Fats

and

Oils

Tech

nolo

gyLe

ctur

e2

Pro

f. D

r. A

rtem

is K

araa

li

Tech

nolo

gyof

Edi

ble

Oils

and

Fats

Tria

cylg

lyce

rolT

rans

form

atio

ns

Hyd

roge

natio

n

Inth

epr

esen

ce o

f hyd

roge

nan

da

suita

ble

cata

lyst

the

doub

lebo

nds

of u

nsat

urat

edfa

ttyac

ids

are

read

ilyhy

drog

enat

ed, a

reac

tion

at m

oder

n m

arga

rine

man

ufac

ture

. Thi

sis

don

e w

ithhy

drog

enga

sun

der

pres

sure

with

a m

etal

cat

alys

tat h

igh

tem

pera

ture

s.

The

The

obje

ctiv

esob

ject

ives

of

of h

dyro

gena

tion

hdyr

ogen

atio

nar

ear

e : :

•• ToTo

impa

rtim

part

oxid

ativ

eox

idat

ive

stab

ility

stab

ility

tototh

eth

eoi

loi

l

•• ToTo

conv

ert

conv

ert a

a liq

uid

liqui

dve

geta

ble

vege

tabl

eoror

fish

fish

oil

oil

totoa a

fat

fat w

ithw

ith““ b

utte

rbu

tter

––lik

elik

e ” ” co

nsis

tenc

yco

nsis

tenc

ybyby

redu

cing

redu

cing

the

the

degr

eede

gree

of

of u

nsat

urat

ion

unsa

tura

tion

of

of it

sitsco

mpo

nent

com

pone

ntfa

ttyfa

ttyac

ids

acid

s ..

Hyd

roge

nate

d oi

ls o

r fat

s ha

ve a

con

sist

ency

that

H

ydro

gena

ted

oils

or f

ats

have

a c

onsi

sten

cy th

at

is id

eal f

or u

se a

s m

arga

rine

or s

hort

enin

g is

idea

l for

use

as

mar

garin

e or

sho

rten

ing

com

pone

nts

com

pone

nts ..

HO

W IT

IS D

ON

E:

•The

oils

are

expo

sed

tohy

drog

enga

sat

hig

hpr

essu

rean

dte

mpe

ratu

res

(2-1

0 at

m, 1

40-2

25°C

) in

the

pres

ence

of 0

.01-

0.2%

fine

lydi

vide

dni

ckel

, and

agita

ted.

•The

redu

ctio

nof

dou

ble

bond

sis

“se

lect

ive”

. The

ones

furt

hest

from

este

r lin

ksof

trig

lyce

rides

and

thos

ebe

long

ing

toth

em

ore

unsa

tura

ted

fatty

acid

sar

em

ostr

eact

ive.

•Firs

ttrie

noic

acid

s(w

ith3

doub

lebo

nds)

are

conv

erte

dto

dien

oic

acid

s; a

ndth

endi

enoi

cac

ids(

2 do

uble

bond

s)to

enoi

c(1d

oubl

e bo

nd)a

cids

.

Hyd

roge

natio

nSe

lect

ivity

of

Cat

alys

tsD

efin

ition

sof

“H

ydro

gena

tionS

elec

tivity

”:

1.“P

refe

rent

ialh

ydro

gena

tion

of m

ore

unsa

tura

ted

acid

sw

ithm

inim

um

form

atio

nof

com

plet

ely

satu

rate

dfa

ttyac

ids”

2.“T

hera

tioof

the

rate

of h

ydro

gena

tion

of li

nole

icac

idto

that

of o

leic

acid

” C

omm

only

obse

rved

sele

ctiv

ities

rang

efr

om4:

1 to

50:1

. In

Very

sele

ctiv

ehy

drog

enat

ion:

Lino

leic

acid

: Ole

icac

idra

tiois

(50

: 1)

Hig

hly

sele

ctiv

eca

taly

sts

are

mor

ede

sira

ble

in th

ein

dust

ry.

