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NFES 2171
Fire Operations in theWildland/Urban InterfaceS-215
Student WorkbookSEPTEMBER, 2003
Description of the Performance Based System
The NWCG Wildland and Prescribed Fire Qualifications System is a “performance-based” qualifica-tions system. In this system, the primary criterion for qualification is individual performance as observedby an evaluator using approved standards. This system differs from previous wildland fire qualificationssystems which have been “training based.” Training based systems use the completion of trainingcourses or a passing score on an examination as a primary criteria for qualification.
A performance-based system has two advantages over a training based system:
• Qualification is based upon real performance, as measured on the job, versus perceivedperformance, as measured by an examination or classroom activities.
• Personnel who have learned skills from sources outside wildland fire suppression, suchas agency specific training programs or training and work in prescribed fire, structuralfire, law enforcement, search and rescue, etc., may not be required to complete specificcourses in order to qualify in a wildfire position.
1. The components of the wildland fire qualifications system are as follows:
a. Position Task Books (PTB) contain all critical tasks which are requiredto perform the job. PTBs have been designed in a format which willallow documentation of a trainee’s ability to perform each task.Successful completion of all tasks required of the position, asdetermined by an evaluator, will be the basis for recommendingcertification.
IMPORTANT NOTE: Training requirements include completion of allrequired training courses prior to obtaining a PTB. Use of thesuggested training courses or job aids is recommended to prepare theemployee to perform in the position.
b. Training courses and job aids provide the specific skills and knowledgerequired to perform tasks as prescribed in the PTB.
c. Agency Certification is issued in the form of an incident qualificationcard certifying that the individual is qualified to perform in a specifiedposition.
2. Responsibilities
The local office is responsible for selecting trainees, proper use of task books,and certification of trainees, see appendix A of the NWCG Wildland andPrescribed Fire Qualification System Guide, PMS 310-1, for furtherinformation.
Fire Operations in theWildland/Urban InterfaceS-215
Student WorkbookSEPTEMBER, 2003
NFES 2171
Sponsored for NWCG publication by the NWCG Training Working Team
Comments regarding the content of this publication should be directed to:National Interagency Fire Center, National Fire Training Support Group, 3833 S. Development Ave., Boise, Idaho83705. Email: [email protected].
Additional copies of this publication may be ordered from National Interagency Fire Center, ATTN: Great BasinCache Supply Office, 3833 South Development Avenue, Boise, Idaho 83705. Order NFES 2171.
i
PREFACE
S-215 Fire Operations in the Wildland/Urban Interface is required training for singleresource bosses (tractor/plow, dozer, engine, or crew) who are seeking certificationas incident commander Type 4 (ICT4) and/or strike team leader (STLP, STDZ,STEN, STCR) as identified in the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG),Wildland and Prescribed Fire Qualification System Guide (PMS 310-1).
This course was developed by an interagency group of experts with direction andguidance from Fire Training located at the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC).
The primary participants in this development effort were:
Gil Gray - Rapid City Department of Fire and Emergency Services
Dan Snow - USDA Forest Service
Robert Pantrich - USDI Bureau of Indian Affairs
Pete Peterson - USDA Forest Service
Joe Mazzeo - USDI Park Service
Dan Dyer - California Division of Forestry
Craig Cook - USDI Bureau of Indian Affairs
The NWCG appreciates the efforts of these personnel and all those who havecontributed to the develoment of this training course including Al Crouch, USDIBureau of Land Management, for his original electronic presentation program.
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CONTENTS
Preface.................................................................................................................... i
Contents ................................................................................................................ iii
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
Course Instructions ................................................................................................ 3
Unit 1 - Interface Awareness ............................................................................... 1.1
Unit 2 - Size-Up .................................................................................................. 2.1
Unit 3 - Initial Strategy and Action Plan............................................................... 3.1
Unit 4 - Structure Triage ..................................................................................... 4.1
Unit 5 - Structure Protection Tactics
Lesson A - Initial Operations and Site Preparation................................ 5A.1
Lesson B - Engine Operations, Water Use and Class A Foam ............. 5B.1
Lesson C - Support Resources ............................................................ 5C.1
Lesson D - Firing Operations ............................................................... 5D.1
Unit 6 - Action Plan Assessment and Update ...................................................... 6.1
Unit 7 - Follow-up and Public Relations.............................................................. 7.1
Unit 8 - Firefighter Safety In The Interface .......................................................... 8.1
Appendix A - Glossary of Terms ....................................................................... A-1
iv
1
INTRODUCTION
S-215 Fire Operations in the Wildland/Urban Interface is a 28 hour course designedto meet the training needs for incident commanders (Type 4), strike team leaders,and company officers confronting wildland fire that threatens life, property andimprovements in the wildland/urban interface.
This workbook is designed to help the student learn the principles used insuppressing wildland fire and/or protecting structures in the wildland/urban interfacearea; hereafter referred to as the “interface.”
The majority of the workbook is to be used as a note taking guide, but otherpractical information and exercises are included.
Many terms used by both wildland and structure firefighters have different meaningsto each. A glossary is included for your reference and/or review.
To measure how well you received and retained this information, there will be unittests covering the material presented and a final examination covering all the coursematerial. Students must obtain an average score of 70 percent or higher on theclosed book unit tests and final examination to receive a certificate of coursecompletion.
2
COURSE OBJECTIVE
This course provides the student with the skills and knowledge to size-up awildland/urban interface fire incident, evaluate the potential situation, order anddeploy the necessary resources, and apply safe and effective strategy and tactics tominimize the threat to life and property.
Unit objectives are located at the beginning of each unit in the student workbookand define what the student will be able to do at the completion of the unit.
1.1
Fire Operations In the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 1 - Interface Awareness
OBJECTIVES:
1. Discuss how preparing for and responding to interface fires is a sharedresponsibility.
2. Describe the human and environmental factors in the interface that affectcritical decision making and require situational awareness for firefightersafety.
3. Identify the value of the Incident Command System as an effective tool tomanage interface fires.
4. Discuss the importance of knowing your agency policy relating to interfacefires.
1.2
INTRODUCTION
The wildland/urban interface is a zone where human-made improvementsintermix with wildland fuels. The wildland/urban interface will hereafter bereferred to as the “interface” in this course.
Due to the growing number of homes and other structures in America’s interface, itis almost inevitable that wildland and structure firefighters will find themselves indangerous role reversals for which they may not be mentally prepared, adequatelytrained, or physically equipped. Wildland firefighters may be called on to protectthreatened structures, and structure firefighters may be called on to help suppressfires in wildland fuels that threaten structures.
The trend throughout the country is for increased growth and development in theinterface. With this increased growth comes a corresponding increase in exposurefor the nation’s wildland and structure firefighters to interface fires. It is thereforecritical to find ways to increase firefighters’ safety under these conditions.
The most direct way to improve the safety of both structure and wildlandfirefighters is cross-training, mental preparation, and improved equipment.Cross-training is being done in some regions throughout the country, however, it isnot standard practice in all regions. Some regions are improving and updating theirfire fighting equipment. Until cross-training programs and equipment updatesbecome universal, a good understanding of situational awareness may be the toolthat saves firefighters’ lives.
Over the past ten years, wildland/urban interface fires have occurred in almost everystate in the United States. Statistics show that over 300 structures have burnedeach year since 1985. While the natural fuels may differ across geographic areas ofthe country, one factor remains constant: the risk to firefighters who suppressinterface fires.
The interface offers a uniquely hazardous environment in which the wildland andstructure firefighters operate. Due to the nature of interface fires, firefighters face anincreased risk for entrapment, exposure to hazardous materials and chemicals, andpossible injury or death, if mistakes are made.
1.3
I. PREPARING FOR AND RESPONDING TO WILDLAND/URBANINTERFACE FIRES IS A SHARED RESPONSIBILITY
A. Wildland/Urban Interface Fire Definition
A wildland/urban interface fire needs to be defined in order to describethe shared responsibility necessary to manage this kind of situation.
The wildland/urban interface is the zone where human-madeimprovements meet and intermix with wildland fuels; commonlyreferred to as the “Interface” or “I-Zone.”
The wildland/urban interface will be referred to as the “Interface” inthis course.
B. Groups Responsible for Sharing Responsibility
EXERCISE:
Identify what the groups (government, landowner/homeowner, firefightingagency, and firefighters) responsibilities are concerning fires in the interface.
1. Government’s (federal, state, and local) responsibility
2. Landowners’/homeowners’ responsibilities
1.4
3. Firefighting agencies’ responsibilities
4. Firefighters’ responsibilities
1.5
II. HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN THE INTERFACE
In the rapidly changing arena of interface fires there are many factors that willaffect critical decision making and require situational awareness for firefightersafety.
EXERCISE:
1. Identify what challenges you think are unique to firefighters whenfighting interface fires.
2. Identify what situational awareness things firefighters can do to keepthemselves safe in these unique situations.
1.6
1.7
III. INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM (ICS) AS A TOOL FOREFFECTIVENESS AND SAFETY FOR INTERFACE FIRES
A. The Solution to Chaos and Confusion
1. ICS was originally developed in California to improve responseto wildland/urban interface fires (FIRESCOPE).
2. NFPA 1561 Standard for Incident Management System.
3. Accepted as the standard approach to incident management byall Federal Wildland Firefighting Agencies.
4. Widely accepted and used by many structure firefightingorganizations.
5. Accepted as the standard approach to incident management bymany other agencies (FEMA, National Fire Academy, DOT,U.S. Coast Guard, Military when responding to civil incidents,etc.).
6. Clearly defines the responsibility of an Incident Commanderand provides a mechanism to define “who is in charge.”
7. Addresses multi-agency and jurisdictional issues.
8. Facilitates growth of the organization to support incident needs.
9. Provides common terminology for incident management.
1.8
B. Features of ICS
1. Management functions (only fill positions and functions asnecessary)
• Command• Operations• Logistics• Planning• Finance/Administration
2. Organizational flexibility (add additional positions as incidentrequires)
• Initial attack (Type 5 incident)• Initial attack with mutual aid (Type 4 incident)• Extended attack (Type 3 incident)• Incident Management Teams (Type 2 and Type 1
incidents)• Consolidating separate incidents (Area Command)
3. Establishment and transfer of command
4. Unity of command
5. Management by objectives
6. Chain of command
7. Span of control
8. Common terminology
9. Resources management
• Single resources• Strike teams• Task forces
10. Incident action plan
1.9
IV. AGENCY POLICY
Fire suppression forces are increasingly being dispatched to incidents orsituations that may not fall under their primary responsibilities. It isimportant to remember that agency policy limits which activities firefightersmay engage in. Another limiting factor is firefighter personal protectiveclothing, equipment, and training levels.
If you never work together you’ll never know all the policies.
A. Firefighting Policy
Public relations problems
• The public doesn’t care about the color of the truck or theuniform.
• They pay taxes and want the fire put out or their home saved.
• They don’t care what agency policy has to take into account.
All firefighters must know and understand their agency policy.
• Wildland firefighting agencies involved with vehicle or structurefires.
• Structure firefighters involved with wildland firefighting.
EXERCISE:
Discuss the agency policy pertaining to interface fires of the studentsattending the course.
1.10
B. Out of Jurisdiction Responses
What authority is the criterion for agencies or departments to leavetheir jurisdiction?
1. Policy limitations stay with the employee.
a. You must follow your agency’s policy even if workingfor another agency.
b. Always inform supervisors of home agency policy.
2. Safety should always be the primary guide in decision making.Find a good quick reference book.
• “Standards for Fire and Aviation Operations” (Redbook)which has been adopted by most federal agencies(available on the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC)Website at http://www.nifc.gov/fireinfo/linkspg.html)
• Department or State Policy Handbook
If you are uncomfortable in dealing with certain circumstancesor situations, ask the people working with you. Someone mayhave experience in that area. If unsure, don’t go! If it’s apolicy problem, asking about it on the fire is too late.
1.11
V. MUTUAL AID SITUATIONS
Mutual aid is a vital tool for today’s fire service. No single agency can “go italone” when facing a major interface disaster. Faced with decreasingresources, ever expanding urban growth into traditional wildland areas and ademand for increased fire protection, local agencies must turn to theirneighbors for assistance. In recent years we have witnessed a greaternumber of situations where neighbor helps neighbor, wildland firefightershelp structure firefighters, structure engines work on wildfires, and everyoneis working together on structure defense.
As is to be expected, there are issues that need to be resolved whenever twoor more agencies are working together.
Agencies likely to work together must train together to:
• Gain valuable exposure to each other’s capabilities.
• Expose equipment and safety limitations.
• Reduce or eliminate agency differences.
• Overcome the lack of training and experience in various areas offirefighting.
• Develop a network for finding out about new tools and tricks of thetrade.
1.12
VI. CONCLUSION
A. Coordination and Shared Responsibility
Coordinated efforts between government, home owners, firefightingagencies, and firefighters before the fire occurs are essential to ensurefirefighter and civilian safety during these events.
After the fire starts, firefighting efforts must be performed within thecontext of standard operating procedures that mitigate risk to thoseperforming their duties in the interface fire environment.
B. Unified Command
When establishing an incident command where multi-jurisdiction hasbrought both wildland and structural firefighting forces together,establish a unified command where both organizations are representedat the command level.
2.1
Fire Operations In the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 2 - Size-up
OBJECTIVES:
1. Describe items to consider when sizing-up an interface fire, prior to and afterarriving at the scene.
2. Describe items to consider when sizing-up resources needed for aninterface fire.
3. Describe the six components of a size-up report.
2.2
I. PRE-INCIDENT PLANNING
A. Firewise Communities/USA
Firewise Communities/USA is a unique opportunity available toAmerica’s fire-prone communities. Its goal is to encourage andacknowledge action that minimizes home loss to wildfire.
The Firewise activities are sponsored by the National Wildland/UrbanInterface Fire Program. Firewise publishes numerous educationalmaterials, shares these publications and much more on its web site(www.firewise.org), and operates the Firewise Communities effort.
B. Pre-Attack Planning
Interface areas should be pre-planned to provide an overview of thepossible actions, hazards, resources, etc., beneficial during anincident. These plans should be jointly prepared by all agenciespotentially involved.
Different agencies may have different names for these plans, e.g., Pre-Attack Plans, Pre-Planned Dispatch, and National Fire ManagementAnalysis Planning.
1. Initial attack incident commanders are advised to obtain theseplans and be knowledgeable of their content.
Also learn and consider other environmental restrictionsconcerning threatened and endangered species, restrictions onfirefighting resource use; minimum impact suppression tactics(MIST), etc.
2. Initial attack incident commanders should know how to activatemutual aid systems for their area of responsibility.
2.3
II. SIZE-UP
Size-up is a systematic process consisting of the rapid, but thoroughconsideration of all critical factors leading to the development of a rationalplan of attack. The size-up process continues until the completion of theincident.
Size-up will produce the critical information you must have to make properdecisions and take appropriate action.
Sizing-up an interface fire is somewhat the same as sizing up a wildland fire.Size-up is accomplished by all individuals regardless of their level ofauthority and position on the incident. The principles that will be discussedshould assist you in sizing-up any interface fire incident.
The size-up process consists of the following:
A. Pre-incident size-up
B. At the scene size-up
C. Resource size-up
D. Size-up report
III. STEP 1: PRE-INCIDENT SIZE-UP
The initial step in the size-up process should begin long before the incidentoccurs. Many factors are available to assist you in developing your actionplan.
Most pre-incident planning documents or pre-attack plans have consideredthe factors necessary for a thorough pre-incident size-up and will save youthis step. Obtain a copy of these plans.
2.4
If no plans are available considering the following factors will help youdetermine the general fire problem and fire potential for that area on that day.
A. Previous Fires
Knowledge of previous fires in an area can be a valuable tool.Wildfires tend to follow historic patterns, given similar weatherconditions. Many “old-timers” made reputations using this type ofknowledge and appeared only to make instinctive tactical moves.Most organizations can make fire history information available to you.Find it and use it.
B. Fuels
Know the predominant fuels in the area. Fuel type: grass, brush,timber, slash.
• Loading• Live and dead fuel moisture• Age arrangement• Structural fuels - Could there be structural fuels, wood shingles
or shakes involved?
C. Weather
Know local weather conditions and forecasts.
• Temperature• Relative humidity• Projected wind speed and general direction• Atmospheric stability (Haynes Index)• Drought conditions (Palmer Drought Index). See local
geographic area coordination center (GACC) website, exposureprotection. The fire will get larger and expose more structures.
2.5
D. Topography
Observe the general layout of the area
• Canyons
- Are they wide or narrow?- Are they flat or steep?- Do they run parallel or perpendicular to the general
winds?- Are they box or dead end canyons?
• Ridges - Notice steepness of ridge lines, saddles, andchimneys.
• Barriers - Notice physical barriers, both natural and artificial(potential control points).
• Elevation - Consider the general elevation. It will have an effecton your fuels (types and moisture) and your weather conditions(weather and temperatures).
• Position on slope - Consider whether the fire is on a lowerslope, mid-slope, or near top.
• Aspect - north, east, south, or west. Will often determine fuelsand fuel concentration levels. Also an effect on fuel moistureand temperature.
2.6
E. Time of Year/Day
(EXAMPLES: summer homes, occupancy elderly/retired community,latch key kids, school day, seasonal maintenance and upkeep)
• Summer vs. winter• Day vs. night• Seasonal areas - vacationers• The peak burning period for that day• The effect the season has on fuel moisture may determine fire
intensity
F. Additional Information
Many times it is possible to get additional pertinent information fromyour communications center.
• Pre-attack plans• Fire weather forecast• Fire Danger for today• Projected fire conditions: flame length, spotting factors, rate of
spread• Resource availability for your agency and cooperators• Potential for structural exposure• Location of structures in relation to surrounding wildland fuels,
topography, elevation, barriers, etc.• Water supply• Feedback from other sources: detection, aerial reconnaissance
flights, observers, lookouts, etc.
Evaluation of this information should begin to give you a good pictureof the fire potential for a specific area on any given day. Your initialsize-up prior to arrival at an interface incident should give you thefoundation from which good future decisions may be built.
