generally not aware of the

implications and aggregate time and money waste associated with them.

Wireless technologies can be used to improve the accuracy and timeliness of the

data collected from sites and to improve communication flow. Previous research

on such technologies mainly discussed the technological feasibility of using a

particular technology to support various construction project tasks (Akinci et al.

2005, Jaselskis et al. 1995). But still there is a need for a comprehensive

framework to assess the effectiveness of using such technologies that

encompasses all different merits together: performance, reliability, risk, and cost.

The following section summarizes several problem areas in the

construction that this thesis will address:

(1) Independent islands of communication on the construction site:

Lacks of effective communication among various parties involved in

construction projects make information exchange inefficient. Moreover,

paper-based handling of change orders and Request for Information

(RFIs) increases difficulties in information exchange in a timely manner.

Even though project participants have been using various project

management tools to improve communication, there are still deficiencies

in updating the schedule and the progress of the construction project in a

real time fashion

(2) Obsolete paper-based and as-built drawings:

Paper prints are currently used to exchange design, shop, erection, and

as built drawings between project participants. Duplication of effort,

inconsistencies, errors, missing information, and extensive time needed to

find relevant information are common in paper-based documents.

(3) Decrease in productivity created by ineffective flow of information:

This problem is created by lack of information about availability of

materials on the construction site. Materials handling and storing is also a

6

problem. Time is commonly wasted trying to figure out where materials

are on the construction site, and whether or not there is enough quantity.

(4) Lack of assessing method for decision makers to select a

technology:

Each technology has its own technical, economic and risk consideration

that make the selection process difficult. Considering one aspect in

choosing and ignoring the others may not lead to the optimal decision.

Currently there are no tool that rationalizes and facilitates this complicated

decision making process.

1.3 Research Objectives

The overall objective of this research is to develop a hybrid model, based

on a combination of Radio Frequency Identification tags (RFID), mobile

computing, and wireless technologies in tracking the progress of construction

project. This research develops a project progress control system for

construction projects. Mainly, the control system is a central database that will

provide real-time and updated information for different parties on a construction

project. In addition, a multi-attribute utility model is developed to help decision

makers select the appropriate IT to the required construction application. Two

pre-engineered steel construction buildings are used as case studies application

of the proposed model

The detailed objectives of this research include:

(1) Investigating integration of RFID technology with Mobile computing and

wireless technology as a communication and data collection tool for

construction jobsite.

(2) Designing a central Database for construction activities and updates,

providing real-time information and facilitating wireless communication

between offices and sites, subcontractors and suppliers.

(3) Developing a framework for real-time construction project tracking.

7

(4) Developing a hybrid model for wireless technologies selection,

assessment and implementation.

(5) Applying the model on a pre-engineered steel construction and performing

a life cycle cost and cost benefit analysis, to illustrate the model

framework.

1.4 Research Methodology

This research is divided into three main phases: problem identification

phase, model formulation phase, and system implementation through real case

studies. Each phase includes several steps to achieve the objectives of that

particular phase. Figure 1.2 illustrates the different phases and steps for the

research methodology.

1.4.1 Problem Identification

This phase include reviewing current practices of project progress tracking

and information flow on the construction site to pinpoint the deficiencies in these

practices. The objective of this step is to establish the need for a more efficient,

up-to-date, and reliable practice for project control and monitoring. Another step

is reviewing the use of smart chips and wireless technologies in construction, and

discussing the different application of each technology. Moreover, another step is

to review a survey conducted by ASCE to identify barriers to wireless application.

The objective of the previous two steps is to find ways of to implement

technologies in construction and how to overcome the barriers to its

implementation.

The objectives of the problem identification phase are to define the scope

of the research and to establish the background necessary to accomplish the

research objectives. The focus of the research is to develop a framework for real

time project tracking, and to develop a hybrid assessment model for wireless

technologies. The system is considered hybrid because it uses two quantification

methods in assessment: subjective and objective.

8

1.4.2 Models Formulation

The first step in this phase is to acquire and set up the hardware and

software required for the different phases of the research. Another step is to

establish the procedure of how resources on the construction site will be tracked,

by identifying the appropriate type of measurement method. This step is

achieved by investigating each activity in the main schedule, and assigning the

appropriate resources whether it is equipment, materials or labors resources.

The following step is to develop a central database where all information

captured on the construction site is sent to this database. This step is achieved

by creating different kind of relationships between the proposed tables using

Microsoft access. In this case SQL is used to establish appropriate queries.

