Facebook in the Lives of Oxford Postgraduates

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The Role of Facebook in the Lives of Oxford Postgraduates:

A Case Study

Elizabeth Ashley Gasten

Dissertation submitted to the University of Oxford in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of MSc in Educational Research Methodology

September 2008


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ABSTRACT

The study presented here examines the use ofFacebook, a social networking site, by a

group of Oxford postgraduate students. As new internet technologies become an entrenched

part of society, with students as dedicated users on the forefront of adoption, understanding the

role these technologies play in their lives becomes increasingly important for those who work

with them. The aim of this research was to examine how students used Facebookfor academic

purposes as well as for creating and maintaining social networks, and to explore the impact it had

on their sense of community and identity. Underlying these questions is the notion of

affordances, offering insights into why these students use this technology in certain ways.

Employing a case study approach, the research attempts to explore the topic through a

combination of methodologies, with the goal of looking at it from the students own perspective.

Questionnaires provided preliminary information and allowed selection of a smaller number of

participants for in-depth interviews. A form of virtual ethnography, whereby online spaces were

explored post interview to increase understanding, is also included.

Findings suggest that, although students saw no place for Facebookin the classroom, it

was none the less having a large impact on their university experience. Devoted users of

communication technologies, nearly all participants used Facebookintensively. The formation

and maintenance of support networks, both of past friends and current peers, was highly

important to these students, and something they felt Facebookparticularly afforded. They were

also highly cognizant of the displays of connection Facebookprovided, and manipulated various

applications to demonstrate ties and affiliations. In contrast to previous research, this study finds

that these students were not overly concerned with overt creation and expression of identity, or

with issues of privacy, which they managed through the presentation of limited information and

the careful selection of those who viewed their profiles.

The value and implications of this study are two-fold. First, it offers insights into how one

group of students make social networking a part of their university experience, which, potentially,

could be of value to those who work with young people. Secondly, it explores research methods

potentially suited to this area, and generates possible themes and hypotheses on which to base

further research.


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Everything that went into this work is dedicated to the memory of my best friend, who

taught me its ok to be yourself, that stubbornness can be a good thing, and to always

follow your nose, wherever it may lead you. Thanks, Kerby.

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

I owe thanks to many people for their support over the past year.

To my supervisor, John Furlong, for his constant support and feedback, and for

continually opening my mind to new dimensions. To Russell Francis for his contagious

enthusiasm on the subject. To many other members of the Department of Education;

Chris Davies for his continual support of my interest in learning technologies, Ingrid Lunt,

Geoffrey Walford, Geoff Hayward, and Maria Evangelou for their invaluable teachings and

feedback throughout the programme

To my parents, for the unconditional support of an unconventional daughter. To Chris

Pearson who showed me that I both could and should go back to school. And to all my

friends, for their help with my research and their help in polishing off a pint. And to

Adam Shaw, for continually making my world a brighter, if somewhat more bizarre, place.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction................................................................................1

II. Review of the Literature............................................................4

The New Internet...............................................................4

Social Software...................................................................5

Facebook............................................................................7

Themes in the Research.....................................................9

III. Questions Driving the Study....................................................19

IV. Methodology...........................................................................21

Data Collection Tools........................................................23

Participant Selection.........................................................26

Gathering Data..................................................................30

Data Analysis.....................................................................32

Ethical Considerations.......................................................35

Strengths and Limitations.................................................37

V. Findings.....................................................................................39

Findings from the Questionnaire......................................39

Findings from Interviews and Virtual Ethnographies.......44

VI. Discussion.................................................................................55

Research Questions and Literature...................................55

Implications and Directions for Future Work....................61

Bibliography ..................................................................................66


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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Questionnaire

Appendix 2: Interview Guide

Appendix 3: Completed CUREC Approval

Appendix 4: Participant Information and Informed Consent

Appendix 5: Information Presented on a Facebook Profile

TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 1. Overview of applications and ideas inherent in Web 2.0

Table 2. Demographic characteristics of students participating in the study

Table. 3 Summary of interview participants

Table 4. Time spent engaged in types of activity online

Table 5: Number of students reporting using various tools for communication

Table 6. Use ofFacebookfeatures

Table 7. Students attitudes towards Facebook

Table 8. Coding scheme for interview transcripts

Figure 1. Timeline of the introduction of various social networking sites

Figure 2. Example of a Facebookprofile

Figure 3. Percentage of students indicating amount of time spent online per day

Figure 4. Wall posts showing progression of information exchanged


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I. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, there has been astronomical growth in the number of people

connecting to and actively using the internet. For students in particular it has become an

entrenched part of daily life. Todays university students come equipped with desktop

and laptop computers, mobile phones, iPods, GPS systems, and a seemingly endless

supply of other technologies. As mobile computing and wireless internet develop to meet

consumer demands, it is these students who are on the forefront of adoption; the idea of

ubiquitous wireless access through laptops or mobile phones is one they are quickly

embracing. It is obvious that these ideas and technologies are becoming incorporated

within the mundane realities of everyday life (Beer and Burrows 2007). This paradigm

shift has potentially huge implications for the next generation, and for the people and

institutions that engage with these youths.

Social networking software is one internet application that has become

particularly popular among university students. In most cases, social networking is a web

based service, whose inherent features allow users to:

...construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, articulate a

list of other users with whom they share a connection, and view and traverse their

list of connections and those made by others within this system (boyd & Ellison

2007: 211).

Within the sphere of social networking, one particular site, Facebook, has

emerged as the most popular, with over 90% of university students maintaining a profile

on the site (Ellison et al. 2006). This ubiquity of use makes it clear that Facebookhas

become an important part of students lives, and as such, the potential impact on

education is enormous. Within Facebook, the interaction of various types of media

makes it a powerful form of communication. The ability to develop networks and affinity


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groups, exchange personal and public messages, and adopt applications to meet specific

requirements gives Facebookthe potential to fulfil many different needs and students are

quickly recognizing these affordances.

Despite the near ubiquitous presence ofFacebookin the lives of todays students,

research in the area of social networking is still in the most nascent of stages. In this

thesis I will argue, through a discussion of literature and a small scale case study, the

importance of coming to understand how and why Facebookis being so highly utilised by

students. The research I conducted explored the experience of one group of

postgraduate students at the University of Oxford who are high level users ofFacebook.

Employing a case study methodology, and using questionnaires, in-depth interviews, and

a form of virtual ethnography, this research examines how these students are using

Facebook, their feelings and attitudes towards it, and begins to consider why this tool has

become so important in their lives. The impetus for this research comes from two main

areas. The first is a personal interest in both emerging technologies and the role they

play in students lives. As a teacher and as a student, I was very aware of the fact that

students were quick to embrace social networking technologies. It became apparent to

me that the amount of time devoted to online interaction meant that this was something

important to the student experience, especially as many students seemed to join

Facebookat the urging of their peers. The second reason I chose to conduct research in

this area was due to the gap I perceived in the literature surrounding Facebook. As will be

discussed in the literature review, though there are several studies that look at adoption

rates or privacy issues, there are very few studies that explore Facebookfrom the point of

view of the student. I believe this is of utmost importance in beginning to understand

how Facebookis impacting students lives and university experiences.


