Federalists and Republicans - HOME & ANNOUNCEMENTS

150

Federalists andRepublicans 1789–1820

1789• Washington elected

president

1798• Alien and Sedition

Acts introduced

1793• Louis XVI guillotined

during FrenchRevolution

1794• Polish rebellion

suppressed by Russians

1805• British navy

wins Battle ofTrafalgar

19##

Why It MattersIn the nation’s new constitutional government, important new institutions included the cabinet,

a system of federal courts, and a national bank. Political parties gradually developed from thedifferent views of citizens in the Northeast, South, and West. The new government faced special

challenges in foreign affairs, including the War of 1812 with Great Britain. After the war, a spiritof nationalism took hold in American society. A new national bank was chartered, and Supreme

Court decisions strengthened the power of the federal government.

The Impact TodayPolicies and attitudes that developed at this time have helped shape the nation.

• Important precedents were set for the relations between the federal and state governments.• Washington’s caution against foreign involvement has powerfully influenced American

foreign policy. • Many Americans have a strong sense of national loyalty.

The American Republic Since 1877 VideoThe Chapter 4 video, “The Battle of New Orleans,” chronicles the events of this pivotal battle of the War of 1812.

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1794• Jay’s Treaty

signed

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1804• Lewis and Clark

explore and mapLouisiana Territory

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1799• Beethoven writes

Symphony no. 1

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17951785 1805

Washington1789–1797

Jefferson1801–1809

J. Adams1797–1801

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151

1808• Congress bans

international slavetrade

1812• Napoleon’s

invasion andretreat fromRussia

Painter and President by J.L.G. Ferris

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1823• Monroe Doctrine

declared

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1811• Battle of Tippecanoe

fought against Tecumseh’sShawnee confederacy

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1812• United States declares

war on Great Britain

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1819• Spain cedes Florida

to the United States;Supreme Courtdecides McCulloch v.Maryland case

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1821• Mexico achieves

independencefrom Spain

• Greekindependencedeclared

!1815• Napoleon defeated at

the Battle of Waterloo

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1815 1825

Madison1809–1817

Monroe1817–1825

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the American RepublicSince 1877 Web site at

and click on Chapter Overviews—Chapter 4 to preview chapterinformation.

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1789Washington electedpresident

152 CHAPTER 4 Federalists and Republicans

#1802

On April 6, 1789, the ballots of the presidential electors were officially counted in the newUnited States Senate. As expected, George Washington became the first president of theUnited States under the new Constitution. Americans everywhere greeted the news with greatjoy, but Washington remained unexcited. Calling his election “the event which I have longdreaded,” Washington described his feelings as “not unlike those of a culprit who is going tothe place of his execution.”

Although Washington had high hopes for the new Constitution, he did not know if itwould work as intended. “I am . . . [bringing] the voice of the people and a good name of myown on this voyage; but what returns will be made of them, Heaven alone can foretell.”Despite his doubts and frustrations with the “ten thousand embarrassments, perplexities andtroubles of the presidency,” the new president retained his faith in the American people. Heexplained that “nothing but harmony, honesty, industry and frugality are necessary to makeus a great and happy people. . . . We are surrounded by the blessings of nature.”

—adapted from Washington: The Indispensable Man

The Federalist Era

#1790

1794Whiskey Rebellionquelled

1798XYZ Affair; Alien andSedition Acts passed

1800Convention of 1800ends Quasi-War

Creating a New GovernmentWhen Washington and the newly elected Congress took office, one of the first tasks

they faced was organizing the government itself. In the summer of 1789, Congress cre-ated three executive departments: the Department of State, which focused on foreignaffairs, the Department of the Treasury, and the Department of War. Congress also cre-ated the Office of the Attorney General to advise the government on legal matters.

#1794 #1798

George Washington

Main IdeaPresident Washington had to tackleeconomic and foreign policy challenges.President Adams continued to guide thecountry through troubled times.

Key Terms and Namescabinet, enumerated powers, impliedpowers, excise tax, most-favored nation,XYZ Affair, alien, interposition, nullification

Reading StrategyOrganizing As you read about how theUnited States established a central gov-ernment, complete a graphic organizersimilar to the one below by indicating thetasks completed by Congress.

Reading Objectives• Describe the growing divisions between

the nation’s political parties.• Discuss the major foreign policy devel-

opments during the Washington andAdams administrations.

Section ThemeGlobal Connections The United Statessettled its differences with Britain andSpain but then faced the threat of warwith France.

Tasks of Congress

To head these departments, Washington wantedmen who were “disposed to measure matters on aContinental Scale” instead of thinking about theirown states. He chose Thomas Jefferson to serve assecretary of state, Alexander Hamilton to lead theTreasury Department, General Henry Knox as sec-retary of war, and Edmund Randolph as attorneygeneral. During his presidency, Washington regu-larly met with these officials. Over time, the depart-ment heads came to be known as the cabinet, agroup of advisers to the president.

In addition to creating the executive depart-ments, Congress also organized the judicial branch.The Judiciary Act of 1789 established 13 federal dis-trict courts and three circuit courts of appeal.Washington, with the consent of the Senate, thenselected the first federal judges. The Judiciary Actalso stated that the Supreme Court would have sixjustices, and Washington chose John Jay as the firstchief justice of the United States.

One of the most important acts of Congressduring its first session in 1789 was passingthe Bill of Rights. During the campaign toratify the Constitution, the Federalists hadpromised on several occasions to add a billdetailing the rights of American citizens.James Madison, who emerged as one of thekey leaders in Congress, made the passageof such a bill top priority. He hoped itwould demonstrate the good faith offederal leaders and build support for thenew government.

In late September 1789, after manydebates, Congress sent 12 constitutionalamendments to the states for ratification.Ten were approved and went into effect in 1791.They are generally referred to as the Bill of Rights,although only the first eight offer safeguards toprotect the rights of individuals against the govern-ment. The Ninth Amendment states that the peoplehave other rights that are not listed in theConstitution. The Tenth Amendment states that anypowers not specifically given to the federal govern-ment are reserved for the states. At the time,Madison tried to word the Bill of Rights to apply tothe state governments as well, but Congressrejected that idea. Not until after the adoption ofthe Fourteenth Amendment after the Civil Warwould the Supreme Court begin to apply the Bill ofRights to the states.

Identifying What executive depart-ments did Congress establish?

Hamilton’s Financial ProgramBy the end of 1789, the new federal government

was up and running. Now its most pressing concernswere economic.

ECONOMICS

Repaying the National Debt The federal govern-ment had inherited a huge debt from theContinental Congress. To fund the RevolutionaryWar, the Congress had issued bonds—paper notespromising to repay money after a certain length oftime. By 1789 the new United States owed roughly$40 million to American citizens and another $11.7million to France, Spain, and the Netherlands.

Alexander Hamilton believed the only way for thenew federal government to establish its credit was tomake good on these debts. If it called in the old bondsand exchanged them at full value for new, interest-bearing ones, then the wealthy creditors, bankers,

Reading Check

New Government The cabinet and theCongress, which met in New York’s FederalHall (left), included some of the new ele-ments of Washington’s first administration.What departments did the four cabinetmembers head?

History

and merchants who held the bonds would have astake in the federal government’s success. In his FirstReport on Public Credit, issued in January 1790,Hamilton proposed funding the Confederation’sdebts in this way. He also proposed that the federalgovernment take over the states’ debts from the war.

Led by Madison, critics attacked Hamilton’s pro-posals. During the 1780s, many original bond pur-chasers such as farmers and Revolutionary Warveterans had been forced to sell their bonds at a dis-count to speculators, people willing to take a busi-ness risk in hopes of financial gain in the future.Madison was outraged that Northern speculatorswho had paid as little as $10 for a $100 bond wouldnow receive full value, while the original buyersreceived nothing. Furthermore, Northerners nowowned roughly 80 percent of the bonds, but much ofthe tax money that would be used to pay off thebonds would come from the South.

Madison objected to taking over state debts forsimilar reasons. Most Southern states had alreadypaid their debts. They did not want their taxes usedto pay the debts of the Northern states.

The congressional debate over Hamilton’s pro-posals raged for months. Finally, in July 1790,Hamilton struck a deal with Madison and Jefferson.The latter two would use their influence to convinceSoutherners in Congress to vote for Hamilton’splan. In return, the capital of the United States

would eventually be moved from New York to alocation along the Potomac River. Southernersbelieved that having the capital in the South wouldhelp to offset the strength of the Northern states inCongress. To get the last few votes he needed,Hamilton also agreed that the federal governmentwould compensate the states that had already paidoff their debts.

The Bank of the United States With his system ofpublic credit finally in place, Hamilton askedCongress to create a national bank to manage thecountry’s debts and interest payments. UnderHamilton’s plan, the Bank of the United Stateswould also have the power to make loans to the gov-ernment and to private individuals. Most impor-tantly, the bank would be allowed to issue papermoney, providing a national currency that wouldstimulate trade, investment, and economic growth.