HHyd

roge

natio

nyd

roge

natio

npr

oces

s pr

oces

s re

quire

sre

quire

sth

eth

efo

llow

ing

follo

win

g : :

1. H

igh

1. H

igh

tem

pera

ture

ste

mpe

ratu

res

2. A

met

al c

atal

yst s

uch

as n

icke

l, zi

nc,

2. A

met

al c

atal

yst s

uch

as n

icke

l, zi

nc,

copp

er, o

r oth

er re

activ

e m

etal

sco

pper

, or o

ther

reac

tive

met

als

3. H

ydro

gen

gas

3. H

ydro

gen

gas

•• TThe

hyd

roge

n ga

s w

hich

is b

ubbl

ed u

p he

hyd

roge

n ga

s w

hich

is b

ubbl

ed u

p th

roug

h th

eth

roug

h th

eoi

loi

l•• T

heThe

cata

lyst

cata

lyst

mix

ture

mix

ture

reac

tsre

acts

with

with

carb

on

carb

on

atom

sat

oms

of

of th

eth

eun

satu

rate

dun

satu

rate

dfa

ttyfa

ttyac

ids

acid

san

d an

d co

nver

ts th

eco

nver

ts th

e m

m in

toin

tosa

tura

ted

satu

rate

dfa

ttyfa

ttyac

ids

acid

sby

by

fli

ppin

g on

e of

the

atta

ched

hyd

roge

n fli

ppin

g on

e of

the

atta

ched

hyd

roge

n m

olec

ules

and

rota

ting

it ha

lf th

e di

amet

er

mol

ecul

es a

nd ro

tatin

g it

half

the

diam

eter

of

the

carb

on c

hain

. of

the

carb

on c

hain

.

•Thi

s ef

fect

ivel

y cr

eate

s a

new

mol

ecul

ar s

hape

re

sulti

ng in

a s

tiffe

r or m

ore

rigid

mat

eria

l, he

nce

the

chan

ge fr

om a

liqu

id to

a s

emi-s

olid

or

sol

id s

ubst

ance

. Thi

s ne

w s

hape

stif

fens

w

ith th

e hy

drog

enat

ion

proc

ess

mak

ing

the

oil

beha

ve m

ore

like

a fu

llysa

tura

ted

fat (

such

as

coco

nut f

at w

hich

is 9

2% s

atur

atio

n an

d so

lid

at ro

om te

mpe

ratu

re).

SUM

MA

RY:

The

effe

cts

of h

ydro

gena

tion:

Incr

ease

dO

xida

tive

Stab

ility

, Dec

reas

edC

olor

; D

ecre

ased

Vita

min

A;

Isom

eriz

atio

n(tr

ans

f.a.)

Hyd

roge

natio

nan

dTr

ans

fats

Tran

s fa

ts a

refo

rmed

as a

res

ult o

f hyd

roge

natio

nre

actio

n•

Hyd

roge

natio

n ra

ises

the

mel

ting

poin

t of t

he fa

t an

d re

tard

s ra

ncid

ity. B

ut a

s re

cent

hea

lth s

tudi

es

have

foun

d, o

ther

pro

blem

s ca

n en

sue

whe

n co

nsum

ing

larg

e am

ount

s of

tran

s fa

ts fr

om

hydr

ogen

ated

pro

duct

s.

•Tr

ans

Fatty

Aci

d Th

e hy

drog

en m

olec

ules

atta

ched

at t

he c

ente

r of

the

fatty

aci

d ca

rbon

cha

in fl

ips

180

degr

ees,

whi

ch

stra

ight

ens

the

natu

ral c

urve

or k

ink

in th

e ty

pica

l ci

s-co

nfig

ured

fat.

•W

hen

hydr

ogen

ated

, the

cis

-sh

ape

chem

ical

ly a

lters

to a

tr

ans

conf

igur

atio

n an

d he

nce

is c

alle

d a

“tra

ns”

fat.

Mos

t mar

garin

e an

d ve

geta

ble

shor

teni

ng h

ave

been

tran

s fa

t con

vert

ed

thro

ugh

full

or p

artia

l hy

drog

enat

ion

proc

ess.

Tr

ans

fats

inte

rfer

e w

ith

met

abol

ic a

bsor

ptio

n ef

ficie

ncie

s an

d te

nd to

co

ngre

gate

at a

dipo

se ti

ssue

si

tes.

•

On

July

23, 2

003:

A d

ecre

ew

aspa

ssed

whi

chst

ates

that

, as

of J

anua

ry1,

200

6, fo

odm

anuf

actu

rers

will

be

requ

ired

tola

belt

hetr

ans-

fat

cont

ento

f the

irfo

ods

on a

llnu

triti

onal

fact

labe

ls.