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This dissertation is meant to form a preliminary study, exploring methodologies

and generating possible hypotheses for use in my proposed doctoral research. As this is a

new and rapidly developing field, data and methodological strategies are continually

emerging and being refined. I feel that the novel combination of methods I use in this

study, combining elements of Learner Experience methodology, a case study approach,

and a form of virtual ethnography, may suggest a strategy particularly suited to this area,

or, equally as valuably, suggest which methods may not be appropriate. Further to this, I

hope to begin to contribute to the body of knowledge in the area of social networking. I

believe that the data I generate, though limited in scope and generalisability, may suggest

theories worthy of future study.

Chapter two presents a review of literature surrounding the topic. Starting with

an overview of the technologies involved, it then explores themes that emerged from the

empirical research conducted into social networking. The questions on which the current

study are based are presented in chapter three. A detailed explanation of the

methodology used , including specific instruments and justifications for their choice are

presented in chapter three. With this is a discussion of the ethical considerations

surrounding the chosen methods, and an analysis of possible strengths and limitations of

the study. Findings are presented in chapter five, and discussed in chapter six. Within

the discussion, the relation of the findings to the literature and to the research questions

will be explained, and possible implications and directions for future work will be

examined.


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II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The New Internet

The recent massive adoption of internet technologies (Madden and Fox 2006) has

coincided with a shift in the nature of the internet; the rise of the new, so called, Web 2.0.

The term Web 2.0 is generally attributed to Tim OReilly, whose definition is based on

ideas such as . . . consuming and remixing data from multiple sources, including

individual users, while providing data and services in a form that allows remixing by

others, creating network effects through an architecture of participation (OReilly 2005:

Online). One of the key principles of Web 2.0 is that, although it is inherently tied to the

development of hardware and networking, it is more a revolution of ideas, processes, and

applications. Laying the foundation for this was the move from a static, read-only web,

to a new read/write web, exemplified by applications such as social software, wikis,

blogs, and mash-ups (Alexander 2006). In a report commissioned by the Joint

Information Systems Committee (JISC), Anderson (2007) gives a comprehensive overview

of both the technologies implicit in, and the big ideas behind, Web 2.0 (Table 1).

Key Applications Big Ideas

blogs wikis tagging and social bookmarking multimedia sharing audio blogging and podcasting RSS and syndication

user generated content the power of the crowd data of epic scale architecture of participation network effects openness of information

Table 1. Andersons overview of applications and ideas inherent in Web 2.0

The ideas of user generated content and architectures of participation appear to be

foundational parts of the new web (see, for example, Brey 2005 or Hilton 2006). What

has catapulted Web 2.0 from being purely a technical development to a near societal


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revolution has been the transference of these ideas into mainstream culture. Media

theorist Henry Jenkins uses the term participatory culture to encapsulate these ideas:

A participatory culture is a culture with relatively low barriers to artistic expression

and civic engagement, strong support for creating and sharing ones creations...one in

which members believe their contributions matter, and feel some degree of social

connection with one another (at the least they care what other people think about

what they have created). (Jenkins et al. 2006: Online)

Students are one group with a particularly high level of participation in Web 2.0, so

much so that it has potentially huge impact for the people that work with them. Hartman

et al. (2007) look at the increasing move towards learner centred pedagogy, pointing out

that this shift in modes of participation in education is forcing university faculty to evolve

along with the internet or face becoming extinct. An interesting, if slightly farfetched

article by Barnes and Tynan(2007) takes a speculative fiction approach in tracking the life

of a student in the near future, showing how new Web 2.0 technologies could be used

not just to support traditional teaching, but to completely change the way universities

operate. And Hilton (2006) looks at the disruptions these new ideas are having on higher

education, asking whether they present a sunrise or perfect storm. Whichever view we

take, it is essential that research around this area is conducted to allow us to both

examine the ways students are internalising these new concepts, and how they are using

both the ideas and the technologies to enhance their educational experience.

Social Software

While Web 2.0 is comprised of a range of applications, one specific type, social

software, has generated particular amounts of interest; from users, the media, and the

public in general. The term social software was first coined by Shirky (2003) to refer to

all uses of software that supported interacting groups. Further to this, Coates (2005)

considers social software as software which supports, extends, or derives added value


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from human social behaviour message boards, musical taste sharing, photo sharing,

instant messaging, mailing lists, social networking. While these definitions give a

snapshot of both practices and technologies inherent in social software, boyd (2007)

perhaps captures the wider picture with her comment that social software is about a

movement, not simply a category of technologies. This idea fits neatly into the paradigm

of the new web evolving from ideas rather than hardware.

When speaking colloquially of social software, most people are referring to a

specific subset of social software applications. Though the precise nomenclature has

been debated (boyd & Ellison 2007, Beer 2008), the term social networking site (SNS) is

what is generally used to describe these applications. Such sites are the most common

method of putting ones self on the internet, and often serve as a portal for the

presentation of self online. Their popularity has made them prominent in the media and

it seems rare today to find people who arent at least somewhat familiar with sites such

as Facebookor MySpace. With the first primitive examples of these sites being released

in 2000, social networking software is still a relatively new phenomenon. Figure 1. gives

an overview of SNSs and their release dates.

Fig. 1. Timeline of the introduction of various social networking sites (boyd & Ellison 2007)

For a phenomenon with a relatively short history, the uptake and adoption rate of

these applications has been astounding. A recent study by Ofcom (2008) found that 22%

of adult internet users in the UK over age 16 have set up their own profile on at least one

social networking site. This translates to nearly 8.5 million users, as reported by the

Guardian (Sweeny 2008). And users access these sites fairly frequently, with 87% logging

on at least once a week, and half at least every other day. The entrenchment of this


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technology into the daily lives of so many has potentially massive implications for society.

As boyd (2007) says, it is altering the organisation of social life. And as we move into an

age where young people have grown up with online social networking as part of the

cultural mainstream, this new organisation of social life will move toward becoming a

societal norm.

Facebook

Although there are a plethora of social networking sites, certain ones have

achieved a much higher level of prominence than others. The two most highly utilised

SNS sites are Facebookand MySpace (Ofcom 2008). Although these sites have similar

features (profiles, lists of connections, various methods of interaction, the ability to share

media, etc) most users seem to choose one over the other. The choice of a location for

ones primary social networking profile seems to be influenced by many factors, including

age (MySpace is popular with younger users, Facebookwith a more mature audience) and

geographic location (MySpace shows a higher proportion of users in the United States,

while Facebookhas a higher proportion in the UK) (Ofcom 2008). As this present study is

being conducted in the UK with users over 18 years of age it seems rational to use

Facebookas the primary example of a social networking site.

For those not familiar with Facebook, Golder et al.(2007) provides a detailed

overview. Briefly, Facebookusers create a profile, filling in a framework with contact

details, interests, and a picture of ones self. The networking side comes through the

addition of friends; users friend other users, creating inter-linked social networks.

Friends can view each others profiles, and interact in many ways: public asynchronous

chat via the wall, private messages, and pokeing are examples. In addition to profiles,

Facebooksupports groups where users with similar interests can interact, and events


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which usually promote offline gatherings. Recently, the expansion ofFacebookto include

applications and chat functionality has expanded the possibilities of use. Chat allows

real time, synchronous discourse between users. Applications are small programs

embedded into ones page, and have been developed for every possible desire one could

have; from virtual bookshelves, to quizzes, to growing computer generated plants.

