Flammability of Flame Retarded Natural Fibre Composites ... · Toyota has also developed an eco-plastic material for the lining of its car interiors made from sugarcane fibres [24]

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)

Vol-3, Issue-8, 2017

ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 587

Flammability of Flame Retarded Natural Fibre Composites

and Application in Automobile Interior: A Review

T. O Suoware

1, I.C Ezema

2, S.O. Edelugo

3

1. Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Federal Polytechnic, Ekowe

Ph.D. Scholar, Mechanical Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

2. Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering, University of Nigeria Nsukka

3. Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Nigeria Nsukka

Abstract: Natural fibre composites are taking their

share in the world of composites. The environmental

benign and lightweight advantages of these

composites have attracted more researchers in the

academia. Natural fibres comprises of organic

constituents; cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin that

are highly sensitive to flames, as a result their

applications have been restricted, especially to

spaces where fire is a momentous hazard. The

addition of flame retardants during the processing of

natural fibre composites can improve their

flammability properties among which the heat

release rate, HRR is considered the most important

property in quantifying a material’s sensitivity to

flames. In this review, current status of the common

natural fibres in various reinforced polymer

composites have been reviewed as well as their

application in the design of automobile interior

components. Studies have shown that there is limited

amount of published scientific work on this subject.

Keywords: Natural fibre composites, flame

retardants, flammability properties.

1.0 Introduction

For some decades now, the use of natural fibre

reinforced polymer composites (NFRPC) as an

alternative to synthetic fibres have taken its share in

the world of composites. This is probably because of

their inherent advantages they possess which includes

but not limited to their low cost, abundant

availability, non-toxic, environmentally benign and

biodegradability advantages. The rising concerns on

environmental protection issues has recently

encouraged the use of renewable resources and the

transportation industry; air craft’s, boats and

automobiles [1] has taken the gain to design interior

parts especially where lightweight is a necessity.

Door panels, dashboard parts, truck floor panel, seat

cushions, centre console and cabin linings are some

examples of interior parts currently being

manufactured from NFRPC [2]. Research and

development has shown quite a number of natural

fibres that have been successful as reinforcements for

the design of interior parts in the transportation

industry owing to their strength to weight ratio. They

include jute, sisal, hemp, flax, cotton, ramie, and

kenaf [3].

Natural fibres comprises of organic constituents;

cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin that are highly

sensitive to flames. They burn vigorously and often

accompanied with the production of very toxic and

acrid smoke, and rapid destructive flame spread when

they are reinforced in polymers making them a severe

threat to lives and property. Their relatively high

flammability when exposed to a certain degree of

heat, especially in areas where restricted spaces make

fire a momentous hazard has limited their wide

applications. It is important to note that high cellulose

in natural fibres provides chances of higher

flammability whereas higher values of lignin show

there is a greater chance of char formation [4]. Char

formation during the burning of a composites creates

a barrier for the mass transfer of heat. In other to

improve their flammability, flame retardants (FRs)

are usually incorporated to help prevent fires or its

propagation by interrupting or hindering the

combustion process and thus causing a delay in the

spread of fires or in some instances cessations

depending on the type and content of the added flame

retardants.

The high susceptibility of fibres and polymers to

flames has limited their applications especially in

areas where fire threat is imminent. Recent studies

have shown that flame retardant additives blended in

polymeric composites can reduce the fire reaction

properties of composite materials. The success

recorded in delaying the start of a fire or retard the

spread of flame in composite materials falls either as

halogenated hydrocarbons, inorganic compounds or

phosphorous compounds containing nitrogen [5, 6, 7,

http://www.onlinejournal.in/






8, and 9]. Quite a number of flame retardant additives

have been studied, all aimed at improving fire

reaction properties (flammability) of materials. In

actual fact, there over 150 compounds which flame

retardant compounds can be derived.

Notwithstanding, there is dearth of information on

the flammability of flame retarded NFRPC. Thus,

making products from these composites yet to seen in

great magnitude. In this survey, studies by various

researchers in reducing the flammability of NFRPC is

reviewed to give the extent of research accomplished

and also provide the requisite knowledge about their

application in automobile interior.