2.7
IV. STEP 2: AT THE SCENE SIZE-UP
The second step in your size-up process begins on your way to and arrivalat the fire scene. It is important for you to quickly assess the situation. In aninterface fire situation, this process will give you the additional informationneeded to determine the relative vulnerability of exposed structures and theneeded information to order the necessary resources. Usually, the primaryresponsibility on these incidents is to protect structures and improvements.
Although rescue is not stressed in this lesson, we know that it takesprecedence over firefighting. At times, extinguishing the fire is the best formof rescue. Do not forget about the wildland fire if you start rescue orexposure protection. The fire will get larger and expose more structures.
Consideration of the following factors will allow you to be better mentallyprepared:
A. Structures and Improvements
First priority is protection of homes over other improvements. (Thefollowing is only a tickler list!)
• Number, arrangement and kinds of structures and the potentialfor them to contain hazardous materials.
• Look at the placement of improvements and anticipate firebehavior, note clearance around structure(s) (defensible space).
• Size, height and occupancy type.
• Construction features: roof coverings, wood shake or shingleroofs (probably the greatest single hazard), wood siding, decks,eaves (exposed vs. covered), attic vents, rain gutters (empty orfull of debris).
2.8
• Safety and rescue. Evacuation could involve both people andanimals. Note safe refuge areas (outside and inside or behindstructures). Consider other hazards, some hidden (septic tanks,insecticide storage) and some obvious (power lines and LPGand fuel tanks).
• Water supplies - note location, availability and reliability.
• Combustibles located near structures - can they be removed?
B. Access
Ingress and egress, note one-way or narrow roads, dead end roads,and cul-de-sacs.
C. Fuel
• Type of fuel (grass, brush, timber, ornamentals). Note the size,arrangement, continuity, and their proximity to structures andimprovements.
• Age of fuel - observe the amount of dead material in the fuel.
• Consider structure fuels - a very high volume fuel that produceslarge amounts of radiated and convective heat.
• Wood shake and shingle fires are difficult to extinguish and maycause spot fires.
D. Weather
• Wind - note wind speed and direction (probably the key elementof wildland fire behavior). Local winds may be quite differentfrom general winds. They will be influenced by topography,fuels, structures, and in major fire incidents, by the fire itself.
• Temperature - affects fire behavior as it affects your fuels (solarheating and drying).
2.9
• Humidity - dryer air is better able to pick up water vapor fromthe fuel. The result is that less time is required for heat to bringabout combustion.
• Atmospheric stability (stable vs. unstable) weather - are youexperiencing major wind shifts and fire-whirls? Both areindicators of unstable weather.
E. Topography
Observe the following and anticipate their effects on fire behavior.
• Canyons - wide vs. narrow, box or chute
• Ridges - saddles and chimneys
• Slope - steep vs. flat terrain
• Physical barriers - both natural and artificial, roads, rivers, greenbelts, fuel breaks, cliffs, or large bodies of water
F. Fire Behavior
Observe local fire behavior.
• Base all actions on current and expected behavior of the fire;Standard Fire Order #3.
• Fire intensity, direction and rate of spread are the basicdeterminations of how fast it is moving and will tell youapproximately how much time you have before it threatensstructures.
• Firewhirls - spread flames and burning embers
• Structure fuels can affect fire behavior. Fire can spread fromhouse to house whey they are close together, particularly if thereis no defensible space.
2.10
• Spotting - can you anticipate spot fires prior to the fire frontreaching you? This could affect your attack plan and the safetyof your crew.
• Plume Dominated Fires - are not as predictable as wind-drivenfires. We know that they may spread rapidly, but we do notknow where or when major runs may occur. All unsecuredportions of the fire perimeter are dangerous.
V. STEP 3: RESOURCE SIZE-UP
Time is now the critical factor. Is there enough time before the fire reachesthe interface to order and receive additional resources?
• Consider a last-minute fuel clearance effort. Evaluate the terrain—is itsuitable for dozers, tractor plows or hand crews?
• Consider structure preparation and work force. Consider firing outaround structures. Do you have the necessary resources?
• Consider air support — fixed wing and helicopters. They both havelimitations. Fixed wing may be ineffective in strong winds.Helicopters may not carry sufficient loads.
• Re-evaluate the terrain for access. May be suited only for smallermore versatile equipment.
• Re-evaluate your water needs and resources. Water tenders may beneeded.
• Consider the need and availability of special equipment.
• Consider local hazards.
Remember - size-up is a continuous process. Fires are not static, neithershould your size-up be static. Continue to review all critical factors throughthe mop-up and extinguishment phases.
2.11
VI. EXERCISE 1 - MADRAS FIRE SIZE-UP
You are the Engine Boss of a Type 4 Wildland Fire Engine with twocrewmembers. You are engine boss qualified and will be the initial attackincident commander of the Madras Fire.
Size-up and write down what you see in each of the eight scenes on yourway to the fire.
Scene 1 - Looking north from Black Creek Road
Scene 2 - Looking northeast from Black Creek Road
Scene 3 - Looking east from Black Creek Road
Scene 4 - Looking east from Black Creek Road
2.12
Scene 5 - Looking east from Black Creek Road
Scene 6 - Structure access road off Black Creek Road
Scene 7 - First structure off Black Creek Road
Scene 8 - Second structure off Black Creek Road
2.13
VII. STEP 4: SIZE-UP REPORT
Many agencies have developed their own size-up report forms.
Refer to the size-up report on the inside cover of the Incident ResponsePocket Guide.
An accurate size-up report is essential to the success of initial attack andextended attack suppression operations, this report should paint a mentalpicture to the responding units, to the dispatch center, and other interestedagency personnel. Radio size-up information should be brief and asaccurate as possible. Conditions may change rapidly and you must updateyour report as conditions change.
The six components and information required for an accurate size-up reportconsists of:
A. Who Is In Command and Other Facilities
• Name of incident• Name of IC and location• Location of Incident Command Post (ICP)• Staging area locations• Other facilities
B. Fire Location
• Street address - county - federal road• Township and Range/Latitude and Longitude• Best location you can provide• Local description and clarification of access for responding
units
2.14
C. What You Have
• Size of fire in acres, or length and width in feet• Type of fuel burning - grass, brush, timber, slash• Rate and direction of spread
(slow < 1 mph)(moderate 1-2 mph)(rapid 2-3 mph)(extreme > 3 mph)
• What is in the fire’s path• Structures involved - exposed or in the area• Describe fire behavior - flame length, surface, crowning• Torching, spotting, backing, or head fire
D. What You Are Doing (special instructions)
• Attacking the fire - method of attack• Protecting structures• Other actions being taken - evacuation
E. What You Need
• Are your initial attack resources adequate?
• Do you need additional resources - type and kind?
• Where to report
• Do you need more overhead - span of control?
• Is it beyond your capability? During the size-up process is agood time to complete an incident complexity analysis to helpdetermine if it is beyond your capability. If you determine anincident management team is need, now is the time to includethis in your report. (See Extended Attack Transition Analysis inthe Incident Response Pocket Guide, page 15.)
2.15
F. Special Instructions and Hazards
• Power lines• Bridges• Ingress/egress• Hazardous materials
Take some time to size-up and write your initial size-up report beforeyou broadcast the report. Collect yourself and give a complete report.Save your report notes for documentation.
VIII. EXERCISE 2 - AT SCENE SIZE-UP REPORT
Read the example size-up report. Record the key information you wouldreport in each category.
Example of an initial size-up report.
Dispatch, Engine 1 is at the intersection of Sheridan Lake Road and CopperMountain Road. The fire is one quarter mile north of Sheridan Lake Road.It has reached the east side of Copper Mountain Road, but has not goneover the road.
The ICP will be at the intersection of Sheridan Lake Road and CopperMountain Road. Engine 1 will be Copper Mountain IC.
The fire is about ten acres, burning in grass and starting into the timber. Thefire is moving north upslope at a moderate rate of spread. The fire is burningin surface fuels with isolated torching of small pockets of timber. This is ahead fire with flame lengths of five to fifteen feet, the torches have flamelengths of sixty feet. Short range spotting is occurring. Copper MountainSubdivision is one mile north of the fire with continuous fuel between the fireand the subdivision.
Initial attack forces will attack the fire. We will anchor to Copper MountainRoad and heel and flank the fire on the east side and hold the fire east ofCopper Mountain Road.
2.16
This fire will escape initial attack resources. Additional resources areneeded. We need five type six engines, one twenty person type two handcrew, strike team leader engine, two division supervisors, and a type threeIC. These resources need to report to the intersection of Sheridan LakeRoad and Copper Mountain Road. We also need five type one engines, astructural strike team leader, the County Sheriff and Highway Patrol to reportto Copper Mountain Subdivision to evacuate and start structure protectionoperations.
Record the key information you would report for each category.
A. Who Is In Command and Other Facilities
B. Fire Location
C. What You Have
D. What You Are Doing
E. What You Need
F. Special Instructions and Hazards
2.1702-01-S215-SR
Page 1 of 2
Example Pre-Attack Plan
2.1802-01-S215-SR
Page 2 of 2
3.1
Fire Operations in the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 3 - Initial Strategy and Action Plan
OBJECTIVES
1. List the three incident priorities.
2. Describe the three operational modes.
3. List five items which would influence ordering resources.
4. List four subject areas to include when briefing resources for assignment.
3.2
I. INTRODUCTION
The successful management of an interface incident begins with the firstresponding company officer or initial attack incident commander.
If this person correctly interprets the size-up factors and quickly recognizesthe interface potential, the result may be just another wildland fire. But if thisperson fails to recognize the interface potential, you fall behind the resourcepower curve.
II. INCIDENT ACTION PLAN DEVELOPMENT
A. Incident Priorities
Operations can vary to some degree on every incident, but thefollowing priorities must be considered when developing incidentmanagement objectives:
1. Protect life and safety
• Civilians and firefighters• Always first priority
2. Incident stabilization
• Save property that can be saved• Control wildfire
3. Property/Resource conservation
• Minimize damage to property, improvements, and naturalresources
• Conserve resources to be able to fight fire until the job isdone
These three priorities should guide you during the development ofyour incident management objectives, strategies, tactics, and incidentaction plan.
3.3
B. Incident Management Objectives
Using the incident priorities, determine your incident managementobjectives. Incident management objectives should have the followingcharacteristics:
1. Attainable
They must be achievable with the resources that the agency andassisting agencies can allocate to the incident, even though itmay take several operational periods to accomplish them.
2. Measurable
The design and statement of objectives should make it possibleto conduct a final accounting as to whether objectives wereachieved.
3. Flexible
Objectives should be broad enough to allow for considerationof both strategic and tactical alternatives.
4. Examples of incident management objectives:
a. Ensure the safety of all firefighters and the public.
b. Prevent fire spread into Big Creek drainage.
c. Protect structures and improvements threatened by thefire.
3.4
C. Strategy
Strategy is the general plan or direction selected to accomplish theincident objectives.
From the previous examples of objectives an example of strategymight include:
1. Prepare an Evacuation Plan for all residents threatened by fire.
2. Use mechanized equipment to prevent fire spread into BigCreek Drainage.
3. Use structure protection groups to protect structures threatenedby fire.
On small incidents, the task of developing incident objectives andstrategies is the responsibility of the incident commander. This mayonly take a few minutes.
On larger incidents the agency administrator and members of thecommand and general staff will contribute to this process.
D. Tactics
Tactics are the short term, site-specific actions taken by incidentresources to accomplish the desired strategy.
From the previous examples of strategy an example of tactics mightinclude:
1. Evacuate all residents if fire comes within five miles of XYZSubdivision.
2. Construct a two-blade wide dozer line on Sunup Ridge inDivision A. Improve line and burnout with handcrews.
3. Protect XYZ Subdivision on west side of fire with three Type 1engine strike teams.
3.5
E. Operational Modes
Refers to how firefighting resources are used to either suppress thefire, protect structures or a combination of both.
The operational mode is determined by the types and amounts ofresources available and the fire size and behavior.
Tactics can be developed using either of the operational modes(offensive, defensive, or a combination of both).
1. Offensive mode
Resources are assigned to attack and contain the fire.
If ample resources are available, then an offensive mode usingdirect or indirect attack may accomplish your strategy.
2. Defensive mode
Resources are assigned to defend structures where possible,and continue efforts toward fire containment where possible.
If resources are limited, then a defensive mode may minimizelosses and accomplish some of your strategy (based onpriority) until enough resources arrive to control the fire.
3. Combination of offensive and defensive modes.
F. Develop an Incident Action Plan
The established tactics and the operational mode basically becomeyour incident action plan (IAP).
1. Keep a written record of the IAP.
a. Even on simple incidents documentation of your actionsis a good practice. ICS-214 Unit Log may be sufficient.
3.6
b. The more complex an incident, the greater the need for awritten IAP.
c. Any interface fire poses the possibility of public/legalactions, therefore documentation is critical.
• ICS-201 Incident Briefing• Size-up form (Incident Response Pocket Guide)• Crew briefing checklist• Map sketch• ICS-213 General Message Form• Notebook• Tape recorder• Photos• Palm Pilot
2. Always obtain a map of the incident.
A hand drawn map is better than no map.
III. RESOURCE NEEDS
The ability to estimate the proper amount of resources is something that isextremely difficult and comes only with training and experience.
A. Start with the Size-up Process
1. Structures and improvements
2. Fuels
3. Weather
4. Topography
5. Fire behavior
3.7
6. Evacuation possibilities
a. Will you need to commit firefighting resources to assist inevacuation?
b. What will be done with livestock in the area?
c. Law enforcement availability
7. Access
Ingress and egress. Narrow, steep, and dirt/gravel roads mayrestrict large equipment (Type 1 Engines).
8. Utility companies may be needed to turn off power, natural gas,etc.
9. Response times
a. What is the expected delay before certain resources reachthe incident?
b. Be sure to calculate the additional fire spread for longerresponse times.
B. What Resources Do I Need (kind, type and number)?
1. Determine the kind of resources needed.
a. Helicopters or airtankers, wildland engines or structureengines
b. Handcrews or dozers
2. Order resources by ICS type.
a. Use national standard
b. Specific requests for specialized equipment
3.8
3. Configuration of resources.
• Strike team, task force, or single resource
4. Order enough to meet your needs.
a. The resource order can make or break you. Order toolittle and the fire escapes; order too much and peoplegrumble about nothing to do.
b. A guideline to use for ordering engines is:
• For separated structures mostly surrounded bywildland fuels: 1 engine per structure.
• For continuous structures, like a subdivision lessthan 50 feet apart: 1 engine per 2 structures.
3.9
STRUCTURE AND WILDLAND ENGINE EXERCISE
Group 1: Identify the pros and cons of using structure engines on an interfacefire.
Group 2: Identify the pros and cons of using wildland engines on an interfacefire.
3.10
STRUCTURE AND WILDLAND ENGINE EXERCISE
Group 3: Identify the pros and cons of using engine strike teams on an interfacefire.
Group 4: Identify the pros and cons of using engines as single resources on aninterface fire.
3.11
IV. BRIEFING AND DEPLOYMENT
A. Make assignments based upon priority and resource abilities.
B. Give all resources a thorough briefing and stage or assign.
C. Ensure everyone understands the chain-of-command, who they willreport to, and their command responsibilities.
D. Provide contingency plans.
E. Discuss communication plan.
F. Ask questions, be sure everyone understands.
G. Provide maps and preplans, if available.
H. Stress Safety (LCES) and Risk Management Process
V. ESTABLISH UNIFIED COMMAND AS NEEDED
A. Definition: A command structure which provides for all agencies orindividuals who have jurisdictional responsibility, either geographicalor functional, to jointly manage an incident through a common set ofobjectives.
B. Implementation: When responding to an incident where two or moreagencies have jurisdiction, the command function may be comprisedof an individual from each agency. These representatives will form thecommand function and will work hand in hand to make decisions byconsensus.
3.12
VI. MEDFORD FIRE EXERCISE
This can be a group or individual student exercise.
The objective of this exercise is for the students to size-up, develop strategy,develop an incident action plan, and determine additional resource needs forthe Medford Fire.
Your agency was dispatched to the Medford Fire on 09/23/XX at 1800hours.
Temperature = 93 degreesWind = South at 0-5 mphR.H. = 16-21%100 days since last rainMajor fires throughout the westNo lightning has occurred in last 7 days
Available initial attack resources are:
1 Type 4 Engine6 Type 6 Engines1 Type 2 Dozer1 Lead Plane1 Type 1 Airtanker2 Type 2 Airtankers2 Type 2 Helicopters
3.13
Size-up the situation you see in the following slides on your way to theMedford Fire.
Slide 1
This is what you see en route to the Medford Fire.
Slide #2
Going south on Spring Road you see houses #1 and #2.
Slide #3
Continuing south on Spring Road you see houses #3, #4, and #5.
Slide #4
You meet the county sheriff on Spring Road. He says the fire is gettingclose to house #6.
3.14
Student Exercise Requirements:
A. Develop strategy (strategic goals) for the Medford Fire based on thegiven fire situation, initial attack resources, and your fire size-up.
B. Develop an incident action plan to deploy the initial attack resources.
3.15
C. What additional (if any) resources would you order?
D. What items would you cover when briefing your resources forassignment?
3.16
4
5
26
1
Fire Starts
Houses3
3.17
3.18
3.19
Suggested Accessory Equipment for Structure EnginesAssigned to Wildland Fire Operations
1,000 feet SJRL 1½ inch Hose600 feet SJRL 1 inch HoseOne 1½ inch x 50 feet SJRL Hose with Nozzle for Engine ProtectionOne 1½ inch Gated WyeFour 1½ inch Tee ValvesTwo 1½ inch x 1 inch ReducersTwo Forestry Hose ClampsThree 1 inch Combination NozzlesTwo 1½ inch Combination NozzlesOne McLeodOne PulaskiTwo ShovelsOne Drip Torch or ½ case FuseesFour Head LampsWeb Gear for all personnel with Fire SheltersMRE’s for 24 hoursTwo Rolls FlaggingOne Belt Weather KitTwo Back Pack PumpsOne Chain Saw and Chaps
03-01-S215-SR
3.20
4.1
Fire Operations In the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 4 - Structure Triage
OBJECTIVES:
1. List the three structure triage categories.
2. List five factors upon which to base structure triage decisions and give threeexamples of each.
3. List four conditions that may indicate a structure cannot be saved.
4.2
I. STRUCTURE TRIAGE
A. Introduction
Structure Triage—the sorting and prioritizing of structures requiringprotection from wildland fire.