Hyd

roge

natio

n

Mar

garin

e P

rodu

ctio

n•

Mar

garin

e is

a “w

ater

in o

il” e

mul

sion

prep

ared

from

suita

ble

“mar

garin

e oi

l” st

ocks

and

a “m

ilkph

ase”

. •

The

emul

sion

is m

odifi

edby

the

addi

tion

of

suita

ble

surfa

ceac

tive

agen

ts(e

mul

sifie

rs)

incl

udin

gm

ono

ordi

glyc

erid

esan

d/or

leci

thin

.•

Sal

t and

othe

radd

itive

ssu

chas

ant

i-oxi

dant

s,

vita

min

s, c

olor

, fla

vor,

etc.

are

incl

uded

. •

Mar

garin

e pr

oces

sing

invo

lves

basi

cally

prem

ixin

gof

ingr

edie

nts

follo

wed

byra

pid

chill

ing

(sol

idifi

catio

n) a

ndho

mog

eniz

atio

n.

MA

RGA

RIN

E PR

OD

UCT

ION

Mix

ing

the

oils

and

fats

for

fat

phas

e.O

ilso

lubl

ead

diti

ves(

β-ca

rote

ne, v

itA

, D,

emul

sifi

ers

leci

thin

, M

DG)

Milk

phas

em

ilkst

arte

rcu

ltur

e( S

trep

toco

ccus

lact

isSt

rept

ococ

cus

crem

oris

-pr

oduc

ing

arom

a)N

aCl

Pres

erva

tive

s

Nbd

* oi

ls

Hyd

roge

nati

on

Emul

sifi

cati

on*N

BD: N

eutr

alis

ed,b

leac

hed,

deo

dori

sed)

MA

RGA

RIN

E PR

OD

UCT

ION

Emul

sifi

cati

on

Cool

ing

+ cr

ysta

lliza

tion

(vot

ator

)

Prod

uct

text

ure

is h

omog

eniz

edth

roug

hre

peat

edcr

ysta

lliza

tion

s

Knea

ding

Pack

agin

g

Poly

mor

phis

m•

Poly

mor

phic

form

sar

eso

lidph

ases

of th

esa

me

chem

ical

com

posi

tion

that

diffe

rin

crys

talli

nest

ruct

ure,

but

yie

ldid

entic

alliq

uid

phas

esup

onm

eltin

g.

Cry

stal

Stab

ility

:•

Mon

otro

pic

-one

stab

lecr

ysta

lfor

m a

ndon

em

eta

stab

lefo

rm

rega

rdle

ssof

tem

pera

ture

chan

ge

•O

nesi

ngle

“trig

lyce

ride”

is “m

onot

ropi

c”, b

ut fa

tsar

eno

t: th

eyco

ntai

nm

any

diffe

rent

trigl

ycer

ides

and

ther

efor

em

aypo

sses

s“p

olym

orph

ism

”.In

form

ulat

ing

mar

garin

es, i

ncor

pora

tion

of a

ir, p

last

icity

, con

sist

ency

and

solid

-liqu

idra

tioar

eim

porta

ntch

arac

teris

tics

that

depe

nd, i

n pa

rt, o

n th

ispo

lym

orph

ism

(i.e.

α, β

and

β' t

ypes

of c

ryst

alfo

rmat

ion)

.

Pol

ymor

phic

Form

sH

owth

eyar

efo

rmed

:

•α

form

of c

ryst

als

form

upo

nco

olin

gfro

mth

ehy

drog

enat

edm

elt:

low

estM

.P. D

ensi

tyLe

ast

(cry

stal

size

: 5µ)

, Tra

nslu

cent

•U

pon

furth

erco

olin

g, β

form

of c

ryst

als

form

: H

ighe

stM

.P.,

Hig

hD

ensi

ty(c

ryst

alsi

ze: 2

5-50

µ)

Opa

que

•H

eatin

gba

ckα

toits

mel

ting

tem

pera

ture

yiel

dsβ'

form

of c

ryst

als:

med

ium

M.P

., m

ediu

mD

ensi

ty, (

crys

tals

ize:

1µ)

Int

erm

edia

te

Pol

ymor

phic

Form

s•

β' C

ryst

als

-lar

geam

ount

sof

sm

alla

irce

lls-

Yiel

dsw

hite

r, cr

eam

ierp

rodu

ctth

atis

tend

er

and

has

a sm

ooth

text

ure

•β

Cry

stal

s-s

mal

lam

ount

sof

larg

eai

rcel

ls-

Yiel

dsla

rge

clus

tere

dcr

ysta

lsw

itha

wax

yor

grai

nyte

xtur

e

•S

o, β

' Cry

stal

form

sar

epr

efer

red

in m

arga

rines

sinc

e th

eyin

corp

orat

em

ore

air.