2.0 Natural Fibres

Natural fibres abound in nature in numerous forms

and vary from region around the world. They are

derived from several sources within nature and the

agricultural community. Fibres as described in the

terminology by Schnegelsberg [10], is an entity that

is elementary and linear, has a characteristic

longitudinal and cross-sectional shape and consists of

a primary chemical substance. These materials are

basically “cellular” in form and structure with a

degree of inherent cell walls. The main and prime

constituent of all cell walls are sugar based polymers

(cellulose, hemicellulose) mainly on dry basis [11].

The cell structure and chemical composition of

natural fibres are quite complicated. Natural fibres

are primarily based on their origins, either coming

from plants, animals, or minerals fibres. All plant

fibres are composed of cellulose, while animal fibres

consist of proteins (hair, silk, and wool) [12]. Plants

composed of cellulose are widely used in polymer

composites due to their wide availability and

renewability in short time with respect to others.

Plant based fibres contain cellulose and non-cellulose

materials such as hemicelluloses, pectin and lignin;

thus, they are also known as lignocellulosic or

cellulosic fibres. Lignocellulosic fibres are the most

abundant and renewable bio-based materials source

in nature [13]. Among natural fibres the bast fibres,

extracted from the stems of plants have been

accepted as the best candidates for reinforcements of

polymer composites due to their good mechanical

properties [14].

Table 1: Physicochemical Properties of Some Selected Natural Fibres, Sources: [15, 16, 17, 18]

Properties Origin Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Bulk Density (Kg/m3) World Production*

3.0 Application of Natural Fibre Composites

Composites are a unified material arrangement that

combine two or more physical and chemical distinct

interfaces [19]. The combine phases are made up of

stiff, long or short fibres and the other, a binder or

'matrix' which holds the fibres in place has its

strength derived from these combinations. Fibres or

particles embedded in polymer matrix of another

material are the best example of modern-day

composite materials. The concept of natural fibre

composites (NFCs) dates back to early 1940s when

Henry Ford introduced soybean fibre reinforced

phenolic resin into the body panel of the car [20]. In

the late 1950s, VEB Sachenring Zwickau in the

former German Democratic Republic extended the

concept of NFCs to doors and the hood of the car

Trabant. In the design of the Trabant, composites

made from waste cotton, from the former Soviet

Union, reinforcing phenolic resin were used. The car

body of the Trabant was the first made entirely from

recycled materials and it had an average lifespan of

28years [21]. It was not until late in the 1980s that

this concept began to experience acceptable

exponential increase and gained much attention from

researchers because of the need to develop more

environmentally friendly material. Currently, the

largest areas exploring the advantages in composites

are the construction and transportation industries. Car

Coir fibre

Oil palm fibre

Banana fibre

Bamboo fibre

Sisal fibre

Bagasse fibre

Jute fibre

Flax fibre

Hemp fibre

Wood fibre

Fruit

Fruit

Stem

Stem

Leaf

Stem

Stem

Stem

Stem

Stem

32-34

65

50-60

26-43

65

81

58-63

64.1

64

40-45

0.15-0.25

22.1

25-30

30

12

9.45

21-24

16.7

14

22

40-45

29

12-18

21-31

9.9

25.3

12-14

2.0

5

20-30

1200

1200

1300

1500

1370

1250

1300

1500

1480

650

100,000

Abundant

200,000

10,000

380,000

750,000

3,113.385

864,748

68,911.3

Abundant

*(tons)







manufacturers have been interested in incorporating

natural fibre composites aimed at achieving two

goals; to lower the overall weight of the vehicle thus

increasing fuel efficiency and to increase the

sustainability of their manufacturing process. These

composites have become attractive to these industries

because of their low density and ecological

advantages over conventional materials. They have

also gained importance due to their non-carcinogenic

and biodegradable nature.

Natural fibre composites are potential candidates for

the replacement of high cost glass fibre and its related

products for less weight and energy conservation

applications [22]. Hemp fibre reinforced epoxy, flax

fibre reinforced polypropylene, and china reed fibre-

polypropylene are a few composites among others

that have been examined and explored for use as both

interior and exterior parts of an automobile. Success

recorded in applying composites reinforced with

variety of natural fibres to replace components made

from glass mat has been reported [23]. The first

commercial use of these fibres is in the inner door

panel of the 1999 S-Class Mercedes-Benz, made in

Germany with a 35% polyurethane resin (PUR) and

65% blend of flax, hemp and sisal fibres. Epoxy

matrix with the addition of jute has also been used in

the 1999 E-Class vehicles internal door panels.