Triage may be required of anyone at any time on the incident—fromthe incident commander doing reconnaissance to the engine crewmoving into position.
The first consideration of structural triage must always be firefightersafety.
The goal of triage is to do the most good with what you have, and tonot waste limited resources or time. It requires you to quicklycategorize threatened structures as:
B. Structure Triage Categories
• Needs little or no attention for now• Needs protection, but saveable• Cannot be saved
There are no fixed answers based just on the structure itself; no onecan look at a house and the fuels alone and choose the category thatwill always apply.
4.3
II. THE DECISION PROCESS
This section outlines and illustrates a consistent and logical process forreaching a decision based on all the relevant factors.
A. Greatest Potential Threat
Look at the greatest potential threat, based on the assumption that thefire behavior will be the worst possible under the prevailing conditions.While you may not base your actions on such a possible threat, atleast have an alternative plan should the worst develop. Consider:
1. Fuels (in your estimation of their driest condition), firebrands,worst weather that might occur, and terrain.
2. Greatest vulnerability of the structure.
B. Probable Threat
Look at the probable threat, based on the fire behavior that is mostlikely to occur under the conditions. It is this situation that shouldguide your decision on the action to take. Consider:
1. The actual fire intensity and firebrand problem you expect.
2. Those aspects of the structure that remain vulnerable under theexpected fire behavior.
C. When will the fire arrive and how long will the threat to the interfacelast?
This will determine your preparation and commitment time. Whenother resources arrive will determine their usefulness. Consider:
1. Rate of spread.
2. Orientation of the fire as it moves into the structures.
3. Arrival times of other resources.
4.4
D. What can be done with the resources that are available?
This has to be your best judgement of what you can accomplish in theface of the expected threat.
You must reach your decision on where to put your effort. Oneapproach is to imagine the effect of putting all required resources onthe most threatened structure. Based on that outcome, look at theeffect of shifting resources to other, less threatened structures. In thefinal analysis you want to save the most structures.
If the most threatened structure cannot be saved, forget it. Thenaccess the next most severely threatened structure. If it cannot besaved either, then move to the next most threatened, etc.
If a threatened structure can be saved, you must still decide if that isthe best thing to do. Even though you save one, the effort mightcause you to lose others that could have been saved.
Ask what will happen if resources are applied to less threatenedstructures instead. If you can then save only a different structure, butno more than one, go for the tough ones. If, on the other hand, youcan then save two or more structures, drop the more threatened ones.Continue the “what if” process until you feel you are at a point whereyou can save the most structures with the help you have.
III. FIVE FACTORS THAT AFFECT YOUR TRIAGE DECISION ARE:
• Structure itself• Surrounding fuels (defensible space)• Fire behavior• Available resources• Firefighter safety
4.5
A. Structure
Are the structure and exposure susceptible? Construction featuresand condition.
1. Roof
a. Combustible—wood shakes, tar paper, etc.
b. Not combustible—tile, metal or fiberglass, etc.
c. Pitch—debris on roof or in gutter.
2. Siding
a. Combustible—wood.
b. Not combustible—metal, brick, etc.
3. Heat traps
a. Open gable
b. Vents without screens or non-fire resistant screens
c. Overhanging decks
4. Windows
5. Size of building
6. Shape of building
7. Position on slope
4.6
B. Fuels (including surrounding and fuels that could produce spotfires)
1. Surrounding fuels
2. Size and arrangement
3. Age
4. Proximity
5. Loading
6. Types
a. Resistant or flammable
b. Landscape/ornamental
c. Grass, brush, timber, exotic (palmetto, etc.)
d. Wood piles
7. Landscaping—Railroad ties, cedar (wood) fences
8. Defensible space, access
9. Yard accumulation
10. Flame or heat duration
11. Explosive—LPG tanks, diesel or gas storage tanks
12. Other hazardous materials, vehicles, etc.
4.7
C. Fire behavior—how the fuels will burn.
1. Rate of spread and direction
2. Topographic influence
3. Weather influence
4. Flame length
5. Spotting/firebrands
6. Timing
7. Natural or other barriers
D. Resources—what is available and when.
1. On site resources (water, handtools, ladders, equipment)
2. Kind and type of equipment available
3. Number
4. Where they are (location)
5. When available-response time
6. Capabilities and limitations
a. Mobility
b. Water/foam/retardant
E. Firefighter Safety
1. Ingress/egress routes
a. Adjacent fuels
b. One way-two way
4.8
c. Canopy
d. Slope and steepness of road
e. Loops
2. Power lines
3. Smoke/visibility
4. Hazardous materials
5. LPG and fuel storage tanks
6. Many others (Remote wooden bridges, fire crossing road, etc.)
IV. CONSIDER ALL THE FACTORS
Triage is a logical process, not an answer or simple formula. It requires youto make basic predictions of fire behavior. It requires you to estimate thecapabilities and availability of resources. You must base your decisions onprobabilities, play the odds.
Several triage checklists have been developed for use by homeowners andfirefighters. These checklists can be used for educating the homeowner inthe procedure of making his/her home fire survivable. The same form can beused in emergency situations to analyze defensible space and help thefirefighter determine actions that may be necessary to save the structure.
Currently, there are trends in fire-wise communities to develop placardingtype systems designating houses that are fire safe. See internet website athttp://www.firewise.com.
4.9
EXERCISE:
The following examples illustrates how you might reach different decisions inlight of differing fire behavior and resource situations.
Two houses are adjacent, 50 feet apart. House #1 has wooden walls, awood-shake roof, and is surrounded on three sides by brush. House #2 hasbetter clearance, grass around the house, and a composition shingle roof.
Case 1: The fire is burning only the leaf litter, moving progressively past thetwo houses. You have a full 500- gallon tank of water and are the only engineavailable. What would you do?
Case 2: The fire is burning the brush, hitting broadside and threatening bothhouses at the same time. You have 250 gallons of water left and are the onlyengine available. House #1 will receive direct flame impingement; house #2will receive only firebrands. What would you do?
Case 3: As in Case 2, the fire is burning the brush and threatening bothhouses at the same time. This time you have a full tank of water, 500 gallons.You can protect house #1 as the fire hits it and in the process willsignificantly diminish the intensity at the head of the fire. A second enginewill be there within 5 minutes. What would you do?
4.10
V. DECISION MAKING EXERCISE
Exercise Scenario:
You are sent into an area with four houses. Burning conditions are so severethat you can expect the standing live fuels to burn readily. You have a fulltank of water (500 gallons), but no other resources will be available until afterthe fire is well past.
The most threatened house (#1) is located in heavy fuels. It would require allyour water to save, and the other houses would be involved by the time youcould be free again.
The second worst house (#2) is located in moderately heavy fuels; it wouldrequire half your water and commitment of 10 to 20 minutes to save it.
The last two houses (#3 and #4) are threatened only by firebrands on theroof.
What would you do?
4.11
VI. WHEN STRUCTURES CANNOT BE SAVED
No simple rule will tell you when to try, or what time to abandon, a structuredefense effort. Listed below are some factors or conditions worth noting. Ifany of these apply, then the attempt to save that structure deserves carefulconsideration before continuing.
A. The fire is making significant runs (not just isolated flare-ups) in thestanding live fuels; for example, the brush or tree crowns and thestructure is within 1 or 2 flame lengths of those fuels.
B. Spot fires are igniting around the structure or on the roof andbeginning to grow faster than you can put them out.
C. Your water supply and stream flow will not allow you to continuefirefighting until the threat subsides.
D. You cannot safely remain at the structure and your escape route couldbecome unusable (blocked by fire, falling or rolling obstacles, etc.).
E. The roof is more than 1/4 involved, in windy conditions, and otherstructures are threatened or involved.
F. Interior rooms are involved and windows broken, in windy conditions,and other structures are threatened or involved.
VII. SUMMARY
If things change, or if you are losing the battle, rethink your plan, but do notcontinually question or regret your decisions. Time wasted in indecisions isvery costly. This is not a situation that allows lengthy deliberations. Thesituation does not allow more than a best judgement and a good effort.
Make decisive judgements and make them without undue delay. Then go towork.
4.12
04-01-S215-SRPage 1 of 24.13
04-01-S215-SRPage 2 of 24.14
4.15 04-02-S215-SR
Structural Triage Assessment
Incident Name___________________________Jurisdiction_____________________________
0 TO 20% = 1
20 TO 40% = 3
TOPOGRAPHY (SLOPE %) >40% = 5
Light =1
Moderate = 3
FUEL TYPE (Include yard accumulation) Heavy = 5
>100’ = 1
30 TO 100’ = 3
FUEL CLEARANCE <30 feet = 5
<30% = 1
30 – 70% = 3
AERIAL FUEL (Crown Closures) >70%= 5
Non-combustible =1
Non/w combust debris = 3
ROOF Combustible = 5
Non-combustible = 1
Non/w combustible deck = 3
SIDING Combustible = 5
OTHER Structures
Discretion=0,1,3,5,10
2 ways in/out road = 1 1 good road in = 3 1 poor road in = 5
Road width >20’ = 1 Road width < 20’ = 5
ACCESS
Dead end roads: With turn-a rounds = 1 Without turn-a rounds = 5 Bridge/w load limits <12 Tons = 5
Underground = 1 UTILITIES Aboveground = 5
Water on site = 1 FIRE PROTECTION No water on site = 5
Defensible = 1 FUEL STORAGE (Propane, gas, diesel)
Needs work to defend = 3,5,10
OTHER HAZARDS
Discretion = 0,1,3,5,10
Structure Location__________________________________ GPS_____________________________________________ Legal Description__________________________________ Prepared by_______________________________________ Date__________________________Time_______________
Owners Name_____________________________________ Address__________________________________________ Phone____________________________________________ Occupied yes/no___________Locked yes/no____________ Pets/livestock_____________________________________
Photo
Site Map
Total Score
MATRIX RATING20-30 = Easy; 35-50 = OK with work; >50 = Hard
4.16
5A.1
Fire Operations In The Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 5 - Structure Protection Tactics
Lesson A - Initial Operations and Site Preparation
OBJECTIVES:
1. Identify lessons learned in structure protection.
2. List initial operations to be accomplished upon arrival at an incident orassigned area and describe their importance to firefighting actions.
3. Describe how to prepare structures and the surrounding area to minimizedamage.
5A.2
I. INTRODUCTION
Structure protection can involve the use of both defensive and offensivetactics.
A. Actions taken prior to the arrival of the fire: site and structurepreparation.
B. Actions taken as the fire front arrives: structure defense.
C. Actions taken after the fire front passes: secure structure and mop-upactivities.
II. STRUCTURE PROTECTION: LESSONS LEARNED
A. Tactics employed in structure protection are the same for bothwildland and structural firefighting agencies regardless of the type ofresources utilized.
B. Most interface fires occur under high wind conditions, creating rapidlymoving fires, extreme fire behavior, long range spotting and multiplefire fronts.
C. The scattered location of structures in the interface can limit tacticscommonly used in wildland firefighting, such as direct attack orburnouts.
D. Spot fires create multiple fire fronts and firefighters protectingstructures are often surrounded by flames, showered by burningembers and are subjected to dense smoke during the battle to savesomeone’s home.
E. Escape routes and safety zones are easily compromised in structuredefense by remaining at the structure beyond what we would considersafe in wildland fire operations.
5A.3
F. Mobility is one of the most important tactics employed in structuredefense.
Engines must be able to quickly move from house to house in theprotection effort. Structure engines are larger and less mobile thanwildland engines.
Consider actions in the deployment of firefighting equipment that willallow for rapid response to the changing fire environment, as well asmaintaining the ability to escape to a safety zone.
G. Wise water use is critical to structural defense.
Water may be most effectively used in foam solutions to wet downstructural exposures prior to the arrival of the fire front.
H. Coordination, organization and communications may not be adequateduring initial operations.
I. Resources required may not be available and those on scene may notbe able to control the spreading fire. Resources defending structuresmust be mobile, resourceful, and self-reliant.
J. The ability to communicate among all agencies responding to interfacefires is an absolute must. Regular communication among all resourcesis essential.
K. Situational awareness is required due to the numerous factors that canquickly compromise the safety of everyone involved.
III. INITIAL OPERATIONS
Initial firefighting resources on scene often encounter panicked homeownersand traffic congestion from vehicles moving in and out of the fire scene,often in a very unsafe manner.
Maintain situational awareness, develop needed intelligence, organizeavailable resources and order additional support.
5A.4
You must rapidly develop a mental action plan, set priorities and delegateresponsibilities. Maintain the big picture at all times, scout your area, dostructural triage if time permits.
A. Initial Action Priorities
1. Public and firefighter safety:
• Identify your escape routes and safety zones
Make them known to firefighters and the public. Initiatestructural triage assessments.
• Request assistance from law enforcement agencies andconsider the need to evacuate citizens and provide trafficcontrol.
• Post lookouts or send out observers to provide updatedinformation on the proximity of the fire front if notobvious.
2. Command, control, and accountability
• Maintain contact with all units on scene and your localdispatch office, establish separate command and tacticalradio frequencies if needed to organize communications.
• Provide an initial size up with all required elements. Thisis critical for ensuring that dispatch offices understandthe fire situation, provide incoming units with informationon routes of travel, initial assignments and orderingadditional resources.
• Establish a staging area for incoming units that is large,easy to access and located in an area that will not becompromised by the spreading fire. Designate a stagingarea manager to coordinate incoming resources andprovide information on resource availability.
5A.5
• Do not locate the incident command post at the stagingarea to minimize distractions to the incident managementteam.
B. Homeowner Contacts
Some residents are ready to flee at the first sight of smoke. Otherswill want stay with their homes. You will need to provide advice anddirection.
1. Shelter in place
a. Residents that remain can be helpful. They may knowthe locations of other structures, water sources, accessroutes, hazards, etc. They can help prepare their homebefore the fire hits.
b. Homeowners who remain should be advised on basicsafety considerations. Be alert to equipment. Do not goout into unburned fuel. Know the escape routes and safezones. If trapped by the fire, remain in the structure untilit is safe to exit.
c. The checklist “Caught in a Wildfire” is a handout thatmay be given to homeowners. The checklist includesactions to be done inside and outside the house, properclothing to wear, and other guidelines for family safety.
d. Shelter in place may put citizens at risk and may interferewith operations. Consider the additional stress remaininghomeowners put on firefighters to stay longer than safetypermits.
2. Evacuation
Usually the responsibility of law enforcement agencies. Statesmay have different laws.
5A.6
Example: Wyoming State Statute 35-9-116 states in part; “Inthe event of a hazard of immediate life threatening severity, thestate fire marshal or the chief of a fire department or districtmay order evacuation of a building or area and may implementemergency measures to protect life and property and to removethe hazard.”
a. Evacuation may be required to clear the area forfirefighting operations and to minimize risk to citizens.We can ask people to evacuate, but only law enforcementofficers have the authority to make them leave.
b. Advise evacuees to take a minimum of belongings withthem. Suggest they close-up, but not lock theirresidences. Direct them to the appropriate route, towatch for incoming equipment, and to any location wherethey are to gather.
C. Routing Traffic and Establishing Access
1. Request assistance from local law enforcement for trafficcontrol. If law enforcement is not on scene, delegate trafficcontrol to someone. Use flares, emergency lights and othervisible safety warning devices at all times. Coordinate trafficcontrol with law enforcement when they arrive on scene.
2. You may encounter narrow access roads already filled with, andeven blocked by local traffic.
3. Develop a traffic plan and communicate the information to allunits and dispatch. Identify routes into and out of the area withsigns or flagging.
4. Clear existing traffic to make way for fire equipment.Alternatively, direct civilian traffic to the roadside until fireequipment has passed, and tell them when they can move out.
5A.7
5. Leave a clear path for other incoming units. Note weight limitsor bottlenecks that may limit some equipment.
IV. STRUCTURE AND SITE PREPARATION
If there is any time available before the fire reaches a structure, much can bedone to improve the chances of saving the structure.
Site preparation depends upon the time and assistance you have prior to thefire’s approach.
Initial attack on interface fires offers little time for preparation. Often all thatcan be done is to get an engine to the structure and position hose lays.
Site preparation should be based on the fuels, expected fire behavior and theinformation you gather conducting structural triage.
Use engine crews, hand crews, heavy equipment and other resourcesavailable.
A. The Structure
Look at the structure as fuel. Wood roofs and siding are morevulnerable to ignition than non-combustible types. Virtually anyopening into the structure is an entry point for firebrands. Payparticular attention to the likely ignition points.
1. Shake roofs
2. Cedar lap siding
3. Open vents
4. Open, broken, and screenless windows
5. Open doorways or breezeways
6. Open crawl spaces
5A.8
7. On and under decks
8. Other flammable materials
B. On Site Resources
Look for things that you can use to help prepare the structure andfight the fire. With a little resourcefulness, lots of things around ahome can be put to good use. Such things include:
1. Materials for covering openings (plywood, boards, sheet metal,etc.)
2. Hammers, saws, nails, wire, etc. (for securing coverings)
3. Ladders (put on safe side of house)
4. Rakes, brooms, blowers, etc., for removing leaves, needles, orgrass
5. Chain saws, trimming saws, axes, shovels
C. Locate Water Sources
Locate water sources that could be used; even small ones.
1. Hydrant types: wet barrel, dry barrel, private industrial oragricultural hydrants which require activation before use.