The next step is to choose the right hardware and software for the real-

time tracking model by formulating a multi attribute utility model. The main part of

this stage is to construct a hierarchy of influence that includes the main objective,

criteria of evaluation and alternatives to be assessed. Then it uses eigenvector

prioritization method to develop a hybrid model for wireless selection and

assessment. The objective of this phase is to formulate the basic structure of the

hybrid assessment model for wireless technologies selection.

1.4.3 Model Implementation

The final stage of the research is utilizing case studies from construction

projects, in the State of Florida, to illustrate and apply the framework of real-time

project progress tracking. This step is achieved by formulating an information

flow model of steel construction, and then performing simulation of different cycle

of the project to quantify the benefits of the proposed model.

The next step would be to synthesize all the previous steps to finalize and

refine the framework. More examples, if needed, would be used to validate the

reliability of the framework and necessary adjustments will be made. Finally, the

write-up of the completed dissertation will be provided.

9

Figure 1.2: Research Methodology

10

1.5 Dissertation Organization

This thesis is organized into seven chapters. Chapter 1 gives an overview

of project progress tracking problems in the construction industry and

emphasizes on the importance of data exchange and communication among

project parties. This chapter also sheds some light on the lack of information to

assess usage of wireless technologies in construction. Research problem

statement and objectives are also presented. Chapter 2 describes available

technologies necessary for conducting this research. At the same time a

summary of previous research that has been done in this field is presented. Then

the results of a survey conducted by the ASCE Construction Institute Wireless

Committee to identify barriers to wireless technologies application in construction

are discussed. Chapter 3 lays down the background to conduct this research. It

starts with identifying different wireless technologies: hardware and software.

Then different methods to assess technologies are presented. Finally, the

chapter is completed with a description of computer simulation in construction.

Chapter 4 presents the developed construction project progress-tracking model

based on wireless technologies. This model provides updates in real-time

allowing the user to track the progress of percentage completed on the

construction site and to access project information from a central database.

Chapter 5 describes a quantitative process to select and assess the appropriate

IT to be used in the proposed real-time system using multi-attribute utility theory.

Chapter 6 presents two case studies for pre-engineered steel buildings where the

proposed model is applied. A detailed study of pre-fabricated steel process will

be discussed to show how the model functions. Then a simulation model of the

pre-engineered steel process is presented in order to illustrate the benefits of

applying the model. Conducting a value assessment analysis to quantify the

benefits concludes this chapter. Chapter 7 concludes the thesis with a summary,

conclusions, and recommendations for future study. Research contributions and

limitations are also outlined in this chapter. The appendices contain detailed

information of some of the issues discussed in the thesis. Appendix A contains

11

information about smart chips. Appendix B contains information of the survey

conducted in this research. Appendix C contains information about the data

gathered from both case studies. Appendix D contains information about the

simulation input and output files.

12

CHAPTER 2

PRIOR RESEARCH EFFORTS

This chapter lays necessary foundation for the research and includes

review of prior research efforts. The literature review of prior research efforts

includes reviewing the application of information technologies and the use of

barcode and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) in the construction industry

and discusses the different application of each technology. In addition to the use

of smart chips, this chapter describes wireless technologies and its application on

the construction site. Then an ASCE survey presented by the CI wireless

committee is presented to identify barriers to wireless application. Finally the

needs for information and for users on the construction site are identified.

2.1 Project Tracking

A simple project can be planned as a list of tasks with their start and finish

dates written on a piece of paper. A complex plan on the other hand, might deal

with thousands of tasks, resources, and a project budget of billions of dollars. As

the project becomes more and more complex, so does the requirement for a

project management system. It is a good practice to monitor a project’s

performance continuously throughout its various phases in order to maintain

certain cost, time, quality, and safety criteria. This will also help ensure that a

project can be completed within budget, on schedule, at the desired quality, and

with an acceptable safety record.

One of the main way of controlling a project’s quality, cost, and schedule

performance is to continuously monitor activities during the construction phase in

order to keep track of work done: materials and equipments used versus installed

13

quantities. These quantities can then be compared against quantities estimated

during the planning phase to gauge the project’s performance.

Construction Industry Institute (CII) uses six different methods to measure

the work progress at the construction jobsite, depending on the type of work to

be done. Table 2.1 summarizes these methods.

Table 2.1: Tracking Methods (adapted from CII 1987a) Method Suitable for Measuring Examples

Units Completed

Activities that involve repeated production of easily measured work packages that consume roughly equal resources

Linear feet of wire or pipe installed, or cubic yards of concrete placed, etc.

Incremental Milestone

Sequential activities with clearly defined milestones

Pipe received/inspected, pipes supported, pipes aligned, pipes welded, pipes tested, pipes completed

Start/Finish Activities that do not have interim milestones or that are hard to quantify in terms of time and cost

Cleaning, testing, aligning, etc.