Another appearance of the NFRPC in 2000 is the

door panels of Audi made from polyurethane

reinforced a mixed flax/sisal fibres. Toyota has also

developed an eco-plastic material for the lining of its

car interiors made from sugarcane fibres [24]. Other

automotive components that have benefited from

these composites includes automotive instrument

panel (made from biodegradable bark cloth

reinforced green epoxy composites) [25], seat back

panel (made of wood fibre dispersed in acrylic resin),

door panels (flax/hemp fibre bundles dispersed in

epoxy, wood powder dispersed in polypropylene),

mirror casing, bonnet insulation, headliners, trunk

trim, underbody panels and roof made from coir fibre

reinforced polyester composites as well as various

damping and insulation parts [26].

4.0 Flame Retardant Compounds

Natural fibers and polymers are organic materials and

are very sensitive to alter any features if flame is

introduced to them. Thus, to expand their application

in the industries and make them safe in today’s

society, flame retardants are greatly significant in

order to fulfill safety measures while developing

natural fiber composites. Currently, the most

effective and advantageous method to enhance

thermal decomposition and reduce fire hazard of

polymer composites is the incorporation of flame

retardants that act by interfering with the flammable

gases, changing the solid state of decomposition

mechanism of the polymer and producing a barrier

layer to the heat feedback [29]. The schematic of a

combustion cycle and strategy of retardation showing

different regime protocol; condensed phase regime,

intermediate phase regime and gas phase regime can

be found elsewhere [29]. Many polymer composite

substrates pyrolyzed i.e. gas off when given to heat

resulting in the generation of combustible fuel

(flammable gases) and non-combustible fuel, char and smoke. There are several flame retardant

compounds that can be formulated to retard a flame.

They are classified as reported by Atkinson et al [30]

into two main categories, namely halogen-based

flame retardants (HBFRs) and halogen-free flame

retardants (HFFRs).

4.1 Halogen Based Flame Retardant

Figure 1: Photograph showing (a) Headliner made of PLA/Kenaf Fibre composite [27] (b) Door panel made of

hemp fibre /Epoxy resin [28] (c) Application of natural fibre composites in automobile interior (i) Dashboard (ii)

Door trim panel (iii) Door panel (iv) Parcel shelf (v) Centre console (vi) Seat carrier

(a) (b)

(c)

(iv)

(ii) (iii)

(vi)







Halogenated-based flame retardants (HBFRs) which

have the advantage over HFFRs flame retardants are

polymerized with a resin during processing of

composites to become permanently bonded to the

polymer composite substrate. This can be achieved

through a method known as graft copolymerization

[31]. HBFRs are generally used in inhibiting flame

during a combustion process preferably in the gas

regime of the process. Their mode of action produces

inert gases during decomposition, such as water

vapour which results in dilution of the fuel in the

solid and reduction in the concentration of

decomposition gases in gaseous phase. During

exothermic process, HBFR presence stops flaming by

interfering with the process by reacting with highly

reactive volatiles such as (H., OH

.). Their mode of

action is responsible for branching of radical chain

reactions in the flame. This way less reactive or even

inert molecules are formed and the reactive radical

concentration in the flame falls below a critical value

so the flame extinguishes.

There are theoretically four classes of chemical

compounds that can be used as HBFRs: those

containing fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. The very low thermal stability coupled with the difficult

in processing fluorine and iodine compounds with

commercial polymers makes brominated and

chlorinated halogen flame retardant a better choice

and most diversified class of retardants for flame

inhibition [32]. Bromine and chlorine incorporated

into a polymer chain by copolymerization [33, 34]

forms a flame retardant additive that controls the

flame temperature of a fire. Their effectiveness

depends on the release of halogen in the form of

radical or halogen halide at the same temperature

range or below the decomposition temperature of the

polymer. The major concern with halogenated based

compounds is the release of smoke containing

corrosive, acidic and toxic gases that are serious

health and environmental hazards [32, 35].

4.2 Halogenated Free Flame Retardant

On the other hand, halogenated free flame retardant

(HFFR) are referred as being environmentally benign

and are intimately blended into the polymer during

processing, but do not chemically react with the

polymer. The blending technique is usually with a

high mechanical stirring device such as the brabender

mixer. The substances are used at levels below about

20% of the polymer resin for purpose of efficiency.

