Fed Resilience Spending

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1 Center or American Progress | Pound Foolish: Federal Community-Resilience Investments Swamped by Disaster Damages

Pound Foolish

Federal Community-Resilience InvestmentsSwamped by Disaster Damages

By Daniel J. Weiss and Jackie Weidman June 19, 2013

We can do nohing and expose ourselves o an increasing equency o Sandy-like

sorms ha do more and more damage ... Or, we can make he invesmens necessary

o build a sronger, more resilien New Yorkinvesmens ha will pay or hemselves

many imes over in he years o come. New York Ciy Mayor Michael Bloomberg(I), June 11, 20131

o inves $3 billion o $4 billion, o ry o preven anoher $39 billion in losses, or mii-

gae i? I seems o me o be, wheher youre a Republican or a Democra, a prety smar

invesmen o make or he counry. Gov. Chris Chrisie (R-NJ), June 14, 20132

Seven monhs aer he second mos cosly hurricane in hisory, Mayor Bloomberg

proposed invesing $19.5 billion o make his ciy much more resilien o uure exreme

weaher evens.3 More han one-quarer o hese resources will come rom ederal unds

included in he Disaser Relie Appropriaions Ac, which provides aid o New York,New Jersey, and oher aeced saes o help hem recover rom Supersorm Sandy. 4

New Jersey is also invesing signican porions o is Supersorm Sandy ederal aid in

resilience eors, paricularly along he Jersey Shore.5 Tese invesmens will make New

York and New Jersey homes, businesses, inrasrucure, and coasal areas more resisan

o damage rom uure sorms, sea-level rise, and oher climae-change impacs.

Unlike New York Ciy and New Jersey, many communiies lack he nancial resources

o become more resilien o uure exreme weaher evens, and he ederal governmen

woeully underunds such resilience needs. Tis CAP analysis esimaes ha he ederal

governmen spen a oal o only $22 billion on general resilience eors rom scal year

2011 o scal year 2013. Te Obama adminisraion requesed an addiional $13 bil-

lion or miigaion eors in Connecicu, New Jersey, and New York aer Supersorm

Sandy, bu i is dicul o deermine he acual miigaion spending rom his sum.6 (see

ex box) Te ederal governmen does no have a comprehensive ally o is spending

or communiy resilience and oher pre-disaser miigaion programs.


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A previous CAP analysis esimaed ha he ederal governmen spen $136 billion

or nearly $400 per household annuallyon disaser relie and recovery rom FY 2011

hrough FY 2013.7 Based on hose gures, ederal axpayers spen nearly $6 or disaser

recovery or every $1 spen o increase general communiy resilience over he pas

hree years.

We mus help communiies enhance heir abiliy o wihsand he high winds, foodwaers, scorching hea, searing wild res, and parched earh rom exreme weaher.

Every $1 invesed in such pre-disaser miigaion, or resilience measureswhich help

communiies wihsand he eecs o exreme weaherreduce he cos o damage rom

hese exreme weaher evens by $4, according o a sudy or he Federal Emergency

Managemen Agency, or FEMA.8

Costly extreme weather continues in 2013

Te severe, exreme weaher during he pas wo years exaced a signican human andeconomic oll. From he sar o 2011 hrough he end o 2012, here were 25 exreme

weaher evens ha caused a leas $1 billion each in damage, wih a oal ab or desruc-

ion o $188 billion and 1,100 aaliies.9

Alhough exreme weaher coninues in 2013, he Naional Oceanic and Amospheric

Adminisraion, or NOAA, has ye o ideniy any $1 billion damage evens his year.10

Insurance broker AON Beneld esimaes, however, ha here were hree weaher

evens ha each caused a leas $1 billion in economic losses hus ar his year.11 Te

coslies o hese evens were he Oklahoma ornados, which caused 24 aaliies in mid-

May and an esimaed $5 billion in damages.12

Exreme weaher will likely coninue hroughou 2013. Te Naional Oceanic and

Amospheric Adminisraion predics an acive or exremely acive [hurricane] season

his year [ha is] well above he seasonal average.13

Te New York imes addiionally repors ha, jus over 44 percen o he counry

remains in drough.14 NOAA predics a coninued persisen drough his summer

hrough mos o he souhwesern Unied Saes.15 Tis could lead o signican eco-

nomic damage rom wildres, as well as coninued harm o he arm economy.