Supervisor Opinion

Minor activities where detailed analysis is not necessary

Painting, constructing support facilities, etc.

Cost Ratio Long term activities that may span the life of a project and are allocated bulk cost/time

Project management, quality assurance, etc.

Weighted or Equivalent Units

Long term activities that include multiple subtasks with different units of measurement

Structural steel erection (includes bolting, shimming, connecting, aligning, etc.)

In the 1980s, many project management packages were introduced to the

market. Primavera Project Planner and Microsoft Project are two of such

recognized standard commercial software. These programs provide an

automated means for project tracking and scheduling. However, access to these

softwares was limited to trained personnel working on certain machines in a

specific location (Pena-Mora et al. 2002). So once a project has started with an

original schedule, the actual field data is recorded on paper, email, word

14

processor, or a spreadsheet documents before reaching the scheduler on a

weekly or monthly basis.

Repass et al. (1995) developed a new tool called updater to improve

efficiency and effectiveness of construction schedule updating. It employs

emerging palm-held computer technology to automate processes currently bound

to manual paper-based methods due to incompatibilities between computers and

the harsh construction environment.

Chin et al. (2005) presented a real time 4D CAD + RFID for project

progress managements. The model mainly presented building elements in 3D

CAD models according to as-built progress, where the as-built information is

collected in real-time by sensing the progress throughout the supply chain using

RFID. 4D+RFID aimed at supporting processes with a focus on structural and

curtain wall elements, such as steel columns and beams, concrete slabs, and

curtain walls, which are typically on the critical path of project schedules in high-

rise building construction projects. The process is that RFID is applied to sense

the progress status of ordering, delivery, receiving, and erection of building

elements, and then the as-built progress information is presented in 3D CAD

models.

Poku et al. (2006) developed a system called PMS-GIS (Progress

Monitoring System with Geographical Information Systems) to represent

construction progress not only in terms of a CPM schedule but also in terms of a

graphical representation of the construction that is synchronized with the work

schedule. In PMS-GIS, the architectural design is executed using a computer-

aided drafting (CAD) program (AutoCAD), the work schedule is generated using

a project management software primavera (P3), the design and schedule

information (including percent complete information) are plugged into a GIS

package (ArcViewGIS), and for every update, the system produces a CPM-

generated bar chart alongside a 3D rendering of the project marked for progress.

The GIS-based system developed in this study helps to effectively communicate

the schedule/progress information to the parties involved in the project, because

15

they will be able to see in detail the spatial aspects of the project alongside the

schedule.

Memon et al. (2005) presented a system that integrated Auto CAD and

digital photos to track the progress of construction project. The system proposed

is called Digitalizing Construction Monitoring (DCM) Model. It has made a

practical attempt to automate the process of producing as-built construction

schedule by applying modern photogrammetry techniques to photographs and

integrating with CAD drawings. The applications of DCM model in monitoring the

progress enables project management team to better track and control the

productivity and quality of construction projects.

2.1.1 Technology in Material Tracking

Regardless of the type of project, enough resources must be allocated on

quantity tracking to acquire accurate and timely data that can be used effectively

to control a project and to make progress payment.

In any construction project the cost of materials can exceed half the cost

of construction. Many researches have indicated that in a typical industrial facility

50% to 60% of the total cost is for equipment and materials. The proportion in

terms of cost of materials has increased more than labor. Bernold and Treseler

(1991) stated that costs of materials have increased more than labor and they

pointed out that the construction industry spends 0.15% in material management

systems.

Some studies have shown that an effective material management system

can produce 6% improvement in labor productivity and a computerized system

can produce additional 4 -6% in savings (Stukhart 1995) . Researchers have

acknowledged the importance of materials and the impact that these have in the

total project cost, plan and operations.

The project management team must focus on materials management in

the following stages: Planning, Preliminary design, Final design, Procurement,

Vendor control, Construction, and Closeout. It is a mean of acquiring information

16

about installed quantities at the jobsite, which can then be matched with resource

expenditures such as labor hours, equipment use, etc. (Halpin 1985).

Potential application for materials tracking in commercial construction

include concrete placement operations and steel frame components tracking.

These applications provide viable uses because they offer incremental

improvements over existing methods, reduced labor costs, real-time identification

and tracking and they provide the potential for automatic billing upon receipt of

materials at a jobsite.