Inte

rest

erifi

catio

n•

Def

initi

on: A

bas

ictr

eatm

entf

orth

epr

epar

atio

nof

tailo

r-m

ade

fats

peci

altie

sto

chan

geth

eph

ysic

alpr

oper

ties

of

the

oils

and

fats

byst

atis

tical

lyre

dist

ribut

ing

the

fatty

acid

sin

the

resp

ectiv

eth

ree

avai

labl

epo

sitio

nsof

the

trig

lyce

rides

(inte

rcha

nge

of fa

ttyac

ids

betw

een

and

insi

deth

edi

ffere

nttr

igly

cerid

es)

with

outa

lterin

gth

efa

ttyac

idco

mpo

sitio

nof

the

orig

inal

oils

and

fats

•Th

ispr

oces

sre

arra

nges

the

fatty

acid

son

the

trig

lyce

ride

back

bone

with

a ca

taly

stor

enzy

me

toch

ange

the

fat’s

prop

ertie

s. T

helo

wer

cost

and

broa

dfu

nctio

nalit

ies

prod

uced

with

hydr

ogen

atio

nm

ade

this

met

hod

less

desi

rabl

e, b

ut s

ince

it d

oesn

’tcr

eate

tran

s is

omer

s,

com

mer

cial

inte

rest

in in

tere

ster

ifica

tion

has

incr

ease

dsi

gnifi

cant

ly•

Opt

ions

: Ani

mal

orve

geta

ble?

Sol

idor

plas

ticor

liqui

d?

Stee

por

broa

dm

eltin

gcu

rve?

To

tran

sor

not t

otr

ans?

Inte

rest

erifi

catio

nw

ithin

a tri

glyc

erid

eO

rbet

wee

ntri

glyc

erid

es

With

ina

trig

lyce

ride:

Bet

wee

n2

trig

lyce

rides

:

Star

t with

:

End

with

:

Che

mic

alan

dEn

zym

atic

Inte

rest

erifi

catio

ns•

Exc

hang

e of

fatty

acid

sm

ayoc

cura

t 25

0 °

C w

ithno

ca

taly

stor

at 0

° C

w

ithth

epr

oper

cata

lyst

.

The

chem

ical

cata

lyst

used

is u

sual

ly“s

odiu

mm

etho

xide

”

İniti

alR

eact

ion:

Enz

ymat

icIn

tere

ster

ifica

tions

•B

yut

ilizi

ngen

zym

esin

pla

ceof

che

mic

als,

th

eoi

lsar

esu

bjec

ted

toev

enle

ssse

vere

pr

oces

sing

cond

ition

s.

•E

nzym

ein

tere

ster

ifica

tions

are

mor

eec

onom

ical

, inc

reas

espr

oces

sing

flexi

bilit

y, fr

iend

lyfo

rthe

envi

ronm

ent,

and

also

prov

ides

num

erou

sde

sira

ble

func

tiona

lcha

ract

eris

tics

Des

igne

rFat

sfo

rBak

ery

•Fa

tspr

ovid

ea

num

bero

f fun

ctio

nsin

bak

edgo

ods.

One

of th

em

ostc

omm

onis

to“s

horte

n,”

orte

nder

ize,

text

ure

(“sh

orte

ning

”).

•In

addi

tion

toits

text

uriz

ing

effe

cts,

fata

lso

cont

ribut

es“m

oist

ness

” orl

ubric

ity, w

hich

can

help

exte

ndpr

oduc

tshe

lflif

e, a

ndin

fluen

ces

flavo

r, ei

ther

thro

ugh

itsow

nco

ntrib

utio

nor

bym

odify

ing

oren

hanc

ing

othe

ring

redi

ents

’ fla

vor.