Hamilton’s proposal for a national bank immedi-ately encountered opposition. Southerners pointedout that Northern merchants would own most of thebank’s stock because only they could afford it. At thesame time, Madison argued that Congress had nopower to establish a bank because that was notamong its enumerated powers, or powers specifi-cally mentioned in the Constitution.

Despite Madison’s objections, Congress passed thebank bill and sent it to the president. Unsure whetherto sign or veto the bill, Washington consultedAttorney General Randolph and Secretary of StateJefferson. Both opposed the bill, arguing that theConstitution did not authorize the government to cre-ate a bank. Washington then asked Hamilton for his

opinion.Hamilton pointed out that Article I,

Section 8, of the Constitution gave the federalgovernment the power “to make all lawswhich shall be necessary and proper” to exe-cute its responsibilities. The “necessary andproper” clause created implied powers—powers not explicitly listed in theConstitution but necessary for the govern-ment to do its job. A national bank, Hamiltonargued, was necessary to collect taxes, regu-late trade, and provide for the commondefense. Jefferson agreed the implied powersexisted, but he believed “necessary andproper” meant absolutely necessary and notsimply convenient. Hamilton’s logic per-suaded Washington to sign the bill. In 1791the Bank of the United States was establishedfor a 20-year period.

Commander in Chief This illustration shows the president reviewing troopsat the time of the Whiskey Rebellion. What triggered the rebellion?

History Through Art


The Whiskey Rebellion Hamilton believed thefederal government also had to establish its right toimpose direct taxes on the people. In his SecondReport on Public Credit, issued in December 1790,Hamilton proposed an excise tax on Americanwhiskey. An excise tax is a tax paid by the manufac-turer of a product and passed on to those who buythe product. The sales tax many Americans paytoday is an example of an excise tax.

In 1791 Congress approved Hamilton’s proposaland enacted a high excise tax (about 25 percent) onwhiskey. The tax hit Western farmers hard. Whiskeywas used as a medium of exchange in the West,where bank notes and coins were not available inlarge quantities.

Complaints against the whiskey tax began in 1791,but it was not until the summer of 1794 that rebellionerupted. Farmers in western Pennsylvania began ter-rorizing tax collectors, robbing the mail, and destroy-ing the whiskey-making stills of those who paid thetax. Determined to uphold federal authority to imposetaxes, President Washington sent nearly 13,000 troopsto crush the Whiskey Rebellion. The huge armycaused the rebels to disperse without a fight.

Explaining Why did AlexanderHamilton propose an excise tax on American whiskey?

The Rise of Political PartiesDuring Washington’s first term in office, disagree-

ment over Hamilton’s financial program had splitCongress into factions. These factions became thenation’s first political parties. Hamilton’s supporterscalled themselves Federalists. Their opponents, led byMadison and Jefferson, took the name Democratic-Republicans. They were commonly referred to asRepublicans. (The party became known as theDemocratic Party later in the 1800s.)

Hamilton favored a strong national government ledby the “rich, well born, and able.” He believed thatdemocracy was dangerous to liberty. Hamilton alsobelieved that manufacturing and trade were the basisof national wealth and power. He favored policies thatsupported these areas of the economy. The FederalistParty included many artisans, merchants, manufactur-ers, and bankers. The party also attracted urban work-ers and Eastern farmers who benefited from trade.

Thomas Jefferson emerged as the leader of theDemocratic-Republicans. Jefferson believed that thestrength of the United States was its independentfarmers. As long as most people owned their ownland, they would fight to preserve the Republic.

In general, Democratic-Republicans supportedagriculture over commerce and trade. They fearedthat too much emphasis on commerce would lead to asociety divided between the rich who owned every-thing and the poor who worked for wages. Over time,the Democratic-Republicans came to stand for therights of states against the federal government. Theparty had a strong base in the rural South and West.

Identifying What were the nation’sfirst two political parties, and what issues did each favor?

Washington’s Foreign PolicyShortly after Washington was inaugurated in 1789,

the French Revolution began in Europe. At first, mostAmericans sympathized with the revolutionaries, whoseemed to be fighting for the same rights Americanshad won a few years earlier.By spring 1793, however, agroup of French radicals hadseized power. They strippedaristocrats of their propertyand executed thousands ofpeople, including the Frenchking, Louis XVI, and thequeen, Marie Antoinette. Theviolence and chaos turnedmany Federalists against theFrench. Many Republicans,however, continued to sup-port the Revolution, viewingit as a fight for liberty.

Reading Check

Reading Check

Hamilton and the Federalists

Strong national government

Ruling power given towealthy, educated

Government should promote manufacturing

Loose interpretation of theConstitution

Protective tariffs protectdomestic industries

Jefferson and theDemocratic-Republicans

Strong stategovernment

Ruling power given to alllandowners

Government should promote agriculture

Strict interpretation of theConstitution

Protective tariffs burdenfarmers

Competing National Visions

Student WebActivity Visit theAmerican RepublicSince 1877 Web site at

and click on StudentWeb Activities—Chapter 4 for an activity on early political parties.

HISTORY

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CHAPTER 4 Federalists and Republicans 155

1. Interpreting Charts Which party did not supporttariffs, and why?

2. Making Generalizations Which party usuallyattracted bankers and manufacturers?

The turmoil within France soon led to conflictwith other European kingdoms. When Francedeclared war against Great Britain in 1793, theUnited States found itself in a difficult position. TheTreaty of 1778 with France required the United Statesto help defend France’s colonies in the Caribbean.Fulfilling this agreement might mean war with GreatBritain. In an effort to avoid the conflict, PresidentWashington issued a proclamation on April 22, 1793,declaring the United States to be “friendly andimpartial” toward both warring powers.

Jay’s Treaty Remaining neutral proved difficult.Britain used its navy to block the delivery of goods toFrench ports, seizing hundreds of American ships. Atthe same time, the British were reportedly incitingNative American attacks in the West, where Britishsoldiers still occupied some forts they had promisedto evacuate after the American Revolution. Theseactivities pushed the United States to the brink ofwar in the spring of 1794.

Desperate for a diplomatic solution, Washingtonsent John Jay to Britain. The British were busy fight-ing France and did not want to fight the UnitedStates as well. They agreed to sign what came to becalled Jay’s Treaty.

The British drove a hard bargain, however, know-ing that the Americans depended on trade withBritain. They refused to stop seizing American shipsor to compensate American merchants for lost car-goes. Instead, they agreed to create an internationalcommission to hear the merchants’ claims. They alsoinsisted on establishing another commission to con-sider the claims of British subjects seeking repaymentof pre-Revolutionary debts.

Although he gave ground on many issues, Jaywas able to persuade the British to give the UnitedStates most-favored nation status. This meant thatAmericans would not be discriminated against whenthey traded with Britain but would receive the sametreatment as other favored nations. Britain alsoagreed to allow limited American trade with itsCaribbean colonies and to evacuate its forts inAmerican territory.

When the public learned the terms of Jay’s Treaty,the Democratic-Republicans immediately accusedthe Federalists of being pro-British. Across much of the country, public meetings were held condemn-ing the treaty. George Washington deliberated longand hard but finally agreed to implement it. His deci-sion prevented war with Great Britain and protectedthe fragile American economy.

Pinckney’s Treaty Jay’s Treaty also helped theUnited States win concessions from Spain, which stillcontrolled Florida and territory west of theMississippi River. In 1795 Spain joined France in itsstruggle against Britain. The signing of Jay’s Treatyraised fears in Spain that the British and Americansmight now join forces to seize Spain’s NorthAmerican holdings. Spain quickly offered to negoti-ate all outstanding issues with the United States.

Also in 1795 the Spanish signed the Treaty of SanLorenzo—better known as Pinckney’s Treaty, afterthe American negotiator, Thomas Pinckney. Thetreaty granted the United States the right to navi-gate the Mississippi and to deposit goods at the portof New Orleans. Spain also agreed to accept the 31stparallel as the northern boundary of westernFlorida.

Explaining Why did PresidentWashington choose neutrality in the war between Britain andFrance?

Reading Check


A Fiery Protest Antifederalists burned at the stake a figure representing JohnJay after Jay’s Treaty with England was signed in 1794. Why were people angryabout the treaty?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

A New Administration George Washington served two terms in office. By

the end of his second term, however, he had grownexasperated by party politics and the attacks on hischaracter in Democratic-Republican newspapers.Although many people urged him to run again,Washington decided to retire.

Before leaving office, the president wrote a longletter to the American people. Published onSeptember 19, 1796, and widely reprinted,Washington’s Farewell Address urged Americansto support the federal government and avoid sec-tionalism—dividing the country into North againstSouth, or East against West. Washington alsowarned against the dangers of political parties,comparing party fervor to a fire that could easilyburn out of control. Washington further advisedAmericans against excessively strong attachmentsto foreign countries: “‘Tis our true policy to steerclear of permanent alliances with any portion of theforeign world.”

With Washington stepping down, the UnitedStates held its first openly contested presidential elec-tion in 1796. The Federalists nominated John Adams,and the Republicans chose Thomas Jefferson. Angerover Jay’s Treaty made the election close, but whenthe votes were counted, John Adams had won.