2. Pools
3. Cisterns and tanks
3. Irrigation systems
4. Garden hose outlets (good for filling engine tank)
5A.9
D. Adjacent Resources
1. Contact fire units adjacent to your area of protection.
2. Determine mutual protection boundaries. Adjust assignments ifnecessary to even the workload.
3. Write down radio call ID’s and frequencies.
4. Learn the routes to use in moving to assist each other.
E. Clearance Around Structures
1. Research indicates:
a. Large flames and crown fires generally don’t ignitehomes.
b. Intense fires burning farther than 100 feet from a structuredon’t transfer enough radiant heat to ignite the structure.
c. More often small ignitions and spotting start structures onfire.
(1) Firebrands landing on combustible material of ornear the home start ignitions.
(2) Continuous surface fuels allow surface fires tospread to and ignite the structure.
2. Home ignition zone
The home ignition zone determines the vulnerability of a homeand surrounding area to wildfire.
The home ignition zone includes the home and extends adistance of 100 - 200 feet around the outside perimeter of thehome.
5A.10
F. Removing and Trimming Fuels
State laws vary on who may or may not have the authority to removefuels around private structures. Get permission from the landowner orappropriate local authority.
Suppression resources have to communicate, coordinate, andcooperate with the local jurisdictional entities in the interface.
1. Combustible material and vegetation should be clearedcompletely around the structure. Use discretion and considerthe homeowner’s efforts and expense in landscaping.Landscape trees and shrubbery adjacent to the structure canoften be adequately wet down with foam to protect the home.
2. Leave isolated or widely scattered plants, and most ornamentalshrubs and trees. Trimming lower branches and eliminatingladder fuels will effectively isolate the aerial fuel from the fire.
3. Pile cleared vegetation where it will not burn, or will not cause aproblem if it does. Simply felling trees or lopping off branchesand leaving them lay may create a more hazardous fuel bed thanyou had before.
G. Fireline Construction
Fireline is a strip of mineral soil cleared of vegetation intended to stopthe spread of the fire.
1. Construct fireline in fuels and terrain where you can control themain fire or your firing operation. Light fuels, grass, scatteredshrubs and forest litter are the best location for firelineconstruction because of minimizing the amount of workrequired and decreasing the exposure of firefighters holding theline. Try to use openings in tight forest canopies.
5A.11
2. Fireline should be located as close as possible to the structure.If flammable vegetation that could carry fire to the structureremains inside the control line, firebrands could still ignite a firethat reaches the structure.
3. Take advantage of existing breaks in the fuel.
a. Roads and driveways.
b. Lawns and landscaped areas.
c. Grazed and trampled grass.
d. Power line rights-of-way.
e. Trails or paths.
H. Intermediate Fuels
Intermediate fuels are any combustibles located near the structure.They can sometimes convey fire directly to the structure, producefirebrands, or radiant heat that will threaten the structure.
Common examples of intermediate fuels:
1. Woodpiles (lumber, posts or firewood)
2. Wood fences
3. Decks and awnings
4. Yard furniture
5. Wood swing sets and play houses
5A.12
I. Yard Accumulation
As well as the obvious combustibles that can directly threaten thestructure, there are common things scattered round the yard that createcontrol problems or have a value worth protecting.
Yard accumulation can interfere with the placement and movement ofhose lines. It can also greatly complicate and delay firing operations.
1. Immobile vehicles
2. Boats and small trailers
3. Power tools
4. Stored material (pipes, poles, etc.)
J. Flammable and Explosive Hazards
Many things can burn violently or explode. They deserve specialattention as soon as possible.
Examples include:
1. Elevated gasoline or diesel tanks
Clear fuel around such hazards to a distance adequate toprotect them from excessive radiant heat. The requiredclearance will depend upon fire intensity and your ability to coolor shield them.
2. LP gas tanks
3. Vehicle components (batteries, shocks, tanks, mounted tires,drivelines, etc.)
4. Pressure vessels and aerosol cans (even if the contents are notflammable)
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5. Outbuilding storing fertilizers, pool chemicals, motor vehiclefluids (diesel fuel, brake fluid, oil, etc.)
6. Other hazardous materials
V. STRUCTURE PREPARATIONS
A. Exterior Preparation
1. The roof is the most readily and frequently ignited part of astructure exposed to wildland fire.
2. Clear needles and leaves off of the roof and out of the raingutters if it can be done safely.
3. Ladders can be used to access roof areas that can not be wetdown with hose from the ground level.
• Avoid contacting electrical lines with water or whenmoving a ladder.
• Wet roofs and high winds create the potential for fallingoff the roof.
• Avoid climbing on roofs if possible.
4. Cover openings and potential openings.
• Any entry of fire or firebrands into the structure greatlyincreases control problems and the likelihood thestructure will be damaged or destroyed.
• Concentrate your efforts to openings on the side of thestructure that is exposed to the fire.
• Leave window screens attached and close any exteriorwindow coverings.
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B. Interior Preparation
1. Close windows.
2. Close non-flammable window coverings such as blinds, shadesand drapes.
3. Close interior doors to limit fire spread should the interiorbecome involved.
4. Turn off fans and swamp coolers that may allow embers intothe structure.
5. Turn off gas (LPG or natural) at the source.
6. Leave electricity on to run pumps, provide lighting, etc.
7. Leave on a porch light and a central interior light to providevisibility in dark, smoky conditions. Patrolling engines willmore easily notice the house and firefighters entering it will havesome light.
8. Make sure essential doors can be opened. Close but don’t lockall doors.
9. Leave a note for the homeowner describing in what conditionyou have left the structure (utilities, pets, etc.).
C. Private Vehicles
Vehicles that will remain on-site can be taken care of to minimizedamage to them and to the degree to which they will be in the way.
1. Park them in a sheltered location, away from heat andfirebrands.
2. Make sure they will not interfere with the movement of fireequipment.
5A.15
3. Do not park them over flammable vegetation. If flammables arein the area spray a foam blanket around and underneath thevehicles.
4. Park the vehicle headed out, if possible, with the keys in theignition.
5. Close the doors and windows, but do not lock.
D. Pets and Livestock
Most often, animals that are free to move around will manage to avoidbeing burned. However, if they are fenced or chained they may needto be freed. Troublesome or frightened pets might need to be placedin the garage, residence, or other enclosure. If a large problem withpets or livestock is encountered, call for assistance from the localanimal control agency.
VI. PRE-TREATMENT OF STRUCTURES
A. Sprinkler Systems
Sprinklers may be used to wet down the structure and/or thevegetation around a structure.
B. Class A Foam
1. Proven technique in protecting structures.
2. Can be quickly applied to the structure using engines orportable tanks.
3. Easy to use by batch mixing in tank without foamproportioners.
4. Minimizes removal of ornamental landscaping and firelineconstruction. Can be used to wet down landscape vegetationaround structure.
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5. Maximizes firefighter safety. Crews move to safety zones untilfire front passes, then return to conduct any needed mop-up.
C. Fire Gel
Fire Gel is produced by commercial vendors under various tradenames.
Fire Gel is a gel concentrate that when added to water, transformswater into a fire preventing and heat absorbing gel. It will adhere toany kind of surface, even vertical window panes.
Fire Gel is applied by special nozzles and systems.
D. Structure Wrap
Structure wrap is available from commercial vendors under varioustrade names. It comes in rolls (approximately 3 feet wide by 300 feetlong) and is made from similar material as the fire shelter. It can bereused if care is taken when removing it from the original application.
New materials and chemicals are currently being developed that haveproven effectiveness in protecting structures from fires whileminimizing the exposure of firefighters. Stay current with rapidlydeveloping technology.
5A.17
CAUGHT IN A WILDFIRE
If your home is threatened by a wildfire, you may be contacted by a fire or lawenforcement official and advised to evacuate. However, if you are not contacted intime, or if you decide to stay with your home, we offer the following suggestions:
• If you are able, evacuate your pets and all family members who are notessential to protecting the home, but do not jeopardize your life.
• Be properly dressed to survive the fire. Cotton and wool fabrics arepreferable to synthetics. Wear long pants and boots, and carry with you forprotection a long sleeved shirt or jacket, gloves, a dry handkerchief to shieldyour face, and goggles. Wear a hard hat.
OUTSIDE YOUR HOUSE
• Remove combustible items from around the house. This includes lawn andpoolside furniture, umbrellas, and tarp coverings. If they catch fire, theadded heat could ignite your home.
• If possible, close outside attic, eve, and basement vents. This will eliminatethe possibility of sparks blowing into hidden areas within the house. Closewindow shutters.
• Locate garden hoses so they will reach any place on the house. Use thespray-gun type nozzle, adjusted to spray. Turn the hose faucet on so that itis ready to go when it is needed.
• Place large plastic trash cans or buckets around the perimeter of the houseand fill them with water. Soak burlap sacks, small rugs, and large rags.They can be helpful in beating out burning embers or small fires.
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• Place a ladder against the roof of the house opposite the side of theapproaching fire. If you have a combustible roof, set a lawn sprinkler on it.This will be more effective than a hose. However, do not turn water onahead of time, as wood shingles will dry quickly and you will have wastedwater.
• If you have a portable gasoline-powered pump to take water from aswimming pool or tank, make sure it is operating and is in place.
INSIDE YOUR HOUSE
• Close all windows and doors to prevent sparks from blowing inside, but donot lock them. If firefighters arrive to help save your home, they may needinstant access.
• Close all doors inside the house to block the circulation of air and movementof fire from room to room.
• Open the damper on your fireplace to help stabilize outside/inside pressure,but close the fireplace screen so sparks will not ignite the room.
• Turn on a light in each room of the house, on the porch, in the garden and inthe yard. This will make the house more visible in heavy smoke at night.
• Fill bathtubs, sinks and other water containers with water. Toilet tanks andwater heaters are important water reservoirs.
• Shut off gas at the meter.
• If you have time, take down flammable drapes and curtains. If you don’thave time to take them down, leave them open. Close all Venetian blinds orfire resistant window coverings to reduce the amount of heat radiating intoyour home.
• Move overstuffed furniture away from windows and sliding glass doors andinto the center of the room.
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• Park your car in the garage, heading out; close car windows; leave keys inthe ignition.
• Close garage door but leave it unlocked. Disconnect the automatic garagedoor opener.
• Place valuable documents and mementos inside the car in the garage forquick departure, if necessary. Any pets still with you should also be put inthe car.
WHEN THE FIRE IS AT YOUR HOUSE
• Enter your home with your family, closing but not locking the doors. Keepthe entire family together and remain calm. Stay inside the house as the firepasses. It takes time for a fire to burn from the outside into the interior ofthe house. Leave the house if it becomes apparent that the fire is burninginside the house. Consider using the house to block you from outsideradiant heat.
AFTER THE FIRE PASSES
• Check the roof immediately. Extinguish any sparks or embers using a gardenhose, barrels of water and small rugs. Then, check inside the attic for hiddensparks. Still keep the windows and doors closed in the house. Continuechecking for at least six to ten hours after the fire is thought to be out.
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5A-02-S215-IR5A.21
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5B.1
Fire Operations In The Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 5 - Structure Protection Tactics
Lesson B - Engine Operations, Water Use and Class A Foam
OBJECTIVES:
1. Describe four considerations in engine access and positioning in structuredefense.
2. List the three tactics employed in confronting a fire at a structure.
3. List the three types of foam and describe ways they can be used oninterface fires.
4. Describe two reasons for maintaining mobility in structure defense.
5B.2
I. INTRODUCTION
Engine crews and apparatus are the primary resource used in structuralprotection. This unit will discuss proven techniques in successful interfaceengine tactics which maximize efficiency, mobility and firefighter safety.
II. ENGINE ACCESS AND POSITIONING
Often, structures threatened by wildland fire may be at the end of long,narrow driveways, off dirt roads and flanked by flammable vegetation.
A. Negotiating The Access
1. On the way, pay attention to landmarks and hazards. Notepotential safety zones. Flag escape routes and safety zones.Remember that you may have to leave in a hurry and under verysmoky conditions.
2. Scout access roads before committing large apparatus.Scouting may be done by smaller engines, strike team leaders,or on foot if necessary.
3. Back the engine into position from the last known turn around.
B. Positioning The Engine
The engine should be positioned to make it safe and convenient towork from.
1. Do not block travel routes for other equipment or evacuatingvehicles. Park off the road.
2. Do not park over flammable vegetation. Scrape or burn awaythe fuel from your parking area if needed.
3. Park on the side of the structure that will minimize exposure ofthe engine to heat and blowing firebrands.
5B.3
4. Be near enough, but not right next to, the structure to limit thelength of hose lines. Avoid structure collapse zone (1½ timesthe height of the structure).
5. Avoid parking next to or under such hazards as:
a. Power lines
b. Flammable trees or snags
c. LP gas tanks; pressure valves
d. Buildings that might burn
6. Leave the doors, windows, and compartments closed and thekeys in the ignition. You don�t want to find your vehicle on fire.
7. A lookout, usually the pump operator, should always remainwith the engine.
III. WORKING HOSE LINES
A. 1½" hose lines are recommended for use in structural protection.
B. 1½" Single Jacket Forestry Hose provide the mobility needed toprotect all sides of the structure.
C. In fine fuels with low intensity fires, 3/4" or 1" hose lines can providea mobile and reliable choice. One disadvantage of hardline is it cannotbe rapidly cut off and abandoned if escape becomes necessary.
D. Deploy two lines, one around each side of the structure or around apair of adjacent structures. They must be long enough to meet behindthe structures.
However, keep in mind the pump and water capacity of your engine.Type 6 and 7 engines may not have the pump capacity or water supplyfor extensive hose lengths.
5B.4
A 100 foot by 1½ inch single jacket hose line may be preconnectedand secured to the rear of an engine by means of webbing or a strap;in order to rapidly deploy and reload structure protection lines.Access and safety are enhanced if personnel are not required to climbon top of an engine. (See student reference �Structure ProtectionHoseline Evolution� 5B-01-S215-SR.)
E. Ensure lines have a shut-off valve at the engine. This will allow thelines to be rapidly disconnected should escape become necessary.
F. Deploy the lines around behind the engine, not in front to prevent thehoses from wrapping around a wheel in a rapid egress situation.
G. Supplementary lines can be used for back up, interior attack or spotfires on the back side of the structure. Any line positioned forimmediate use should be charged and checked.
H. Engine protection line. Partially charge and coil a 50 ft. section of 1½inch hose near the vicinity of the engine control panel where it can beeasily reached and re-charged in the event the fire overruns yourengine�s position. Make sure it will not fall off if the engine is moving.
I. Working lines can and should be left in place until the structure is outof danger. If an engine has to leave to refill, protect adjacentstructures or retreat to a safety zone, working lines left in place canimmediately be put back in service when an engine returns to thescene.
J. Working lines should be left so that they are easily noticed and withinreach of the outlets on an incoming engine. Possibly mark them withflagging. Do not leave the couplings where they might be run over.You can drape the ends of the lines over a fence, mailbox, etc.
K. Working lines can be laid before an engine actually takes up a position.For example, hand crews could set up hose lays prior to the arrival ofthe fire front, saving critical time for the engine units when they arrive.
If possible, cover the hose lines with dirt for protection from heat.
5B.5
IV. NOZZLES
A combination nozzle is the most versatile. It provides for conservation oflimited water supplies when using the spray tip for wetting down exposures,or the knock down power and reach of a straight stream.
A. Straight stream tips on working lines or roof lines can provide a betterwater stream in high wind conditions.
B. Air aspirating foam nozzles or combination foam nozzles, when usedwith properly mixed foam, provide good pretreatment for structureprotection.
V. CONFRONTING THE FIRE AT THE STRUCTURE
A. Introduction
Strategies and tactics for protecting a structure when the fire frontarrives depend upon the type of fuels surrounding the structure andthe equipment available.
� Structures surrounded by fine fuels can effectively be protectedby stopping the fire spread with water or firelines.
� Using water to prevent fire spread in running crown fires withbrush or timber fuel types is ineffective in relation to fireintensity and exposes firefighters to undue risk.
� Water is most effectively used in heavy fuel types with foamapplication prior to the fire�s arrival, or putting out spot fires onthe structure after the fire front passes.
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B. Spotting Zone
Most interface fires will put you in the spotting zone.
Airborne firebrands are the biggest problem because they can ignitespot fires and the threat may exist for several hours. Firebrands mayignite new fires as far as a mile or more ahead of the main fire.
The main fire may move through later (putting you in a differentsituation), or it may never get there.
Remain mobile enough to quickly reach any point within your area ofresponsibility. It may not be necessary to deploy lines except toactually put out a fire.
Constantly check for new ignitions on receptive fuel beds includingroofs and woodpiles.
Patrol as necessary, post lookouts with communication, and makesure there are no gaps in surveillance between adjacent areas.
If a spot fire occurs, attack it quickly. Make sure it is completely out,or has a control line capable of preventing its spread. Remain alert forother spot fires.
C. Structure Protection Tactics
1. Full containment around the structure
Full containment: stopping fire before it reaches the structure.
Light fuels and low intensity fire provide opportunities toprevent the fire from reaching the structure.
� Extinguish with water.
� Construct handline or use natural fuel breaks.
5B.7
If you cannot wait for the main fire, or if the fire will be toointense for direct control, you can fire out from a control line.Firing operations and techniques will be discussed later.
2. Partial containment around the structure
If there is not enough time or the fire intensity will not allow youto establish complete containment, you can still attempt toreduce the fire�s intensity as it moves towards the structure ifyou have adequate water supply. If not save the water for thestructure.
Use your working lines to knock down the segment of the firefront that is moving directly toward the structure.
After the main fire passes, check the structure for possibleignitions, such as on the roof, under eaves, rain gutters, andwood decking.
3. No containment possible
The wildland fire will burn over and past the structureunchecked. Suppression efforts are focused on the structure.
Ensure adequate safety zones are accessible, available andknown to all personnel.
If you have an adequate water supply, direct all hose lines ontothe structure and allow the wildland fire to burn past. If the fireintensity threatens your safety, then retreat to a safety zone andre-enter the area when the fire has passed. Or, coat structure inClass A foam and leave until the fire front has passed.
D. Fighting Roof Fires
Combustible roofs are frequently ignited by wildland fires. Firebrandsrain down, and radiant heat or flame contact can add to the problem.