Jaselskis et al. (1995) proposed a system using RFID technology to

control concreting operations that would ensure proper delivery, billing, and

quality control for concrete. The process starts when the contractor places an

order with the concrete supplier. The requirements for the concrete mix and the

ID numbers for the assigned trucks would be transmitted to a computer in the

batch plant. Next the RFID tag would be programmed to provide concrete mix

admixtures, time of loading, and delivery location. When the truck arrives at the

jobsites, a scanner would read the RFID tag and communicate by RF link to the

jobsite computer. The RFID tag information would be matched with the electronic

data information from the plant. After the concrete placement is completed, the

concrete truck would again pass the scanner and the delivery completion time

would be transmitted to the concrete supplier to make plans for the next truck. In

the same paper, Jaselskis presented a system to manage critical materials on

the construction site. The system consists of assigning an RFID tag for each

material delivery vehicle. Each package of critical material would also have an

RFID tag. Both the vehicle and package tags would be read at the gate and

recorded on the jobsite computer. The jobsite computer would maintain

databases of materials on hand and their storage location, as well as materials

installed. The saved information was used to trigger payments from the

contractor to suppliers and generate requests for progress payments from the

contractor to the owner (Jaselskis et al. 1995)

Yagi et al. (2005) proposed the concept of parts and packets unified

architecture that allows parts or units to signal change in their attributes as they

17

go through the complex production system. The combination of RFID and glue

logic or active database was proposed as a possible control mechanism, which

achieves the required dynamic equilibrium for construction activity without

hindrance or halt of production at worst. When a chip implanted part passes

through a gate, the gate reads the product URL of the part. It determines what it

is, where it is, when it is, as well as in what state it is. The corresponding data

point in the glue logic is then altered, which generates an event and a chain of

succeeding actions.

Tserng et al. (2005) presented a web-based portal system that

incorporates wireless technology and mobile devices to improve the efficiency

and effectiveness of data acquisition on site and information sharing between

participants to assist the managers to control and monitor the delivery progress

in a construction supply chain delivery. The MConSCM system not only improves

the data acquisition on site efficiency by using automated bar code enabled PDA,

but also provides a monitor to control the construction progress.

2.1.2 Technology in Equipment Tracking

The jobsite productivity of a project involving considerable amount of time

and effort is affected by the selection of the appropriate type and size of

construction equipment. It is therefore important for site managers and

construction planners to be familiar with the characteristics of the major types of

equipment most commonly used in construction. Typically, construction

equipment is used to perform essentially repetitive operations and can be broadly

classified according to two basic functions: (1) operators such as cranes,

graders, etc. which stay within the confines of the construction site, and (2)

haulers such as dump trucks, ready mixed concrete truck, etc. which transport

materials to and from the site (Hendrickson 1998).

Real-time tracking of construction equipment, utilizing the GPS technology

and wireless communications to avoid collisions, offers a multitude of benefits

and can be used for optimizing productivity, in addition to safety and security

18

applications. The technology has applications in both automated as well as

traditional construction sites (Oloufa et al. 2003).

Goodrum et al. developed a prototype tool tracking system to track tools in

a mobile environment and to inventory hand tools that may be located in either

mobile gang boxes or truck boxes. Active RFID technology has significant

potential to improve tool inventory and allocation on a construction jobsite. The

RFID tags have the capability to provide adequate read range and durability

needed for a tool tracking and inventory system research used active RFID tags

in the prototype tool tracking system (Goodrum et al. 2005).

2.2 Computer and Wireless Integrated Construction

Advances in information technology have gradually changed how

construction data are managed in the field. These advances, such as mobile

computers, wireless communications, video conferencing, collaboration systems,

3D laser scanning, digital close range photogrammetry, and sensors have

provided new ways for collecting and managing project information.

Considerable amount of research is being done to remove the

dependency of a person on the desktop computer as the only means of

collaboration and accessing the network, as most projects tend to have a

substantial work force working on site or out of the office where it is not always

possible to have a desktop computer (Pena-Mora et al. 2002).

Some research at Carnegie Mellon University has explored the use of

handheld computing devices in the field for bridge inspection (Garrett et al.

1998). The equipment is non-encumbering and allows the engineer to perform

inspection in a natural manner.

Work at the University of Kent at Canterbury concentrated on examining

the special needs and environment of the field worker, reflecting on the handheld

computing instrument features required for a successful PDA for use in the field.

The research effort also involves development of novel software tools for the

19

mobile field workers but exploit existing handheld computing and sensor

technology (Pascoe 1998).

Liu et al. (1997) proposed the Digital Hard Hat (DHH) technology, which

enables dispersed users to capture and communicate multimedia field data to

collaboratively solve problems, and collect and share information. The DHH is a

pen based personal computer running Windows XP. It is used to collect

multimedia information. Special software called Multimedia Facility Reporting

System allows the field representative to save multimedia information into a

project specific database, which is then accessible to others through the World

Wide Web. The pen-based computer can also be used to communicate between

the construction site and other locations using a direct network connection, a

wireless network connection or any means of cellular communications.