Adams and the Quasi-War One ofAdams’s first challenges was dealingwith French aggression at sea. France,still at war with Britain, had beenenraged by Jay’s Treaty. The French hadbegun stopping American ships andseizing their goods if they were going toBritain. These actions led manyFederalists to call for war against France.Although critical of the French, Adams,like Washington, was reluctant toinvolve the United States in a major war.Instead he sent Charles Pinckney,Elbridge Gerry, and John Marshall tonegotiate with France in 1797.

After weeks of waiting, the Americanswere finally approached by three Frenchofficials, referred to in later documentsas X, Y, and Z. They asked for a bribe of$250,000 to initiate talks, along with anAmerican loan of $12 million. Pinckney’sindignant reply—“No, no, not a six-pence”—inspired pro-war Federalists tocoin a stirring slogan: “Millions fordefense, but not one cent for tribute.”

The XYZ Affair heightened tensions with France.In June 1798, Congress voted to suspend all tradewith France and to allow the navy to capture armedFrench ships. The two nations were soon fighting anundeclared war at sea, which came to be known asthe Quasi-War.

In the fall of 1798, France proposed new negotia-tions. To the Federalists’ dismay, Adams agreed tothe talks. In September 1800, the two countriessigned the Convention of 1800, ending the Quasi-War. The United States gave up all claims againstFrance for damages to American shipping. Francereleased the United States from the Treaty of 1778.

Domestic Troubles At home, divisions betweenthe two political parties had been deepening. ManyFederalists suspected pro-French Republicans ofstirring up the people so much that they wouldattempt to overthrow the government. They alsoresented the harsh criticisms printed in Republicannewspapers. Taking advantage of their congres-sional majorities, the Federalists decided to strikeback at the opposing party.

In the spring and summer of 1798, the Federalistspushed four laws through Congress that becameknown as the Alien and Sedition Acts. The first threelaws were aimed at aliens, people living in the coun-try who were not citizens. The Federalists knew that


Compromise and the Capital City Southern states that had already paid their war debtsaccepted Hamilton’s financial program on the condition that the new national capital be locatedalong the Potomac River. Why did Southerners think having a Southern capital would ben-efit them?

History

many recent immigrants had come from France andIreland. These immigrants were often anti-British andtended to vote for the Republican Party once theygained citizenship. The first law required immigrantsto wait 14 years before becoming citizens, thus weak-ening Republican support. The next two laws gavethe president the power to deport without trial anyalien deemed dangerous to the United States.

The fourth law made it a federal crime to utter orprint anything “false, scandalous, and malicious”against the federal government or any federal offi-cial. In short, the act deprived citizens of their right tocriticize public officials. The government indicted 15people under this act, including leading Republicans.

In 1798 and 1799, the Republican-controlled legis-latures of Kentucky and Virginia passed resolutions,secretly written by Jefferson and Madison, criticizingthe Alien and Sedition Acts. Both resolutions arguedthat the Constitution was an agreement among thestates. The states therefore had the power to judgewhether a federal law was unconstitutional.

This idea that states have authority over theConstitution is called state sovereignty. It is differentfrom the idea of states’ rights. Americans today often

believe the federal government is above the state gov-ernments in power, but the Constitution originallyintended to divide power between the states and thefederal government. Defenders of states’ rightswanted to prevent the federal government from exer-cising powers that should belong to the states. Boththe Virginia and the Kentucky Resolutions were try-ing to protect states’ rights, but in doing so, theydeveloped the new idea of state sovereignty.

The Virginia Resolutions introduced the theoryof interposition. They argued that if the federalgovernment did something unconstitutional, thestates could interpose between the federal govern-ment and the people to stop the action. TheKentucky Resolutions advanced a similar theorycalled nullification. According to this theory, if thefederal government passed an unconstitutionallaw, the states had the right to nullify the law, ordeclare it invalid.

Although the Kentucky and VirginiaResolutions had little immediate effect, states usedthese ideas later to defend their interests. Duringthe War of 1812, for example, New England statesrefused to enforce federal laws restricting trade. In


The Election of 1800

Presidential Election, 1800

Jefferson Democratic Republican

Candidate Political Party

Adams Federalist

Burr Democratic Republican

Pinckney

73

ElectoralVote

65

73

64

Unknown

PopularVote

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown Federalist

Jay Federalist1Unknown

4

8 7

21

8 43

84

12

64

16

4

97

3

55

KY.

PA.

VA.

N.C.TENN.

S.C.GA.

N.Y.

N.H.VT.

MASS.

R.I.

CONN.N.J.

DEL.

MD.MD.

INDIANATERR.

MISS. TERR.

TERR.SOUTH OFOHIO R.

TERR. N.W.OF OHIO R.

*According to the Constitution, each elector in the Electoral College voted for two people in a presidential election. The person receiving the most votes became president, and the person receiving the second-highest number of votes became vice president. Under this system a tie was possible, as happened in the case of the tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr in 1800. The House of Representatives then elected Jefferson after 35 rounds of voting in which there was no clear winner. To prevent such confusion in the future, the Twelfth Amendment was added to the Constitution in 1804. The amendment stipulates that electoral votes for president and vice president are counted and listed separately.

1. Interpreting Maps Which states split their electoralvotes between the two parties?

2. Applying Geography Skills Where did the Federalistshave strong support? What policies did they favor thatwould account for their strength there?

MotionIn

Writing About History


Checking for Understanding1. Define: cabinet, bond, speculator,

enumerated powers, implied powers,excise tax, most-favored nation, alien,interposition, nullification.

2. Identify: Whiskey Rebellion, XYZ Affair.3. Explain how the Alien and Sedition Acts

interfered with the lives of people livingin the United States.

Reviewing Themes4. Global Connections How did Great

Britain and France test Americanneutrality during the presidencies of Washington and Adams?

Critical Thinking 5. Synthesizing Why did Hamilton think

the United States should take responsi-bility for the debts of both the Confed-eration and the states?

6. Organizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to list the firstpolitical parties, their leaders and sup-porters, and their positions on issues.

Analyzing Visuals7. Comparing Charts and Maps Study

the chart on page 155 and the map onpage 158. How did the election resultsreflect the Democratic-Republican posi-tion on protective tariffs?

8. Expository Writing Write an editorialthat responds to George Washington’sFarewell Address. Defend or disputeWashington’s opinion that political par-ties and permanent foreign alliancesare dangerous.

the years before the Civil War, Southern states citedthe resolutions to protect their trade and to pre-serve slavery.

Analyzing What was the purpose ofthe Alien and Sedition Acts?

The Election of 1800Although John Adams hoped to win re-election in

1800, he faced a difficult battle. The Alien andSedition Acts had angered many people, as had anew tax the Federalists had introduced on houses,land, and enslaved Africans. The Republican nomi-nees for president and vice president, ThomasJefferson and Aaron Burr, campaigned against thenew taxes and the national bank. They accused theFederalists of favoring monarchy and discouragingpolitical participation.

The election was closely contested and had anunexpected outcome, one that revealed a flaw in thesystem for selecting the president. The Constitutiondoes not let citizens vote directly for the chief execu-tive. Instead each state chooses a number of electorsequal to its number of senators and representatives inCongress. This group, known as the ElectoralCollege, then votes for the president.

The Constitution specified that each elector wouldvote for two candidates. The candidate receiving themost votes would become president; the runner-upwould become vice president. Ties would be decidedby the House of Representatives.

To avoid a tie between Jefferson and Burr, theRepublicans had intended for all their electors to votefor Jefferson, and for all but one to vote for Burr.Somehow the plan went awry. When the votes werecounted, Adams had 65, and Jefferson and Burr eachhad 73. Now the Federalist-controlled House ofRepresentatives had to choose the president from thetop two vote getters, who were both Republicans.

Some Federalists in the House hoped to use thedeadlock to keep their party in power. Somedespised Jefferson and wanted to select Burr. OtherFederalists, including Burr’s archenemy AlexanderHamilton, gave their support to Jefferson. This led toa tie in the House of Representatives. Finally, inFebruary 1801, Jefferson informed Federalist JamesBayard that if elected, he would not undo Hamilton’sfinancial system. Bayard then cast a blank ballot,ensuring that Jefferson would have more votes thanBurr. Jefferson became the new president.

The election of 1800 was an important turning pointin American history. The Republicans had won notonly the presidency but a majority of seats in Congress.The Federalists, who controlled the army as well as thegovernment, could have refused to step down. Instead,they upheld the Constitution. The election of 1800established that power in the United States could bepeacefully transferred despite disagreements betweenpolitical parties. The election also led to the TwelfthAmendment in 1804, which provided for separate bal-lots for the president and vice president.

Summarizing What changes didthe election of 1800 bring?

Reading Check

Reading Check

Political Leaders Supporters Policy Party Positions

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Reading a Flowchart

160

Social Studies

Why Learn This Skill?Sometimes, determining a sequence of events can

be confusing, particularly when many events areoccurring at the same time. Reading a flowchartcan help you understand how events are relatedand how one event leads to others.