5B.8
When the fire on the roof is small, It can be extinguished from theoutside. Make sure they are out; remove the involved shingles tomake certain.
AGENCY POLICY CONCERNING FIGHTING EXTERIORROOF FIRES MUST BE FOLLOWED.
When fire has spread across the roof, the structure is seriouslythreatened, especially in high winds. It must then be assumed that thefire has spread into and through the roof.
ONLY AGENCY PERSONNEL TRAINED AND EQUIPPEDFOR STRUCTURE FIREFIGHTING ARE PERMITTED TOMAKE AN INTERIOR ATTACK!
Knowing if a roof is too far gone is a judgement call, and will dependon your resources, other priorities, etc. Generally, roofs that are morethan 1/4 involved are too far gone and firefighting resources can bebetter used to save other structures.
VI. WATER AND FOAM USE
Wise water use is critical to the success of structure defense efforts! Wateris usually in short supply in these situations.
Rural water systems are commonly of low capacity or nonexistent. Evengood supplies were not designed to handle dozens of structure firessimultaneously, not to mention the wildland fire. All too often power failuresshut down system pumps anyway.
A. Water Supply
Conserve water by using only enough to accomplish the task at hand.
Save a 100-gallon reserve in your engine. That water is for yourengine and crew if you are threatened or need to escape.
5B.9
Take advantage of any opportunity to add water to your tank, if itdoes not take you out of position at a bad time and does not requirean undue amount of time. For example, run a garden hose in yourtank while you are parked, or stop at a hydrant along your way.
Know the characteristics of the water supply you are relying on,whether it be hydrant, residential supply system, water tenders,engines drafting from open sources, etc. Following are points toconsider:
1. System capacity: How much total water is available? Whencan it be expected to run out?
2. Flow rate: How many gallons per minute can you count on?Will that be continuously available, as from pipes or supplyengines, or will it be intermittent, as from water tenders?
3. Pressure: What will be the pressure at the source you use? Is itadequate to run hose lines directly?
4. Reliability: Is the system dependent upon pumps or is it gravityflow? Can water use elsewhere drop your pressure?
B. Water Application
Effective application is the key to conserving available water.
As the wildland fire approaches, heat begins to build up, andfirebrands may accompany it. When the fire involves the wildlandfuels around the structure, the heat impinging on you and the structureis at its maximum. After the wildland fuels burn out, the heat wave willsubside. Heavy fuel present may continue to generate heat.
The timing of water application with respect to the passage of the heatwave is important. While you must make your own decision on howto apply water, based on your situation and your experience, thefollowing may be helpful.
5B.10
If you can simply extinguish the fire, go ahead and do it. If youcannot put the fire out quickly and directly, then consider how to makethe best use of your water.
1. Wetting down with water (foam will be discussed later)
Wetting down is the application of water to fuel and structuresbefore the fire arrives. It is generally done to the roof.
Wetting down is usually a waste of time and water. In the faceof winds, low humidity, and fire, the wetted surfaces will soondry out and be susceptible to ignition.
Water is more effective if saved to put out ignitions actuallyoccurring on the structure.
2. Reducing the heat buildup
Water can be used to reduce or limit the potential buildup ofheat. It can also be effective in increasing the fine fuelmoistures in grass or pine needles.
Knock down the fire in surface fuels where it could spreadupward into aerial fuels (such as tree crowns). Under severeburning conditions, fire can still move through the crowns fromheat built up elsewhere.
Prevent it from getting into heavy, troublesome fuels such aswoodpiles or brush patches.
Don�t waste water on crown fires, heavy fuels or fully involvedstructures. The heat output in these situations far outweighs theability of water to cool it down.Water applied directly to very hot (as evidenced by scorchingpaint and smoke) structure surfaces can help prevent ignition.Water applied directly is more effective than a �water curtain.�
Try not to get water on a hot window; glass will break.
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3. The duration of the heat wave
The duration of the intense heat produced by burning wildlandfuels depends upon the fuels involved and on the overallburning conditions.
In light fuels such as grass, the flame front will pass a givenpoint in a minute or so. It will generally move past the structurein no more than a few minutes.
In brush, such as chaparral, burnout times are longer andspread rates are often lower than for grass under similarconditions. The fire may take 10-15 minutes to move past thestructure.
Crown fires in timber can generate intense heat that may last aconsiderable time at any given location. Maintain escape routeand safety zone!
4. Peak heat wave tactics
During the peak of the heat and smoke, it is very tempting tospray water at the wall of flame, but it will have no effect andwill waste water.
To escape the intense radiant heat, seek refuge in the shade ofsomething that blocks it. Duck around a wall, stay below theroof peak on the sheltered side, or take shelter in the structure.
Wait until you have an opportunity to do some good with yourwater. Then step out and put it where it counts. Use the waterwhen and where you have the advantage, not on fire that isburning at its highest intensity.
5B.12
VII. USE OF FOAM ON INTERFACE FIRES
A. Class A Foam
Class A foam is an aggregation of small bubbles created bymechanically injecting air into a foam solution (a mixture of water andfoam concentrate) by:
� Air aspirating nozzle systems that can produce wet and fluidfoams.
� Compressed air foam systems that can produce wet, fluid, anddry foams.
B. Properties of Foam
1. Foam increases the working volume of available water throughthe expansion of air bubbles.
2. Foam breaks down the surface tension of water for greaterpenetration of fuel surfaces (makes water wetter ).
3. Dense foam can be used to insulate fuels from exposure toflame or smother flames by limiting air supply.
C. Types of Foam
Types of foam have different capabilities in fire suppression.
1. Wet foam
Flows readily, penetrates rapidly, but drains (dissipates) quickly.
Works well for mopup, wetting down fine fuels to create wetlines to burn out from.
Apply the foam line immediately ahead of the ignitors with thefoam line width being three times the flame length.
5B.13
2. Fluid foam
Flows readily and drains slower than wet foam.
Works well for wet lines in fine fuels.
Drains slower than wet foam and provides an insulating barrier.
Aerial fuels can also be coated with foam in order to keep asurface fire on the surface.
Excellent for pretreating structure exposures due to the ability offoam to break down the surface tension of water for greaterpenetration of moisture in exposed areas.Fluid foam can last up to 30 minutes.
3. Dry foam
Coats and adheres well; wets and drains at a slow rate.
Can be used to smother flames in burning material providedquick, deep penetration is not needed.
Excellent for insulating and capping in moisture on structures oranything it is sprayed one.
Dry foam can last up to one hour if conditions are right.
D. Structure Treatment
Foam will cling to walls and the roof, to provide the insulating barrierneeded to protect from heat and flying embers. Apply wet foam firstfor moisture penetration and fluid foam second to cover and helpinsulate the structure. A final covering of the structure with dry foamwill help insulate it even longer.
5B.14
Foam should be applied to the structure by lofting the foam from adistance. Start on the roof allowing layers to build up and completelycover all combustible surfaces. Roofs, eves, outside walls and anycombustibles on the ground adjacent to the structure can be covered.
When time permits, several coatings on the structure with foam willallow the moisture within the foam to penetrate porous materials. Theaction of the surfactant in foam lets water that would normally run offpenetrate and stay with the fuel.
Foaming structures before the fire front hits is especially beneficialwhere crews will not be able to remain on site to provide protection.
When applying foam to a structure in the path of an approachingwildfire, timing is critical. Foam applied too early to the structure maynot have the durability to provide optimum protection; begin thefoaming operation too late, and firefighters may not get all structurescoated, or worse, may not be able to escape an area before the flamefront hits.
Begin treating the structure 10 to 15 minutes before the expected frontbegins.
Class A foam can also be used to coat fuel tanks and LPG containers.Foam clinging to the sides of these tanks will cool them and protectthem from direct flame contact. However, Class A foam is notintended to be used on flammable liquid fires. When any flammableliquids or other hazardous materials are involved with fire, vacate thearea, report it, and allow firefighters trained in hazardous materials tohandle the situation.
VIII. �STAY MOBILE!�
A. Mobility Is Critical
When numerous structures are threatened and limited suppressionresources are available. �Hit and run� tactics have proven to beeffective in some very demanding structure defense situations.
5B.15
B. Try Not To Become Tied Down
Don�t become tied down to lengthy supply and attack lines in caseyou are needed at another structure or moving is necessary if yoursafety is threatened. If possible, limit the hose lines to 200' or less.
C. Hydrants
Resist attaching supply lines to hydrants. Emergency units may beblocked by the supply lines and your escape may be compromised.Hit and run tactics do not require heavy streams and supply lines arerarely warranted.
D. If You Must Leave In A Hurry
Abandon the hose and take only the fittings. Most engines carryenough hose to deploy working lines several times.
IX. RETREATING AND RETURNING
A. At times, retreat is necessary due to the intensity of the fire.
When the heat becomes, or will become, so bad that your safety iscompromised, it is time to pull out using identified escape routes andsafety zones.
Use appropriate colored flagging to mark escape routes and safetyzones.
B. Ensure all personnel are accounted for and maintain communicationduring retreat.
Remain calm, don�t let yourself become excited and careless. Usecaution and watch for hazards along the escape route.
5B.16
C. If escape routes are cut off, take shelter in the structure, until it is safeto move out.
The structure will not immediately burn down and will offer the bestprotection against heat and smoke.
When the worst of the fire has passed, you may be able to return anddo some good on the structure. However, there may be new hazardscreated by the fire, including:
1. Downed power lines.
2. Burning snags, which can fall or drop large pieces withoutwarning.
3. Debris on the road, including rocks and logs.
4. Rolling material that comes off slopes, having been madeunstable by the recent burn.
5. Hot spots next to the road; smoky conditions.
6. Weakened bridges or cattle guards.
7. Be aware of fire situation on mid-slope roads.
X. EXTINGUISHMENT AND FOLLOW-UP
A. If time permits, mop up all residual burning materials in the vicinity ofthe structure to prevent spotting from an ignition source that wentunnoticed.
B. Remain at the structure until the homeowner returns or ensure that thestructure is checked by patrol units at regular intervals if you mustleave for other assignments.
C. In heavier fuels, structure protection may need to be providedcontinuously to a single threatened house for an extended period oftime.
5B.17
STRUCTURE PROTECTION HOSELINE EVOLUTION
In the Past
Municipal fire departments have become more involved with structure protection inwildland/urban interface fires.
Typically, a municipal department will pull a preconnected line, roll out a trunk line,or use donut rolls to protect a structure. These methods involved a small amountof time to put in service, but require a lengthy pick up time. The introduction oflightweight single jacketed forestry hose has helped, but a quick and efficient way tobreak down, roll up, reposition, and set up at new structure was still needed.
A New Solution
Many methods are being used to reload forestry hose. Putting the hose on top ofthe hose cover or wrapping it around the hose reel guides in a figure eight are twocommon practices. These methods are fairly quick, but entanglement and the riskof injury are present. Removing the hose from these positions presentcomplications as well. During a training session on these hose evolutions,firefighters developed a new method. The method shown here has proven to befaster, safer, and more organized than other methods developed to date.
Considered herein are the tactical requirements that necessitate quick pick-up,loading and relocation to another assignment with rapid deployment capability, inmost fast moving wildfires. This new method allows the hose to be placed on theground, charged and advanced, advanced dry, or payed off the shoulder. Withpractice, deployment and pick-up times are in the one minute time frame.
Other Considerations
Always be alert for situations that shout �Watch Out!� Know what is happening inyour area as well as the fire in general. Don�t commit your resources on a loser.Fight fire aggressively and provide for safety first.
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5B.18
Position apparatus with an escape routeavailable. If the drive is not open on both ends,then back up to the structure for quick egress.Always use a back-up person.
Two firefighters deploy 11/2 inch forestry hosearound both sides of the structure. Streamsshould be able to cross at rear of structure. Useyour department�s S.O.P.
On engineer�s signal to shut down, bothfirefighters will bleed lines. Shoulder load hosewith nozzle next to chest.
Meanwhile, engineer disconnects lines fromdischarge outlets to facilitate draining the hose.
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After the hose has been fully shoulder loaded,the firefighter must secure the bundle with astrap. Hose strap sling, or single length withloops. See additional drawings this page.
Sling
Single strap with loops Single strap tied together
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Hang bundled hose from roller guides or otherstable projection on apparatus.
After the hose has been secured, the engineerre-couples it to the gated wye at the pumppanel.
Unit is now available for assignment. Follow remaining steps for proper deployment procedure.
The hose is simply let out as the firefighteradvances and the line is charged when extended.
On arrival at the next structure, the firefighterreloads the hose on his/her shoulder, nozzle infront next to body.
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Make sure you are positioned so that the twostreams can cross at the rear of the structure toensure effective protection.
An alternate method is to place the hose bundleon the ground at the unit and advance a workingline toward the fire.
Another method involves placing the bundle nearthe apparatus and advancing a dry line from thatpoint.
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5B.23
Use of Foam in Structure Defense
In all structure defense situations the firefighter should have the capability toproduce a foam solution in the hose lines that will be set up or are being used topre-treat structures, wildland fuels and other improvements. Any nozzle used byfirefighters (conventional or foam) can be used to discharge foam solution.
As talked about earlier the same strategies and tactics used in set up for defensivestands and attacks with plain water should be used with foam solution and foamnozzles.
A. Aspirated Foam Systems (Low, Medium, and High ExpansionNozzles)
Can usually produce two types of foams with different capabilities infire suppression efforts.
1. Types of foam
� Fluid foams
Excellent for pre-treating structure exposures due to theability of foam to break down the surface tension of waterfor greater penetration of moisture in exposed areas.
� Wet foams
Works well for mopup, wetting down fine fuels to createwetlines for direct attack or burning out lines.
2. Durability of foam application depends on wind, temperatureand moisture content and foam concentration.
� Fluid foams that have been applied in a concentrated areacan last up to 30 minutes.
5B-02-S215-SRPage 1 of 12
5B.24
� Consider using different types of foam in structureprotection. Apply Wet foams first for moisturepenetration and then apply a Fluid foam to cap in themoisture.
� Remember: water supply and experience with the systemwill have a great impact on the durability of the foam andprocedures used.
3. Foam nozzles and the foam they produce
a. Low expansion nozzles
� Most versatile nozzle for various flow rates.
� Discharge distance is long 15 to 30 feet.
� Can be used in all attack situations.
� Wet and Fluid foams can be produced.
b. Medium expansion nozzles
� Generally requires a high flow rate 50 gpm orabove for the nozzle to work.
� Can be used in most attack situations but worksbest in indirect attack and mop up situations.
� A Fluid foam is produced.
� Produces large amounts of foam (bubbles) in ashort time.
� Discharge distance is fairly short 3 to 8 feet.
� Wind can cause foam produced, to blow away.
5B-02-S215-SRPage 2 of 12
5B.25
c. High expansion nozzles
� Generally requires high flow rates 50 gpm to 70gpm for the nozzle to work.
� Nozzles tend to be large and bulky.
� Two to three people usually needed to carry nozzle.
� Nozzle is usually fixed mounted.
� Works best in indirect attack and mop upsituations.
� A Fluid foam is produced.
� Produces great amounts of foam (bubbles) in ashort time.
� Discharge distance is fairly short 2 to 4 feet.
� Wind can cause foam produced, to blow away.
4. Attack methods
a. Structure protection
� Foam will cling to walls and roof, to provide theinsulating barrier needed to protect from heat andflying embers. Foaming structures before the firefront hits is especially beneficial to structures wherecrews will not be able to remain on site to provideprotection. Use both wet and fluid foams incombination.
5B-02-S215-SRPage 3 of 12
5B.26
� When applying foam to a structure in the path of anapproaching wildfire, timing is critical. Foamapplied too early to the structure may not have thedurability to provide optimum protection; begin thefoaming operation too late, and firefighters may notget all structures coated, or worse, may not be ableto escape an area before the flame front hits.
� Begin treating the structure 10 to 15 minutes beforethe expected front is to arrive. When time permits,several coatings on the structure with wet foam willallow the moisture within the foam to penetrateporous materials. The action of the surfactant infoam lets water that would normally run offpenetrate and stay on the fuel.
� Foam should be applied to the structure by loftingthe foam from a distance (low expansion nozzleworks best), allowing layers to build up andcompletely cover all combustible surfaces. Roofs,eves, outside walls and any combustibles on theground adjacent to the structure should also becovered.
b. Exposure protection
� Foam�s ability to adhere to vertical, sloped, upside-down, and slippery surfaces is the key to exposureprotection. Without this characteristic, no barriercould be produced and wetting may not becomplete. Water on the other hand is effective onexposures only as long as it continues to flow overthe exposure. Foam allows the firefighter theopportunity to cover an exposure and leave towork on another exposure; water does not. Applyfoam to outside walls, eaves, roofs, columns, orother threatened surfaces.
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5B.27
c. Mop up
� Using foam helps prevent fires from becomingdeep-seated in the ground. Blanketing a fire withfoam is effective at securing the perimeter of a largefire and totally securing small fires. Mediumnozzles are very good tools for this kind ofoperation. Before leaving the area, check for steamrising from the foam. Steam plumes indicatepockets of heat which need more attention.
� Wet foam put on charred material early in mop-updoes the work usually done with a fog nozzle tipand a tool. It quickly penetrates the fuel and theground where it lays, and as a blanket separatesoxygen from any remaining smoldering fuel. Thisworks extremely well on pitchy and punky material,duff and litter.
� For deep-seated fires in stumps, landings, and logdecks, install a mop-up wand on a forester nozzle.This device works well with foam solution.
d. Direct attack
� Apply foam to the base of the linear flame front.On wide hotspots secure the edge and worktoward the center. While attacking the edge, directsome of the foam stream onto immediately adjacentunburned fuels.
� For pump and roll (running) attack from engines,apply as you would a water stream, long enough toensure extinguishment. This will not take as long aswith plain water. As soon as steam is visible, moveon. Leave a foam blanket over the hot fuels tosmother and continue to wet the fuel.