Brilakis (2006) presented a case study on long-range, wireless

communications suitable for data exchange between construction sites and

engineering headquarters. He defined the requirements for a reliable wireless

communications model where common types of electronic construction data will

be exchanged in a fast and efficient manner, and construction site personnel will

be able to interact and share knowledge, information and electronic resources

with the office staff.

Singhvi et al. (2003) developed a context-aware information system

designed to deliver up to-date project information from the main office to the

construction site. The objective was to help the user manage the complexity of

the construction data by proactively tracking current resource requirements and

proactively obtaining access to context-relevant information and services. To

achieve this, the system used off-the-shelf handheld computing devices and an

on-site wireless network for local communication. This allowed continuous

access to data and resources as users moved around the job site. This work

highlighted the benefits of context-aware computing for on-site information

delivery at a construction site and the need for better communication methods.

Tsai et al. (2006) developed a synchronous system integrated with

wireless and speech technologies for on-site data collection. The system was

20

applied in a material management case study, in which construction workers

communicated directly with application devices to achieve synchronous

operations and simplify manual data entry. After the system tests, analytical

results relating to efficiency improvement indicate that the proposed synchronous

system increased productivity, time efficiency and comparative work efficiency

due to the decreased lead processes and operation time.

2.3 Barcode

The use of technology to improve the availability of tools and materials is

not a novel concept. Barcode have a long history of tracking materials not only in

construction but also in other industries. Barcode system components basically

consist of a reader, barcode labels, and printers. Many barcode symbologies are

used in a variety of applications. Each symbology represents the rules for

character encodation, error checking, printing and decoding requirements, and

many other features.

The basic structure of a barcode consists of a leading and trailing quiet zone, a

start pattern, one or more data characters, optionally one or two check

characters and a stop pattern (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 Basic Barcode Structure

Source: (http://www.taltech.com/resources/intro_to_bc/bcbascs.htm)

The most popular ones are the Universal Product Code (UPC), the

European Article Numbering (EAN), Code 39, Interleaved 2 of 5 Code, and Code

128….etc. Code 39 is being used in construction and most construction related

applications (Blakey1990). In general, barcodes can be classified into three main

categories: linear, stacked, and matrix barcodes. Compared to linear barcode,

21

stacked and matrix barcodes have more data capacity and resist damage. More

information is presented in appendix A.

2.3.1 Barcodes Applications in Construction

As explained previously, barcode is an automatic identification solution

that streamlines identification and data acquisition. In the construction industry

barcode has been the point of attraction of a lot of research and it was

documented in some literatures. The application of barcode has been used in

many areas in the construction industry as follows: (1) to identify and find

materials and build components on a construction jobsite (Bell and McCulloch,

1988; Bernold, 1990; Anderson, 1993; Skibniewski and Wooldrige, 1992); (2) to

reduce loss and misidentification of material and equipment. With the utilization

of barcode system, it is possible to track construction assets such as tools and

equipment, identify them electronically, and track their movements. The

warehouse clerk can know where the asset was, and where it is now and, who

has it (Lundberg and Beliveau, 1989); (3) to manage construction equipment on

the jobsite (Wirt et al., 1999); (4) to track workers on the construction site. Some

construction companies are currently using time cards supplied with barcode

labels to access employee information such as the name, work area, and cost

accounting code. Work accomplished is credited to the employee account by

scanning the label on the time card (Bell and McCulloch, 1988); (5) to identify

documentation, drawings, material, equipment, and project activities. A barcode

label can be applied to construction blueprints and important construction

documents. The barcode labels can include data or instructions that enhance the

safety, the quality, and performance of construction activities (Stuckhart and

Cook, 1990; Rasdorf and Herbert, 1989); (6) to integrate barcode and GIS for

monitoring construction progress. Through systematic monitoring of the

construction process and representation of the erection progress, the scheduled

components for erection are repetitively tracked (Cheng and Chen, 2002).

Although an affordable technology, barcodes’ usage in construction

suffers some problems like short range and durability. Barcodes require a line of

22

sight and become unreadable if they are scratched or dirty. Radio Frequency

Identification technology seems to solve all these problems encountered by the

use of barcode.

2.4 RFID

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is identified as a part of automatic

identification technologies in which radio frequencies are used to capture and

transmit data. Information is communicated electronically via radio waves and

does not require contact or line-of-sight to transmit stored data; therefore, using

RFID technology for the collection and transfer of information provides one with

an inexpensive and non-labor intensive means of identifying and tracking

products. The RFID tag can contain all pertinent information about the item.