Figure 2 provides an example of a Facebookprofile main page.

Fig. 2. An example of a Facebookprofile

In the UK, Facebookhas the highest rate of adoption of any social networking site.

Of SNS users, 62% maintain a profile on Facebook(Ofcom 2008). One demographic with

a particularly high rate of participation is university students, who have quickly embraced

Facebook, adopting the technology in huge numbers. Various studies quote consistently

high percentages of student users: 85% (Stutzman 2006), 90% (Golder et al. 2007), 94%

(Ellison et al. 2006). Although these studies make a clear point about the important role


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Facebookis playing in the lives of students, they fail to examine why this may be so; what

particularly it is about Facebookthat makes it such a highly utilised application.

Themes In The Research

Although the presence ofFacebookin students lives is clearly recognized,

research into why this may be is still in its infancy. Large scale empirical studies have

lookied at such things as rates of adoption (Stutzman 2006), use in academia (Selwyn

2007), size of networks (Lampe et al. 2006), and user demographics (Baron 2007).

Though this type of information is useful in generating statistics, it fails to delve to the

level of understanding of the phenomenon required to assess, and possibly make use of,

the impact it is having on students. A number of themes seem to guide the more

detailed studies and writings in this area: the potential impact on education, the

formation and presentation of identity, the development of online networks, the relation

between online and offline worlds, and issues of privacy and safety.

Academic Relevance

In what are mainly theoretical musings rather than empirical studies, a few

authors have focused specifically on the implications ofFacebookin education. Bugeja

(2006) looks at Facebookfrom the viewpoint of a professor, discussing the potential

challenges faced by academics in relating to and engaging students who are such high

level users of these new technologies. He specifically mentions the distractions that can

occur when technology is used as a learning tool, and the issue of disclosure of private

information that can detrimentally affect students identities as serious learners. On the

more positive side, he also argues that Facebookcan promote critical thinking in learners

about their learning, and therefore, if used properly, may help engage students in the

academic experience. A slightly more practical article is presented by Berg et al. (2007)


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who examine the ways in which the multi-functionality of social networking sites could be

appropriated by universities in order to offer services to students, both academic and

supportive, in ways that would perhaps better engage them. This view is taken even

further by Selwyn (2007) who believes that this technology not only could, but needs to

be incorporated into higher education, encouraging a radical overall and wholesale

restructuring of universities and university education.

Along with theorising, Selwyn has also conducted empirical research into the use

ofFacebookin universities. He completed a large scale study of undergraduates, looking

at how Facebookis being used to support academic work (2007). In an analysis of wall

postings, he found, not surprisingly, only 4% were directly related to academic studies. Of

this small number, he defined five themes: recounting and reflecting on university

experience, the exchange of logistical information, the exchange of academic

information, displays of disengagement with studies, and what he descriptively calls

banter. While making an interesting point about Facebookhaving more of a role in

social support rather than a direct relation to academic study, the large scale quantitative

nature of this research (data mining from nearly 70 000 wall posts) fails to create a

picture of why this may be so.

The place ofFacebookin education, especially in negotiating the divide between

students and educators, was explored in an interesting experiment conducted by Mazer

et al. (2007). Their work examined how the amount and type of disclosure of personal

information on a Facebookprofile affected students opinions of their instructors.

Generally, participants judged profiles with high disclosure as the teacher that would

provide higher levels of motivation and a more positive environment. However, in


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answer to more open ended questions, participants expressed the view that having a high

level of personal disclosure on Facebookmay impair a teachers credibility.

Identity

One aspect ofFacebookis that users must create and present an identity (profile)

as a prerequisite of adoption of the application. Much of the related literature traces

back to the notion of presentation of self, introduced by Erving Goffman (1959).

Goffman uses the metaphor of the stage, arguing that people present themselves, either

consciously or not, in a variety of roles dependent on the audience and the context.

Certain characteristics may be emphasized or hidden in order to convey the desired

impression. On Facebook, users can manipulate the information they share in a variety of

fields, continually refining their on-line selves. How users do this has spawned a fair bit

of research, undertaken in various ways and looking at different aspects of identity

creation.

The deterministic quality of self presentation on line is nicely summed up by boyd

(2008): One cannot simply be online; one must make ones presence visible through

explicit and structured actions. Though the vast majority of her research has revolved

around one small scale ethnographic examination of early adopters of the site Friendster,

boyd has produced copious writing related to social networking. One point she makes

repeatedly is the mediated nature of sites like Facebook; ones online identity must be

created within the structures imposed by the site. Rather than simply reflect

presentation of self in everyday life, online communities evolve their own contexts which

mediate the performance of identity, shaping how users are both able, and how they

choose, to present themselves.


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Baron (2007) conducted a small scale survey of 60 undergraduates, presenting a

descriptive study of how users present themselves through Facebookand instant

messaging. Along with demographic information, she specifically, she looks at how self is

presented through the use of status updates on instant messenger software. Somewhat

unfortunately, she doesnt expand this to examine the use of status updates on Facebook,

which would seem to be a similar method of presentation. The important point she does

conclude is that ones identity on Facebookcan be more an expression of who one wants

to be rather than whom one really is.

This idea is taken up by Zhao, Grasmuck, and Martin who argue:

... Facebookidentities were not the identities users established in the offline

world, nor were they close to the identities users would construct in a more

anonymous online environment; rather, they were the hoped-for possible

identities users would like to, but have not yet, been able to, establish in the

offline world. (Zhao et al. 2008: 1834)

Their study looked at the profiles of 63 undergraduate students, analysing the

information shared in certain fields, and using this to make judgements regarding the

identities created by the users. They conclude that all users attempt to project a socially

desirable self, emphasising traits such as popularity, well roundedness, and

thoughtfulness. They also make the point that, in this type of presentation, most users

claim their identities implicitly rather than explicitly, using photographs, quotes, and

group/friend affiliations to aid in their construction of self. Though they generate a fair

bit of interesting data, the subjective nature of their interpretations impairs the credibility

of the study. Simply assuming certain photographs, quotes, or listed characteristics are

selected to convey certain impressions could be specious; following up these assumptions

by conducting interviews with participants could help validate their findings.


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One emergent theme in relation to identity creation is the problem users face in

knowing precisely to whom they are presenting themselves. Audience members will

change over time, especially as the users life situation and offline networks shift. As

boyd & Heer (2006) describe, Projections into the persistent digital public are accessible

to anyone present now or later. Thus even if one can evaluate the audience at a given

time, it is impossible to gauge future potential audiences. How this fluidity can serve as a

positive influence on shaping a persons online identity, or as a challenge to be overcome,

is an interesting area for continued research.

Networking

The networking aspect of social networking software comes from the creation of

ties to other users; on Facebook, these are known as friends. Although the term friend

connotes a relatively close relationship in the offline world, online friends may range from

close confidants to people never met in person, with some users often having tens of

thousands of online friends. As boyd (2004) discusses, friendship online doesnt truly

imply closeness or trust, rather a somewhat specious, though publicly articulated, display

of connection. These displays of connection are the subject of both theoretical

exploration and some empirical research, often considering the ways software can

mediate relationships.