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5B.28
� Foam�s ability to wet and cool fuels long after thefirefighter has left the area is a key to effective foamuse. Greater efficiency results as the firefightermoves on to a new area because he/she knows thefoam will continue to work where it has beenapplied.
e. Indirect attack/barrier
� Apply foam as a wet line adjacent to a backfire orburn out. Apply immediately ahead of the firingteam. The foam line should be at least two and ahalf times as wide as the anticipated flame lengths.Coat all sides of the fuel whenever possible. Applyfoam at close range as water would be applied forpenetration into the ground and surface fuels. Thenapply foam to the aerial fuels around the indirectline. This can be done by lofting a �fluid foam�onto the brush and tree canopies to fire proofthem.
� Foam�s abilities to penetrate dead and live fuelsquickly, to form an insulating blanket, and to clingto vertical surfaces makes it very useful for fuelprotection, whether for stands of timber, brush,wildlife trees, snags, fuel jackpots, endangeredplants, or log decks. Barrier protection is achievedwith less water, less application time, and with lesspeople than conventional methods.
� The objective of making a barrier is to turn dry fuelinto wet, unburnable fuel. To accomplish this, therate and time of foam application for making abarrier depends on air temperature, relativehumidity, fuel loading and moisture content.Sometimes, due to adverse conditions,reapplication of foam is needed if the foam blanketbreaks down.
5B-02-S215-SRPage 6 of 12
5B.29
Foam is a short-term treatment. It is not aretardant. Generally, if you can see bubbles, thefuels below it will remain wet.
� The characteristics of foam important to barrierprotection are its wetting ability and its durability.The foam must gradually break down to wet thefuels and remain stable to maintain a protectivebarrier.
B. Compressed Air Foam Systems (CAFS)
Can usually produce three types of foams with different capabilities infire suppression efforts. Very versatile in making any type and wetnessof foam.
1. Types of foam
� Dry foams
Excellent for insulating an exposure or anything that thefoam is sprayed on. Excellent product for capping inmoisture on pre-treated surfaces. Foam can last up to 1hour if conditions are right.
� Fluid foams
Excellent for pre-treating structure exposures due to theability of foam to break down the surface tension ofwater for greater penetration of moisture in exposedareas.
� Wet foams
Works well for mopup, wetting down fine fuels to createwetlines for direct attack or burning out blacklines.
5B-02-S215-SRPage 7 of 12
5B.305B-02-S215-SR
Page 8 of 12
2. Durability of foam application depends on wind, temperatureand moisture content and foam concentration.
� Dry foams that have been applied in a concentrated areacan last up to an hour and a half.
� CAFS foam is very durable.
� Remember: water supply and experience with the systemwill have a great impact on the durability and types offoam made.
3. Foam nozzles and the foam they produce
CAFS produced foam bubbles are smaller and more consistent(stronger bubble structure) than those produced by aspiratingnozzles. CAFS systems work best with out any nozzle.Smooth bore ball valves work the best.
� Depending on size of the smooth bore ball valve,discharge distance is from two feet to well over 50 feet.
� Can be used in all attack situations.
� All foam types can be produced.
� Flow rates (gpm) are variable depending on ball valveopening, air flow and water flow.
5B.31
4. Attack methods
a. Structure protection
� Foam will cling to walls and roof, to provide theinsulating barrier needed to protect from heat andflying embers. Foaming structures before the firefront hits is especially beneficial to structures wherecrews will not be able to remain on site to provideprotection. Use both dry and fuild foams incombination.
� When applying foam to a structure in the path of anapproaching wildfire, timing is not as critical aswith an air aspirated system because the foamproduced lasts longer and is more durable. Alwayskeep in mind the safety of the firefighters doing thework.
� Begin treating the structure 10 to 15 minutes beforethe expected front begins. When time permits,several coatings on the structure with fluid foamwill allow the moisture within the foam to penetrateporous materials then cap it with a dry foam.
� Foam should be applied to the structure by loftingthe foam from a distance, allowing layers to buildup and completely cover all combustible surfaces.Roofs, eves, outside walls and any combustibleson the ground adjacent to the structure need to becovered.
5B-02-S215-SRPage 9 of 12
5B.325B-02-S215-SR
Page 10 of 12
b. Exposure protection
� Using a dry foam to coat an exposure allows thefirefighter to move around faster than with an airaspirated foam system. If the firefighter sees foamon the exposure he/she can be assured that thefoam is insulating and wetting the exposure.
c. Mop up
� Using a wet foam helps prevent fires frombecoming deep-seated in the ground. Blanketing afire with a fluid or wet foam and then capping itwith a dry foam is effective at securing theperimeter of a large fire and totally securing smallfires. Before leaving the area, check for steamrising from the foam. Steam plumes indicatepockets of heat which need more attention.
� Wet foam put on charred material early in mop-updoes the work usually done with a fog nozzle tipand a tool. It quickly penetrates the fuel and theground where it lays, and as a blanket separatesoxygen from any remaining smoldering fuel. Thisworks extremely well on pitchy and punky material,duff and litter.
� For deep-seated fires in stumps, landings, and logdecks, install a mop-up wand on a forester nozzle.This device works well with CAFS foam.
5B.335B-02-S215-SR
Page 11 of 12
d. Direct attack
� Apply a dripping foam to the base of the linearflame front. On wide hotspots secure the edge andwork toward the center. While attacking the edge,direct some of the foam stream onto immediatelyadjacent unburned fuels.
� For pump and roll (running) attack from engines,apply as you would a water stream, long enough toensure extinguishment. This will not take as long aswith plain water. Leave a foam blanket over the hotfuels to smother and continue to wet the fuel.
� Foam�s ability to wet and cool fuels long after thefirefighter has left the area is a key to effective foamuse. Greater efficiency results as the firefightermoves on to a new area because he/she knows thefoam will continue to work where it has beenapplied.
e. Indirect attack/barrier
� Apply a fluid foam as a wet line adjacent to abackfire or burn out. Apply immediately ahead ofthe firing team. The foam line should be at leasttwo and a half times as wide as the anticipatedflame lengths. Coat all sides of the fuel wheneverpossible. Apply foam at close range as waterwould be applied for penetration into the groundand surface fuels. Then apply a dry foam to theaerial fuels around the indirect line. This can bedone by lofting a �dry foam� onto the brush andtree canopies to fire proof them.
5B.345B-02-S215-SR
Page 12 of 12
� Foam�s abilities to penetrate dead and live fuelsquickly, to form an insulating blanket, and to clingto vertical surfaces makes it very useful for fuelprotection, whether for stands of timber, brush,wildlife trees, snags, fuel jackpots, endangeredplants, or log decks. Barrier protection is achievedwith less water, less application time, and with lesspeople than conventional methods.
� The objective of making a barrier is to turn dry fuelinto wet, unburnable fuel. To accomplish this, therate and time of foam application for making abarrier depends on air temperature, relativehumidity, fuel loading and moisture content.Sometimes do to adverse conditions reapplicationof foam is needed if the foam blanket breaks down.Foam is a short-term treatment. It is not aretardant. Generally, if you can see bubbles, thefuels below it will remain wet.
� The characteristics of foam important to barrierprotection are its wetting ability and its durability.The foam must gradually break down to wet thefuels and remain stable to maintain a protectivebarrier.
5C.1
Fire Operations In The Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 5 - Structure Protection Tactics
Lesson C - Support Resources: Handcrews, Aircraft, and Heavy Equipment
OBJECTIVES:
1. List four ways handcrews can be used in structure defense.
2. List three safety considerations when aircraft are used in structure defense.
3. Describe hazards commonly encountered by heavy equipment operations.
5C.2
I. HAND CREWS
Hand crews can be an effective suppression resource in an interface firesituation.
• Construct handline: direct control, protect structures and burn out.
• Site and structure preparation: remove fuels, trim shrubs and trees,move flammable materials.
• Set up hose lays: for use by engines or drafting from portable tanksor pools.
• Support engine crews: setting up and utilizing working lines, sitepreparation.
• Conduct burnout operations: many hand crews have extensiveexperience in firing operations.
• Mopup and patrol: hand crews can complete mopup operations whileengines move on to other assignments.
A. Hand Crew Types and Capabilities
Hand crews are organized by ICS type which relates to the level ofexperience and capabilities of the crew.
All ICS hand crew types will have from 18 to 20 members, including acrew boss.
B. ICS Hand Crew Types
• Type I Crews - Full time organized crews, experiencedleadership, highly trained.
• Type II Crews - Contract crews or Emergency Hire (EFF).Type II crews can be variable in experience and capabilities(transportation, sawyers and chainsaws).
5C.3
• Inmate Crews - considerations around structures; usually needto be kept together in close proximity for observation by LawEnforcement.
C. ICS Hand Crew Strike Team
ICS defines a hand crew strike team as 36 members including the crewbosses. They may have more than 36, but not less. Generally a handcrew strike team is two crews.
D. Use of Hand Crews
1. Order hand crews by ICS type based upon the complexity ofyour fire. If extensive burnout operations and saw work areanticipated, order Type I Hotshot crews.
2. Type II crews are excellent for site preparation, supportingengine crews and mopup work. These crews often take longerto get on scene due to emergency hire status.
3. Check with the crew boss regarding the crew’s experience andcapabilities. Most crew bosses are experienced firefighters;involve them in your planning process for maximumeffectiveness.
4. Ensure that all crews have adequate transportation andcommunication in case rapid escape becomes necessary. Makesure crews are informed of escape routes and safety zones.
5C.4
II. AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
Air tankers, helicopters, and small fixed-wing aircraft can be very valuable ininterface fires. Aircraft use must be closely coordinated with ground units inorder to be effective and safe in all aspects of utilization.
A. Air Tankers
Some considerations for air tanker use are type, size, capabilities,availability, turnaround time, Modular Airborne Firefighting System(MAFFS - Military), Single Engine Air Tankers (SEATs).
ICS classifies air tankers into four types based on how many gallonsof retardant they carry.
Air tankers can drop water, foam, or retardant.
• Use retardant to pre-treat fuels between fire and structures.
• Can be used to slow down fire advance for attack by groundforces.
• Drops should be coordinated with air tactical group supervisor(ATGS) or air tanker coordinator (lead plane pilot).
• Communication with aircraft is critical for safety.
• Use extreme caution when dropping near crews, engines andstructures.
B. Helicopters
Some considerations for helicopter use are type, size, capabilities,limitations, availability, and turnaround time.
ICS classifies helicopters into three types based on payload,passengers, or retardant/water capability.
5C.5
Type I Helicopters (heavy lift)
• Capable of dropping up to 2,000 gallons per drop. Minimumof 15 passengers and 5,000 lbs. payload. Most effective instopping fire spread. Use caution around crews, engines,structures and power lines. Examples: Chinook Sky Crane,Bell 214, Black Hawk.
Type II Helicopters (medium lift)
• Minimum capability of 300 gallons, 2,500 lbs. payload, and ninepassengers. Can be used for precision hot spotting anddropping around structures. Examples: Bell 204, 205, and 212.
Type III
• Minimum water capability of 100 gallons, 1,200 lbs. payload,and four passengers. Excellent for precision water, foam orretardant drops. Most effective for reconnaissance. Examples:Bell 206 and Hughes 500.
C. Fixed Wing Aircraft
Useful in reconnaissance, operations support and air operationscoordination (air tactical group supervisor).
D. Aircraft Coordination
Coordination of air and ground operations is essential. Ensure pilotshave communication with ground units for maximum safety.
Only one person should be communicating with aircraft to direct waterdrops. IAIC, Division Supervisor or ground units designated by theseindividuals should coordinate with aircraft for location of water drops.
Use identifying landmarks that are distinct to both pilots and groundforces in describing location of air drops.
5C.6
Order aircraft as soon as possible through your local dispatch center.If you feel aircraft are necessary and can provide assistance instructure protection, don’t be afraid to make the request.
E. Retardant and Aerial Foam
The standard retardant is “long term” retardant. It knocks down firewell and has a lingering fire retardant effect. The long term retardantcan help reduce fire intensities in fuels coated with it for several hours.
“Short term” retardant or foam has a good knock down capability,but it lacks the lasting fire retardant properties of long term retardant.It will not be effective for much more time than it takes for the majorpart of the water to evaporate out of it.
It is not recommended to call for a retardant drop directly onto astructure as severe structure damage may result. It is preferred to laya line coating the fuels between the fire and the structure.
None of the retardants or water, applied from the air, can be countedon for total extinguishment. THEIR EFFECTIVENESS DEPENDSUPON PROMPT FOLLOW-UP BY GROUND FORCES.
F. Hazards and Limiting Conditions of Aircraft Use
1. Hazards
Aircraft that are operating near the ground create hazards topersonnel in the vicinity.
Both fixed wing and rotary wing aircraft generate vortices thatcan reach the ground. They often take the form of a strong,turbulent wind; the fire may flare up or cross a control line.
The retardant drop can injure personnel and damage equipment.Crews should stay out of the drop area and protect themselvesif being hit is not avoidable.
5C.7
2. Limiting conditions
Power lines, wires, cables, guy lines, towers, and poles are adeadly threat to aircraft. They are often abundant in the vicinityof structures. Always alert aircraft to such hazards; they aredifficult to see from the air. Ground personnel should avoidpower lines during air drops.
• Wind can be quite turbulent just above trees andtopographic obstacles and may limit or preclude aircraftuse. Wind exceeding 20 miles per hour is enough tocause problems.
• Smoke, fog, and inversions can reduce visibility to thepoint that aircraft cannot operate.
III. HEAVY EQUIPMENT OPERATIONS
Heavy equipment can be very effective in interface operations by doing workconsidered impossible to accomplish any other way. It does havelimitations, however, that we will cover in this unit.
Heavy equipment can best be used before a fire reaches the interface. If timeallows, mineral soil firelines can be constructed in advance of the fire front.These lines may stop or slow the fire.
These lines may be used with backfires to widen firelines and also duringburnout operations, to secure a fire. Water and/or retardant used with heavyequipment during fireline construction can be very effective to stop or slow afire’s advance.
Other uses of heavy equipment are to build access routes, emergency safetyareas, etc.
5C.8
A. Types of Equipment
1. Dozers (Bulldozers)
ICS classifies dozers into three types based on horsepower(hp).
• Type 1 (Heavy), minimum of 170 hp• Type 2 (Medium), minimum of 93 hp• Type 3 (Light), minimum of 65 hp
These large, full tracked vehicles with a front mounted blade arevery effective to construct wide firelines, move heavy fuels,construct roads, build safety zones, clear helicopter landingareas, etc.
2. Tractor plow (crawler tractor with plow)
ICS classifies tractor/plows into six types based onhorsepower.
Used primarily in the southeast by wildland fire protectionagencies and is the primary fire fighting tool. The tractor/plowis very mobile, powerful, and reasonably fast in constructingfirelines (4 ft. wide) adjacent to improvements in advance of theapproaching fire. Can be used in conjunction with a burnoutoperation for effectiveness in heavy fuels.
3. Farm tractors with off-set disk
Common all over the United States. Excellent for prairie fires inthe Great Plains from Texas to the Dakotas. Can be used closeto improvements resulting in less environmental damage.However, they are only effective in light fuels.
5C.9
4. Road graders
Limited by adverse terrain conditions. Very effective in lightfuels in desert and range. Can be used for indirect attackaround improvements.
5. Logging equipment can be very effective in site preparation.
B. Hazards
As with any large, powerful machinery, heavy equipment is hazardouswhen operated, particularly in the urban interface.
What are some of the hazards commonly encountered?
C. Safety
Keep all personnel out of the vicinity of heavy equipment whileworking.
Ensure that the equipment operator has all required personal protectiveequipment and communication with equipment supervisor (DozerBoss). Provide information on identified hazards prior to beginningwork.
5C.10
5D.1
Fire Operations In The Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 5 - Structure Protection Tactics
Lesson D - Firing Operations
OBJECTIVES:
1. List three situations in which burning out may be necessary in structuredefense.
2. Describe who makes the decision to conduct a firing operation.
3. List three types of control lines used in firing operations.
5D.2
I. FIRING OPERATIONS
Firing operations involve the use of fire to conduct burn outs and backfires.It is important to understand the difference between the two.
A. Burning Out
Burning out is used with direct attack. In direct attack a fireline is builtclose to the edge of a fire. Burning out is setting fire inside the firelineto consume fuel between the fireline and the fire.
It is generally accepted than line personnel from crew boss on up haveauthority to burn out.
B. Backfiring
Backfiring is an indirect method of attack. It is the act of setting fireinside the fireline to:
• Consume the fuel in the path of a fire.
• Change direction or force of the fire’s convection column.
• Slow or change the fire’s rate of spread.
The decision for backfiring is usually made by the operations sectionchief based on recommendations from other line personnel.
C. When to Burn out or Backfire
• You cannot wait for the main fire to reach your establishedcontrol line.
• The control line will not hold the main fire if it moves against itat full force.
• The intensity of the main fire at the control be great enough tothreaten the structure.
5D.3
D. CAUTION:
USE OF FIRE IS DANGEROUS! COMMUNICATION ANDCOORDINATION MUST BE MAINTAINED AT ALL TIMES.
Make sure you know your agency policy concerning burning out andbackfiring.
II. TIMING AND COORDINATION
• Firing should not be done if the fire will create problems for adjoiningforces or would result in a threat to other structures in the area.
• Firing should not be initiated until the control line to hold it is in place.
• Make sure that firing is necessary, do not make the decision to firewithout consultation with command and other forces in your area.
• Coordinate your firing operation with those around you and with thoseplanning the overall attack. Let them know of your plan; advise whenyou begin firing.
• Sometimes it is necessary to wait for favorable conditions, such asappropriate wind or humidity.
• Firing to strengthen the control lines should be done as soon as theabove concerns are met. Make sure you have adequate forcesavailable to patrol the firing operation.
5D.4
III. CONTROL LINES
A. Mineral Soil
Constructed with hand crews or mechanical equipment. Make surethe control line is wide enough to hold the fire.
B. Natural or Human Made Features
Rock outcrops, dirt roads, asphalt or agricultural fields.
C. Wet Lines (water/foam/retardant)
• A wet line is a wetted strip using water, foam, or retardant to actas a control line.