Ital

som

odifi

essu

rface

appe

aran

ce; s

erve

sas

th

eba

sefo

rman

yba

kery

fillin

gs, c

oatin

gsan

dic

ings

; and

wor

ksas

the

heat

-tran

sfer

med

ium

in

fried

item

s, s

uch

as d

onut

san

dfri

edpi

es

TREN

D: “

fine-

tuni

nga

prod

uctt

ofit

to

a sp

ecifi

ccu

stom

er’s

line”

•

Coa

ting

fats

can

be p

rodu

ced

from

coco

nut,

palm

-ker

nela

ndpa

lmoi

ls, a

s w

ella

s co

coa

butte

r.

•S

pray

oils

can

be p

rodu

ced

from

coco

nuto

ilor

“trai

t-enh

ance

d” G

M

oils

, suc

has

hig

h-ol

eic

cano

la.

•Fr

ying

fats

can

be p

rodu

ced

from

tallo

w, p

alm

and

trait-

enha

nced

oils

.

•A

ll-pu

rpos

esh

orte

ning

sca

n be

pr

oduc

edfro

mpa

lmoi

l, or

inte

rest

erifi

edbl

ends

of fu

llyhy

drog

enat

edso

ybea

nor

cotto

nsee

doi

lsw

ithtra

it-en

hanc

edoi

ls. I

nad

ditio

n, e

mul

sifie

rpac

kage

sca

n be

ad

ded

toth

efo

rego

ing

topr

oduc

eca

kean

dic

ing

shor

teni

ngs.

Tal

low

and

lard

are

optio

nsas

wel

l.

Fat’s

func

tiona

lity:

Stru

ctur

edFa

ts•

Exam

ple:

Alp

ha-li

nole

nic

acid

falls

unde

rthe

omeg

a-3

fatty

acid

cate

gory

and

can

be fo

und

in fl

axse

edoi

l(51

% li

nole

nic

acid

), ca

nola

oil(

9%),

soy

oil(

7%) a

ndw

alnu

ts(7

%).

The

body

con

verts

it to

long

er-c

hain

(LC

) om

ega-

3 po

lyun

satu

rate

dfa

ttyac

ids

(PU

FAs)

ei

cosa

pent

aeno

icac

id(E

PA)

and

doco

sahe

xaen

oic

acid

(DH

A) fo

rus

e, a

lthou

ghth

ese

can

be c

onsu

med

dire

ctly

byus

ing

mar

ine

oils

, pa

rticu

larly

thos

efro

mco

ldw

ater

fish.

•Ea

ting

Long

Cha

in-P

UFA

sm

ayre

duce

the

inci

denc

eof

cor

onar

yhe

artd

isea

sean

dst

roke

, and

also

aid

brai

nan

dre

tina

deve

lopm

ent

and

func

tion.

Sev

eral

com

pani

esha

vede

velo

ped

proc

esse

sth

atca

n pr

oduc

eom

ega-

3 fa

ttyac

ids

from

flaxs

eeds

with

outa

“fis

hy”

tast

e. W

hile

prod

uctd

esig

ners

have

tow

atch

forp

oten

tialo

xida

tion

prob

lem

sfro

mth

ese

unsa

tura

ted

fats

, the

yca

n ac

tas

nutri

tiona

len

hanc

emen

tsin

bak

edgo

ods

whe

nad

ded

toth

efa

tpha

se(o

rdry

, be

adle

tfor

ms

also

can

be m

ixed

in th

eflo

ur).

Frac

tiona

tion

At a

mbi

ento

rlow

tem

pera

ture

, som

eoi

ls(o

rfat

s) a

rein

the

form

of a

mix

ture

of a

cry

stal

lised

high

mel

ting

poin

tfra

ctio

nan

dof

a li

quid

low

mel

ting

poin

tfra

ctio

n.•

The

purp

ose

of fr

actio

natio

npr

oces

sis

toph

ysic

ally

sepa

rate

the

liqui

dfr

actio

nca

lled

«ole

ins»

from

the

crys

talli

sed

frac

tion

calle

d«s

tear

ins»

.Fra

ctio

natio

nis

pra

ctis

edm

ainl

yon

pal

moi

l, pa

lmke

rnel

oil,

lard

, tal

low

, par

tially

hydr

ogen

ated

fish

orso

yabe

anoi

land

anhy

drou

sm

ilkfa

t.•

The

proc

ess

com

pris

esth

ree

step

s:1.

Con

ditio

ning

,whi

chco

nsis

tsin

hea

ting

and

hom

ogen

isin

gth

eoi

lin

mat

urat

ors.