Early in the evolution of social networking sites, Donath and boyd (2004)

introduce the idea of public displays of connection, describing how networks online

grow as friends recruit friends, articulating these links in a visible public manner. They

regard these online social networks as having similarities to more traditional offline

networks :


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sources of emotional and financial support, and of information about jobs, other

people, and the world at large...[they] have a profound effect on the way people

work, the opportunities they have, and the structure of their daily life. (Donath &

boyd 2004: 71)

As online communication grows, the construction of these networks is increasingly

being conducted online through computer mediated environments. Donath and boyd use

signalling theory as a lens to focus their discussion, noting that visible signals are often

correlated with specific underlying characteristics, and this is especially true in the online

environment, which lacks many of the possible signalling devices found in face to face

communication. From this they conclude that online, these public displays of connection

help to both ensure honest self presentation and reassure others of the reliability of

signals, as ones connections are linked to ones profile; they have both seen it and,

implicitly, sanctioned it (2004). However, the question of how these newly formed

online networks will, or even can serve the same purposes as offline social networks, is

one that is just starting to be recognised and addressed.

One theme emerging within this area is the lack of distinction made between

Facebookfriends; it is impossible to know how close a relationship exists simply based on

a friend link. As links between friends on Facebookare unnuanced and decontextualized

(Donath and boyd 2004) it is important look further than simple friend connections to

establish the relationships between users. Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe (2006) undertook

a large survey study looking at how students use ofFacebookrelates to social capital.

They discuss the difference between bridging social capital (weaker ties based on

acquaintanceship) and bonding social capital (stronger ties which imply a close mutual

relationship). By measuring intensity ofFacebookuse through number of friends and

time spent online, and correlating this with measures of attitude both towards Facebook

and college experience in general, they conclude that social networking sites can increase


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social capital, especially the weaker ties inherent in bridging social capital. This isnt a

revolutionary idea; the very nature ofFacebookin sharing basic information with a large

number of people can easily be seen to lead towards the establishment of a loose

network of acquaintanceship.

Golder, Wilkinson, and Huberman (2007) examined how often online friends truly

interacted, undertaking a prodigious study which looked at messages and pokes

exchanged between nearly 4.2 million users at 496 universities in North America over a

two year period. They posited that the exchange of messages or pokes represented a

higher investment than simply friending someone, and was an active, socially meaningful

gesture. Not surprisingly, they found that only 15% of friend dyads actually exchanged

messages, and that factors such as being at the same school or being established friend

pairs increased the likelihood of reciprocal exchanges. Unfortunately, these large scale

studies seem to be the only examination into the types of connections afforded by social

software; as Ellison et al. (2006) stress, there is little academic work examining online

social networks. Further, Donath (2008) raises an important question, asking if this

formation of many weak links will eventually shift peoples social world form one focused

on a few important relationships to one consisting of an immense number of weak

relationships. It is these types of questions, looking at how social networking software

could fundamentally impact the culture of the next generation, which deserve closer

examination.

Offline to Online

Closely tied to the discussion of the formation of online networks is the question

of how these connections relate to offline relationships. Although in the past many have

regarded the internet as a way of meeting new people, research findings seem to suggest


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that most users see Facebookas a way to enhance relationships established offline, and

tend to friend people they already know from other contexts (see, for example, Selwyn

2007). Boyds (2008) discussions also touch on this topic, and her ideas of a collapsing of

contextual boundaries in which an online profile has to be tailored for presentation to

widely varied offline contacts neatly sums up some of the problems inherent in the

merging of these two different worlds.

Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampes (2007) work also moves into this area; the concept

of creating social capital online that is then used to enhance offline life reflects these

overlapping boundaries. One of their key findings is that students view the primary

audience for their profile to be people with whom they share an offline connection.

They go on to say that participants overwhelmingly used Facebookto keep in touch with

old friends and to maintain or intensify relationships characterised by some form of

offline connection. The large scale study commissioned by Ofcom (2008) also defined

three main motivations for using Facebook, all of which involved offline relationships:

keeping in touch with peers, linking up with old friends, and managing existing

relationships. What may be interesting is to follow this up with an examination of which

offline contacts students put forth effort into developing or maintain relationships with,

and what features ofFacebookhelp them to do so.

In the early days of the internet, most authors were engaged in exploring the

differences between the online and offline world. Turkle (1996) spends a great deal of

time describing the differences in identity and interaction seen in the real versus the

online world. The media also plays up this stereotype, with examples of people meeting

online who are then disappointed in what they find when they eventually meet in real

life. However, it seems that the generation of users who have embraced social


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networking have chosen not to fall into this pattern, and are instead integrating the two

worlds into one. How seamlessly this is, or can be, done is definitely an interesting future

topic.

Privacy

Social networking sites are inherently public spaces. You would be hard pressed

these days not to have heard of or engaged in the debates that rage around the issue of

privacy and security inherent in putting oneself online. The media seem to have a

fascination with the area, with everyone from the New York Times to Cosmo magazine

producing some sort of story. And yet, when looked at through well designed research, it

seems this may all be a sort of overblown fear mongering. Although nearly all of the

studies that look at Facebookuse inevitably contain questions on issues of privacy and

security (Selwyn 2007, Mazer et al. 2007, Joinson 2008 for example), few seem to find it

an issue needing deeper study, especially when the users are adults competent enough to

make informed choices. And they do; today, most users of social network sites seem to

understand the risks inherent in their behaviour, make choices accordingly, and are

accepting of the consequences.

One of the first and most widely cited studies of privacy concerns on Facebook

comes from Acquisti and Gross (2006). They surveyed students at one American

university, combining this with data mined from profiles. They found that, although most

students claimed to have a high level of privacy concerns, and most knew that settings to

manage profile visibility existed, they did not use a great number of strategies to restrict

the data visible on their Facebookprofile. Instead, they chose to control the information

they shared. Interestingly, students also explained that a social network was based on

the idea of information sharing, with privacy concerns being overridden by the need to


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share ...enough information so that necessary/useful to me and other people to benefit

from Facebook. It is important to keep in mind that, at the time this study was

conducted, Facebooknetworks were clearly delineated; only members of certain

universities could have a profile, and it could therefore be assumed that the majority of

those with access to ones profile were of a similar peer group. As Facebookhas

expanded and profiles are now available to anyone, it is likely that attitudes may have

shifted somewhat.

boyd (2008), in an article reflecting on this point, suggestively entitled Facebooks

Privacy Trainwreck, discussed how the expansion ofFacebookbeyond the college

community, and concurrent change in site features, led to a backlash of users against the

site. Suddenly people became more aware of the information they were projecting.

Facebookwas quick to respond with increased levels of privacy settings, a trend that has

continued as the site continually seems to offer more ways to control who has access to

different parts of ones profile. Although this area of privacy and security is highly

charged and integral to the continued prominence ofFacebook, affecting how users

choose to portray themselves and interact online, I felt it far too large to be adequately

addressed in this small scale study. Instead, I chose to examine how and why students

use Facebook, with the belief that privacy concerns, if valid, would emerge through these

topics.