Learning the SkillFlowcharts show the steps in a process or a

sequence of events. A flowchart could be used toshow the movement of goods through a factory, of people through a training program, or of a billthrough Congress. The following steps explainhow to read a flowchart:

• Read the title or caption of the flowchart to findout what you are studying.

• Read all of the labels or sentences on theflowchart.

• Look for numbers indicating sequence or arrowsshowing the direction of movement.

• Evaluate the information in the flowchart.

Practicing the SkillThe flowchart on this page shows a sequence of

events that led to the expansion of territory withinthe United States. Analyze the information in theflowchart and then answer the questions.

1 What does the flowchart show?

2 How do you know in what sequence the eventstook place?

3 What inspired Napoleon to acquire theLouisiana Territory from Spain?

4 How did the United States react to France’sacquisition of the Louisiana Territory?

5 What additional information from the chaptercould you add to the flowchart to show a further sequence of events?

Skills AssessmentComplete the Practicing Skills questions on

page 175 and the Chapter 4 Skill ReinforcementActivity to assess your mastery of this skill.

French leader Napoleon plans to rebuild France's empire in North America.

Napoleon convinces Spain to give the Louisiana Territory back to France.

President Jefferson sends ambassador Robert Livingstonto France to try to block the deal.

Napoleon later wants to conquer Europe, but he needsfunds to carry out his plans.

President Jefferson agrees to purchase Louisiana Territory.

Circumstances Leading to theLouisiana Purchase

Applying the SkillMaking a Flowchart Gather information about thesteps necessary to apply to college. Then make up aflowchart outlining the steps. Present your flowchart to the class.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive WorkbookCD-ROM, Level 2, provides instruction andpractice in key social studies skills.

March 4, 1801, was Inauguration Day in Washington, D.C. The still unfinished capital ofthe United States was only a tiny village. Stumps and mud holes filled Pennsylvania Avenue,and a swampy wilderness separated Capitol Hill from the president’s mansion. A Washingtonresident described the modest inauguration ceremony:

“The sun shone bright on that morning. . . . Mr. Jefferson . . . walk[ed] from his lodgings,which were not far distant. . . . Soon afterwards he entered . . . and bowing to the Senate,who arose to receive him, he approached a table on which the Bible lay and took the oathwhich was administered to him by the Chief Justice. . . . At dinner . . . A gentleman fromBaltimore, . . . asked permission to wish him joy. ‘I would advise you,’ answered Mr.Jefferson smiling, ‘to follow my example on nuptial occasions when I always tell the bride-groom I will wait till the end of the year before offering my congratulations.’ And this was theonly and solitary instance of any notice taken of the event of the morning.”

—quoted in The Life of Thomas Jefferson

1803Supreme Court decides Marbury v.Madison; Louisiana Purchase

#1805 #1815

Thomas Jefferson Takes Office Thomas Jefferson privately referred to his election as the “Revolution of 1800.”

Believing that Washington and Adams had acted too much like royalty, the new presi-dent opted for less pomp and ceremony. Jefferson was the first president to begin his

The RepublicansTake Power

#1800 #1810

1807British attack the Chesapeake;Embargo Act passed

1808Madison electedpresident

1812United States declareswar on Britain


1814British troops raidWashington, D.C.

Thomas Jefferson

Main IdeaPresident Jefferson limited the scope ofthe federal government and made theLouisiana Purchase. President Madisonled the country into the War of 1812.

Key Terms and Namesjudicial review, Louisiana Purchase,contraband, impressment, embargo, War Hawks

Reading StrategySequencing As you read about the presi-dencies of Thomas Jefferson and JamesMadison, complete a time line similar tothe one below to record major events oftheir administrations.

Reading Objectives• Summarize the changes Thomas

Jefferson brought to the federal government.

• Describe the causes and the outcomeof the War of 1812.

Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy TheSupreme Court asserted the power todecide whether laws passed by Congresswere constitutional.

18171801

term at the new capital, Washington, D.C., and heused this opportunity to break with his predecessors’style. He rode on horseback rather than in carriages,and he substituted intimate dinners for formal recep-tions. In addition to setting a new style, Jefferson alsoreversed some of his predecessors’ policies, but hedid not overturn the entire Federalist program.

Restraining Federal Power A strong believer insmall government, Jefferson hoped to limit the scopeof federal power. Many Federalists expected him todismantle the Bank of the United States. However,Jefferson’s secretary of the treasury, Albert Gallatin,supported Hamilton’s system and convinced thepresident to keep the national bank. Instead of main-taining the public debt and paying interest on it,though, Jefferson began paying it off. He cut govern-ment spending, did away with all excise taxes,including the hated whiskey tax, and trimmed thearmed forces.

Conflict With the Courts Jefferson also hoped toweaken the Federalists’ control of the judiciary. Justbefore Congress had changed hands, the Federalistmajority had passed the Judiciary Act of 1801. This

act created 16 new federal judgeships, which Adamsfilled with Federalists. Adams supposedly stayed upuntil midnight on his last day in office, signing theirappointments.

One of the first acts of the new RepublicanCongress was to repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801,abolishing the offices of the “midnight judges.” TheRepublicans then tried to remove other Federalistsfrom the bench by impeachment. Republican leadersbelieved that the impeachment power was one of theConstitution’s checks and balances. Congress couldtherefore remove judges for arbitrary and unfairdecisions, not just for criminal behavior. Only twojudges were brought to trial, however, and only onewas ousted. The attempt to remove the judges estab-lished the tradition that judges could only beremoved for criminal behavior, not simply becauseCongress disagreed with their decisions.

Jefferson tried a different tactic with WilliamMarbury. In his last days as president, Adams hadappointed Marbury to be justice of the peace inWashington, D.C. Jefferson told his new secretary ofstate, James Madison, to withhold the documentsthat would confirm the appointment.

Marbury asked the Supreme Court for a writ, orcourt order, directing Madison to deliver the docu-ments. The Court might have been expected to com-ply. After all, the Judiciary Act of 1789 empoweredthe Supreme Court to issue such writs.

In 1803 in Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice JohnMarshall and his fellow justices unanimously agreedthat Marbury should be given his documents, butthat the Supreme Court could not issue the courtorder because it had no jurisdiction. Marshallpointed out that the Constitution was very specificabout the kind of cases that could be taken directly tothe Supreme Court rather than a lower court. Thusthe section of the Judiciary Act of 1789 that author-ized the Supreme Court to issue writs was unconsti-tutional and invalid. ; (See page 963 for information onMarbury v. Madison.)

Although the ruling did not help Marbury, it was alandmark decision for the Supreme Court. The Courthad asserted its right of judicial review, the power todecide whether laws passed by Congress are consti-tutional and to strike down those that are not.Marshall remained as Chief Justice for more than 30years, building the Supreme Court into a powerful,influential, and independent branch of the federalgovernment.

Evaluating Why was Marbury v.Madison significant?

Reading Check

John Marshall During his Supreme Court tenure, this staunch Federalistwas concerned with establishing a strong federal government. What caseestablished the principle of judicial review?

History


The United States Expands WestJefferson strongly supported the country’s west-

ward expansion, which had begun well before his pres-idency. During Washington’s terms, Americans hadflocked to the fertile region between the AppalachianMountains and the Mississippi River. In 1792 Kentuckyhad enough people to become a new state, andTennessee gained statehood in 1796. Meanwhile, set-tlers from Pennsylvania and Virginia were moving intothe Northwest Territory, but they were coming intoconflict with Native Americans there.

President Washington sent General AnthonyWayne to put down Native American resistance byforce. In August 1794, at the Battle of Fallen Timbersin Ohio, Wayne’s troops won a decisive victory. InAugust 1795, 12 Native American nations signed theTreaty of Greenville. In exchange for a yearly pay-ment of $10,000 from the federal government, theygave up land near present-day Chicago and Detroit,as well as a large area in southern Ohio and Indiana.The flow of Americans into the region rapidlyincreased. By 1803 Ohio had enough settlers tobecome a state.

The Louisiana Purchase While Americans werepushing west, the French were hoping to rebuildtheir empire in North America. French leaderNapoleon Bonaparte convinced Spain to giveLouisiana back to France in 1800. Jefferson wasuneasy about France controlling the lowerMississippi. He ordered the American ambassadorin Paris, Robert Livingston, to try to gain conces-sions for the United States.

Livingston accomplished little at first.By 1803, however, Napoleon had begunmaking plans to conquer Europe. To gainfunds and to pre-empt an alliance betweenthe United States and Great Britain,Napoleon offered to sell all of theLouisiana Territory, as well as NewOrleans, to the United States. Livingstonimmediately agreed. On April 30, 1803, theUnited States bought Louisiana fromFrance for $11.25 million. It also agreed totake on French debts owed to Americans,worth about $3.75 million, making thetotal cost about $15 million.

The Senate overwhelmingly ratified theLouisiana Purchase. For less than threecents an acre, the United States had morethan doubled its size and gained control ofthe entire Mississippi River.