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Resilience technologies can be costly

Te Presidenial Policy Direcive 8, or PPD-8, or naional preparedness denes

miigaion as:

Tose capabiliies necessary o reduce loss o lie and propery by lessening he impac

o disasers. Miigaion capabiliies include communiy-wide risk reducion projecs;eors o improve he resilience o criical inasrucure and key resource lielines; risk

reducion or specic vulnerabiliies om naural hazards or acs o errorism; and

iniiaives o reduce uure risks aer a disaser has occurred.16

Miigaion means adaping buildings, inrasrucure, and naural sysems ha will allow

communiies o beter wihsand high winds and rain, ocean sorm surge, unusually high

emperaures, wild res, and drough.

Te echnologies needed o accomplish his goal vary in cos and complexiy. Te

S. Johns Regional Medical Cener in Joplin, Missouri, or insance, was esseniallydesroyed by a ornado in 2011 and has been rebuil wih a ornado-proo design ha

includes windows ha can resis winds o up o 250 miles per hour a a cos o $170 per

square oo$70 more per square oo han sandard windows.17 Te cos o including a

sae room designed o proec people rom ornados in he consrucion o a new home

can cos $8,000, and i coss abou $10,000 o add o an exising home.18 (see atached

spreadshee or lis o resilience echnologies and cos)

Several coasal exas ciies ha are vulnerable o hurricanes recenly invesed in commu-

niy shelers o proec heir residens. Edna, exas, buil a $2.5 million hurricane sheler

large enough o shield he owns 5,500 residens rom winds up o 300 miles per hour.19

Te sheler also doubles as a high-school gymnasium. FEMA paid or 75 percen o i,

and i plans o inves $683 million in similar shelers in 18 oher saes.20

New York and New Jersey are buying ou homeowners wih severely damaged homes

locaed in food-prone areas using ederal unds provided under he Disaser Relie

Ac.21 Tis resilience measure is expensive and somehing many coasal communiies

canno aord o underake on heir own.

Resilience spending saves taxpayers money but federal investments lag

Many communiies lack he resources o inves in projecs ha would proec heir

srucures and inhabians rom major sorms. Supersorm Sandy, or insance, dam-

aged wo-hirds o he downown homes and businesses in Highlands, New Jersey.

Local ocials here old NBC News ha hey had previously considered resilience

measuressuch as raising he heigh o he ownbu ha consrucion coss were

prohibiively expensive.22


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A similar lack o nancial resources prevened oher communiies rom adequaely

invesing in resilience. In he wake o he ornados in Moore, Oklahoma, Te New York

imes repored ha, only abou 10 percen o homes in Moore had sorm-sae rooms

or underground shelers.23 And Te Wall S. Journal repored ha eors o build sae

rooms in local schools were also limied by he lack o ederal assisance. According o

Te Journal, Local ocials said uesday [May 21, 2013] ha abou 100 schools in he

sae are equipped wih sae rooms ha were buil wih ederal unds. Te money haddried up in pas years, ocials said, and many schools were on a waiing lis.24

Joplin, Missouri, which was fatened in 2011 by he deadlies ornado since 1950, had

previously applied or FEMA unds o build sae rooms.25Te New York imes repored

ha he sae used money rom he Federal Emergency Managemen Agency primarily

or disaser relie rom fooding.26

Federal resilience spending lags far behind disaster relief

A CAP review o ederal resilience spending in FY 2011 hrough FY 2013 idenied

43 programs in seven cabine deparmens ha inves in exreme weaher resilience

eors. Tis oal includes $12 billionor more han hal o all resilience spendingor

a number o he Deparmen o Agriculure programs designed o increase susainable

agriculure and o also provide addiional proecion or agriculural waer supplies rom

he impac o foods and droughs.