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III. QUESTIONS DRIVING THE STUDY

After reviewing recent work in this area, the need for further research that starts

to describe and explain the role that social networking software is taking in the lives of

students becomes apparent. Particularly, there seems to be a paucity of studies

examining the phenomenon from the students own viewpoint. The need for studies that

allow students to share their experiences, motivations, and perceptions relating to the

role of technologies in their lives has recently been identified (Mayes 2006). Such studies,

valuable in their own right, also provide a new platform of understanding on which

further research can be developed. This present research aims to begin to fulfil this need,

with a study that looks at the ways in which students have appropriated Facebookin

order to enhance their university experience, and explores their perceptions, experiences,

and responses to this phenomenon. The research questions guiding the study are:

What is the experience of Oxford university postgraduates using Facebook?o How is Facebookaffecting these students academic work?o How is Facebookaffecting these students social support systems?o How is Facebookaffecting these students sense of identity?

The meta question allows me to examine the students experience and voice, looking at

how they are using Facebook, and at their beliefs, motivations, and rationalisations

surrounding it. The first sub-question is designed to explore if students feel there is any

impact, positive or negative, ofFacebookon their actual studies. The second sub-

question explores the social aspect of social networking. The development of online

communities has changed the way people relate, and has provided a new forum for

presentation of self. How this has affected students experiences of the university


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experience is an area in need of further understanding. The third sub-question looks at

how on-line presentation of self is affecting students perceptions of their identity and

what strategies they employ to manage how others perceive them. Woven throughout

these questions in my study is the idea of affordance; what particularly is it about

Facebookthat has caused these students to adopt it in such large numbers, and what

other forms of technology, communication, and interpersonal relations has it replaced in

their lives.


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IV. METHODOLOGY

The essence of good research design is that the methods employed must be

appropriate to the questions asked (Robson 2002). This chapter will present the

questions driving the research, and describe the methodology employed in this study. A

description of these methods will be given, along with justification for these choices.

Selection of a site and the recruitment of participants will be discussed, as will the

particular strategies and instruments employed in data collection. Methods of data

analysis will be explained. The chapter will conclude with a discussion of the ethical

considerations surrounding this project and reflection on the accuracy and

trustworthiness of the data obtained.

In an area of study as novel and evolving as this, the researcher has the flexibility,

even a mandate, to explore the phenomenon from different perspectives using different

methodologies. As described in the literature review, there have been a variety of

different approaches taken to the study of social networking software, especially with the

overlap of disciplines involved, making this area currently particularly methodologically

rich. Studies from anthropologists and sociologists often use ethnographic methods with

participant observers becoming members and spending time interacting in online

communities (boyd 2004). Those from a technical background employ quasi-experiments

and examinations of the affordances of software architectures (Mazer Murphys and

Simonds 2007). And many researchers base their work on wide scale surveys, yielding

reams of seemingly similar numerical data (Selwyn 2007, Stutzman 2006). This lack of

prescription allows the researcher some degree of freedom and innovation with their

choice of method.


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The intent of this study was to examine the role ofFacebookin the lives of

students, looking specifically at their experiences and reflections. For this, a research

design based mainly on qualitative strategies seemed most appropriate, as, according to

Punch (2005), qualitative strategies have the advantage of capturing the lived experience

of the participants. Merriam states that case studies are a particularly suitable

methodology for... extending the knowledge base of various aspects of education...these

problems in which understanding is sought in order to improve practice. (1988, xiii). As

one of the foci of this study is on understanding the phenomenon ofFacebookfrom the

viewpoint of the users, I felt a case study approach particularly suited to this research.

Also influential on the design of my study was Learner Experience methodology.

Recently, JISC published a study entitled LEX: The Learners Experience of e-Learning

(Mayes 2006). Their detailed methodology report described practices of data collection

that develop a holistic picture of the learner, and allow the learners voice to be heard.

They offer six guiding principles for such a learner centred methodology:

open ended methods mixed mode triangulated access beliefs , explanations, and intentions talk about learning with students authentic contexts

They suggest that these principles are best met through naturalistic data collection

strategies, including in-depth interviews using artefacts or activities to guide responses.

Case studies have a unique strength in being able to deal with a variety of evidence (Yin

2003). Using the strategies suggested by the learner experience methodology within a

case study approach would provide the sort of rich understanding of the experiences of

these particular students which I hoped to gain. I chose three specific methods of data

collection: questionnaires, in-depth interviews conducted while viewing the students


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Facebookprofiles, and a type of retrospective virtual ethnography (Francis 2007) in

which I explored participants Facebookprofiles myself after conducting interviews. Each

of these methods will be discussed further below.

The benefits of using multiple, varied strategies of data collection is reinforced by

several authors in their discussions of the advantages of mixed method designs.

Hammersley and Atkinson(2007) discuss three approaches to multi method research: use

of different types of data to triangulate findings, using one strategy to facilitate research

using a second strategy, and using two strategies in different aspects of the research to

complement each other. The practical advantages of all three of these approaches

became increasingly clear as my study progressed and, using this guidance, I was able to

draw on the various types of data generated to create a detailed and holistic picture of

the role Facebookwas taking in the lives of my participants.

Data Collection Tools

Questionnaires

I chose to begin my research with the use of a questionnaire for three primary

reasons. First was to provide basic demographic information on participants, and to gain

an overview of how these students used a variety of modern technologies, including

social networking software. I felt this important, as with a questionnaire I could gather

data from many more students than I could complete in depth interviews with. Robson

(2002) corroborates this point, in discussing how questionnaires are a relatively

straightforward way to study attitudes and beliefs, that they are highly standardised, and

they can easily generate data from a large number of individuals. The second purpose of

the questionnaire built upon this feature of standardised data. I used comparisons

between participants to select interviewees (as will be discussed under Participant


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Selection below.) The final purpose of the questionnaire was to provide slightly more

detailed information on students use of, and attitudes towards, Facebookwhich could

then be used to formulate some tentative preliminary hypotheses and to guide the

development of questions to be used during interviews.

The questionnaire I employed had three main sections: basic demographic

information, questions on participants use of technologies, and a specific section on

participants use of, and attitudes towards, Facebook. The design, layout, and content

were created with reference to several sources in regards to what constitutes an effective

questionnaire (see, for example, Converse and Presser (1986), De Vaus (1991) or Robson

(2002) ). For the most part, participants were asked to select from answers provided;

lists of possible technologies or interval scales delimitating time periods where

appropriate. This was done for two reasons; to ensure that responses were standardised,

permitting some between subject comparisons to be carried out, and in consideration of

the time required to complete the questionnaire, with the knowledge that more in-depth

responses could be elicited during interviews. Attitudes towards Facebookand social

networking were measured using a Likert type scale, asking students to tick boxes they

felt best described their viewpoint. Areas such as the use ofFacebookto make or

maintain friendships, attitudes towards privacy, and the place ofFacebookin college life

were addressed in this section. The questionnaire is presented in its entirety in Appendix

1.

Interviews

The primary method of data collection in this study was the in-depth interview.

Kvale (1996) states that interviews attempt to understand the world from the subjects

point of view, to unfold the meaning of peoples experiences, to uncover their lived


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world. This idea, central to the learner experience methodology as well, a fits closely with

the research questions driving my study, and my desire to understand students

perspectives on the role ofFacebookin their lives.