GEOGRAPHY

Lewis and Clark and Zebulon Pike Even beforeLouisiana became a part of the United States, Jeffersonconvinced Congress to fund an expedition to explorethe territory. Led by Meriwether Lewis and WilliamClark, the expedition headed west up the MissouriRiver in May 1804. Sacagawea, a Shoshone woman,acted as a guide during much of the voyage. OtherNative Americans led the group along a path throughthe Rocky Mountains, and the explorers eventuallytraced the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. TheLewis and Clark expedition not only provided awealth of information about Louisiana, it also gave theUnited States a claim to the Oregon Territory.

Zebulon Pike also explored the LouisianaTerritory. In 1805 he mapped much of the upperMississippi River. In 1806 he headed west to Col-orado, where he encountered the mountain nowknown as Pikes Peak. Pike later mapped part of theRio Grande and traveled across northern Mexico andsouthern Texas. His account of this trip gave Amer-icans detailed information about the Great Plains andthe Rocky Mountains.

The Essex Junto The Louisiana Purchase alarmedmany New England Federalists. They knew that as new states appeared in theSouth and West, New Englandwould lose political influ-ence. In Massachusetts, a small group of Fed-eralists known as theEssex Junto drafted a planto take New England outof the Union.

Battle of Fallen Timbers Thismonument commemorates the vic-tory of General Anthony Wayne(right) over Blue Jacket. The Treaty ofGreenville opened the Ohio Territoryto American settlers. What amountdid the government pay the NativeAmericans for the territory?

History

Vice President Aaron Burr, sympathetic to theirgoal, agreed to run for governor of New York in 1804.During the campaign, Alexander Hamilton calledBurr “a dangerous man, and one who ought not betrusted with the reins of government.” WhenHamilton’s remarks were published, Burr challengedhim to a duel. Hamilton agreed, and on July 11, 1804,Burr shot and killed Hamilton. The nation had lost abrilliant leader and one of its founders.

Explaining Why did ThomasJefferson want to purchase the Louisiana Territory?

Rising International TensionsForeign affairs preoccupied President Jefferson

during his second term in office. France hadresumed its war against Britain in mid-1803, and theUnited States had proclaimed its neutrality. In 1806and 1807, however, both France and Britain adopted

policies forbidding neutral countries from tradingwith the enemy. Any vessels traveling to Europebecame subject to search and seizure by one side orthe other.

Soon British warships were regularly stoppingAmerican merchant ships and searching them forcontraband—smuggled goods—and for British sailorswho had fled their vessels. If the British found desert-ers, they practiced impressment, a legalized form ofkidnapping, to force the sailors back into service. Theyalso used impressment to take American sailors.

Calls for War In June 1807, tensions between theUnited States and Britain reached the boiling pointwhen the British warship Leopard stopped anAmerican warship, the Chesapeake. When theChesapeake’s captain refused to submit to a search,the Leopard opened fire, killing three Americans.The British then boarded the Chesapeake and seizedfour sailors.

The attack enraged the public. Anti-British mobs rioted in several cities,and protesters marched through thestreets. President Jefferson, likeWashington and Adams before him,did not want to be drawn into aEuropean conflict. Instead, he decidedto use economic sanctions against bothBritain and France.

Jefferson asked Congress to pass theEmbargo Act of 1807, halting all tradebetween the United States and Europe.The embargo, a government ban ontrade with other countries, wound uphurting the United States more thanBritain or France. In the Northeast,once-lucrative shipping businessescame to a standstill, while farmers sawthe demand for their crops fall.Realizing that the embargo was cost-ing the Republican Party support,Congress repealed it in March 1809.

Shortly before its repeal, Jeffersonleft office, having decided not to seek athird term but to retire to Monticello,his estate in Virginia. Jefferson hadsucceeded in limiting the role of thefederal government, but he also left hissuccessor with a foreign policy crisis.

New Economic Pressures The newRepublican president, James Madison,had easily won the election of 1808.

Reading Check

i n H i s t o r y

Tecumseh c.1768–1813

Tecumseh was a Shawnee chief bornnear present-day Springfield, Ohio. TheShawnee had taken part in many warsin the Northwest Territory. After theTreaty of Greenville in 1795, Tecumsehand many other Shawnee moved to theIndiana territory to escape white settlers.

Tecumseh urged all NativeAmericans to unite. They were all onepeople, he said, and should cooperatein a confederacy to control their des-tiny. He was furious when the Delawareand Potawatomi agreed to cede about3 million acres (1.2 million ha) to theUnited States. The land belonged to allNative Americans, Tecumseh argued.How could one group cede it?

In the end, Tecumseh saw no choicebut to fight the whites: “The huntinggrounds are fast disappearing and theyare driving the red man farther and far-ther to the west.” Ominously, hewarned, “Surely [this] will be the fate ofall tribes if the power of the whites isnot forever crushed. . . .”

During the War of 1812, Tecumsehallied himself with the British. A superb

commander, he met his end at theBattle of the Thames River, fought nearChatham, Ontario, in October 1813.There, 400 British troops commandedby General Henry Proctor and about1,000 Native Americans led byTecumseh fought some 3,000 Americantroops led by General William HenryHarrison. During the battle, the Britishbroke ranks and fled, leavingTecumseh’s men to face the Americanforces alone. After Tecumseh fell, hisconfederacy collapsed, leaving theUnited States in firm control of theNorthwest Territory.


Like Jefferson, Madison preferred to avoid war if at allpossible. To force the British to stop seizing Americanships, he asked Congress to pass the Non-IntercourseAct in 1809. This act prohibited commerce with Franceand Britain but promised to resume trade withwhichever country first dropped its own trade restric-tions. When the act had no effect, Congress replaced itwith Macon’s Bill Number Two. This new law statedthat if either France or Britain removed its trade restric-tions, the United States would stop importing goodsfrom the other nation. France eventually took someconciliatory steps, and Congress passed a nonimporta-tion act against Britain in early 1811.

By early 1812, the refusal of the United States to buyBritish goods had begun to hurt British merchants andmanufacturers. They began to pressure their govern-ment to repeal its restrictions on trade, but by the timeBritain agreed, the United States had declared war.

The War Hawks Most of the members of Congresswho wanted to declare war came from the South andWest. Nicknamed the War Hawks, they were led byHenry Clay of Kentucky, John C. Calhoun of SouthCarolina, and Felix Grundy of Tennessee.

Americans living in the South and West were angryat Britain for several reasons. Southern planters andwestern farmers earned much of their income fromexports of tobacco, rice, wheat, and cotton, so Britain’strade restrictions hurt them badly. Eastern merchantspaid low prices for the farmers’ crops and chargedthem high shipping fees to cover the potential loss oftheir ships bound for Europe.

Westerners also blamed Britain for their problemswith Native Americans. In the early 1800s, settlershad begun moving past the line established by theTreaty of Greenville and onto Native American land.As clashes with Native Americans mounted, manysettlers suspected that the British in Canada werearming the Native Americans.

A key incident occurred in November 1811, nearthe Tippecanoe River in the Indiana territory. Thegovernor there, William Henry Harrison, decided tostrike at Tenskwatawa (also known as “the Prophet”),the brother of Shawnee leader Tecumseh. Both menhad been urging Native Americans to unify in orderto hold on to their lands. The bloody Battle ofTippecanoe left about one-fourth of Harrison’s troopsdead or wounded, but its impact on the NativeAmericans was far greater. The clash shattered NativeAmerican confidence in the Prophet’s leadership.Many, including Tecumseh, fled to Canada. This con-vinced some Americans that the British had indeedbeen aiding the Native Americans, as did the

British-made rifles the Shawnee forces had left behindafter the battle. Many western farmers argued that awar against Britain would enable the United States toseize Canada and end Native American attacks.

In early June 1812, President Madison gave in tothe pressure and asked Congress to declare war. Thevote split along regional lines. Most of the South andWest voted for war, while the Northeast, fearing itwould hurt trade, did not.

Examining How did people in theSouth and the West feel about declaring war against GreatBritain? Why did each group feel the way it did?

The War of 1812At the start of the War of 1812, conquering Canada

was the primary objective of the United States. MostAmerican leaders predicted that Canada would falleasily. Military commanders planned to invade fromthree directions—from Detroit, from Niagara Falls,and up the Hudson River valley toward Montreal.The British foiled all three attacks.

Perry’s Victory on Lake Erie The following year,the United States had more success after CommodoreOliver Perry secretly arranged for the construction ofa fleet on Lake Erie in Ohio. There, on September 10,1813, Perry’s ships attacked the British fleet. After agrueling four-hour battle, the British surrendered. AsPerry famously reported, “We have met the enemyand they are ours.”

Perry’s victory gave the Americans control of LakeErie. British ships had used the lake to shuttle troopsback and forth quickly to meet American attacks.

Reading Check


The Star-Spangled Banner, 1779–1818 The Starsand Stripes flag gained two more stars and two morestripes in 1795, after Kentucky and Vermont joinedthe Union. This flag flew over Fort McHenry duringthe War of 1812 and inspiredFrancis Scott Key to write “TheStar-Spangled Banner.”