Unlike bar codes, RFID has the ability to offer the possibility of reading, writing,

transmitting, and storing and updating information, identify and track products

and equipment in real-time without contact or line-of-sight and the tags can

withstand harsh, rugged environments. An RFID system is composed of tags,

which carry the data in suitable transponders, and an RFID reader, which

retrieves the data from the tags (CII, 2002).

2.4.1 Tags or Transponder

The word transponder is derived from the two words: TRANSmitter and

resPONDER. The transponder or tag contains an antenna and integrated circuit

ship that is encapsulated to protect against the environment (see figure 2.2).

Tags are programmed with the data that identifies the item to which the tag is

attached. The tag can be either read only, read once/write many, or volatile

read/write. Read only tags are low capacity tags, usually hold approximately 8 to

128 bits of memory and used for identification purposes. In read/write tags, the

user can alter the information on the tag as many times.

23

Figure 2.2 Antenna sealed with RFID tag

There are two classifications of RFID tags: passive and active. The means

in which they receive power for transmission determines their classification.

Passive tags depend on a power source provided by the RFID reader’s energy

field and may have read-write or read-only capabilities, whereas, the active tags

have an internal power source and are rewritable. Passive tags generally have

shorter read ranges but have a life that usually outlasts the object that it is

identifying. Active tags have longer reading ranges, high memory, and better

noise protection. However, these tags are larger and heavier, more expensive,

and have a shorter life (3 – 10 years) than passive tags. Read-only tags are used

for simple identification purposes because they can only store a limited amount

of information that cannot be altered. Such tags may be used to identify a

package of nails or screws because they have many applications and are not

designated to a particular item or activity.

2.4.2 Antenna

The function of the antenna attached to a reader is to transmit an

electromagnetic field that activates a passive tag when it is within reading range.

Once a passive tag is activated it can transmit information from its antenna to

that of the reader where it is processed. During rewriting applications the antenna

of the reader acts as a relay device in the reverse direction, the reader

communicates a message through its antenna, which transfers and stores the

24

new data to the activated transducer via its antenna. The RFID tag’s antenna is

practically maintenance free and can be configured in a variety of shapes and

sizes ranging in size from a grain of rice to the size of a brick (Zebra

Technologies, 2002).

2.4.3 Reader

Reader monitors incoming signals from the transponders to ensure valid

tag data and error free operation. Depending on the applications, readers may be

integrated into handheld computers or they may be stationary and positioned at

strategic points, such as a facility entrance or on an assembly line (Zebra RFID

Passive Tag Reader) (see Figure 2.3). The handheld readers offer portability,

however, the stationary devices offer a larger reading range. As stated above,

readers have an antenna for sending and receiving signals and a processor for

decoding them. The reader receives instructions and information from the

antenna through the scanner, which is a part of the reader that examines analog

output from the antenna. The scanner’s information is then converted into a

digital format by the reader, which the computer or processor can then use for

data analysis, recording, and reporting (CII, 2001). There are readers today that

can simultaneously read 100 to 2000 tags per second.

Figure 2.3 Handheld Stationary Readers

25

2.4.4 RFID Applications in Construction

Radio Frequency Identification technologies provide a wireless means of

communication between objects and readers. RFID has a place in construction

because it provides the industry a potential to improve construction productivity,

quality, safety, and economy, cutting labor and material costs and enhancing

project schedules. There have been quite few publications on RFID research and

applications in construction.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) has emerged as a technology that

can be effectively applied for real time measurement of project information in the

construction industry, such as for labor management, safety management,

equipment management, and progress management of various works including

concrete, pipe spools, earthwork, structural steel works, and curtain walls.

Furthermore, it is expected that RFID will improve the limits on progress

management (Jaselski 2003, Yagi 2005, and Song 2005).

The most prominent application of RFID in construction has been its ability

to improve the efficiency of the materials and equipment management process.

In a case study conducted by Bechtel in their $338 million Red Hills Project, time

spent locating and tracking pipe support and hangers was reduced by 30% (CII,

2002).

Rohm & Hass conducted an RFID pilot study that received, identified, and

tracked Honeywell smart instrument installation. Benefits outlined from this case

study can be summarized in inventory shrinkage, decrease of rework costs,

improvement in data integrity (CII, 2001).

Ngai et al. (2005) presented a case study on the development of an RFID

prototype system that is integrated with mobile commerce in a container depot.

They concluded that the system keeps track of the locations of stackers and

containers, provides greater visibility of the operations data, and improves the

control processes.