Funding for federal resilience programs, FY 2011 to FY 2013

Department Number of programs Total Spending FY 2011-13,billions of dollars

Agriculture 15 $12

Commerce 2 $1.9

Department o Deense 4 $3.2

Environmental Protection Agency 5 $0.2

Health and Human Services 1 $0.02

Homeland Security 7 $3.2

Interior 9 $1.9

Total 43 $22.4

Note: Figures are rounded.Source: Departments FY 2011 to FY 2013 budget summaries.


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From FY 2011 o FY 2013, our analysis idenied only $10 billion in ederal resilience

programs no relaed o he U.S. Deparmen o Agriculure. Tis includes an esimaed

$2.2 billion or he Hazard Miigaion Gran Program ha provides he opporuniy o

ake criical miigaion [resilience] measures o reduce uure loss o lie and propery

during he reconsrucion process ollowing a disaser. Tis program is par o FEMAs

Disaser Relie Fund and makes sure ederal grans are available o communiies ha

received a presidenial disaser declaraion. Te projecs mus demonsrae ha hey willreduce long-erm risks.

Oher FEMA resilience programs include he Pre-Disaser Miigaion Fund and he

Naional Flood Insurance Program. Te Pre-Disaser Miigaion Fund provides grans

o saes and local governmens o implemen resilience projecs.27 Te Naional Flood

Insurance Program unds resilience hrough miigaion projecs ha increase resiliency

o foods.28

Extreme weather events on the rise

Te number and cos o he mos damaging

exreme weaher evens have grown over he pas

hree decades, according o NOAA. In he 1980s

here was an average o ewer han wo evens

per year ha each caused $1 billion in damages,

compared o an average o 9.5 such evens per year

in his decade. And he average annual oal dam-

age cos rom hese severe evens soared rom $20

billion per year in he 1980s o $85 billion in he2010s. (see Figure 1)

Te Naional Climae Assessmen dra on he

impac o climae change in he Unied Saes pre-

dics ha foods, sorms, droughs, hea waves, and

wildres will increase in requency or erociy, or

boh, in he coming years.29 Te repor also noes

ha he counrys inrasrucure was no buil o

wihsand such exreme weaher evens and warns ha:

Human-induced climae change is projeced o coninue and accelerae signicanly

i emissions o hea-rapping gases coninue o increase wih more climae-relaed

impacs over he nex ew decades Many [climae-relaed changes] will be disrup-

ive o sociey because our insiuions and inasrucure have been designed or he

relaively sable climae o he pas, no he changing one o he presen and uure.30

Billion-dollar extreme weather events increasing infrequency, cost from 1980 to 2012

0

$20

$40

$60

$80

$100

0

4

6

8

10

12

2

2010present200020091990199919801989

Average total cost of billion dollar

damage events per year (in

billions of 2012 $)

Average number of billion dollar

damage events per year

Sources: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Billion-Dollar Weather/Climate Disasters

(Department of Commerce, 2013); Federal Emergency Management Agency, Disaster Declarations,

available at http://www.fema.gov/disasters(last accessed June 2013).
http://www.fema.gov/disastershttp://www.fema.gov/disasters


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On June 12 FEMA and he Federal Insurance and Miigaion Adminisraion, which

oversees he Naional Flood Insurance Program, released a repor iled Te Impac

o Climae Change and Populaion Growh on he Naional Flood Insurance Program

Trough 2100.31 Tis analysis predics ha climae change will be he major source

o he uure increase o riverine fooding and ha coasal fooding would increase by

nearly 50 percen his cenury.32 According o he repor:

Approximaely 30% o hese increases in food discharge, SFHA [Special Flood

Hazard Areas], and base foodplain deph may be atribued o normal populaion

growh, while 70% o he changes may be atribued o he infuence o climae change

Naionally, considering riverine and coasal foods ogeher, he average increase in

he SFHA by he year 2100 is projeced o be abou 40% or 45%.33

A a June 14 Clinon Global Iniiaive plenary session on Cooperaion and

Collaboraion, Gov. Chrisie noed ha communiy resilience rom exreme weaher

is going o be [a] long-erm projec or our counry. 34

Create a dedicated fund to assist community-resilience efforts

Tere is no a reliable esimae o he oal invesmen ha would be required o sig-

nicanly increase naionwide communiy resilience o uure severe sorms, foods,

droughs, hea waves, and wildres. Wha we do know, however, is ha he rs sep o

increase proecion or people and businesses hreaened by uure exreme weaher is o

conduc a comprehensive naionwide assessmen o communiy-resilience needs.

Tere are some individual esimaes o he cos o resilience inrasrucure repair. A 2012CAP analysis, or insance, deermined ha, 14,000 dams across he counry can be

classied as high-hazard meaning a dam ailure or operaional error could resul in he

loss o human lie.35 o preven such ailures, CAP recommends an invesmen o a

leas $1 billion annually in dam and levee repairs. From FY 2011 o FY 2013 he ederal

Naional Dam Saey program received less han $10 million annually.36

Revenue ha should be argeed o resilience is oo oen divered o disaser recovery or

alls vicim o shorsighed auseriy measures such as he budge sequeser.37 Te ederal

governmen could save addiional lives and money by increasing assisance o communi-

ies o help hem address heir resilience needs. o ha end, we recommend he creaion

o a dedicaed und or communiy resilience wih annual revenue equal o one-hird o

he oal ederal disaser relie and recovery spending rom he previous hree years.38

For scal year 2013, we esimae ha he amoun earmarked or such a resilience und

would have been approximaely $7 billion using his ormula.39

Te money dedicaed or resilience could come rom a small levy on some or all o he

ossil uels ha emi he carbon polluion responsible or climae change, which scieniss


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predic will exacerbae exreme weaher. Coal companies, or example, paid only $800

million in royalies or 470 million ons o coal mined rom public lands in 2012, hough

he companies sold he coal or $7 billion.40 Increasing he royaly rae or privae produc-

ion o publicly owned coal, oil, and naural gas could generae addiional revenue o

inves in communiy-resilience programs. Te Obama adminisraion has he auhoriy o

raise he royaly raes, bu only Congress can dedicae hese unds o resilience eors.

Alernaively, Rep. Lois Capps (D-CA) and 39 oher Democraic represenaives

endorsed a CAP proposal calling or he adminisraion o appoin a biparisan blue rib-

bon panel o assess he oal need or resilience assisance and propose a mehod o raise

dedicaed revenue o pay or i.41 Paneliss could include sae and local ocials, busi-

ness leaders, armers, he leaders o nongovernmenal organizaions, and oher ciizens

who recenly suered rom major exreme weaher evens. Tese leaders ideally would

orceully advocae ha Congress adop he resilience-unding proposal hey develop.

In addiion, we need an annual and complee accouning o ederal unds spen on every

disaser-recovery program in he previous scal year.42

Such an accouning would enablepublic ocials and everyday ciizens o beter undersand he rue cos o axpayers o

unchecked exreme weaher. An accouning o ederal invesmens in resilience pro-

grams would highligh he gap beween resilience needs and available resources.

Anoher imporan reorm would be o ensure ha uure rebuilding paid or wih

ederal recovery unds increases communiy resilience o uure exreme weaher, even

i he new srucures are more cosly. In a orhcoming issue brie, CAPs Cahleen Kelly

and Jackie Weidman will propose he addiion o his provision o he Rober . Saord

Disaser Relie and Emergency Assisance Ac, which governs FEMA disaser recovery

eors.43

Likewise, non-FEMA ederal disaser programs should inves in more resilienreplacemen srucures.

