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WESTERNFEBRUARY 2016
CONTENTS
OATS
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A IntroductionA.1 Hay ..................................................................................................................... xiA.2 Grain ................................................................................................................. xiiA.3 Grazing ............................................................................................................. xiiA.4 Exports .............................................................................................................. xiiA.5 Healthbenefits ..................................................................................................xiii
1 Planning/Paddock preparation1.1 Paddock selection ..............................................................................................1
1.1.1 Paddock preparation ...........................................................................11.2 Paddock rotation and history .............................................................................2
1.2.1 Soil pH/liming ......................................................................................21.3 Benefitsofcropasarotationcrop .....................................................................31.4 Disadvantagesofcropasarotationcrop ...........................................................31.5 Fallow weed control ............................................................................................31.6 Fallowchemicalplant-backeffects ....................................................................41.7 Seedbed requirements .......................................................................................51.8 Soil moisture .......................................................................................................7
1.8.1 Dryland ................................................................................................7Technologies to support decision-making: ................................................................ 7Devices for soil monitoring ......................................................................................... 7New thoughts on soil moisture monitoring ................................................................ 7Calibration of monitoring devices .............................................................................. 8Modelling of soil water ............................................................................................... 8
1.9 Yield and targets .................................................................................................81.9.1 Seasonal outlook .................................................................................8
Yield Prophet® ............................................................................................................ 9CropMate ................................................................................................................. 10Australian CliMate .................................................................................................... 10
1.9.2 Fallow moisture .................................................................................10HowWet? .................................................................................................................. 11
1.9.3 Water-useefficiency ..........................................................................12Ways to increase yield .............................................................................................. 12The French–Schultz approach ................................................................................. 13
1.9.4 Nitrogen-useefficiency .....................................................................141.10Diseasestatusofpaddock ...............................................................................14
1.10.1 Soiltestingfordisease ......................................................................14Stubble testing ......................................................................................................... 14Soil testing ............................................................................................................... 15
1.10.2 Croppinghistoryeffects ....................................................................151.11Insectstatusofpaddock ..................................................................................16
1.11.1 Insectsamplingofsoil ......................................................................16
2 Pre-planting2.1 Varietalperformanceandratingsyield ...............................................................1
2.1.1 Yielding ability .....................................................................................22.1.2 Quality .................................................................................................32.1.3 Disease Resistance .............................................................................4
2.2 The National Oat Breeding Program ...................................................................52.3 Varieties ..............................................................................................................5
Milling varieties ........................................................................................................... 5Feed grain, hay and grazing varieties ........................................................................ 6
2.4 Other quality traits .............................................................................................72.4.1 Grazing value ......................................................................................7
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2.4.2 Maturity ...............................................................................................82.4.3 Grain ....................................................................................................9
Feeding value of oats grain ........................................................................................ 92.4.4 Hay ...................................................................................................102.4.5 Silage.................................................................................................11
2.5 Planting seed quality ........................................................................................112.5.1 Seed size ...........................................................................................112.5.2 Seed germination and vigour ............................................................122.5.3 Disease ..............................................................................................132.5.4 Seed storage .....................................................................................132.5.5 Saferatesoffertilisersownwiththeseed ........................................13
3 Planting3.1 Seed treatments .................................................................................................1
3.1.1 Cautionsaboutusingfungicideseeddressings .................................13.2 Timeofsowing ..................................................................................................2
3.2.1 Early sowing ........................................................................................33.2.2 Late sowing .........................................................................................3
3.3 Targeted plant population ...................................................................................33.3.1 Row spacing .......................................................................................4
3.4 Calculating seed requirements ...........................................................................43.5 Sowing depth ......................................................................................................5
4 Plant growth and physiology4.1 Dormancyaffectinggerminationandemergence ...............................................14.2 Plant growth stages ............................................................................................1
4.2.1 Zadoks Cereal Growth Stage Key .......................................................1Early stem elongation GS30–GS33 (pseudostem erect–third node on the main stem) ............................................................................................................ 2Leaf dissection at GS32 and GS33 ............................................................................ 2
5 Nutrition and fertiliser5.1 Crop removal rates .............................................................................................15.2 Soil testing ..........................................................................................................15.3 Plantsand/ortissuetestingfornutritionlevels ...................................................25.4 Nitrogen ..............................................................................................................3
5.4.1 TheimportanceofNmanagement .....................................................3N-deficiency symptoms ............................................................................................. 4
5.5 Phosphorus .........................................................................................................4P-deficiency symptoms.............................................................................................. 5
5.6 Potassium ...........................................................................................................5K-deficiency symptoms ............................................................................................. 6
5.7 Sulfur ...................................................................................................................6S-deficiency symptoms.............................................................................................. 7