2. F

orm

atio

nof

cry

stal

sth

roug

hse

lect

ive

crys

talli

satio

n. T

heop

erat

ion

is c

ondu

cted

in s

ever

alco

olin

gst

eps.

3. F

iltra

tion,

fort

hese

para

tion

of th

eol

eins

from

the

stea

rins.

Mai

nA

pplic

atio

nsof

Fra

ctio

natio

n:Sa

lad

dres

sing

and

fryi

ngoi

ls(o

lein

s),

mar

garin

es, s

hort

enin

gs,

conf

ectio

nery

(coc

oabu

tter)

, pa

stry

, bak

ery

prod

ucts

and

spec

ialit

yfa

ts

Coc

oaB

utte

rAlte

rnat

ives

( Equ

ival

ents

, Sub

stitu

tes

and

Rep

lace

rs)

•A

sol

vent

-bas

edfra

ctio

natio

nis

us

edfo

rpro

duci

ngfa

tsw

ithm

eltin

gpr

oper

ties

sim

ilart

oco

coa

butte

rand

com

patib

lew

ithit

(in 1

950’

s).

•P

alm

orpa

lmke

rnel

oili

s fra

ctio

nate

din

toth

ree

fract

ions

:*T

heto

p fra

ctio

nco

ntai

nson

lyth

etri

satu

rate

dtri

glyc

erid

es;

*The

botto

mfra

ctio

nco

ntai

nsdi

-an

dtri

-uns

atur

ated

trigl

ycer

ides

; *T

hem

id-fr

actio

nis

a s

teep

ly-

mel

ting

fatw

ithex

celle

ntm

outh

-feel

, lik

eco

coa

butte

r

OLE

STR

AO

lest

rais

a “

fats

ubst

itute

” th

atha

s th

epr

oper

ties

of a

fa

tin

flavo

rand

text

ure,

but

is in

dige

stib

leby

enzy

mes

whi

chhy

drol

yse

sucr

ose

orth

etr

igly

cerid

es. I

tdoe

sno

t add

any

calo

ries

as a

nor

mal

fatw

ould

.Ole

stra

is

part

fatty

acid

sfr

omco

ttons

eed

orso

ybea

noi

lsan

dpa

rtsu

cros

era

ther

than

glyc

erol

in tr

igly

cerid

es. T

hesi

xto

eigh

tfat

tyac

ids

are

bond

edto

the

hydr

oxyl

oral

coho

lgro

ups

on th

esu

cros

eus

ing

an e

ster

syn

thes

isre

actio

n. T

his

mak

esfo

ra ra

ther

larg

em

olec

ule

that

look

slik

ean

oct

opus

with

man

yar

ms.

Sin

ce th

een

zym

esca

n no

t bre

ak d

own

the

oles

tra,

it tr

avel

sth

roug

hth

ein

test

ines

undi

gest

edan

dun

abso

rbed

.In

1996

, the

FDA

app

rove

dth

eus

eof

ole

stra

in p

otat

och

ips,

cra

cker

san

dfr

ied

snac

ks, a

s it

is th

eon

lyhe

atst

able

fats

ubst

itute

forf

ried

food

s. T

here

have

been

som

ere

port

sof

adv

erse

reac

tions

in th

ein

test

ines

incl

udin

gdi

arrh

eaan

dcr

amps

, ind

icat

ing

that

it m

ayac

tas

a la

xativ

ein

som

epe

ople

.Si

nce

oles

tra

is s

uch

a la

rge

nonp

olar

mol

ecul

e, it

may

diss

olve

orco

mbi

new

ithso

me

of th

efa

tsol

uble

vita

min

ssu

chas

A, D

, E, a

ndK

, and

caro

teno

ids.

As

a re

sult,

the

FDA

now

thes

evi

tam

ins

mus

tbe

adde

dto

any

prod

ucts

cont

aini

ngol

estr

a.

FRY

ING

•M

ass

Tran

sfer

Wat

erin

a fr

ying

food

mig

rate

sfr

omth

ece

nter

toth

esu

rfac

e. A

s w

ater

is

rem

oved

at th

esu

rfac

edu

eto

heat

ing,

wat

eris

'pum

ped'

toth

esu

rfac

e. T

hera

te o

f wat

erlo

ssan

dits

ease

of m

igra

tion

thro

ugh

the

prod

ucta

reim

port

ant

toth

efin

al c

hara

cter

istic

sof

the

food

.