The Obama administration requested $13 billion specically or mitiga-

tion o damage rom potential uture storms and ooding, according to

the Congressional Research Service, or CRS.48 The nal Disaster Relie Act,

however, did not clearly separate unding or disaster relie and recovery

rom mitigation. Furthermore, CRS noted that the administrations request

or mitigation unds was not clear. It reports that, some o the activities

outlined in the administrations proposal as mitigation appear to be orien-

tated towards recovery and repair, and vice versa.49

The recently released New York City resilience plan called A Stronger,

More Resilient New York is partially nanced by the Disaster Relie Act.50

Here too it is dicult to determine the precise investment o these unds

in resilience measures. The New York City plan, or instance, includes

$648 million or housing recovery and resiliency programs but does not

diferentiate the unding levels or each activity.51 Gov. Christie noted tha

or New Jersey, hazardous mitigation unds were getting in the Sandy a

package helps us to mitigate uture hazards.52

A signicant portion o money rom the Disaster Relie Act will certainly

pay or resilience or mitigation eforts in Connecticut, New Jersey, and

New York, but we did not attempt to approximate the resilience unding

rom the Disaster Relie Act or our estimate o ederal spending or gen-

eral community-resilience measures in scal years 2011 through 2013.

Superstorm Sandy relief includes resilience investments


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Conclusion

Mayor Bloomberg said ha his resilience plan is essenial because we have o prepare

or wha he scieniss say is a likely scenario due o climae change.44 Noed climae

scieniss Michael Oppenheimer and Kevin renberh o Princeon Universiy and he

Naional Cener or Amospheric Research, respecively, recenly warned ha:

Man-made hea-rapping gases are warming our plane and leading o Increases

in hea waves and record high emperaures more severe rainsorms, droughs and

wildres; and coasal communiies hreaened by rising seas all oer a preview o he

new normal in a warmer world.45

o proec our communiies rom exreme weaher, he ederal governmen mus imple-

men he Clean Air Ac requiremen o reduce he polluion responsible or climae

change, beginning wih elecric power planshe larges unconrolled domesic source

o climae polluion.46

In addiion, Presiden Bill Clinon recenly advised public ocials ha, We have go o

sar o become a resilien sociey I you plan o resis he wors desrucion; you plan

or quick spring back, you can do his. You can minimize hese damages.47

o accomplish his goal, we mus increase he ederal invesmen in communiy resil-

ience o reduce aaliies and he economic damage wrough by exreme weaher evens.

Every hreaened communiy should become as resilien as New York Ciy and New

Jersey will be due o ederal invesmens in heir eors.

Methodology

Because here is no a comprehensive accouning o ederal resilience programs, our

goal was o esimae his oal. In reaching our esimae we allied invesmens in ederal

resilience programs ha proec people, inrasrucure, and waer resources ha are

vulnerable o naural disasers. We idenied ederal programs whose primary purpose

is disaser resilience, climae change adapaion, and/or land and waer conservaion.

Te programs revenue gures are in heir deparmens annual budge in brie repors

or scal year 2011 hrough scal year 2014. Te gures are budge auhoriy, ed-

eral appropriaions, or budge obligaion, which refec he amoun o revenue ha

Congress se aside o pay or disaser resilience. For a complee lis o programs, annual

unding, and daa sources, please reer o he atached spreadshee.


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We were unable o ideniy spending or some programs because hey did no have

heir own budge line iem, such as NASAs Climae Adapaion Science Invesigaor

Workgroup. Alhough exremely valuable o help communiies make las-minue prepa-

raions or imminen exreme weaher evens, we did no include programs ha predic

and rack weaher paterns, such as NOAAs Naional Hurricane Cener and he U.S.