El-Misalami (2003) proposed a system using RFID to track the activities of

workers and equipment at the construction site. The resulting records were used

to update the cost control system. Each worker would have a read write RFID tag

26

to record his activities. The tag would be approximately the size of a credit card

and could be used as a worker identification badge. The use of equipment would

be tracked by associating the equipment with the operator and the operator’s

activity. The system was adapted for both tool-room checkout and large

equipment management.

RFID can also provide security to construction jobsites. Workers,

operators, and equipment tagged with RFID can record and make certain proper

usage and handling of equipment, materials, and documents. These systems

would also ensure that only qualified equipment operators have the ability to

operate restricted equipment, reducing the likelihood of misuse and accidents

(Durfee 2002).

Song et al. (2006) presented a case study of fabricated pipe spools in

industrial projects. Field tests of current RFID technology were conducted to

determine technical feasibility for automatically identifying and tracking individual

pipe spools in lay down are yards and under shipping portals Potential benefits

found from the use of RFID technology in automated pipe spool tracking may

include (1) reduced time in identifying and locating pipe spools upon receipt and

prior to shipping, (2) more accurate and timely information on shipping, receiving,

and inventory, (3) reduced misplaced pipes and search time, and increased

reliability of pipe fitting schedule.

2.5 Construction Site Information

A construction project is considered as a process that involves many

activities and a large amount of information that are related to each other. During

the construction phase of a project it is essential that good and timely flow of

information prevail throughout the process. A construction project essentially

involves a large amount of information of various types. This is due to the fact

that different parties perform independent tasks on a project to produce a single

final product. Since the design of a project must somehow be communicated to a

lot of parties on the construction site, it is important that clear information,

27

coherent and efficient communication exist to ensure successful work by all

participants in the project. The specifications must be translated into information

that all parties can use in fulfilling their tasks. Hence, the need for drawings,

contracts, specifications, building codes, and other forms of information emerges.

At the same time, the performance of the project must also be communicated

back to management so that it can be controlled effectively. In order to explore

and develop new effective methods of information management on the

construction site, the starting point should be identification of on site construction

information.

2.5.1 Construction Site Information Needs

Information needs in construction have increased as projects have

become more complex and owner demands have become more challenging.

During jobsite project execution, there are three variables which can either hold

back or facilitate successful results, mainly quality, quantity, and timing of

information. The information needs on a construction project have been

extensively documented in the construction IT literature and have been

organized into thirteen major categories from a generic construction project

perspective (Stuckhart and Nomani 1992, de la Garza and Howitt 1998). These

thirteen categories include employee time, attendance, and work tracking;

schedule and resource control; materials management; tool tracking; document

control; drawing control; quality control; equipment management; request for

information (RFI); cost management; jobsite record keeping; submittals; and

safety monitoring. Each category was further divided into more detailed

subcategories. For example, the group of request for information contains the

following seven subcategories: design intent and clarification, subcontractor

information, contract specifications, contract drawings, work package information,

means and methods, and implementation problems. Refer to Appendix A to see

a detailed table of jobsite information needs as presented by De la Garza and

Howitt.

28

Another study performed by Chen and Kamara showed that on site

construction information is grouped into twelve categories including drawings,

material information, equipment information, contract, progress, safety

information, sub-contractor information, design clarification, construction

methods, specification, labor information, and quality information (Chen and

Kamara 2006).

Scott and Assadi summarized sites records into three main categories

which consist of information related to finance, quality, and progress. Especially

the progress records typically kept by contractors and supervisors aim to identify

the project life cycle information consisting of weekly progress reports, day work

sheets, photographs, as-built schedule, and minutes of progress meetings (Scott

and Assadi 1999).

Bowden et al. indicated that the main type of information that the people

onsite deal with is paper based, which constitutes a disadvantage for site

information communication and exchange (Bowden et al. 2004). Lack or

inefficiency of information exchange can result in people on construction site

overlooking important issues that require immediate response and often causes

on site delays and loses in schedule and cost (Singhvi and Terk 2003).

2.5.2 Construction Site Information Users

In addition to information needs on a construction project there are people

who may be considered users as well as sources of information. The following is

a list of eighteen users and suppliers of information presented by Shahid and

Froese: upper management; construction manager; chief engineer; procurement

manager; project manager; project engineer; planning/scheduling engineer; cost

engineer; estimator/quantity surveyor; accountant; purchasing agent; field office

engineer; field engineer; superintendents; foremen; craft worker; laborer

helper/apprentice.

The most effective way for construction people to exchange information on

construction sites is to retrieve or capture information at the point where they

occurred and at the time when they need it. However, this situation is still ideal

29

and can’t be applied with traditional information management methods, relying

mostly on paper-based documents. The next section presents a framework of a

real time model to track the progress of the construction project.