•H

eatT

rans

fer

Wat

erev

apor

atio

nfr

omth

esu

rfac

eof

a fr

ying

food

also

rem

oves

heat

from

the

surf

ace

and

inhi

bits

char

ring

orbu

rnin

gat

the

surf

ace.

The

heat

of v

apor

izat

ion

of w

ater

tost

eam

rem

oves

muc

hof

the

heat

at th

efo

od/o

ilsu

rfac

e.

Hea

tRem

oval

:As

long

as w

ater

is b

eing

rem

oved

at a

suf

ficie

ntra

te, t

hesu

rfac

eof

the

food

will

not c

har.

Subs

urfa

cew

ater

in th

efo

odw

illal

soco

nduc

the

ataw

ayfr

omth

esu

rfac

ean

dto

war

dsth

ece

nter

of th

epr

oduc

t.

Inte

riorC

ooki

ng:T

hetr

ansf

er o

f hea

tto

the

inte

rioro

f the

prod

uctb

yw

ater

will

resu

ltin

coo

king

of th

ein

terio

rof t

hefo

od. W

ew

ante

noug

hhe

atto

'coo

k' th

epr

oduc

t, bu

t not

eno

ugh

toca

use

dam

age

-exa

mpl

e-F

renc

hfr

y

FRY

ING

OIL

S

The

prop

erti

esof

oil

chan

gew

ith

fryi

ng. N

ew o

ilha

s a

high

heat

capa

city

that

dim

inis

hes

wit

hus

e. O

ther

fact

ors

such

as v

isco

sity

may

chan

gedr

amat

ical

lyw

ith

use.

•Fr

esh

Oil

Slig

htbr

owni

ngat

edg

esof

fry

; par

tial

lyco

oked

(gel

atin

izat

ion)

cen

ters

; cr

ispi

ngof

the

surf

ace;

slig

htly

mor

eoi

labs

orpt

ion.

•O

ptim

um O

ilG

olde

n br

own

colo

r; c

risp

, rig

idsu

rfac

e; d

elic

ious

pota

toan

doi

lodo

rs; f

ully

cook

edce

nter

s(r

igid

, rin

ging

gel)

; opt

imal

oil

abso

rpti

on.

•D

egra

ding

Oil

Dar

kene

dan

d/or

spot

tysu

rfac

es; e

xces

soi

lpic

kup;

pro

duct

mov

ing

tow

ards

limpn

ess;

cas

eha

rden

edsu

rfac

es

•R

unaw

ayO

ilD

ark,

cas

eha

rden

edsu

rfac

es; e

xces

sive

lyoi

lypr

oduc

t; s

urfa

ces

colla

psin

gin

war

d; c

ente

rsno

t fu

llyco

oked

; off

-odo

ran

dfl

avor

s(b

urne

d).

AN

IMA

L FA

TS1.

Milk

fat(b

utte

r): I

tis

obta

ined

first

by“c

hurn

ing”

pro

cess

, a m

echa

nica

lpr

oces

sin

volv

ing

heav

ym

ixin

gat

coo

ltem

pera

ture

san

dre

sults

in

sepa

ratio

nof

a y

ello

wis

hw

ater

yem

ulsi

onth

eco

ntin

uous

phas

eof

whi

chis

lipi

dic.

Thi

sem

ulsi

on, b

utte

r, c

onta

ins

~ 20

% w

ater

and

exhi

bits

plas

ticbe

havi

orat

room

tem

pera

ture

. B

utte

roil

is a

dai

rypr

oduc

twhi

chis

cre

ated

byre

mov

ing

the

moi

stur

ean

dth

eno

nfat

milk

solid

sco

ntai

ned

in b

utte

r. It

is o

btai

ned

bym

ildly

heat

ing

butte

rto

liqui

fyan

dal

low

ing

grav

ityse

para

tion(

orfr

actio

natio

n) o

f the

oil

phas

e. It

is m

uch

mor

est

able

than

the

butte

rem

ulsi

on.