Congress realized that the flagwould become too large if astripe were added for every newstate. It decided to keep thestripes at 13—for the 13 originalcolonies—and to add a star foreach new state.

Now their ability to respond to American attacks wasmore limited. Shortly afterward, William HenryHarrison, now a general, marched from Detroit intoCanada. At the battle of the Thames River, Harrisondefeated a combined force of British troops andNative Americans led by Tecumseh. Tecumseh diedduring the fighting, and the Native Americanconfederacy soon collapsed.

Harrison expected to meet up with Americantroops coming from Niagara Falls. After learning thatthey had been defeated at the Battle of Stony Creek,however, Harrison retreated to Detroit. By the end of1813, the United States still had not conquered anyterritory in Canada.

The Battle of Lake Champlain Inthe early years of the War of 1812,the British were also fighting France.That changed in 1814 whenNapoleon’s empire fell apart. TheBritish were then able to send manymore troops to the United States.

In September 1814, about 15,000well-trained and well-equippedBritish soldiers advanced south-ward from Montreal, intending totake New York. They were stoppedwhen the American naval force on Lake Champlain, led byCommodore Thomas Macdonough,defeated the British fleet onSeptember 11. When the British real-ized that the Americans could usetheir control of the lake to surroundthem, they retreated to Montreal.

Raids on Washington, D.C., andBaltimore With attention focusedon Canada, a British fleet sailed intoChesapeake Bay in August 1814 andmarched troops into Washington,D.C. Government officials hastilyfled without a fight. The British setfire to both the White House and theCapitol and proceeded to Baltimore.

Unlike Washington, Baltimore wasprepared. Some 13,000 militia troopsand 1,000 American soldiers stoodready to defend the city. Throughoutthe night of September 13, the Britishbombarded Fort McHenry inBaltimore Harbor. Early the nextmorning, they abandoned theirattack. Francis Scott Key, a young

lawyer held aboard a British ship during the shelling,was elated to see the American flag still flying at dawn.On the back of a letter, he scribbled a poem that wouldlater become the national anthem. The final lines of thefirst verse evoke the powerful symbolism of the flag:

“O! say, does that Star-Spangled Banner yet wave,O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave?”

Events in New England and New OrleansOpposition to the War of 1812 centered in NewEngland. In December 1814, Federalists inMassachusetts organized delegates from RhodeIsland, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Vermont to


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Stoney CreekJune 6, 1813

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Ft. MichilimackinacJuly 12, 1812

BaltimoreSept. 13, 1814

LakeChamplain Sept. 11, 1814

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HorseshoeBend (U.S. vs. Creek)March 27, 1814

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The War of 1812

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1. Interpreting Maps What British victory took place thefarthest north?

2. Applying Geography Skills Why was control of LakeErie so important to the American forces?

MotionIn



Checking for Understanding1. Define: judicial review, contraband,

impressment, embargo, War Hawk.2. Identify: Louisiana Purchase.3. Summarize why the Essex Junto and

some Hartford Convention memberswanted New England to secede fromthe United States.

Reviewing Themes4. Government and Democracy How did

Marbury v. Madison strengthen theSupreme Court?

Critical Thinking 5. Comparing and Contrasting In what

ways was Jefferson similar to and differ-ent from Washington and Adams interms of presidential style and policies?

6. Categorizing Use a graphic organizerto list the causes and effects of the Warof 1812.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Art Study John Landis’s

depiction of the Battle of New Orleanson this page. What has the artist doneto portray General Andrew Jackson (farright, on horseback) as a heroic figure?

8. Descriptive Writing Imagine you are amember of the Lewis and Clark orZebulon Pike expedition exploringunknown territory in the Far West.Write a journal entry describing a day’sactivities and sights.

meet with them in Hartford,Connecticut. Some delegates urgedNew England to secede, or with-draw, from the United States. Moremoderate delegates refused to sup-port such extreme action. Instead,the Hartford Convention ended bycalling for constitutional amend-ments to increase the region’s polit-ical power.

Less than a month after theHartford Convention began, anAmerican victory in the South put astop to Federalist complaints. In January 1815, aBritish fleet landed about 7,500 men near NewOrleans. American General Andrew Jackson quicklyimprovised a defense by building a barricade out ofcotton bales from the nearby fields. The thick balesabsorbed the British bullets, while the British advanc-ing in the open provided easy targets for the Americantroops. After a brief battle, the British withdrew. It wasa decisive victory for the United States.

The Battle of New Orleans made Jackson a hero.It also helped to destroy the Federalist Party. Thesmashing American victory led to a surge of patriot-ism, making the Federalists’ actions at the HartfordConvention appear divisive. The Federalists neverrecovered politically. The battle, however, had littlevalue militarily. It occurred two weeks after the warhad officially ended and the peace treaty had beensigned.

The Treaty of Ghent Peace talks began even beforethe major battles of 1814 in the European city ofGhent. Both sides agreed to sign the Treaty of Ghent

on December 24, 1814. This treaty restored prewarboundaries but did not mention neutral rights orimpressment, and no territory changed hands. Itdid, however, create commissions to settle fishingrights and boundary disputes. Still, the War of 1812increased the nation’s prestige overseas and gener-ated a new spirit of patriotism and national unity.

Four years later in the Convention of 1818,the United States and Great Britain set the U.S.-Canadian border from what is now Minnesota to theRocky Mountains at 49° north latitude. The coun-tries also agreed to claim jointly for the next tenyears a region farther west known as the OregonCountry.

Summarizing What were theeffects of the Battle of New Orleans?

Reading Check

War of 1812

Causes Key Events Effects

Inspiring Battle This Battle of New Orleans scene by John Landis showsGeneral Andrew Jackson’s cotton-bale defense of the Southern city. Didthe battle have an impact on the war’s end? Why or why not?

History Through Art


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BI T T E R R O O T R A N G E

SAPPHIRE MOUNTAINSAnaconda Range

BEAVERHEAD MOUNTAINS

CAMP FORTUNATEAugust 17, 1805

ROUTE OF THEROUTE OF THECORPS OF DISCOVERCORPS OF DISCOVERYY

ROUTE OF THECORPS OF DISCOVERY

TRAVELER'S RESTSeptember 9, 1805

THREE FORKSJuly 27, 1805

Geography&History

Scale of map varies inthis perspective

Route west

Continental DivideCamp

The Journey West

This locator map shows Lewis and Clark’s route from St.Louis to the Pacific Ocean. The expedition collectedvaluable information about the people, plants, animals,and geography of the West. Americans soon followed inthe footsteps of the intrepid explorers to open up theAmerican West.

St. Louis

SpanishTerritory

PacificOcean

Gulf of Mexico

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Claimed byBritain, Spain,

and Russia

British Territory

UNITED STATESand Territories

LOUISIANAPURCHASE

1803

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Sun River

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Camp belowthe falls

GREAT FALLSJune 13, 1805

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LEARNING FROM GEOGRAPHY

1. Why were Lewis and Clark unableto complete their mission?

2. Imagine that you are a member ofthe expedition. Write a letter homedetailing some of the sights youhave seen.

ging their boats behind them. Soonthey would have to abandon theboats altogether; but first they neededhorses to carry their supplies over the mountains.

Lewis and three men went onahead. On August 12 they crossed theContinental Divide at Lemhi Pass,becoming the first explorers from theUnited States to do so.As Lewis andhis party descended the steep moun-tains, they encountered a band ofShoshone. Lewis convincedCameahwait, their leader, to go backto meet the others.To everyone’sastonishment, the Shoshone recog-nized their Native American guide,Sacagawea, as a member of their bandwho had been kidnapped long ago.Sacagawea suddenly realized ChiefCameahwait was her brother, and shejoyfully embraced him.

With Sacagawea’s help, Lewis con-vinced the Shoshone to sell themhorses and provide a guide.The Corpscrossed into the Bitterroot Rangearound Lost Trail Pass.After a pause atTraveler’s Rest, the expedition headedover the massive peaks.They climbedthe snow-covered slopes and strug-gled around the fallen trees, watchingin horror as their horses slipped androlled down. Game was so scarce thatthe famished explorers were forcedto kill and eat three of their colts.Despite the hardships, the wearyparty trudged on until they arrived ata village of the Nez Perce, who pro-vided food and water.The explorersfinally reached a tributary of theColumbia River, built dugout boats,abandoned their horses, and floatedwest all the way to the Pacific Ocean.

Westward to the Pacific

In May 1804, the Corps ofDiscovery—Meriwether Lewis,William Clark, and about 40 others—set sail up the MissouriRiver from their camp outside of

St. Louis.Their mission was to find theso-called Northwest Passage—a waterroute across the continent to thePacific Ocean. However, after crossingthe Great Plains, they discovered theenormous obstacle between themand the Pacific: the Rocky Mountains.Tackling those “terrible mountains,”wrote Lewis, proved “the most per-ilous and difficult part of our voyage”(see map at left).