2.6 Survey of Wireless Technologies in Construction

ENR published in 2004 that mobile communication, which is the most

prevailing form of wireless technology, is one of the 10 technology that changed

construction (Sawyer 2004). Wireless technology holds further potential to bring

significant changes to the process operations at the construction sites. However,

it was expected barriers exist to the implementation of the new wireless and

mobile technologies in the construction industry. A survey was conducted by the

ASCE-CI wireless construction committee to identify the current use of wireless

technologies in the construction industry and identify industry’s opinions on

barriers and opportunities (Williams et al. 2006).

2.6.1 Wireless Technologies in Construction

Laptops and Desktop are the top digital tools used in construction. With an

edge slightly less than 90% they overcome phone and still camera (figure 2.4).

Also it was noticed there is a rise in using sensors and tablet PC on the

construction site. PDA percentage is slightly less than 60% and is being used

more than video camera. Usage rate was calculated by adding the scores for one

question and dividing it by the maximum possible score for the same.

Figure 2.4 Digital Hardware Used in the Construction

30

Using another set of questions regarding the use of cutting edge computer

tools and means, CAD percentage was the most used with a percentage of more

than 60%. Video conference, web portal, and e-Learning come in second place

with 42%. RFID and GIS are still underused and have low percentage of less

than 20%. What is surprising is the percentage of barcode which is relatively low

especially that it has been introduced to the construction industry for a while.

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Figure 2.5 Cutting Edge Tools Used in the Construction

2.6.2 Barriers to Wireless Applications in Construction

It appears the respondents did not reach a consensus about the major

barrier to the uses of new technology. Lack of collaboration, high cost, and

insufficient tech support and training are among the primary reasons given for a

reluctance to implement information technologies (Figure 2.6). A main concern

for owners, general managers or any person in charge on job site is the amount

of money to spend in order to get benefit from the technology in question.

Wireless communication is an expensive technology. There are a lot of expenses

to be taken into consideration, and a detailed study should be completed to make

sure that the importance and savings resulting from the usage of this technology

worth the expenses. Some of the costs of investing in wireless technology that

need to be considered are: the purchase of the equipment and software, the

maintenance and upgrading of the hardware, the upgrading and licensing of

31

software, the fee of wireless services providers, the salaries of in-house technical

support personnel, the training of the users (De la Garza & Howitt, 1998).

The typical construction project brings together several disciplines and a

large number of subcontractors that have little incentive for sharing risks. Each

subcontractor is held responsible for their individual work which promotes a low

tolerance for risk within the industry. This prevents technology adoption.

Training and tech support need is another major concern of the

respondents. This lack of expertise may be a sign that use of wireless technology

in construction is still at its early stage. Data security and risk of data loss also

are barriers to its application. Till now, all communication systems are

susceptible to being violated and there is possibility that the information

transmitted being received by undesired users. So the information sent has to be

classified according to importance and how sensible it is so that precautions

would be taken.

Another factor that we can’t overlook is the lack of metrics to assess value

and quantify benefits of applying these technologies.

Figure 2.6 Barriers to Wireless Applications in Construction

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CHAPTER 3

BACKGROUND

This chapter lays necessary background for the research and includes

necessary information to conduct the research. First a detailed description of

wireless technologies is given, accompanied with identification of different parts

pertaining to this technology. Then a review of the concept of decision-making

and utility theory is presented. That includes an outline about the basics and

assumptions of the utility theory, followed by a description of different techniques

used in multi criteria decision-making. Furthermore, a definition of computer

simulation and its uses in construction is discussed to lay the necessary

background for the coming chapters.

3.1 Wireless Technologies

Wireless services represent a progression of technology, and a new era of

telecommunications, but these services have been used for over a century and

remain synonymous with radio. There are several evolving technologies that

have the ability to improve the efficiency of the construction process. In this

research we are limiting evolving technologies to mobile computing. The concept

of mobile computing has been considered to consist of three major components:

computer, networks and mobile applications (Rebolj and Menzel 2004).

Computers, which can be used indoors, and outdoors by users include table

PCs, all kinds of pocket computers, palmtops and wearable computers.

3.1.1 Mobile Hardware

Primary mobile computing hardware that’s available today for the

construction site application are made up of the following groupings: 1) personal

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digital assistants, 2) handheld computers, 3) pen tablet/touch PC, 4) rugged

notebook PC, 5) wearable computers/digital hardhats, and 6) digital pens

(COMIT 2005).

3.1.1.1 Personal Digital Assistants

A PD