5.8 Zinc .....................................................................................................................7Zn-deficiency symptoms ............................................................................................ 7
5.9 Manganese .........................................................................................................7Mn-deficiency symptoms ........................................................................................... 8
5.10 Copper ................................................................................................................8Cu-deficiency symptoms ........................................................................................... 8
6 Weed control6.1 CostofweedstoAustralianagriculture ..............................................................16.2 Weed management in oats .................................................................................16.3 Integrated weed management ............................................................................2
6.3.1 Reducing glyphosate resistance .........................................................26.3.2 Protecting herbicides ..........................................................................3
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6.3.3 Broad-leaved weeds ...........................................................................36.3.4 Grass weeds .......................................................................................46.3.5 Annual ryegrass toxicity ......................................................................46.3.6 Harvest weed-seed control .................................................................4
7 Insect control7.1 Field pests ..........................................................................................................1
7.1.1 Cockchafer ..........................................................................................1Crop stage.................................................................................................................. 1Description ................................................................................................................. 1Life cycle .................................................................................................................... 1Damage ...................................................................................................................... 1Control ....................................................................................................................... 2
7.1.2 Desiantha weevil .................................................................................3Crop stage.................................................................................................................. 3Description ................................................................................................................. 3Life cycle .................................................................................................................... 3Damage ...................................................................................................................... 3Control ....................................................................................................................... 3
7.1.3 Cutworm ..............................................................................................4Crop stage.................................................................................................................. 4Description ................................................................................................................. 4Life cycle .................................................................................................................... 4Damage ...................................................................................................................... 4Control ....................................................................................................................... 4
7.1.4 Webworm ............................................................................................5Crop stage.................................................................................................................. 5Description ................................................................................................................. 5Life cycle .................................................................................................................... 5Damage ...................................................................................................................... 5Control ....................................................................................................................... 5
7.1.5 Redlegged earth mite ..........................................................................6Crop stage.................................................................................................................. 6Description ................................................................................................................. 6Life cycle .................................................................................................................... 6Damage ...................................................................................................................... 6Control ....................................................................................................................... 6
7.1.6 Balaustium mite...................................................................................7Crop stage.................................................................................................................. 7Description ................................................................................................................. 7Life cycle .................................................................................................................... 7Damage ...................................................................................................................... 7Control ....................................................................................................................... 7
7.1.7 Bryobia mite ........................................................................................8Crop stage.................................................................................................................. 8Description ................................................................................................................. 8Life cycle .................................................................................................................... 8Damage ...................................................................................................................... 8Control ....................................................................................................................... 8
7.1.8 Lucerneflea .........................................................................................9Crop stage.................................................................................................................. 9Description ................................................................................................................. 9Life cycle .................................................................................................................... 9Damage ...................................................................................................................... 9Control ....................................................................................................................... 9
7.1.9 Cereal aphids ....................................................................................10Crop stage................................................................................................................ 10Description ............................................................................................................... 10Life cycle .................................................................................................................. 10
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Damage .................................................................................................................... 11Control ..................................................................................................................... 11Thresholds for control .............................................................................................. 11
7.1.10 Armyworm .........................................................................................12Crop stage................................................................................................................ 12Description ............................................................................................................... 12Life cycle .................................................................................................................. 12Damage .................................................................................................................... 12Control ..................................................................................................................... 12