One of their first challenges wasto get beyond the Great Falls of theMissouri. It took them nearly a monthto move their boats and suppliesalmost 18 miles (29 km) around thefalls to a more navigable part of theriver. Clear of the falls, they pressedon, up through a deep canyon knownas the Gates of the Rocky Mountains—“the most remarkable cliffs that wehave yet seen,” recalled Lewis. Fromhere, the Missouri River ran fast, andits current was strong. In late July1805, the expedition arrived at ThreeForks.After trekking up each fork ofthe river, Lewis and Clark opted forthe western branch, which theynamed for President ThomasJefferson. From here, progress slowed.The men often had to wade throughthe increasingly shallow water, drag-

On May 26, 1805, from a bluff above theMissouri River, Meriwether Lewis “beheldthe Rocky Mountains for the first time.”

An accomplished geographer and cartogra-pher, William Clark compiled this detailedmap of the expedition’s route around theGreat Falls of the Missouri River.

169

On a March day in 1817, a dignified group of government officials gathered inWashington, D.C., to witness the inauguration of the fifth president of the United States. Theattentive audience was full of hope and optimism as James Monroe delivered his InauguralAddress.

“Never did a government commence under auspices so favorable, nor ever was success socomplete. If we look to the history of other nations, ancient or modern, we find no example ofa growth so rapid, so gigantic, of a people so prosperous and happy. In contemplating whatwe have still to perform, the heart of every citizen must expand with joy when he reflectshow near our Government has approached to perfection. . . . If we persevere in the career inwhich we have advanced so far and in the path already traced, we can not fail, under thefavor of a gracious Providence, to attain the high destiny which seems to await us.”

—from James Monroe’s Inaugural Address, March 1817

1816Second Bank of the United States established; Monroe elected president


#1825

Political UnityPresident Monroe’s words emphasized the sense of nationalism that swept the United

States after the War of 1812. More and more Americans began to consider themselves tobe part of a whole. Their loyalty to the United States overrode their identity with state orregion. Riding this wave of nationalism, the new president made a goodwill tour of the

The Growth ofAmerican Nationalism

James Monroe

#1815 #1820

1819Spain cedes Florida to UnitedStates; McCulloch v. Maryland

1823Monroe Doctrineannounced

1824Gibbons v. Ogden

Main Idea Americans developed powerful feelingsof patriotism and national unity after theWar of 1812.

Key Terms and Namesrevenue tariff, protective tariff, McCullochv. Maryland, Seminole, Monroe Doctrine

Reading StrategyOrganizing As you read about thenation after the War of 1812, complete agraphic organizer by listing actions thatstrengthened the federal government athome and abroad.

Reading Objectives• Analyze how John Marshall strength-

ened the Supreme Court.• Evaluate how nationalism affected

American foreign policy after the War of 1812.

Section ThemeContinuity and Change Increasednational pride marked the period imme-diately following the War of 1812.

Actions

country, finding enthusiastic crowds at every stop.The Columbian Centinal, a Boston newspaper, declaredthat an Era of Good Feelings had dawned.

Harmony in national politics reached a new high,mostly because only one party, the Republicans, hadany power. At the same time, the war had taughtAmericans that a stronger federal government wasadvantageous. In the postwar years, Republicanleaders shifted their focus from world affairs tonational growth.

Explaining Why is the Monroepresidency known as the Era of Good Feelings?

Economic NationalismAs Monroe’s presidency began, Congress pre-

pared an ambitious economic program. It includedcreating a new national bank, protecting Americanmanufacturers from foreign competition, and build-ing new roads and canals.

The Second Bank of the United States Repub-licans had blocked the rechartering of the First Bank of the United States in 1811 but offerednothing in its place. The results were disastrous. State-chartered banks and other private banksgreatly expanded their lending with bank notes thatwere used as money. Without the regulatory presenceof the national bank, prices rose rapidly during theWar of 1812.

In 1816 Representative John C.Calhoun of South Carolina introduceda bill proposing the Second Bank of theUnited States. The bill passed and wassigned by outgoing President Madison.It empowered the bank to control statebanks and to issue notes that wouldserve as a national currency.

ECONOMICS

The Protective Tariff Protectingmanufacturers from foreign competi-tion was another Republican goal.Because the Embargo of 1807 and theWar of 1812 had kept Americans frombuying British goods, Americanindustries had increased their outputto meet demand. Once the war wasover, British goods flowed into theUnited States at low prices, severelythreatening American companies.

Congress responded with the Tariff of 1816. Unlikeearlier revenue tariffs, intended to provide federalincome, this was a protective tariff, aimed at protect-ing American manufacturers by taxing imports.

Internal Improvements The Republicans alsowanted to improve the nation’s transportation sys-tem. The difficulties of moving troops and suppliesduring the war highlighted the need for better roadsand canals. In 1816 Calhoun sponsored a bill to fundsuch improvements. President Madison vetoed it,however, arguing that the Constitution did notempower Congress to improve transportation.Nevertheless, road and canal construction soonbegan in earnest with support from private busi-nesses and state and local governments.

Identifying What were three examples of economic nationalism after the War of 1812?

Judicial NationalismThe judicial philosophy of the Chief Justice of the

United States, John Marshall, provided another boostto postwar nationalism. He interpreted theConstitution broadly to support federal power.Between 1816 and 1824, several important casesestablished the power of the nation over the states.

McCulloch v. Maryland The 1819 case ofMcCulloch v. Maryland involved Maryland’s attemptto tax the Baltimore branch of the Second Bank of the

Reading Check

Reading Check

i n H i s t o r y

John C. Calhoun 1782–1850

John C. Calhoun of South Carolinawas an influential member of Congressand, at least for a time, a close friend ofHenry Clay. Like Clay, Calhoun was aWar Hawk—one who urged war withGreat Britain in 1812—and an ardentnationalist in his early career. After theWar of 1812, Calhoun helped introducecongressional bills for a new Bank ofthe United States, a permanent roadsystem to bind the nation together, anda tariff to protect the nation’s industries.

In the 1830s Calhoun abandoned hisnationalist stance in favor of states’rights and sectional interests. Fearing

that the North intended to dominatethe South, Calhoun spent the rest of hiscareer trying to prevent the federal gov-ernment from weakening states’ rightsand from interfering with the Southernway of life.


United States. Before addressing Maryland’s right totax the national bank, the Supreme Court first ruledon the federal government’s right to create a nationalbank in the first place. In the Court’s opinion, writtenby John Marshall, the bank was constitutional, eventhough the Constitution did not specifically giveCongress the power to create one. Marshall observedthat the Constitution gave the federal government thepower to collect taxes, to borrow money, to regulatecommerce, and to raise armies and navies. He notedthat the national bank helped the federal governmentexercise these powers. He concluded that the “neces-sary and proper” clause allowed the federal govern-ment to use its powers in any way not specificallyprohibited by the Constitution. ; (See page 963 for moreinformation on McCulloch v. Maryland.)

Opponents argued that the necessary and properclause meant the government could only take actionthat was absolutely necessary, but Marshall specificallyrejected that idea. Instead, he held that “necessary andproper” meant the government could use any methodthat was convenient for carrying out its powers as longas the Constitution did not expressly forbid it.

Marshall then went on to argue that the federalgovernment was “supreme in its own sphere ofaction.” This meant that a state government could notinterfere with an agency of the federal governmentexercising its specific constitutional powers within astate’s borders. Taxing the national bank was a form ofinterference and was therefore ruled unconstitutional.

Gibbons v. Ogden The 1824 case of Gibbons v.Ogden dealt with interstate commerce. A companywith a state-granted monopoly over steamboat traffic

in New York waters also wanted exclusive control ofsteamboats crossing the Hudson River to New Jersey.The Supreme Court declared the original monopolyunconstitutional. In the Court’s opinion, written byMarshall, a state could regulate commerce within itsown borders, but navigation of a waterway betweentwo states was interstate commerce, and theConstitution specifically granted the federal govern-ment control over interstate commerce.

In broadening the definition of interstate commercebeyond the exchange of goods between states,Marshall ensured that federal law would take prece-dence over state law in interstate transportation.Defenders of states’ rights attacked many of Marshall’sdecisions, as his views helped make the “necessary andproper” clause and the interstate commerce clausevehicles for expanding federal power. ; (See page 963for more information on Gibbons v. Ogden.)

Explaining How did the SupremeCourt strengthen the power of the federal government over the states?

Nationalist DiplomacyPostwar nationalism influenced foreign as well as

domestic affairs. Feeling proud and confident, theUnited States under President Monroe expanded itsborders and asserted itself on the world stage.

Reading Check


Marbury v. Madison (1803) Declared congressional act unconstitutional; Court asserts power of judicial review

Fletcher v. Peck (1810) Protected contracts from legislative interference; Court could overturn state laws thatopposed specific provisions of Constitution

Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee (1816) Court can accept appeals of state court decisions and review state decisions that involve federal statutes or treaties; asserted the Supreme Court’s sovereignty over state courts

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) Upheld constitutionality of the Bank of the United States; doctrine of “implied powers” provided Congress more flexibility to enact legislation

Cohens v. Virginia (1821) Reasserted federal judicial authority over state courts; argued that when states ratified Constitution, they gave up some sovereignty to federal courts

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) Revoked an existing state monopoly; Court gave Congress the right to regulate interstate commerce

Major Supreme Court Decisions, 1801–1824

Source: The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States1. Interpreting Charts In which case did Chief

Justice Marshall assert the Court’s right of judicialreview?