They are a very important class of retardants used in

cooling the temperature of materials preferable in the

condense phase of the combustion process.

Influencing the energy balance of a combustion

process has been proposed [36, 37]. The mode of

action of HFFRs incorporated in composite materials

acts as a heat sink by releasing water vapour. They

decompose in a highly endothermic process evolving

non-combustible volatiles, which perform a

blanketing action in the flame. The formed blanket

coating removes the formed heat and cools the

substrate to a temperature below that required to

sustain burning. In addition, water is released into the

flame where it hinders combustion by diluting the

concentration of flammable gases evolved from the

polymer matrix and restricting the access of oxygen

to the gases in the composite surface. Their relative

low cost, easy to handle, non-toxicity and good

anticorrosion properties makes them very attractive

over other class of flame retardants. Besides, their

drawbacks such as poor thermal stability, low

efficiency for loading up to 50% from the mass of the

material and a decrease in the strength properties in

sustaining their applications has raised serious

concern. However, studies by Babrauskas et al [38],

Harris et al [39], Nrschler [40] have shown that

HFFR provides formulations that meet appropriate

standard test for many applications.

4.3 Conventional Flame Retardant Additives

There are between (150-200) compounds which

flame retardant species or additives can be derived

[41, 42, 43, 44]. The derivation of conventional

additives (fillers) such as those obtained from metal

hydroxides containing flame retardants, phosphorus

containing flame retardants, silicon based flame

retardants, and nitrogen based flame retardants, and

those based on brominated compounds has recorded

success in improving the flame retardancy of

composites materials. Only the common conventional

additives are further discussed below because they

are regarded as the widely used due to being the

simplest, fastest and cheapest way of improving

flame retardancy of polymer composites.

4.3.1 Aluminium Trihydroxide

Aluminium trihydroxide Al2(OH)3 (ATH) also

sometimes referred as alumina trihydroxide or

hydrated alumina, is a nontoxic, white to off-white

powder and the most widely used inorganic

hydroxide flame retardant compound in polymers and

polymer composites [43, 44 45]. It is the most

commonly used aluminium-based flame retardant

additive in polymers [46]. The main feature of this

compound is that under the effect of heat, they

decompose resulting in an endothermic reaction. The







decomposition begins around 2000C and continues to

around 3400C, with a main peak around 320

0C [47,

48]. The aluminium forms a protective layer on the

polymer surface. This oxide layer has also been

proven by Rakatomalala et al., [49] to lower the

amount of pyrolysis products formed and prevent

toxic gas release. It was determined that the water

vapour that is formed dilutes flammable gases as well

as cooling down and restricting oxygen access to the

substrate. This reaction also takes about 1KJ/g of heat

from the system [48]. One attractive benefit that has

made ATH popular is because it is considered a

‘greener’ flame retardant additive effect on the

environment during processing and burning. ATH

also operates in the condensed regime as a heat sink

that extends the time taken for the polymer matrix to

reach decomposition reaction temperature [21, 50,51,

52].

4.3.2 Magnesium hydroxide

Magnesium hydroxide Mg (OH)2 (MDH) is another

hydroxide frequently used as a flame retardant

compound in polymer composites. The main feature

of this compound is that it attains thermal stability at

3000C, forming water vapour along magnesium oxide

[53] and therefore can be used in most types of high

temperature thermoplastics without decomposing

during processing. The water vapour helps dilute the

concentration of radicals as well as flammable gases

and the magnesium oxide forms on the polymer as

char. They function as those of ATH [54], but with a

distinctive difference in the sense of retardancy and

prevention of smoke creation [55]. During

decomposition, heat is absorbed from the polymer

leading to a slower burning time and a cooler

substrate. A combination of magnesium dihydroxide

and ATH can be as a synergistic system to increase

the protection time or temperature limits [55]. The

question of enhancing the efficiency of metal

hydroxide as a flame retardant has been discussed in

many publications [55, 56, 57, 58].