7.1.11 Australian plague locust ....................................................................13Crop stage................................................................................................................ 13Description ............................................................................................................... 13Life cycle .................................................................................................................. 13Damage .................................................................................................................... 13Control ..................................................................................................................... 13
7.2 Stored grain pests ............................................................................................14
8 Nematode management8.1 Background ........................................................................................................38.2 Symptoms and detection ...................................................................................4
8.2.1 What is seen in the paddock? .............................................................58.3 Management .......................................................................................................6
9 Diseases9.1 Causesofcerealdiseases ..................................................................................4
9.1.1 Fungi ...................................................................................................49.1.2 Viruses .................................................................................................49.1.3 Bacteria ...............................................................................................49.1.4 Nematodes ..........................................................................................4
9.2 The disease triangle ............................................................................................49.3 Rusts ...................................................................................................................5
9.3.1 Stem rust (Puccinia graminisf.sp.tritici) ............................................69.3.2 Leaforcrownrust(Puccinia coronata var. avenae) .............................8
Management of leaf rust .......................................................................................... 10
9.4 Barleyyellowdwarfvirus .................................................................................139.5 Rhizoctonia .......................................................................................................159.6 Crown rot (Fusarium graminearum) ..................................................................169.7 Bacterial blights ................................................................................................17
9.7.1 Stripe blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. striafaciens): .....................179.7.2 Halo blight: (Pseudomonas syringae pv. coronafaciens) ...................18
9.8 Other diseases .................................................................................................209.8.1 Redleatherleaf(Spermospora avenae) ............................................209.8.2 Septoria blotch (Phaeosphaeria avenaria) ........................................219.8.3 Loose smut (Ustilago avenae) and covered smut (Ustilago hordei) ..239.8.4 Ergot (Claviceps purpurea) ................................................................25
10 Canopy management10.1 Canopy management .........................................................................................1
10.1.1 Importanceofcanopymanagement ...................................................110.1.2 Grazing cereal crops as a management tool ......................................210.1.3 Keystagesfordiseasecontrolandcanopymanagement ..................2
11 Crop desiccation
12 Harvest12.1 Wet harvest issues and management .................................................................2
12.1.1 Delaying harvest ..................................................................................212.2 Fire prevention ....................................................................................................3
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12.3 Receival standards .............................................................................................412.4 Harvest weed seed management (HWSM) .........................................................4
12.4.1 Intercepting annual weed seed ...........................................................412.4.2 Burningofnarrowwindrows ...............................................................512.4.3 Chaffcarts ...........................................................................................712.4.4 Bale-direct systems ............................................................................712.4.5 Chaffgrinding—theHarringtonSeedDestructor ................................812.4.6 Cutting oaten hay to reduce weed seeds ...........................................9
13 storage13.1Howtostoreoatson-farm ..................................................................................213.2 Hygiene ...............................................................................................................513.3Grainprotectantsandfumigants ........................................................................713.4 Aeration during storage ....................................................................................1013.5 Monitoring oats .................................................................................................12
14 Environmental issues14.1Frostissuesforoats ...........................................................................................1
14.1.1 Industry costs ......................................................................................114.1.2 Impacts ...............................................................................................114.1.3 Frosttoleranceofcrops ......................................................................1
Frost-tolerant crops.................................................................................................... 214.1.4 Growingoatenhayonfrost-pronepaddocks .....................................2
Management options ................................................................................................. 3
14.2 Waterlogging and salinity ....................................................................................314.2.1 Diagnosing waterlogging and salinity in oats ......................................3
What to look for .......................................................................................................... 5Where does it occur? ................................................................................................. 5Management strategies .............................................................................................. 6How can it be monitored? .......................................................................................... 6
15 Marketing15.1 Selling Principles.................................................................................................2
15.1.1 Be prepared.........................................................................................2When to sell ............................................................................................................... 2How to sell? ............................................................................................................... 2
15.1.2 Establishthebusinessriskprofile(whentosell?) ...............................3Production risk profile of the farm .............................................................................. 3Farm costs in their entirety, variable and fixed costs (establishing a target price). .... 3Income requirements ................................................................................................. 4When to sell revised ................................................................................................... 5
15.1.3 Managing your price (how to sell?) .....................................................5Methods of price management .................................................................................. 5
15.1.4 Ensuring access to markets ................................................................7Storage and logistics.................................................................................................. 8Cost of carrying grain ................................................................................................. 9
15.1.5 Ensuring market access revised .......................................................1015.1.6 Executing tonnes into cash ...............................................................10
Set-up the tool box .................................................................................................. 10How to sell for cash ................................................................................................. 11Counterparty risk ...................................................................................................... 13Relative values ......................................................................................................... 13Contract allocation ................................................................................................... 14Read market signals ................................................................................................. 15
15.1.7 Sales execution revised ....................................................................1515.2 Western oats – market dynamics and execution ..............................................15
15.2.1 PricedeterminantsforWAoats ........................................................1515.2.2 EnsuringmarketaccessforWAoats ................................................16
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15.2.3 ExecutingtonnesintocashforWAoats ...........................................1715.2.4 RiskmanagementtoolsavailableforWAoats ..................................17