2.B

ody

fats

of d

omes

ticfa

rm(la

nd)

anim

als(

cattl

eor

shee

p):

Ex: T

allo

wan

dla

rd: c

ompo

sitio

nis

affe

cted

with

anim

alty

pe, a

ge, a

ndfe

ed(g

rass

-fed

:har

dert

allo

w; g

rain

-fed:

softe

r). S

laug

hter

hous

ere

fuse

is

heat

-trea

ted

in c

ooke

rsan

dse

para

ted

bygr

avity

from

non-

fatp

arts

. Th

e“r

ende

ring”

pro

cess

”in

volv

esth

ecr

ushi

ngan

dhe

atin

gof

the

raw

mat

eria

lsup

plie

dfr

omsl

augh

terh

ouse

s, le

adin

gto

the

evap

orat

ion

of th

em

oist

ure

in th

em

ater

ial,

whi

chth

enen

able

sth

efa

t, kn

own

as 't

allo

w',

tobe

sep

arat

edfr

omth

ere

mai

ning

high

-pro

tein

sol

ids,

kno

wn

as 'g

reav

es‘*.

*The

grea

ves

are

furt

herp

roce

ssed

bypr

essi

ng, c

entr

ifugi

ngor

byso

lven

tex

trac

tion

in o

rder

tore

mov

em

ore

tallo

w. T

here

sulta

ntpr

otei

n-ric

hm

ater

iali

s th

engr

ound

into

mea

tand

bone

mea

l.

RE

ND

ER

ING

Fish

Oils

Fish

mea

land

fish

oila

repr

oduc

edby

a co

ntin

uous

and

care

fully

cont

rolle

dpr

oces

sw

hich

invo

lves

cook

ing,

pre

ssin

g, d

ryin

gan

dm

illin

gof

fres

h, ra

wfis

h.Yi

elds

of fi

shm

eala

ndfis

hoi

lcan

var

ybe

twee

nfis

hsp

ecie

san

dev

enfr

omse

ason

tose

ason

, but

typi

cally

arou

nd17

–22

% fi

shm

eala

nd5

–15%

fish

oilw

illbe

obta

ined

bypr

oces

sing

. Pr

oduc

tion

Proc

ess:

•

1.In

take

–R

awfis

his

sam

pled

and

anal

ysed

on in

take

toch

eck

forf

resh

ness

and

expe

cted

yiel

dof

mea

l and

oil.

2.C

ooki

ng-T

hera

wfis

his

con

veye

dth

roug

ha

stea

mhe

ated

cont

inuo

usco

oker

, whe

reit

is h

eate

dto

90°C

-95°

C.

This

ster

ilize

sth

efis

h, c

oagu

late

sth

epr

otei

nsan

ddi

srup

tsth

ece

llm

embr

anes

tofa

cilit

ate

the

sepa

ratio

nof

the

solu

bles

and

the

oilf

rom

the

dry

mat

ter.

•3.

Pres

s-T

heco

oked

raw

mat

eria

lis

fed

toa

scre

wpr

ess

whe

rem

uch

of th

eliq

uid

is s

quee

zed

outt

ofo

rm a

pre

ssca

kew

hich

is c

onve

yed

toth

edr

ier.

•4.

Sepa

rato

r–Th

epr

ess

liqui

dco

ntai

nsw

ater

and

mos

tof t

heoi

lfro

mth

efis

h,as

wel

las

diss

olve

dpr

otei

ns, s

alts

and

fine

part

icle

s. T

hese

part

icle

s,

som

etim

esca

lled

slud

ge, a

rere

mov

edin

a d

ecan

tera

ndtr

ansp

orte

dto

the

drie

rto

be m

ixed

in w

ithth

epr

essc

ake.

The

liqui

dfr

omth

ede

cant

eris

fed

tose

para

tors

whe

reth

eoi

lis

rem

oved

and

can

subs

eque

ntly

be s

tore

din

larg

eta

nks

fore

xpor

t.•

5.Ev

apor

ator

-The

wat

erph

ase

from

the

sepa

rato

rsis

fed

toth

eev

apor

ator

sw

here

it is

gen

tlyco

ncen

trat

edbe

fore

bein

gbl

ende

dw

ithth

epr

essc

ake

durin

gth

edr

ying

stag

e.•

6.D

rier-

The

wat

erin

the

pres

sca

ke, s

ludg

ean

dco

ncen

trat

eis

rem

oved

byra

pid

aird

ryin

gaf

terw

hich

the

fishm

eali

s co

oled

, mill

edan

dst

ored

fore

xpor

t.

Fish

Oil

Pro

duct

ion