2. Analyzing Was Marshall a strict interpreter of theConstitution? Use a case to support your answer.



Checking for Understanding1. Define: revenue tariff, protective tariff.2. Identify: McCulloch v. Maryland,

Seminole, Monroe Doctrine.3. Explain how the Supreme Court rulings

in McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbonsv. Ogden strengthened the federalgovernment.

Reviewing Themes4. Continuity and Change Did the

Monroe Doctrine represent a continuation or change in PresidentWashington’s foreign policy? Explain.

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing How did nationalism affect

the foreign affairs of the United States?6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer to

list examples of nationalism in theUnited States after the War of 1812.

Analyzing Visuals7. Posing Questions Study the chart of

Supreme Court decisions on page 172.Use the information to construct a 10-question quiz to give to your class-mates to assess their understanding ofthe Marshall Court.

8. Expository Writing Imagine you are anewspaper editor in Georgia orSpanish-held Florida. Write an editorialin which you criticize or defend AndrewJackson’s actions in seizing Spanishsettlements in Florida.

Jackson Invades Florida During the early 1800s,Spanish-held Florida was a source of frustration forSoutherners. Many runaway slaves hid there, and theSeminoles, a Native American group, often clashedwith American settlers across the border in Georgia.Spain was unable to control the border, and manyAmericans demanded the United States step in. Astensions heightened, a Seminole leader namedKinache warned Americans to stay out of Florida:

“You charge me with killing your people, stealingyour cattle and burning your houses; it is I that havecause to complain of the Americans. . . . I shall useforce to stop any armed Americans from passing mytowns or my lands.”

–quoted in The Seminoles of Florida

The warning fell on deaf ears. Former representa-tive Calhoun, now secretary of war, authorized actionagainst the Seminoles. In 1818 Andrew Jackson ledU.S. troops into Florida and quickly seized Spanishsettlements at Pensacola and St. Marks.

The Spanish government demanded thatAmerican officials punish Jackson, but Secretary ofState John Quincy Adams blamed Spain for failing tokeep order in Florida. Adams then put pressure onSpain in ongoing border questions. Occupied withproblems throughout its Latin American empire,Spain gave in and ceded all of Florida to the UnitedStates in the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819.

The Monroe Doctrine Spain had good reason toworry about Latin America. Many of Spain’s col-onies there were declaring their independence.

Meanwhile, some European monarchies expressedtheir interest in helping Spain suppress these LatinAmerican revolutions.

Neither Great Britain nor the United Stateswanted Spain to regain control of its colonies. Bothwere trading with Latin America. In August 1823,Britain suggested that the United States join it inissuing a statement supporting Latin Americanindependence.

John Quincy Adams urged President Monroe toissue his own statement on behalf of United Statesinterests. The Monroe administration also had con-cerns at this time about Russia’s growing interest inthe American northwest. In 1821 Russia hadannounced that its empire extended south fromAlaska to the Oregon territory.

Under these circumstances, Monroe decided toissue a statement in December 1823. In the Monroe Doctrine, the president declared that theAmerican continents should no longer be viewed asopen to colonization. He specifically advised Europeto respect the sovereignty of new Latin Americannations. ; (See page 952 for more information on the MonroeDoctrine.)

The Monroe Doctrine was a bold act for a youngnation. The United States might not have been ableto back up its new stand if it had been challenged.The doctrine upheld Washington’s policy of avoid-ing European entanglements and also guidedAmerican foreign policy for years.

Examining How did the Adams-Onís Treaty and the Monroe Doctrine demonstrate a strongapproach to foreign policy?

Reading Check

Examples of Nationalism

Economic Judicial Diplomatic


Reviewing Key Facts18. Identify: XYZ Affair, Monroe Doctrine.19. What was the main focus of the first eight amendments in

the Bill of Rights?20. Why did James Madison oppose the establishment of a

national bank?21. Why did tensions between Western settlers and Native

Americans increase during Washington’s presidency?22. What events led to the War of 1812?23. What were three actions that strengthened the federal

government after the War of 1812?

Critical Thinking24. Analyzing Themes: Government and Democracy What

was the most important task for Congress after the U.S.Constitution was ratified? Explain your answer.

25. Categorizing Use a graphic organizer like the one below tolist the differences between the first political parties in theUnited States.

26. Interpreting Primary Sources In McCulloch v. Maryland,the Supreme Court was asked whether Congress had thepower to set up the Bank of the United States. The followingexcerpt is from Chief Justice John Marshall’s ruling. Read theexcerpt and answer the questions that follow.

“The government of the United States . . . though lim-ited in its powers, is supreme; and its laws, when madein pursuance of the constitution, form the supreme lawof the land. . . . Among the enumerated powers, we donot find establishing a bank or creating a corporation.But there is no phrase in the instrument which . . .requires that everything granted shall be expressly andminutely described. . . . Among the enumerated powers

1. cabinet2. bond3. speculator

4. enumerated powers

5. implied powers

6. excise tax

7. most-favored nation

8. alien

9. interposition

10. nullification

11. judicial review

12. contraband

13. impressment

14. embargo

15. War Hawk

16. revenue tariff

17. protective tariff

Reviewing Key TermsOn a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence.

Federalists Republicans

George Washington Thomas Jefferson

John Adams• Republican who favored neutrality• Asked Congress to declare war on Britain to

protect trade interest in the East and farmers and settlers in the West

• Under his administration, the War of 1812 generated feelings of nationalism, and the Treaty of Ghent established fishing rights and boundaries with Canada

James Madison• Federalist leader in favor of strong national

government• Supported commerce and trade• Favored neutrality; negotiated treaties with

Britain and France to avoid war • Angered farmers and landowners with taxes;

angered political opponents with Alien andSedition Acts

• Established legitimacy of the new government• Created executive departments• Favored neutrality

resistance in the West

• Republican leader; worked to limit power of national government

• Favored land ownership for all people• Supported farmers over commerce and trade • Negotiated purchase of the Louisiana Territory

• Used troops to stop Native American

of government . . . we find the great powers to lay andcollect taxes; to borrow money; to regulate commerce;to declare war and conduct a war; and to raise and sup-port armies and navies. . . . A government entrustedwith such ample powers . . . must also be entrusted withample means for their execution. . . . All means whichare appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end,which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter andspirit of the constitution, are constitutional. . . .”

—from McCulloch v. Maryland

a. What was Marshall’s opinion about the power of the gov-ernment of the United States?

b. Why do you think the ruling in McCulloch v. Marylandmade American nationalism stronger?

Practicing Skills27. Reading a Flowchart Reread the passage about Rising

International Tensions on pages 164–165 from Section 2.Then complete the following flowchart of events leading tothe War of 1812.a. British warship attacks the Chesapeake.b. __________c. Madison asks Congress to pass the Non-Intercourse Act.d. __________e. France takes conciliatory steps.f. __________g. Congress declares war.

Writing Activity 28. Expository Writing Imagine that you are a newspaper edi-

tor in 1817. You have been asked to write an article on thehigh and low points of the first four presidential administra-tions. Use evidence to support your reflections.

Chapter Activity 29. American History Primary Source Document Library

CD-ROM Under A New Nation, read George Washington’sFarewell Address and Thomas Jefferson’s First InauguralAddress. Debate modern political party performance withyour classmates, using the opinions of Washington andJefferson demonstrated in these primary sources.

Geography and History30. The map above shows land acquired in the Treaty of

Greenville. Study the map and answer the questions below.a. Interpreting Maps In the Treaty of Greenville, Native

Americans ceded most of which present-day state?b. Applying Geography Skills Why was the land the

Native Americans gave up valuable to white settlers?

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

Which of the following actions reflect President Jefferson’sgoal of limiting the power of the federal government?F He increased the size of the army.G He proposed renewing the Alien and Sedition Acts.H He dissolved the Republican Party to eliminate political

conflict.J He cut the federal budget.

Test-Taking Tip: Think about the word limit. It means toreduce or restrict. Therefore, you can eliminate answer F—it gave the government more power.

100 kilometers0Albers Conic Equal-Area projection

100 miles0

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EW

Lake

Michigan

LakeHuron

LakeErie

OhioR.

Wab

ashR.

Mononga

helaR.Ft. Washington

Ft. Recovery

Ft. DefianceFt. Miami

GreenvilleTreaty

Line, 1795

PA.

VA.

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NORTHWESTTERR.

N.Y.

Land ceded by Native Americans in Treaty ofGreenville, 1795Fort

Treaty of Greenville, 1795


Self-Check QuizVisit the American Republic Since 1877 Web site at

and click on Self-Check Quizzes—Chapter 4 to assess your knowledge of chapter content.

HISTORY

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