I chose to use lightly structured, in-depth interviews. A brief list of questions was

used to guide the interview (see Appendix 2). Employing a guide ensured that I

addressed the key points I wished to in each interview, and allowed a slight degree of

standardisation and comparison to be drawn between participants. However, within

each interview, I was particularly careful to follow up topics that seemed particularly

relevant, or particularly interesting, to the participant; a key point in understanding

personal experience. This is a distinct advantage of such open ended interviews; as May

states, it allows the meanings that individuals attribute to events and relationships to be

understood on their own terms... it thereby provides a greater understanding of the

subjects point of view.(2001: 120) This was highly observable in my interviews, as

several participants chose to speak in-depth about aspects of the experience with

Facebookthat I had not previously expected, and many of the themes that emerged in my

findings came from these parts of the interviews.

Virtual Ethnography

In a study such as this, where there is emphasis on methodological exploration

and developing directions for future work as well as on answering the questions posed,

employing a design that is flexible and open to amendment throughout the research

process is invaluable (Robson 2002). As my data collection and analysis progressed, I

found myself frequently viewing the Facebookprofiles of participants, in order to clarify a

point made during an interview or to see if an emergent theory was supported by this

documentary evidence. Hine (2000) has employed the term virtual ethnography to


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describe the study of internet spaces as cultures or cultural artefact. Her description of

virtual ethnography as a methodology moves far deeper into the ethnographic tradition

than my study has, particularly as she discussed how researchers can become active

members of specific online communities, while I used profiles more as a sort of

documentary evidence. Building on Hines work, Francis (2007) uses the term

retrospective virtual ethnography to particularly describe exploring online spaces (such

as Facebookprofiles and networks) after completing interviews, with the intention of

adding understanding to data gathered in the interview. These emergent and evolving

strategies have promise in becoming useful methods of data collection for research in this

area.

Participant Selection

In qualitative research, the basic ideas behind the sampling strategies vary

considerably, and reflect the purposes and questions guiding the study. (Punch 2005:

187). This statement provides researchers with the flexibility to choose settings, cases,

and participants for qualitative research in a manner that is logically derived from the

purposes of their study. Hammersley and Atkinson (2007) also suggest the need for

pragmatism in selection of site. Within the case study methodology, the case needs to

be defined as a bounded system. This can take many forms: an individual, social group,

organisation, role, nation or event (Davies 2007). Bassey (1999) describes types of case

studies suited to educational research. His category theory-seeking and theory-testing

(corresponding to Stakes (1995) instrumental case study, or Yins (2003) exploratory case

study) focuses on an issue, with the particular case chosen as it is expected to be both

demonstrative of and in some ways typical of other similar cases. As my intentions were

to examine Facebookuse among Oxford postgraduates, choosing one specific Oxford


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postgraduate college formed a well bounded case. I chose Linacre College for several

reasons, resulting from, and even helping to generate, the research questions of my

study. As a member of this group myself, I could not help but observe the vast

proliferation ofFacebookinto the lives of Linacre students. I felt this group of highly

educated, well resourced, and technologically proficient students would make a good

selection for an examination ofFacebook. As well, as a member of the college, I knew I

would be able to recruit participants, and to select certain students whom I knew were

using Facebookin interesting ways. Stakes comments on case selection seem particularly

supportive of this choice of case:

My choice would be to examine that case from which we feel we can learn the

most. That may mean taking the one most accessible or the one we can spend the most

time with. Potential for learning is a different and sometimes superior criterion to

representativeness (2005, p. 451).

Within Linacre College, I went about recruiting participants through a combination

of self selected and snowball sampling. First, I emailed the population of the college

asking for volunteers to take part in the study. I provided a brief outline of the project,

detailing what involvement would require. I had a target of obtaining twenty five

participants for the survey. From the email request, I had sixteen respondents express a

desire to participate. The further nine students were recruited in person, through my

requesting their participation, or through asking students to provide the names of others

who may be interested in the project, or who were known to use Facebookin interesting

ways. Though I had no thoughts of generating a representative sample, I did give

consideration to gender, age, area of study, and degree type when recruiting participants,

aiming for a sample that varied across these areas. Table 2 below provides a brief

demographic outline of the students who completed the questionnaire.


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Gender Age Degree Type Area of Study

1 F 23 M. Phil Linguistics and Philology

2 F 26 M. Sc Visual Anthropology

3 M 25 D. Phil Material Science

4 F 24 M. Sc Social Anthropology

5 F 24 D. Phil Plant Sciences

6 M 25 D. Phil Clinical Medicine

7 M 28 M. Sc Forced Migration

8 F 30 D. Phil Neuroscience

9 M 34 M. Phil Development Studies

10 F 27 D. Phil Clinical Psychology

11 M 37 D. Phil Clinical Medicine

12 M 29 D. Phil Oriental Studies

13 M 24 D. Phil Medicinal Chemistry

14 M 27 D. Phil English

15 M 28 D. Phil Neuroscience

16 F 30 D. Phil Microbiology17 M 32 D. Phil Chemistry

18 F 26 D. Phil Immunology

19 F 24 D. Phil Physiology

20 F 33 D. Phil Sociology

21 M 25 M.B.A Business

22 M 31 M. Sc Environmental Change and Management

23 M 24 D. Phil Biology

24 F 26 D. Phil Inorganic Chemistry

25 F 27 D. Phil Pharmacology

Table 2. Demographic characteristics of students participating in the study.

One of the functions of the questionnaire was to provide a basis on which to

select participants for interviews. Selection here was purposive. Rapely (2004) suggests

four guidelines when choosing interviewees: finding knowledgeable informants, getting a

range of views, testing emerging themes, and extending results. I chose students who

seemed to use Facebookin different ways, and who displayed a variety of different

attitudes towards Facebook. As the interviews progressed, I began to choose

interviewees based somewhat on the data I had already gathered, using the

questionnaire data to select participants who could provide data particularly relevant to

emergent theories. I began with a target of completing ten interviews. However, as I

began conducting the interviews, I found them to be much more in-depth, longer, and


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comprehensive than expected. Following the principle of not collecting more data than

you can analyse (Bassey 1999) I chose to complete eight interviews. Table 3 below

presents a summary of the interview participants.

Name Age Gender Area of Study DegreeType

Reason for selection

Josephine 23 F Linguistics and

Philology

M. Phil Technology refuser,

though active on

Facebook, using it

frequently for

communication, profile

updates, and picture

sharing.

Ariel 27 F Pharmacology D.Phil Very large number of

friends, activecommunicator on

Facebook, though rarely

updates profile.

Eric 25 M Material Sciences D.Phil High user of technology,

though very light user of

Facebook.

Steve 32 M Inorganic Chemistry D. Phil States his primary

reason for being on

Facebookis to keep

track of what others aredoing, rarely uses it to

communicate or update

profile.

Piper 33 F Sociology D. Phil Very high level

consumer of technology

Tyler 24 M Biology D.Phil Active user, maintains a

Facebookprofile and

groups for the college

common room.