Drough Monior. Chaper 28 o he Naional Climae Assessmen dra includes a lis o

hese programs.

Our esimae o ederal resilience invesmens ineviably has gaps, bu we believe i

includes all o he major programs o proec homes, schools, businesses, arms, and com-

muniies rom exreme weaher evens. We welcome any documenaion or correcions.

Daniel J. Weiss is a Senior Fellow and Direcor o Climae Sraegy a he Cener

or American Progress. Jackie Weidman is a Special Assisan on he Energy eam

a he Cener.

Tank you o Bracken Hendricks and Cahleen Kelly, Senior Fellows, and SephaniePinkalla, Energy Inern, a he Cener or American Progress.


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Endnotes

1 New York Citys Oce o the Mayor, Mayor BloombergPresents the Citys Long-Term Plan to Further Prepare orthe Impacts o a Changing Climate, Press release, June 11,2013 available at http://www.nyc.gov/portal/site/nycgov/menuitem.c0935b9a57bb4e3da21c701c789a0/index.jsp?pageID=mayor_press_release&catID=1194&doc_name=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyc.gov%2Fhtml%2Fom%2Fhtml%2F2013a%2Fpr200-13.html&cc=unused1978&rc=1194&ndi=1.

2 Gov. Chris Christie, Collaboration and Cooperation: AConversation on Leadership between President Bill Clintonand Governor Chris Christie (Chicago: Clinton GlobalInitiative, 2013), available at http://new.livestream.com/CGI/CGIAmerica2013.

3 The Associated Press, Report: Sandy was USAs 2nd-costliesthurricane, February 12, 2013, availabl e at http://www.usatoday.com/story/weather/2013/02/12/hurricane-sandy-weather-katrina/1912941/; New York Citys Oce o theMayor, Mayor Bloomberg Presents the Citys Long-TermPlan to Further Prepare or the Impacts o a ChangingClimate.

4 William L. Painter and Jared T. Brown, Summary Report:Congressional Action on the FY2013 Disaster Supplemental(Washington: Congressional Research Service, 2013), avail-able at http://www.as.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42892.pd.

5 Gov. Chris Christie, Collaboration and Cooperation: AConversation on Leadership between President Bill Clintonand Governor Chris Christie.

6 Ibid.

7 Daniel J. Weiss and Jackie Weidman, Disastrous Spend-ing: Federal Disaster-Relie Expenditures Rise amid MoreExtreme Weather (Washington: Center or AmericanProgress, 2013), available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/report/2013/04/29/61633/disastrous-spending-ederal-disaster-relie-expenditures-rise-amid-more-extreme-weather/.

8 Multihazard Mitigation Council, Natural Hazard MitigationSaves: An Independent Study to Assess the Future Savingsrom Mitigation Activities (2005), available at www.nibs.org/resource/resmgr/MMC/hms_vol2_ch1-7.pd .

9 Daniel J. Weiss and Jackie Weidman, Going to Extremes:The $188 Billion Price Tag rom Climate-Related Weather,

Center or American Progress, February 12, 2013, avail-able at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/news/2013/02/12/52881/going-to-extremes-the-188-bil-lion-price-tag-rom-climate-related-extreme-weather/.

10 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationtabulation o $1 billion in damages weather events otenoccur months ater the event.

11 These events include a February snowstorm in Kansas,Missouri, and Arkansas; severe thunderstorms and snowallin March throughout Mississippi and in the Northeast; andtornados in Oklahoma, which caused 24 atalities in mid-May. AON Beneld, May 2013 Global Catastrophe Recap(2013), available at http://thoughtleadership.aonbeneld.com/Pages/Home.aspx?ReportYear=2013.