• Where fuels are light, such as grass or litter, use a wet line tocontrol the firing operation. Wet lines are quick and easy tocreate.
• If the fuel is low and easily penetrated, it works well to wet thestrip and then to fire it. The fire goes out as it burns to the wetline.
• If the fuel is high or matted down, the wet line will not penetratedeeply enough. The fire will creep back under the line after thefiring operation has moved on. In such cases, light the fire first,then use the water stream to control the inner edge of the fire,making sure it is extinguished.
• When firing from a wet line, it often pays to take advantage ofareas of lower fuel. Examples include grass that has beengrazed down, and tire tracks from vehicles where the grass hasbeen crushed.
5D.5
IV. FIRING AND HOLDING
Personnel assigned to firing and holding operations must be certified andunder the supervision of a qualified firing boss.
A. Basic Firing Operations
• In any firing operation, the overall progress along the line shouldbe against the wind and/or slope that is pushing the fire alongthe line. In other words, take the firing operation into the windor down the slope. If wind and slope oppose each other, keyon the one that is the strongest.
• If the weather conditions are in your favor, the fire will movequickly away from the control line and should cause no realproblems. Just light the edge of the fuel along the control line.
• Fuels outside and adjacent to the control line can be wet downahead of the firing operation to prevent spotting. Foam worksvery well for this application.
• Space personnel and equipment out along the line. Do notadvance the firing operation until the fire along the line is nolonger a threat at that location. The firing operation should notmove ahead any faster than the holding operation can keep upwith.
5D.6
B. Firing Techniques
There are many firing techniques, but two that work well on interfacefires are:
1. Strip firing
It involves setting fire to one or more strips of fuel and allowingthe strips to burn together. Lighting numerous strips allowsfaster area ignition. By varying the width of the strips and theirlocation in relation to the slope and/or wind direction a meansof regulating the fire’s intensity can be provided.
2. Ring firing
This technique is generally used as an indirect attack andbackfire operation. It involves circling the perimeter of an areawith a control line and then firing the entire perimeter. Ringfiring is often used to burn out around structures. However,firing personnel may not have a strong anchor point tocommence firing. Escape routes and safety zones must beestablished.
C. Holding
• Engines, hose lines, or hand crews should be deployed alongthe line behind the firing operation.
• The holding operation must be capable of dealing with hotspots or escaped fire across the control line.
• Do not impair the intentional fire. Knock down hot spots andflare-ups that threaten to escape, either by flame or firebrands.
• If an escape occurs, put all the necessary resources to work tocontain it. Advise the crews doing the lighting of the escape sothat they can slow down or stop until the escape is controlled.
6.1
Fire Operations In the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 6 - Action Plan Assessment and Update
OBJECTIVES:
1. List the items that need to be considered in assessing the effectiveness of anincident action plan.
2. Given an incident action plan and scenario, demonstrate how to properlyupdate the plan when the scenario changes.
6.2
INTRODUCTION
Now that you have initiated action on the fire, you need to assess the effectivenessof your actions and update your incident action plan accordingly.
I. ASSESSING INCIDENT ACTION PLAN EFFECTIVENESS
A. Determine the success of your operations by comparing the actualresults of resources performance measured against the initialobjectives and standards.
Note: These procedures can and should be used continuallyduring initial attack as a means to update your incident actionplan to the changing fire environment.
B. Determine if your initial strategy is valid and your tactics are effective.
C. Determine if your specific time frames are being met.
D. Determine the adequacy of current resources.
E. Determine current fire behavior.
6.3
F. The preferred way to determine and validate the above factors isthrough personal observation. Depending on the complexity of thesituation, this may not always be possible, therefore, it is critical thatyou have open communications with your subordinates and otheragency personnel. Establish a system that ensures continual feedbackfrom your resources.
G. As part of your assessment, do not overlook adequacy of yoursupport, such as logistics, food water, supplies, etc. Also do notoverlook any rehabilitation needs that may have surfaced.
H. Finally, your assessment should be candid and objective and focus onprocesses that gain desired results.
6.4
II. UPDATING THE INCIDENT ACTION PLAN
Now that you have made your assessment, your next course of action is toupdate your action plan.
A. Base your plan on personal observation and/or resources feedback.
B. Obtain a current weather forecast.
C. Ensure your plan reflects and takes into account predicted firebehavior.
D. Adjust your incident priorities and objectives accordingly.
E. Adjust your strategic goals and tactical objectives (specific workassignments).
F. Document your successes as well as your failures.
G. Ensure any update is documented. Accomplish this through the useof the ICS-201 Incident Briefing, ICS-202 Incident Objectives,ICS-214 Unit Log on smaller incidents when changes are significant.
H. Update your map to reflect changes.
6.5
I. Ensure that subordinates, superiors, and other agency cooperatingpersonnel, are informed of changes.
J. Brief your communications center of any changes and currentsituation.
K. Release or order resources as appropriate.
III. SAFETY
A. Be alert to the possibility that after your initial action the smoke mayattract unwanted spectators; e.g., the curious public. This could posenumerous safety problems including traffic congestion.
B. Property owners may be panicked and stressed and may try to moveback into the fire area before it is safe.
C. After an initial action, your crews may be physically and mentallyspent. Ensure that you recognize this before it becomes a safetyconcern.
D. No assessment or update of a plan is worthwhile unless the safety ofthe public and your firefighters is the number one consideration.
6.6
IV. GROUP EXERCISES
A. Exercise 1 - Flame Incident (10 minutes).
SCENARIO
You’ve made initial attack on a wildland fire with two engines. Thepreferred course of action is to flank the fire and pinch off the head.Three more engines are en route and will arrive in about ½ hour. Youplan to use them for mop-up. Just as you are about to hook the fire,the wind comes up and the fire makes a major run at nine structures ½mile away.
Review the ICS-201 Incident Briefing.
Question
• Is the initial incident action plan still valid?
• If not, what changes would you make and what other thingswould you consider?
6.7
FlameFlameFlameFlameFlame 7 Jul XX 14007 Jul XX 14007 Jul XX 14007 Jul XX 14007 Jul XX 1400
6.8
EXERCISE 1 Using 2 wildland engines to flank fire, 3 wildland engines ordered to assist in mop-up.
6.9
6.10
Exercise 1 Type 3 engines E-3 √
" E-4 √" E-5 1430" E-6 1430" E-7 1430
6.11
B. Exercise 2 - Bald Hill Road Incident (10 minutes).
SCENARIO
You’ve made initial attack on a wildland fire with a tractor/plow unit.The preferred course of action is to attack the head of the fire. Threetype 3 engines are on scene and are preparing to defend structuressouth of the fire. A second tractor/plow unit and a 4th engine has beenordered for back-up.
Refer to the ICS Forms 201 and 202 showing your hand drawn map,incident objectives and resource assignments.
You have now been in the Fish Creek drainage for two hours. Youhave made significant progress and all structures are secured. In amatter on minutes, wind causes the fire to make a major run across thedrainage and blows by your position. Your initial assessment indicatesthat all structures to the south remain secure. You hear from yourlookout that structures to the north on Bald Hills are threatened andneed assistance. Some may already be involved.
QUESTION
Are your instructions in the incident action plan still valid? Whatfurther assessments do you make at your location and what is yournext course of action?
6.12
Bald Hill RoadBald Hill RoadBald Hill RoadBald Hill RoadBald Hill Road 7 Jul XX 14007 Jul XX 14007 Jul XX 14007 Jul XX 14007 Jul XX 1400
6.13
EXERCISE 2 Using Tractor 1 to attack head of fire; engines 1,2 & 3 are providing structure protection south of Fish Creek
6.14
6.15
Exercise 2 1 Tractor/plow Tractor 1 √ 4 Type 3 Engines E-1 √
E-2 √E-3 √E-7 1430
1 Tractor/plow Tractor 2 20 Min
6.16
1. Provide for safety of firefighters and public. 2. Protect structures in Fish Creek drainage. 3. Keep fire east of Bull Ridge. 4. Keep fire west of Highway 6.
Bald Hill Road 7 Jul XX 1400Bald Hill Road 7 Jul XX 1400Bald Hill Road 7 Jul XX 1400Bald Hill Road 7 Jul XX 1400Bald Hill Road 7 Jul XX 1400
6.17
C. Exercise 3 - Click Street Incident (10 minutes).
SCENARIO
You are the initial attack incident commander on a fire that has brokenout in a subdivision. You have determined that 12 out of 18 structuresare defendable. You have 10 Type 3 engines at your disposal. Youdecide that time does not permit you to go out and attack the fire.You commit all 10 engines to the defensive mode. Engines are inplace with hose lines laid when the wind stops. The fire dies downand is just barely creeping.
Review the ICS-201 Incident Briefing.
QUESTION
What is your thought process as you assess the situation? Explain thesteps you would take in logical order in updating your incident actionplan.
6.18
Click StreetClick StreetClick StreetClick StreetClick Street 29 Jul XX 1400 29 Jul XX 1400 29 Jul XX 1400 29 Jul XX 1400 29 Jul XX 1400
6.19
Engines are set up in defensive mode, all 10 engines are Type 3 4x4 wildland trained. Engine placement and assignment is keyed to map
Exercise 3
6.20
6.21
Engine E-1 √ Structure Protection " E-2 √ " " " E-3 √ " " " E-4 √ " " " E-5 √ " " " E-6 √ " " " E-7 √ " " " E-8 √ " " " E-9 √ " " " E-10 √ " "
6.22
7.1
Fire Operations In The Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 7 - Follow-up and Public Relations
OBJECTIVES:
1. List four steps that should be completed before leaving an area involved inan interface fire.
2. List four factors to be considered in dealing with the public on interfacefires.
3. List three factors to be considered in dealing with the media on interfacefires.
4. Describe the responsibilities relating to demobilization of an interfaceincident.
7.2
I. FOLLOW-UP AFTER THE FIRE PASSES
Once the fire front or major heat wave has passed your position, your job isnot yet completed. Nothing would be more frustrating than defending astructure from the heat, smoke and flames of the fire front, or leaving toassist another company or crew and returning only to find the first structuretotally consumed from a hidden spark. Don’t let your desire to move withthe fire front overpower your obligation to finish the job at hand. Your initialconcern should be the structures you were assigned to protect.
A. Check the structure for fire at likely ignition points.
1. You must check for sparks or embers at:
a. Roofs
b. Siding
c. Vents
d. Under eaves and in rain gutters
e. Under decks and porches
f. Wood piles
2. Check for heat or flame extension into the interior.
a. Attics
b. Curtains or window
c. Furniture
d. Carpets
e. Wall
f. Cupboards
g. Ducts
7.3
B. Perform only enough mopup or overhaul to ensure structure safetybefore moving to other structures.
1. Complete extinguishment of any fire in or on the structure.
2. Provide a positive barrier between a surface fire and thestructure.
3. If the owners are present, instruct them as to what they can doto continue protection and mopup (remember the risksinvolved).
4. Leave all homeowner’s ladders and garden hoses in place andready to use.
When a site becomes secure and equipment becomes available,contact command for your next assignment. If possible, always try toleave one engine to patrol the burned area and assist with mopup andsecurity.
C. Things to do before leaving the area.
1. Provide for patrol by engine(s) or crew(s).
2. Leave a note on the door or entry telling occupants:
a. What you did with utilities
b. What happened to pets, if any
c. Who entered the home and why
d. Date and time
e. Signature and title
f. Your business card
3. Leave a few lights on so patrol crews can locate the structure.
7.4
4. Secure the structure.
Be sure to brief the patrol crew(s) that their primary mission isto provide structure protection.
D. Patrol duties include:
1. Preventing further losses.
a. Primary responsibility is to structures
b. Minimize damage to improvements and environment.
c. Assist and instruct homeowners as to effective mopupprocedures.
2. Maintaining a high visibility to the homeowner.
This is critical before, during and after the fire.
a. Those homeowners who stayed, or are returning, want tosee a fire engine.
b. Practice positive public relations in an attempt to leavethe public with positive feelings.
3. Start documenting damage.
a. Document noticeable damage.
b. Keep a good record of damage caused by firesuppression action.
c. Count the number of damaged structures.
(1) Homes
(2) Outbuildings
(3) Improvements
7.5
(4) Crops
(5) Vehicles/Equipment
d. Order a fire investigator or claims specialist as needed.
II. PUBLIC RELATIONS
Seldom will the need for effective public relations be greater than during andafter an interface fire.
However, it is critical that public relations programs need to be operationalbefore the fire! Making the public aware of the problems that exist beforethere is a fire can help develop the cooperation needed when a fire occurs.It is also prudent to identify those media contacts who will be there to coverthese events. Identify these contacts before fire season and invite them toplanning or pre-incident surveys or even have them take basic fire training.
Homeowners threatened by wildfire will be experiencing a great variety ofemotions, fear, apprehension, anger, etc. Many of these emotions may bedirected toward the firefighters.
As an incident commander or company officer, you will be required tocontrol your emotions while trying to maintain control of the incident athand. Expect panicked homeowners and remember your mission.
A. Be prepared for a multitude of questions from someone who has noidea of what is going on.
1. Where is the fire; where is it going?
2. Are you evacuating?
3. Has anyone been hurt; have homes burned?
4. Why didn’t you put this fire out when it started?
5. What started it?
6. Why aren’t you in there protecting homes?
7.6
B. Request an incident information officer or a member of the incidentinformation officer’s staff as soon as possible.
1. Follow the guidelines of the incident information officer for therelease of information.
2. If in doubt find out or say something positive such as “we aredoing the very best job we can.”
3. Those in leader positions must be prepared to “runinterference” between the public and their crews.
C. Dealing With The Media
Nothing brings out the news media faster than a disaster. Expect largenumbers of media representatives wandering around the fire ground.
1. Always be courteous and act professional, but don’t let theminterfere with your job.
2. Refer their questions to an incident information officer orcommand.
3. Never provide undocumented information, or the names ofinjured or killed.
4. Remember that radio communications may be monitored by themedia and the public.
D. Dealing With The Public
Public opinion of firefighters will remain long after the interface fire isout. Maintain a professional attitude but be sensitive to the needs ofthe affected public. Be careful of what you say and how your crewacts at all times.
1. Always try to minimize damage caused by control methods.
2. Document any damage caused directly by suppression actions.
7.7
3. When time permits, talk to the homeowners and explain whatactions were taken and why.
4. Remember that people often have a greater emotionalattachment to pets than other personal property.
5. If your agency policy authorizes entering structures:
• Be cautious if you do enter the structure.
• Ensure the protection of valuables and heirlooms.
• Place smaller items into closets and close doors.
• Ensure the safety of photos and pictures, videoequipment, computers and other high value items.
6. Cardinal Rule - Always treat the property of others better thanhow you would want your own property treated.
III. POST INCIDENT MANAGEMENT
A. Demobilization
During the excitement of an uncontrolled incident, our thoughts areusually directed toward the escalation of suppression activities. As theincident begins to wind down, or other incidents become more criticalour thoughts should begin to consider the orderly demobilization.
This can be accomplished by:
1. Providing input through channels as to required resources.
2. Remaining cost effective in estimates of required resources.
3. Relaying information to relief forces.
4. Leaving a high visibility engine to provide community assuranceand good public relations during patrol.
7.8
5. Remaining crews should be fresh enough to assist in clean upand also briefed in public relations skills.
6. Keeping accurate, up to date, and easy to read records.
B. Demobilization Plan
1. Ensure safe and cost effective release of resources.
2. Reduce disorder on the scene.
3. Ensure sufficient personnel are left at the scene.
4. Take into account time on the incident and needed fireprotection in mutual aid communities.
Tired crews experience a higher number of accidents than freshcrews. Safety should always be the overriding factor in makingany decision.
5. Make sure equipment and supplies are refurbished enough to bereassigned to another incident.
6. Make sure folks making the plan have as much informationabout what you have and can do if reassigned. Include cellularphone numbers and frequencies to be contacted if situationchanges.
C. Safety During Demobilization
1. Personnel may become lax or careless as the incident windsdown.
2. Enforce all safety SOPs.
3. Allow “NO” horseplay, but let the crews unwind.
7.9
D. After Action Review
The after action review is a reconstruction of an incident to assess thechain of events, the methods used, and the actual results of youroperations. Address and analyze both the positive and the negativeresults of your actions.
After action reviews should be done at all levels of the incidentorganization.
1. What was planned?
2. What actually happened?
3. Why did it happen?
4. What can we do next time?
IV. SUMMARY
Coordination starts with the establishment of command. You need to have athorough understanding of the chain of command. As each incident needs tohave a leader to take command, each company or crew needs someone tocommand them. Leadership must be exerted to provide safe operations andsuccessful completion of strategy and tactics.
When establishing an incident command where multi-jurisdiction has broughtboth wildland and structural firefighting forces together, establish a unifiedcommand where both organizations are represented at the command level.
Don’t be afraid to build it too big.
7.10
7.11
MEDIA RELATIONS 101
1. Honesty, honesty, honesty.
2. You’re always on the record.
3. If you’re not the best source, know who is...“serve the news consumer.”
4. Know what areas are sensitive for your organization. Know when it’s OK topass the buck.
5. Equal treatment for all reporters.
6. Don’t assume any knowledge on the reporter’s part.
7. Stick to confirmed, verifiable facts. (Sgt. Friday, “Just the facts, ma’am, justthe facts.”)
8. Deal only with your area of expertise and involvement.
9. If unable to comment on something, explain why.
10. It’s OK to say “I don’t know.” (But make referrals or get the answer beforethe deadline!)
11. Avoid using trade jargon...speak English.
12. Make your point as succinctly as possible and repeat it as many differentways as is needed. Consider what medium you’re working with and theircapability to digest your story.
13. Never argue with anyone who buys ink by the barrel or videotape by thecase.
14. Put yourself in the reporter’s place. Think like a journalist.
15. Ignore news gathering paraphernalia...focus on the reporter.
16. Never look down and never look up on camera.
07-01-S215-SR
7.12
8.1
Fire Operations In the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 8 - Firefighter Safety in the Interface
OBJECTIVES:
1. Describe three safety hazards commonly encountered on interface fires.
2. Describe in order of priority three actions that can be taken if a defensiveposition is threatened by the fire and becomes unsafe.