4.3.3 Ammonium Polyphosphate

Ammonium polyphosphate (APP) is a fine grained

non-toxic white powder with average particle size of

8µm or 15µm depending on grade. It is an organic

salt of polyphosphoric acid and ammonia, a water-

insoluble, non-melting solid with high phosphorus

content. The chemical structure can be found

elsewhere [59]. Under heating action APP is

decomposed to give polyphosphoric acid and

ammonia that in turn create foams. The carbon foam

layer protects the host polymer structure through its

heat-insulting effect and prevents oxidation thereby

improving the function of charring. It has been

reported that APP is an efficient suppressant for the

spread of a fire in natural fibre polymer composites,

reduces smoke production and provides resistance to

flame spread [9, 60]. An example of ammonium

polyphosphate that is very effective in polymers is

the red phosphorus (P-red). P-red is the most

concentrated and highly efficient source of

phosphorus for flame retardancy. P-red functions as a

scavenger of oxygen containing radicals, which act as

chain carriers in the secondary pyrolysis step leading

to the generation of gaseous fuel species. Most

researchers agree [61, 62] that in oxygen-or nitrogen-

containing polymers, red phosphorus reacts with the

polymer and induces char formation. Despite the

apparent chemical simplicity of this additive, its

mechanism of action is not completely understood.

However, it has been generally acceptable by

researchers [63] that oxygen and/or nitrogen

containing polymers turns P-red, mainly through

thermal oxidation, into phosphoric acid or phosphoric

anhydride, which upon heating gives polyphosphoric

acid. This acid can catalyze the dehydration reaction

of polymer end chains and trigger char formation. P-

red is generally used for meeting highly demanding

flammability requirement, reducing the formation of

toxic smoke and providing good electrical properties.

4.4 Intumescent Flame Retardant

Intumescence is an interesting phenomenon. The

French verb tumere means “to swell”. The Latin

equivalent tumescere can be translated as “to swell

up”. Therefore, tumid or tumescent means swollen or

bulging, and the process of getting to a swollen state

is intumescence. In flame retardant terms, exposure

to heat initiates a series of chemical and physical

processes, leading to tumescent condition. This state

is characterized by fire-resistant insulating foam. The

foam serves to isolate heat and oxygen from the fuel

source, thus extinguishing the fire [64]. The concept

of intumescent relies upon the formation of an

expanded carbonized layer on the surface of the

polymer during thermal degradation. They form

carbonaceous layer on substrates by removing the

side chains and thus generating the double bonds in

the polymer, which are precursors of char.

Alternatively, intumescent systems [65, 66] when

used as flame retardant can cause the formation of an

expanded carbonaceous layer at the surface of

substrates by chemical transformation of degrading

polymer chains. Char functions as a trap for gaseous

products of polymer decomposition or a barrier to

inhibit further degradation, starves the flame or fuel







and protects the composite substrate from heat and

air. This usually reduces the formation of smoke and

other products of incomplete combustion.

The formulation of an intumescent system requires an

acid donor (acids, ammonium and phosphate) or

other acid that promotes the dehydration of the

carbonizing agent, a carbohydrate (Polyols such as

pentaerythritol, starch, or polymers) that is

dehydrated by the acid to form a char and a blowing

agent (melamine and urea), which decomposes and

releases gas, leading to expansion of the polymer and

the formation of a swollen multi-cellular layer. A

typical IFR system is a combination of ammonium

polyphosphate/pentaerythritol/melamine

(APP/PER/MEL) mixture [67]. As APP acts, both as

the acid source and blowing agent during

combustion, MEL may be optional. The optimal

weight ratio of APP/PER has been investigated by

several researchers; the best flame retardant

performance was observed when the APP to PER

ratio was 2:1 in the system [68]. However, there are

drawbacks that need to be overcome that are

associated with the IFR systems with polymers;

moisture resistance, poor compatibility, thermal

stability and poor flame retardant efficiency at low

IFR concentrations consequently leading to

considerable decrease in mechanical properties.

5.0 Flammability of Natural Fibre

Composites

Flammability is one of very important parameters

that often limit the application of composites to a

given area. Babrauskas and Peacock [69] define

flammability as the reaction to fire of a material,

breaking this down into four factors: ignitability, heat

release, flame spread and combustible products.

Bourbigot and Duquesne [70] also define

flammability with similar factors: ignitability,

burning rate (which includes heat release and mass

loss parameters) flame spread and combustion

products. Hence, it is more useful to define

flammability in terms of characteristics that may be

directly measured or inferred from laboratory test and

then used to assign relative rankings to different

materials.