Richard 37 M Clinical Medicine D.Phil Nominally a Facebookrefuser, though

maintains a profile for a

pseudonym

Jasmine 26 F Visual

Anthropology

M.Sc Average user

Table. 3 Summary of interview participants


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Gathering Data

The first step in my data collection was testing the instruments to be used. I chose

to pilot the study on two participants, administering the questionnaire and conducting

interviews based on a preliminary outline of topics generated in reference to the research

questions and the literature review. Based on their feedback, and on the type of data

generated, I made minor adjustments to the questionnaire. I reviewed these changes

with the volunteers, who seemed confident that this had produced a highly effective

instrument. The subjects covered during interviews proved to be a good initial guide for

developing more specific interview question. What did arise during piloting was the

immediate generation of unexpected themes and responses to questions, which, I felt,

put me in a slightly more informed position from which to begin the data collection phase

of my project. Although data from the pilot stage is not officially included in my findings,

it is impossible not to let the knowledge gained influence my thinking and the progression

of the project. Therefore, I acknowledge the contribution of the pilot participants to the

overall study.

Administering the questionnaire to those that had consented to take part in my

study was the next step. Twenty five students were given the questionnaire, either

through college post, by hand, or completed while I was present. I considered the

potential bias created by my being present while administering the questionnaire to some

participants and not others, especially as some participants did ask questions for

clarification. However, as the goal of this research was to generate a holistic

understanding of the students rather than a strictly regulated data set, I felt that this

guidance would help rather than mar my results. The decision between a paper based or

internet based questionnaire was also a consideration. I decided to use paper based,


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partly due to the fact I was familiar with administering this type of instrument and felt

confident in using it, and partly due to technical difficulties during this time period that

made me dubious of my ability to as easily access online information. I was lucky to

receive an excellent rate of participation; all students who were given a copy of the

questionnaire did return it, and all were completed thoroughly without any missing

pieces or evidence of misunderstandings.

Once the questionnaires had been returned, I began analysing the data generated.

Although at this stage the primary function of the questionnaire was to create profiles of

each participant for selection of potential interviewees, patterns in the data were readily

apparent and I spent some time examining emerging themes. I felt that my increasing

level of understanding would be beneficial to conducting the most efficacious interviews

possible. Once the interview guide had been further refined, I used the questionnaire

data to select interview subjects and began the process of interviewing.

Participants were contacted by email or in person with requests for an interview. I

explained to them that it would take between a half and one hour of their time, and could

be conducted in a location of their choosing. Generally, students were happy to

participate. Twelve agreed to take part, but due to time constraints, I chose to conduct

eight interviews. Two other students I spoke with informally, and though this data was

not recorded and transcribed, I did include insights gained as part of the data generated

and relevant to the findings of the study.

I began each interview by explaining the project, and sharing my research goals

with the participant. The shortest interview took twenty minutes; the longest one hour

and ten minutes. Interviews were conducted in a variety of locations: coffee shops, the

college common room, and participants homes and offices. Of the eight interviews, six


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were conducted in front of a computer, providing the participant an opportunity to

demonstrate their use ofFacebook. These participants were happy to walk me through

their Facebookprofiles, and I found this afforded an excellent opportunity to conduct

some naturalistic observation which added yet another dimension to my data collection.

All interviews were recorded, and immediately afterwards I reviewed the recording,

making notes of particularly interesting themes, or memos of pieces of data I wished to

examine in further detail. Interviews were nearly fully transcribed; conversation that had

deviated completely from the relevant topic was omitted from transcription. Data

analysis, as described below, was then begun.

During the data transcription and analysis, I found myself repeatedly accessing the

Facebookpages of participants. At the time, I did not consider this an official strategy of

data collection. I would simply view Facebookpages, adding notes to interview

transcripts to clarify certain parts of the conversation, or adding commentary to confirm

or elaborate on aspects of emergent themes. As this practice became more frequent, I

became more methodical in my use of this online data, printing out hard copies of the

participant profiles and using these for reference instead of the constantly evolving

Facebookpages. I felt that the data obtained through questionnaires and interviews

represented a snapshot of each participant, taken at a certain point in time and

representing their views and experiences at that time. In contrast, Facebookpages are

inherently non-static, with some users changing their profile daily. I felt that, in order to

achieve some standardisation, it would be best to utilise data that came from the same

time frame as the interviews.


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Data Analysis

The use of multiple data collection instruments resulted in the generation of a

great deal of raw data. Although there is no one prescribed method for the analysis of

qualitative data, certain authors, such as Corbin and Strauss (1990), Miles and Huberman

(1994) or Silverman (2000), have proposed strategies and guidelines that have proven to

be efficacious in transforming and interpreting qualitative data in a standardised way. I

chose to follow the data analysis procedures recommended by Miles and Huberman

(1994), as their approach based on the three interacting components of data reduction,

data display, and conclusion drawing/verification are particularly suited to the types of

data generated in this study, and their approach is commonly cited by other authors

discussing qualitative research (Punch 2005, Yin 2003).

Miles and Huberman (1994) share a classic set of analytic moves, which offer

guidance throughout the data analysis process:

Affixing codes to data Noting reflections in the margin Identifying common phrases, relationships, patterns, and themes Elaborating a set of generalisations Confronting these generalisations with constructs or theories

Following these steps, I first generated a list of possible codes. Suggestions for these

codes came from data generated by the questionnaire, themes previously identified in

the literature, and preliminary reflection on interview data, with consideration of the

research questions used to guide the relevance (Table 8 presents the codes used, in

reference to the findings). I then proceeded to break the interview transcripts into

chunks, or blocks of text with similar meaning, a procedure suggested by Edwards (2007)

to help reduce data into meaningful and manageable units. Codes were then assigned to


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each chunk, with memos in the margins recording further thoughts and reflections. I

particularly focused on memos which suggested ideas about the codes and possible

relationships, a strategy suggested by Robson (2002). After this initial coding, I was able

to confirm the validity of some codes, generate new codes to account for themes I hadnt

originally considered, and began to perceive some relationships between codes. This

allowed me to generate higher level categories, or emergent themes. I referred to the

data generated by the questionnaires, and to the Facebookprofiles of participants, as a

means of triangulation to support these emergent themes. I then proceeded to recode

the data, using a combination of these categories and codes.

One of the data analysis strategies that Miles and Huberman (1994) consider

essential to valid qualitative analysis is the use of well thought out displays. The display

that seemed most appropriate was a matrix, or what Miles and Huberman term a

conceptually ordered display: a table with columns representing cases, and rows

representing categories and codes. This format allowed me to easily develop a profile of

each case by reading down a column, and to examine each category by reading across the

rows. One of the strengths I found in this method was the ability to both gain an idea of

the relative importance of a specific category or code based simply on the amount of data

included, and also to quickly scan across rows to note phrases or concepts occurring

repeatedly between cases. This allowed me to sketch a conceptual map, permitting

visualisation of connections between themes, data, and questions, and helped me begin

to draw tentative conclusions with regards to each question. Again, I followed the advice

given by Miles and Huberman regarding evaluating early conclusions: follow up surprises,

triangulate, formulate if-then hypotheses, and check rival explanations. I examined the

themes that seemed unexpected, referred to the data from questionnaires, checked the

emerging theories against Facebookprofiles, pondered the implications of my


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hypothesised conclusions, and considered possible alternate interpretations. Through

this iterative process, I gained a level of confidence in my findings.