12 Carey Gillam and Ian Simpson, Whole neighborhood razedby Oklahoma tornado that killed 24, Reuters, May 21, 2013,available at http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/05/21/

us-usa-tornadoes-idUSBRE94J0TK20130521; AON Beneld,Impact Forecasting: May 2013 Global Catastrophe Recap(2013), available at http://thoughtleadership.aonbeneld.com/Documents/20130604_i_may_global_recap.pd.

13 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAApredicts active 2013 Atlantic hurricane season (Departmento Commerce, 2013), available at http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2013/20130523_hurricaneoutlook_atlantic.html.

14 John Elgion,Ater Drought, Rains Plaguing Midwest Farms,The New York Times, June 9, 2013, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/10/us/ater-drought-rains-plaguing-midwest-arms.html?pagewanted=all&_r=2&.

15 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.Seasonal Drought Outlook (Department o Commerce,2013), available at http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/expert_assessment/seasonal_drought.pd.

16 Presidential Policy Directive/PPD-8, National Preparedness(Department o Homeland Security, 2011), available athttp://www.dhs.gov/presidential-policy-directive-8-nation-al-preparedness.

17 Andrew Katz, The (Virtually )Tornado-Proo Hospital: WhatMoore Can Learn rom Jopli n, Time Magazine, June 1, 2013,available at http://science.time.com/2013/06/01/windows/.

18 Federal Alliance or Sae Homes, Sae Room Cost Calculator,available at http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/hwsae/cost.php (last accessed June 2013).

19 Dual-Use Domes Are a Shelter in a Storm, The New YorkTimes, December 29, 2012, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/30/us/texas-builds-domes-to-prepare-or-hurricanes.html?_r=1&.

20 Ibid.

21 Gov. Chris Christie, Collaboration and Cooperation.

22 Jon Schuppe,N.J. Shore Town Destroyed by Sandy Con-ronts Uncertain Future, NBC News, May 31, 2013, availabl eat http://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/Highlands-San-dy-Proud-But-Hurting-New-Jersey-Shore-Town-Conronts-Future-208090221.html.

23 John Schwartz, Why No Sae Room to Run to? Cost andPlains Culture, The New York Times, May 21, 2013, availableat http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/22/us/shelter-require-ments-resisted-in-tornado-alley.html?pagewanted=all.

24 Jack Nicas, Ana Campoy, and Nathan Koppel, OklahomaTornado: Long Minutes o Desperation Inside School Razedby Storm, The Wall Street Journal, May 22, 2013, available athttp://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323463704578497571748891276.html.

25 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2011

tornado inormation, available at http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/2011_tornado_inormation.html (last accessedJune 2013).

26 Schwartz, Why No Sae Room to Run To?

27 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Pre-DisasterMitigation Grant Program, available at http://www.ema.gov/pre-disaster-mitigation-grant-program (last accessedJune 2013).

28 Federal Emergency Management Agency, The NationalFlood Insurance Program, available at http://www.ema.gov/national-ood-insurance-program (last accessed June2013).

29 John Walsh and others, Our Changing Climate, WorkingPaper 11 (National Climate Assessment and DevelopmentAdvisory Committee, 2013), available at http://ncadac.globalchange.gov/download/NCAJan11-2013-publicre-

viewdrat-chap2-climate.pd.

30 Ibid.

31 AECOM, The Impact o Climate Change and Popula-tion Growth on the National Flood Insurance Programthrough 2100 (2013), available at http://www.aecom.com/deployedles/Internet/News/Sustainability/FEMA%20Cli-mate%20Change%20Report/Climate_Change_Report_AE-COM_2013-06-11.pd.
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11/15


32 Ibid.

33 Ibid.


35 Center or American Progress, Crumbling Dam And LeveeInrastructure Threatens Public Saety, Economic Stability,Press release, September 20, 2012, available at http://www.americanprogress.org/press/release/2012/09/20/38808/release-crumbling-dam-and-levee-inrastructure-threatens-public-saety-economic-stability/.