5.1 The Importance of Heat Release Rate

The heat release rate (HRR) of a composite material

is the driving force of a fire and is defined as the

thermal energy produced; per unit area of surface,

when flammable decomposition products ignite and

burn in the vicinity of the material in fire or subjected

to heat flux [69, 71]. Heat released by a burning

material can provide additional thermal energy

required for the growth and propagation of fire. The

HRR is the most single important parameter in

characterizing the flammability of products and their

consequent fire hazard. All other variables (Table 1)

used as a parameter in quantifying materials

behaviour in fire are correlated to HRR. The

generation of other undesirable fire products tends to

increase with increasing HRR. Smoke, toxic gases,

room temperature and other fire hazard variables

generally progress to increase with HRR, as HRR

intensifies [47]. Furthermore, a high HRR indicates a

high threat to life and property. The HRR is

characterized by peak HRR which occurs over a very

short period of time and often shortly after ignition,

and is usually a good indication of the maximum

flammability of a material while the average HRR is

the total heat released averaged over the combustion

period, and is considered the most reliable measure of

the heat contribution to a sustained fire. Therefore,

the average HRR must be taken into consideration in

predicting the flashover time inside a compartment as

reported by Ramanaiah et al [72].

5.2 Test Methods in Characterizing

Flammability Properties

Several methods exist in characterizing the fire

properties of composite materials and are well

established elsewhere [73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78]. In

actual fact, the 1998 edition of the compilation of fire

test by American Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM) alone listed some 77 tests [47]. UL 94 is an

ignitibility test that provides a qualitative ranking of

materials, LOI is used to determine the minimum

concentration of oxygen that can support downward

burning of a vertically mounted test specimen, and

the cone calorimeter provides a broad range of

ignition and combustion properties, and the most

versatile in determining a large number of fire

properties in a single test using a small specimen.

The cone calorimeter is classified as a bench scale

means of obtaining flammability properties whereas

others such as the single burning item (SBI) test and

the room corner test (RCT) are classified as

intermediate and large-scale respectively. Details of

the test protocol of SBI test and RCT can be found

elsewhere [47].

The Cone Calorimeter

The cone calorimeter is the most significant dynamic

bench scale instrument in the field of fire testing. The

instrument was first announced in 1982 with input







predominantly by Dr. Vytenis Babrauskas and

colleagues at the National Institute for Standards and

Testing (NIST) in the USA. They were seeking to

improve on the methods of determining the

flammability and heat release of combustible

materials. Heat release rate is the key measurement

required to assess the fire severity and development

for materials and products. The instrument requires

exposing a flat specimen of an area of 100 x 100 and

a maximum of 50 mm thickness to an incident heat

flux generated by a cone shaped heating element. The

heater consists of an electric heater rod that is tightly

wound into the shape of a truncated cone. Heating is

precisely controlled using a thermostatically

controlled radiant heater that is capable of subjecting

a specimen to any incident heat flux up to 100

KW/m2. The

specimen is

continuously

weighed in order

to determine

mass loss as a parameter. The major capability of the

instrument is that the heat release response of a

burning material can be measured continuously to a

high degree of accuracy, and values for peak, average

heat release rate (KW/m2) and total heat release

(MJ/kg) can be determined. The success of the cone

calorimeter is that the burning environment is

considered a good representation of the majority of

actual fire conditions, particularly for fire in a well-

ventilated room [79, 80, 81].

Fig. 3: Schematic view of the cone calorimeter Apparatus use in characterizing flammability properties [47]

Parameters Units

Heat Release Rate (HRR)

Average Heat Release Rate:

Total Heat Released (THR):

Effective Heat of Combustion (EHC):

Specific Extinction Area (SEA):

Exhaust Flow Rate:

Mass Loss Rate (MLR):

Final Sample Mass:

Time to Sustained Ignition:

CO/CO2 production (optional):

KW/m2

KW/m2

MJ/m2

MJ/Kg

m2/Kg

m3/Kg

g/s

g

s

g/s

Table.1: Parameters for Testing Flammability Properties of Composites in the

Cone Calorimeter [47]







5.3 Flammability Studies on Natural Fibre

Composites in the Cone Calorimeter

Interestingly, research on flammability began many

decades ago when the Romans invented fire retardant

treatment of wood used in the construction of ships

and structures, as it became imperative to limit the

ignitability of the wood. However, it was not until in

1887, the first quantitative study on ignition

temperature on wood was recorded by Hill [83].