3. List three indications of potential hazardous material combustion.
8.2
I. INTRODUCTION
Interface wildfires have destroyed thousands of homes, killed and injuredscores of people, including firefighters.
Most wildland fires require some level of structure protection as morestructures are built within and adjacent to flammable vegetation types.
Fire exclusion policies of the last century have created extreme fuel loading inthe wildland interface.
Interface fires create unique safety hazards within the fire environment that arenot commonly encountered by wildland or structural firefighters.
• Greater risks are taken to protect homes:
Firefighters often ignore safety procedures that would not be violatedin normal wildland or structural fire operations.
• Extreme weather and fire behavior can rapidly cut off escape routes tosafety zones.
• Mass ignition of structures creates extreme radiant heat that has killedfirefighters and civilians after escape routes are cut off by theencroaching wildland fire.
• Hazardous chemicals, power lines, livestock, and widespread panicrequire firefighters to be extremely vigilant for their safety.
• Situational awareness and continual size-up of potential hazards topersonal safety is required.
A. Preparation for Interface Fires: Before you go
1. Make sure everyone has all their personal protective equipment.Wear it on your way to the fire. Engines have been trappedrequiring escape by foot.
8.3
2. Access to fire shelters in the cab is critical. Every firefightershould keep a shelter in the cab (a good recommendation is tohave two extra shelters). Don’t leave them in the storagecabinets in the back. Your engine could become trappedleaving you without your fire shelter.
3. Shelters have been successfully deployed in the cab of anengine. Open the shelter and hold it against windows and thewindshield and/or cover up the floor if possible.
4. Gloves are critical for shelter deployment! Keep your gloveswith you at all times.
B. Driver Safety Awareness: Making sure you get to the fire!
1. Driving accidents are a leading cause of injuries and fatalities tofirefighters.
2. Interface fires increase the risk of vehicle accidents. Publicpanic, congested roads, vehicles and animals in the road, andpoor visibility can be expected.
3. Drive with extra caution! Don’t let the excitement and pressureof the situation affect your judgement.
4. Speed is a leading cause of accidents involving emergencyvehicles. Remember, if you don’t make it to the fire you wontbe able to do the job you have been trained for.
C. Interface Driving Watch Outs!
1. If you can’t see what is ahead STOP! Interface fires oftenoccur during extreme wind events. Dense ground level smokeand wind blown dust will reduce visibility on the road to zero attimes.
2. Anticipate hazards in the road, downed power lines, trees,vehicles, frightened citizens, pets or livestock.
8.4
3. Send someone ahead on foot to scout road conditions, beforecommitting your vehicle to a situation that will be dangerous ordifficult to escape from. Make sure the scout hascommunications, full PPE and carries flashlights or flares forvisibility.
4. Use headlights and emergency flashers when moving orstationary. Don’t shut off your engine while your emergencylights, engine work lights and radio are still on.
5. If you leave the vehicle, make sure you leave the keys in it, incase of emergency.
6. Caution! Do not bunch up your engines. Maintain enoughspace between equipment to allow for backing up andturnarounds. The danger here is that engines at the front of thegroup have no escape route if the fire makes a run at the roadahead.
7. Be aware of fire potential when driving on winding mountainroads. In turns are often located chutes and draws whereincreased fire intensity may be encountered. Out turns areusually across ridge lines and are a safer place to be positioned.
8. Bridges and substandard roads are often encountered ininterface fires. If the bridge is not posted with load limits useextreme caution. Make sure that you know the Gross VehicleWeight of your apparatus fully loaded with personnel,equipment and water.
9. Obtain good road maps. If possible, have someone with youwho is familiar with the area. Verify all information andinstructions before committing to an operational decision.
8.5
D. Size-up for Safety
• Conduct a size-up for safety in your structural triage decisionmaking process.
• Ensure that escape routes and safety zones are considered in allaspects of your tactical decision making process.
1. “Watch-Out” situations for interface safety:
• Poor access and narrow one-way roads
• Bridge load limits
• Wooden construction and wood shake roofs
• Inadequate water supply
• Natural fuels 30 ft. or closer to structures
• Structures in chimneys, box canyons, narrow canyons,or on steep slopes (30% or greater)
• Extreme fire behavior
• Strong winds
• Evacuation of public (panic)
2. Identify and communicate escape routes and safety zones.
When establishing escape routes and safety zones, the followingparameters should be considered:
a. Distance to safety zone: if possible, arrange your safetyzone with your defensive working position.
8.6
b. Avoid using safety zones more than two minutes’ drivingtime from your position.
c. If safety zones are not available, use Class A Foam topre-treat the structure and retreat to an established safetyzone. Return when it is safe and extinguish any fire on ornear the structure.
d. Avoid escape routes on steep, narrow or substandardroads.
e. Heavy fuels along escape routes can become traps.
f. Identify and communicate the location of escape routesand safety zones to all personnel. Get positive feedbackso you are sure they understand the location of theescape routes and safety zones.
3. Identify unique hazards. Brief crews on procedures forworking near power lines, propane tanks, fuel or chemicalstorage facilities.
a. Power lines, transformers, electrical service boxes
• Never apply water directly to power lines, poles orelectrical service boxes.
Use a nozzle with fog spray capability and not lessthan 100 psi nozzle pressure.
• Use caution when crossing barbed wire or openingbarbed wire and metal gates.
The possibility of live power lines on the metalwire creates an electrical shock hazard.
8.7
b. Power line safety rules
• Downed conductor on vehicle: stay in vehicle untilpower company arrives. If vehicle is on fire or fireis near, jump clear, but don’t hang on. Keep feettogether and bunny hop away.
• Smoke, water, and retardant are all goodconductors and can cause powerline to groundarcing.
• Don’t operate heavy equipment under powerlines.
• Don’t use rights-of-way as a jump zone, cargodrop spot, staging area, or Safety Zone.
• Don’t drive with long antennas under powerlines.
• Don’t fuel vehicles under powerlines.
• Don’t stand near powerlines during retardant orbucket drops.
• Don’t park under powerlines.
• Don’t apply straight stream to powerlines.
E. Hazardous Materials Awareness and Safety
Interface considerations:
• Farms and ranches in rural settings often have their own fueland chemical storage facilities.
• Burning structures in the interface can contain hazardousmaterials that emit toxic gases or can potentially explode.
8.8
• Remain a safe distance from structures that are fully involved,and out of the path of smoke emissions that could contain toxicgases.
Remember, exposure to hazardous materials may not immediatelyaffect you, but exposure can potentially have long term effects onyour health.
1. Sources of potential hazardous material
a. Residential structures
• Chemicals
• Paint
• Cleaning materials
• Pesticides and herbicides
• Plastics and other synthetic materials
• Ammunition and gun powder
b. Farms and ranches
• Large quantities of pesticides and herbicides instorage tanks or tanker trucks.
• Flammable storage tanks of gas, diesel and liquidpetroleum gas.
• Explosives
• Ammonia nitrate fertilizers are commonly used infarm operations. Thermal decompositionproduces fumes which can explode.
8.9
2. Smoke color indicators of hazardous material combustion
a. Watch for smoke that’s unusual in density or volume.
Extra heavy smoke from a small area means somethingother than vegetation is burning.
b. Look for smoke that’s unusual in color.
• Black smoke often indicates a burninghydrocarbon such as fuel oil, burning tires orcreosote treated rail ties or telephone poles.
• Colored smoke (red, green yellow) are indicatorsof toxic materials such as acids, corrosives orpoisons.
• Invisible vapors can extend well beyond the limitof visible smoke and can be inhaled or absorbedthrough the skin.
• Watch for environmental warning signs.
Firefighters or the public exhibiting symptomsbeyond just coughing such as convulsions,disorientation and dizziness. Dead birds, pets, orlivestock can indicate the presence of toxic gasfumes in the vicinity.
3. If you suspect a hazardous material incident in your area:
• Evacuate all personnel from the area and deny access toothers.
• Report the location and other pertinent information toyour supervisor.
• Request “Haz-Mat” specialists and equipment.
8.10
• Don’t evacuate downwind or downhill if possible.
• A general guideline is that if you can’t cover the incidentscene with your outstretched thumbnail, you’re too close.
F. Defensive Tactics for Interface Safety
1. Engine positioning and operation
• Back into working position headed toward your escaperoute, leave engine running with emergency lights on.
• Upon reaching position immediately check operation ofpump motors.
• Don’t block escape routes for other equipment.
• Don’t park next to heavy fuel loads, woodpiles or brush.
• Look for green lawns, paved or gravel surfaces toposition your engine.
• Never pass up opportunities to fill your tank. Usesupplemental fill lines from available water sources whenin defensive position.
• Keep hose bed covered and compartments and windowsclosed.
• Water and Engine Protection Hose - Maintain at least 100gallons of water in your tank with at least one length ofcharged 1½ inch line for protection of your engine andcrew.
8.11
2. Burnover: Shelter from the firestorm
• Interface fires often occur during extreme wind events.
• Wind driven fires can rapidly generate intense heat, densesmoke and cut off escape routes.
If the fire becomes too intense and escape to safety zones is notpossible, consider the following alternatives.
a. Take refuge in the structure.
It will provide excellent protection from the radiant heat.Use any means necessary to get in the house if your life isin danger. Once the fire front passes you can go backoutside and potentially put out any fires that have ignitedon the structure.
When using structure as a refuge, your engine must besecured, throttle adjusted to 1,100 to 1,200 rpm and a 1½inch charged hoseline taken inside, in the event fire gainsthe interior.
A spotlight on the engine should be directed verticallyupwards in the event additional resources are requested.This maneuver has proven effective in rapidly locatingpersonnel requiring help. Your supervisor should benotified when refuge is taken in structure, engine, safetyzone, or shelter.
b. Take refuge in your engine.
There is no NWCG guidelines on taking refuge in anengine. Follow your agency policy. If no agency policyexists it’s up to individual judgement.
8.12
Some considerations are:
• If it is in a good location stay there! Burn outaround the engine if time allows. A spotlight on theengine should be directed vertically upwards.Keep the cab closed and deploy fire sheltersinside. Place spare SCBA cylinder(s) on the floorof the cab with the valve cracked open. Notifyyour supervisor that you are taking refuge in theengine.
• If not in a good location keep moving and seek aplace where the fire is less intense.
• If the engine is catching fire and you must evacuatethe cab, do it with your fire shelter in glovedhands.
c. Maintain control of your people at all times.
Keep calm, display a positive attitude and maintaincommunications.
3. Aftermath
a. Extreme danger is still present after the main fire haspassed.
b. Conduct a post-fire sizeup to identify potential hazards.
c. Post Fire Hazards
• Burned trees and snags that could fall withoutwarning.
• Downed power lines and power poles that havebeen burned.
8.13
• Limit exposure to toxic smoldering materials, tires,creosote treated wood, plastics and otherchemicals present in the post-fire environment.
• Limiting mopup to natural fuels to reduce exposureof firefighters to hazardous smoke and fumes.
II. CONCLUSION
• Nearly all wildland fires involve some aspects of interface hazards andsafety concerns.
• The potential for firefighters to be injured or killed increasesexponentially as multiple hazards exist simultaneously in the interfacefire environment.
• Firefighter safety must always be the primary objective of any interfacefirefighting operation.
• Firefighters must be vigilant and aware of hazard factors and potentialto themselves and others at all times.
• Never let down your guard, no structure is worth serious injury or alife.
Homes will rebuild, like a forest after the fire.
8.14
A - 1
APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY
A - 2
A - 3
GLOSSARY
ACCESS The ability to gain entrance into an areawith firefighting equipment.
ACTION PLAN Any tactical plan developed by anyelement of the ICS in support of theincident action plan.
AERIAL FUELS The standing and supported forestcombustibles not in direct contact withthe ground and consisting mainly offoliage, twigs, branches, stems, bark, andvines.
BACKDRAFT An explosion resulting from theintroduction of oxygen into acompartment that is pressurized withheated, flammable gases deficient inoxygen.
BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding VaporExplosion) Which occurs when acontainer of liquefied gas is heated to thepoint that the container fails and breaksinto two or more pieces due to overpressurization.
BURNING OUT Setting fire inside a control line toconsume fuel between the fire and thecontrol line.
CLEAR TEXT The use of plain English in radiocommunications transmissions. No TenCodes or agency specific codes are usedwhen using Clear Text.
A - 4
CONTAINED Fire spread stopped under prevailingconditions.
CONTROL To complete control line around a fire,any spot fires therefrom and any interiorislands to be saved; burn out anyunburned area adjacent to the fire side ofthe control lines; and cool down all hotspots that are immediate threats to thecontrol line, until the line can reasonablybe expected to hold under foreseeableconditions.
CONTROL LINE A comprehensive term for all theconstructed or natural fire barriers andtreated fire edges used to control a fire.
DEFENSIBLE SPACE A fuel break adjacent to improvements inwhich you can safely defendimprovements (see fuel break).
DES Disaster and Emergency Services
DOZER Any track-laying (not wheeled)tractor=cat=bulldozer
EGRESS Going out; ability to exit; a place of exit
EMS Emergency Medical Services
ENGINE Any ground vehicle providing specificlevels of pumping, water, hose capacity,and personnel.
EVAPORATIVE COOLER A type of air cooler usually located on theroof of a structure which utilizes waterevaporation in the cooling process.
A - 5
FIREBRANDS Any burning materials such as leaves,wood, glowing charcoal, or carriedthrough the air and capable of ignitingspot fires.
FIRE FRONT See Fire Head
FIREGROUND The area directly around and including theproperty involved in fire.
FIRE HEAD That portion of a fire showing the greatestrate of spread; i.e., generally to leewardor upslope.
FIRELINE A loose term for any cleared strip used incontrol of a fire; or a cleared, permanentfirebreak; or that portion of a control linefrom which flammable materials havebeen removed; or a line cleared around anactive fire, generally following its edge toprevent further spread.
FIRE OUT See Burning Out
FIRE PLOW A heavy duty share or disc plow designedto be pulled by either horses or tractorsto construct firebreaks and firelines.
FIRE RETARDANT Any substance except plain water that bychemical or physical action reduces theflammability of fuels or slows the rate ofcombustion.
FLASHOVER The sudden ignition of all fuels in acompartment after being preheated to theignition point.
A - 6
FOAM A surfactant, chemically and/ormechanically produced, that blankets andadheres to the fuel when aerated, reducingcombustion.
FUEL BREAK Generally, wide strips of land on whichthe native vegetation has beenpermanently modified so that firesburning into them can be more readilycontrolled. Some fuel breaks containnarrow firebreaks which may be roads ornarrow hand-constructed lines. Duringfires, these firebreaks can quickly bewidened either with hand tools or byfiring out.
HELITORCH An aerial ignition device slung beneath ahelicopter to dispense ignited lumps ofgelled gasoline.
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS Any element, compound, or combinationthereof, which is flammable, corrosive,etc. and which may have detrimentaleffects on operating and emergencypersonnel, the public, and/or theenvironment.
IMPROVEMENTS Any man made addition other thanstructures to the natural environment; e.g.,corral, fence, utility poles.
INCIDENT STABILIZATION The activities required to stop theforward progress of the incident and tobring the incident under control.
A - 7
INTERFACE That line, area, or zone where structuresand other human development meets orintermingles with undeveloped wildland orvegetative fuels.
INTERMEDIATE FUELS Those fuels either attached to orimmediately adjacent to a structure thatare neither part of the structure or part ofthe wildland.
LADDER FUELS Fuels which provide vertical continuitybetween strata. Fire is able to carry fromsurface fuels into the crowns of trees orshrubs with relative ease and assureinitiation and continuation of crowning.
LATCH KEY KIDS A regularly unsupervised child whoseparents are away from home.
LETHAL AREAS An area where it is not safe to locatefirefighters or civilians.
LIFE SAFETY The activities required to protectoccupants and emergency responsepersonnel, remove those who arethreatened and to treat the injured.
NON-FIRE RESOURCES Equipment and personnel potentiallyuseful but not directly used in firesuppression.
OCCUPANCY TYPE Is the purpose for which a building orpart thereof is used or intended to beused.
OUTBUILDINGS Any building separate from a residence.
A - 8
OVERHAUL Those operations that consist ofsearching for and extinguishing hidden orremaining fire; placing the building and itscontents in a safe condition; anddetermining the cause of the fire.
OVERSTORY Crown canopy foliage (see aerial fuels).
PRE-LAID Placed before anticipated use.
PROPERTY CONSERVATION The activities required to stop or reduceadditional loss to property and/or thecommunity.
RETARDANT See Fire Retardant
SIZE UP The evaluation of a fire to determine acourse of action for suppression.
SALVAGE Those methods and procedures thatfurther reduce fire, water, and smokedamage during and after a fire.
SCBA Self Contained Breathing Apparatus(a.k.a. Air Packs)
SPOTTING ZONE Area susceptible to firebrands.
STRATEGY An overall plan of action for fighting a firewhich gives regard to the most cost-efficient use of personnel and equipmentin consideration of values threatened, firebehavior, legal constraints, and objectivesestablished for resource management.Leaves decisions on the tactical use ofpersonnel and equipment to linecommanders in the suppression function.
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STRUCTURE COLLAPSE ZONE An area around a structure wherestructure collapse may cause injury ordeath to firefighters. Generally 1½ timesthe height of the building.
STRUCTURE DEFENSE The act of protecting or defendingstructures/improvements from wildlandfire.
STRUCTURE TRIAGE The sorting and prioritizing of structuresrequiring protection from wildfire basedupon an educated assessment designed tomaximize the number saved.
TRACTOR-PLOW Any track vehicle with a plow forexposing mineral soil including its methodof transportation and personnel for itsoperation.
TURNOUT GEAR A collective term for personal protectiveclothing worn by structure firefighters(a.k.a. Bunkers).
VENTILATION The process of removing smoke andother products of combustion from acompartment.
WET LINE A fire edge being contained by water and/or retardants but not by fireline.
YARD ACCUMULATION Items found around a residence (yardjunk).
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