36 Ibid.

37 Kwame Boadi, Sequestration Nation: Government FundingIs Critical in Dealing with Severe Weather, Center or Ameri-can Progress, June 3, 2013, available at http://www.ameri-canprogress.org/issues/economy/news/2013/06/03/65035/government-unding-is-critical-in-dealing-with-severe-weather/.

38 Former senior FEMA ocials Jane Bullock and GeorgeHaddow made this resilience unding proposal in 2009.George Haddow, Jane A. Bullock, and Kim Haddow, GlobalWarming, Natural Hazards, and Emergency Management(Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 2008).

39 Daniel J. Weiss, Jackie Weidman, and Mackenzie Bronson,Heavy Weather: How Climate Destruction Harms Middle-and Lower-Income Americans (Washington: Center orAmerican Progress, 2012), available at http://www.ameri-canprogress.org/issues/green/report/2012/11/16/45135/

heavy-weather-how-climate-destruction-harms-middle-and-lower-income-americans/.

40 Government Accountability Oce, Mineral Resources:Mineral Volume, Value, Revenue, GAO-13-45R, Report toRanking Member Raul M. Grijalva, Committee o n NaturalResources, House o Representatives November 2012,available at http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/650122.pd;U.S. Energy Inormation Administration, Sales o Fossil FuelsProduced rom Federal and Indian Lands FY 2003 throughFY 2012 (Department o Energy, 2013), available at http://www.eia.gov/analysis/requests/ederallands/pd/eia-eder-allandsales.pd.

41 Congresswoman Lois Capps, Capps, Pallone, Waxman, and37 Colleagues Urge President Obama to Appoint Blue Rib-bon Panel to Evaluate Climate Change Preparedness, Pressrelease, February 11, 2013, available at http://capps.house.gov/press-release/capps-pallone-waxman-and-37-col-leagues-urge-president-obama-appoint-blue-ribbon-panel;Daniel J. Weiss and Jackie Weidman, An Ounce o Preven-

tion: Increasing Resiliency to Climate-Related ExtremeWeather, Center or American Progress, December 17,2012, available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/news/2012/12/17/48398/an-ounce-o-prevention-increasing-resiliency-to-climate-related-extreme-weather/;Daniel J. Weiss and Jackie Weidman, An Ounce o Preven-tion: Increasing Resiliency to Climate-Related ExtremeWeather, Center or American Progress, December 17,2012, available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/news/2012/12/17/48398/an-ounce-o-prevention-increasing-resiliency-to-climate-related-extreme-weather/.

42 Weiss and Weidman, Disastrous Spending.

43 Robert T. Staford Disaster Relie and Emergency AssistancePact as amended, Public Law 93-288, 113th Cong., (February13, 2013), available at http://www.ema.gov/robert-t-sta-ord-disaster-relie-and-emergency-assistance-act-public-law-93-288-amended.

44 New York Citys Oce o the Mayor, Mayor BloombergPresents the Citys Long-Term Plan to Further Prepare or theImpacts o a Changing Climate.

45 Michael Oppenheimer and Kevin Trenberth, Climate sci-

ence tells us the alarm bells are ringing, The WashingtonPost, June 7, 2013, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/climate-science-tells-us-the-alarm-bells-are-ringing/2013/06/07/ca81cb84-ce6-11e2-8845-d970c-cb04497_story.html.

46 Danielle Baussan and Daniel J. Weiss, Cleaning up CarbonPollution 101, Center or American Progress, December13, 2012, available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/news/2012/12/13/47962/cleaning-up-carbon-pollution-101/.


48 William L. Painter and Jared T. Brown, FY2013 SupplementalFunding or Disaster Relie (Washington: CongressionalResearch Service, 2013), available at http://www.as.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42869.pd.

49 Ibid.

50 The City o New York, PlaNYC: A Stronger, More ResilientNew York (2013), available at http://www.nyc.gov/html/sirr/html/report/report.shtml.

51 The City o New York, PlaNYC.

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