Since then, the focus on natural fibre flammability

research has been on wood and other textiles used in

the industries. Currently, researchers are exploring

and examining the possibility of improving natural

fibre reinforced polymer composites by incorporating

flame retardants and thus, reducing the ease at which

these composites burn for purpose of expanding their

applicability. Current research by Rajini et al [84] on

coconut sheath reinforced polyester bio-composite

when 5 wt% of montmorillonite nonaclay was added

to the composite as a flame retardant filler was

investigated. They reported that the added filler act as

a heat barrier, and the condensed char formation

strongly influenced the flammability characteristics

(a decrease in the heat release rate and mass loss rate)

as shown by cone calorimeter results. The group also

reported that HRR is the single-most key parameter

for fire performance assessment [69, 85]. The

flammability characteristics of the natural reinforced

composites involve a number of factors which

include the orientation of fibers, chemical

composition of plant fiber, degree of polymerization,

thermal conductivity and the interfacial adhesion

between the fiber and the matrix during processing

[86]. Branda et al [87] studied the effect of

inexpensive water glass solution and ammonium

phosphate (APP) in hemp fabric reinforced epoxy

composites. The treatment which is resistant to

washing was effective for improving the fire

behaviour of the composites. Cone calorimeter

analysis shows the treatment remarkable decrease the

HRR, total heat release (THR), total smoke release

(TSR) and specific extinction area (SEA) by 83%,

35%, 45% and 44% respectively as compared to

untreated hemp/epoxy composite. At the same the

formation of a very stable char is promoted.

Nikolaeva et al [88] studied the effect of ammonium

phosphate in combination with graphite flame

retardant in coextruded wood-polypropylene

composite using the cone calorimeter. The fire

properties measured; the HRR, THR, MLR, SPR,

SEA, and CO show a decrease due to the introduction

of fire retardants in the shell layer of the composites.

The favourable effect on the fire resistance properties

of the composites is mainly as a result of the creation

of a protective char layer, which act as a barrier for

the oxidation of the composite. The group reported

that the sharp increase of the initial peak HRR shown

elsewhere [88] is attributed to combustion of volatiles

released from the composites surface. In addition, the

decrease of the HRR due to the addition of fire

retardants can be explained with endothermic

decomposition of fire retardants under heat action,

which in turn promotes the escape of energy from the

system. Loredo and Bermejo [89] studied the

composition of flax reinforced bio-polyester and

some novel flame retardants. Cone calorimeter tests

indicate that proper combinations of fire retardant

additives such as alumina trihydrate, ammonium

polyphosphate and Exolite 740 reduced heat release

rate and flammability up to a 60%; delaying the

ignition time with respect to the unfilled material.

These results were achieved at concentrations much

lower than those with traditional solutions. A marked

improvement was seen with ATH/APP formulation.

ATH and APP can provide flame retardant properties

by various mechanism in either the condensed or

Table 2: Flammability Properties of some Automobile Interior Components tested in the

Cone calorimeter at 25KW/m2[82]

Component/

Property 𝑻 (s) pHRR

(KWm -2)

THR

(MJ m -2)

𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒔𝒔 (g)

𝑬 𝒄 (MJ/kg)

Door panel

Dashboard Wrap

Headliner

Glove Box

Floor Covering

95

128

12

88

31

391

156

360

444

167

42.1

42.31

4.4

112.6

55.5

8.1

16.5

5.3

21.8

28.2

46.12

2.8

24.2

45.7

17.4







gaseous phase. The group reported that the ignition

time represents the flame-spread process surprisingly

well as reported by Babrauskas [90]. The shorter the

ignition time, the easier the material ignites and the

flame spreads on the surface of the material with a

higher velocity. Lim et al., [91] also studied the

effect of ammonium polyphosphate (APP) flame

retardant in kenaf fibre and polypropylene composites

shows promising results when the cone calorimeter

analysis on the flammability related properties was

performed. The result indicates that composite blends

form two separate groups with the point of difference

attributable to the addition of flame retardant. Time

to ignition (TTI) recorded also show an increase for

Kenaf blends as the flame retardant is added, this is

probably due to the flame retardant mechanism.

During heating APP releases noncombustible gases

which blankets, preventing the access of oxygen to

the composite [92] and therefore delaying the TTI. It

was concluded that APP not only improved the

flammability properties of the composites, but also

the tensile and flexural moduli due to the flame

retardant behaving like particle reinforcement. Kim et

al., [93] also studied the flammability and smoke

density of kenaf and oil palm fibre reinforced

composites. The group investigated the effects of a

commercial available ATH flame retardant additive

on the flammability and smoke intensity. The results

show that the incorporation of ATH into the

composite has a positive effect in suppression of the

smoke formation and retard the flame.

6.0 Conclusions

Natural fibre composites have found great use in the

design of automotive interior components probably

because of their inherent properties which suggest;

lightweight, environmental benign and

biodegradability, and there is less attention to fire

regulation [103]. Notwithstanding, the high

susceptibility of fibres and polymers to flames has

limited their applications especially in areas where

fire threat is imminent. Recent studies have shown

that flame retardant additives blended in polymeric

composites can reduce the flammability properties

and delay the spread of fire of composite materials.

Flame retardant additives (fillers) thus, act as a heat

barrier, starving flame or fuel and hence, protects the

composite surface from heat and air. The paper

reviewed the conventional flame retardants that have

been incorporated in NFC to achieve this goal. The

HRR studied in the cone calorimeter apparatus has

Heat flux

(KW/m2)

Table 3: Flammability Properties of some Natural Fibre Composites Tested in the Cone calorimeter

Composite/Flame

Retardant (%)

𝑻(s)

pHRR

(KWm -2)

THR

(MJ m -2)

𝑹𝒂𝒗 (gs-1)

𝑬 𝒄 (MJ/kg)

Ref 𝑪𝑶𝒂𝒗 Kg/Kg

SAF/UP

HF/EX

HF/EX-APP (15%)

KF/PP-IFR (20%)

FF/EX

FF/PP-APP

FF/BP-ATH (25%)

JF/PEHA-MMT

WF/PP

WF/PP-APP/PER (30%)

FF/PBS

SUGF/PBS

BAF/PBS

BAF/PP

FF/PBS-APP(10%)

SF/EX-UP

CFM/UP

50

35

35

50

50

35

50

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

50

50

50

15

55

46

18

35

28

15

59

15

20

61

74

43

17

62

64

68

459.2

754

259

381.1

446

255

559

567.8

757.9

311.6

270

313

339

192.8

500.8

610.9

571.8

508.4

63.1

34.4

84.5

147

81

48.3

74.7

123

79.5

884

862

884

11.6

NS

110.8

182.1

0.093

NS

NS

0.054

NA\S

NS

NS

0.032

0.039

0.029

NS

NS

NS

NS

14.32*

NS

22.2*

26.7

NS

NS

NS

NS

25

NS

NS

NS

NS

19.5

19.3

9.7

15.1

29.3

NS

18.5

13295.4

2254

938

NA

3977

667

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

7467.7

TSR

(MJ/kg)

0.0411

0.032

0.05

NS

NS

NS

NS

0.024

NS

NS

0.758

NS

NS

NS

NS

0.029

NS

[94]

[87]

[87]

[95]

[92]

[96]

[89]

[97]

[98]

[98]

[99]

[99]

[99]

[100]

[101]

[102]

[84]

SAF: Sansevieria Fibre, HF: Hemp Fibre, KF: Kenaf Fibre, FF: Flax Fibre, JF: Jute Fibre, BAF: Bamboo Fibre, SUGF:

Sugarcane Fibre, SF: Sisal Fibre, CFM: Coconut Fibre Mat, WF: Wood Flour, UP: Unsaturated Polyester, BP: Bio

Polyester, EX: Epoxy Resin, PP: Polypropylene, PEHA: Poly 2-Ethyl Hexyl-Acrylate, PBS: Poly (1,4 Butanediol Succinate,

APP: Ammonium phosphate, PER: Pentaerythritol, ATH: Aluminum Hydroxide, IFR: Intumescent Flame Retardant, MMT:

montmorillonite, *(in gs-1m-2). NS: Not Specified.







been noted as the most important property considered

useful in quantifying a composite fire hazard, while

other properties are correlated to it such as: time-to-

ignition, average HRR, THR, MLR, TSR, SEA and

CO.

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