Ethical Considerations

According to Punch (2005), all social research involves ethical issues, and thorough

research projects must examine these potential issues and how they will be dealt with. In

completing this project, I spent time considering a number of ethical issues. The main

guidelines this project adheres to are those provided by British Educational Research

Association (BERA 2004). Ethicial approval was obtained through the University of

Oxfords Central University Research Ethics Committee (see Appendix 3). Following Lunt

(2007), I considered seven key areas in evaluating the ethics of this project, each labelled

and outlined below.

1. Voluntary informed consent

Each potential participant was provided with both a Participant Information letter to

keep and a Declaration of Informed Consent to sign and return (see Appendix 4). I also

spent time reviewing these documents with participants, especially those who agreed to

further participate in the interview phase of the project. Finally, I contacted any person

for whom potentially identifying information was included in this work (specifically in

screen captures ofFacebookpages), and obtained additional consent to share this

information.

2. Avoid deception

One of the main ethical concerns I had was my role as both researcher and Facebook

friend in the networks of most of my participants. I clearly explained this dual role to

participants, and asked for their further consent in viewing their profile in light of my


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research agenda. All participants felt comfortable with this, and I was careful to

continually maintain anonymity in all aspects of the research.

3. Maintain participants right to withdraw

At every stage, participants were free to decline to participate, or to withdraw completely

from the study. Although I had some participants refuse to participate in the interview

phase, all made it clear this was due to logistical constraints rather than ethical troubles.

4. Avoid harm

I considered any potential impact on participants that may result from being part of my

study. Beyond issues relating to privacy (discussed below), threat of harm seemed quite

limited, a point reinforced through discussion with subjects participating in the pilot

phase of the study.

5. Respect privacy

Privacy concerns are an inherent part of research in public spaces, such as Facebook.

Indeed, privacy concerns are of high importance to users ofFacebook. I took several

measures to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. Although the name of the university

and college were identified in the study, all personal names and identifying data were

removed. In instances where there was potential for certain participants to be identified,

for example due to their sharing of their role in college during interviews, further consent

was obtained before using this information in publications. Throughout the study, data

was stored under pseudonyms, with the correlative list password protected on computer,

and hard copy information stored in secure locations.

6. Consider disclosure


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The knowledge that certain morally ambiguous practices or situations conducted by

participants and shared through Facebookmay come to my attention during the study did

occur to me. However, as participants in this study are mature adults, I felt that, unless

evidence of harm to others was evident, it was neither my duty nor place to disclose such

information. Luckily, no such incidents occurred, and I felt comfortable with virtually all

of the information disclosed to me during the research.

7. Aim to debrief participants

Throughout the study, participants expressed a keen interest in the results of the

research. I have made it known to participants that I am happy to provide them with a

copy of the findings, either in the form of the entire dissertation, or a brief summary of

the project.

In addition to these guidelines, as a researcher I consider it my duty to continue to

develop awareness of ethical issues surrounding social research. Consideration of the

role of research, the practices undertaken in conducting research, and the presentation of

findings to the community were areas of both reflection and discussion throughout this

research project.

Strengths and Limitations

Within the case study tradition there are present and enduring questions

regarding the concept of external validity or generalisation. Generalisation is often seen

as the aim of quantitative studies, but whether such generalisations can be made from

qualitative research is the subject of debate. Stake (1995) believes we can make

naturalistic generalisations from qualitative work; provided the research is sufficiently

rich, the reader can make their own judgements on the applicability to other situations.


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Guba and Lincoln (21989) argue that knowledge is constructed and situational, and that

law-like generalisations cannot be made. Gomm, Hammersly, and Foster (2000) seem to

walk a middle line, suggesting the idea of transferability, dependent on careful

evaluation of the research and the possible similarities to other cases.

What is integral to any degree of generalisation is the level of internal validity

maintained in a study. Case study research has often been criticised due to its common

reliance on interview data. Interviews are inherently a construct, relying on language and

interaction between the interviewer and interviewee (Walford 2008). As such, the data

yielded is subject to bias and interpretation. Silverman (2000) suggests two ways to

strengthen internal validity: triangulation and respondent validation. Yin (2003), in

reference specifically to the case study method, stressed the importance of testing

hypothetical constructs against findings, particularly in examining possible alternate

explanations and cases that do not support hypotheses.

Although I doubt the generalisability of this current study to a larger population, I

feel that the strategies I employed did lead to a degree of internal validity. The multiple

methods of data collection allowed triangulation; hypotheses were supported by

questionnaire, interview, and virtual ethnographic data. A thorough review of the

literature had given me a range of theories that could have proven applicable to my

research questions. I was careful to consider these alternate explanations in conjunction

with my findings. I also chose participants who displayed a wide variety of attitudes

towards Facebook, whom I felt could provide data that may challenge my hypotheses.

Finally, as I began to develop confidence in my findings, I spent time discussing the

emerging conclusions with several of the participants in the study.


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However, as in any research, I feel there were limitations to this study, and things I

would do differently in the future. My role as a member of Linacre College and a high-

end user of technology and Facebookdefinitely gives me a certain perspective on the

subject. Although I spent time reflecting on my views, it is highly possible that this has

introduced certain bias into my research. I also felt that the use of a lightly structured

interview was perhaps too open ended; interviews often deviated from the set topic,

yielding data that, while interesting, simply generated too many possible theories and

hypotheses. While these provide excellent basis for future research, as a neophyte

researcher I found it difficult to separate them out of the present findings.

Returning to the issue of generalisability, I feel that my work perhaps has

relevance in the area of transferability which Gomm, Hammersley, and Foster (2000)

suggest. My findings do suggest some trends that could influence study in other similar

situations. Linacre College proved to be a good choice of site for this preliminary case

study, however if I were to repeat the study, I would look at including a second college.

This would allow between case analyses, and would, I feel, lead to and increasing level of

theoretical generalisability of my conclusions.


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V. FINDINGS

This section presents the results of data collection and analysis, the findings of this

study. As the study was conducted primarily in two stages, questionnaire followed by

interviews/virtual ethnographies, the findings from each are presented separately below.

A discussion of how these findings, including how they serve to answer the research

questions and the implications for the body of knowledge in this area will be discussed in

the following chapter.

Findings From The Questionnaire

The first method of data collection employed was a questionnaire, distributed to

25 students. The questionnaire was designed to collect demographic information about

the participants, and to briefly examine their use of technology and social software and

their attitudes towards Facebook. The purpose of this was three-fold: to gain an overview

of how students were using technology and social software, to provide a profile of each

participant as a basis for selection for interviews, and as a method of generating

preliminary codes with which to begin data analysis.

The questionnaire showed that the students surveyed were high level users of

technology, with all students owning their own computer, and 48% owning more than

one. All students also owned a mobile phone; 48% used their phones as a means of

connecting to the internet. Also popular among these students were digital cameras

(68% owning) and iPods (60%). Many students noted the emerging trend of convergence

of technologies; 40% owned devices that combine most of these features into one. They

also spent a great deal of time online, with 52% of the students spending more than eight

hours each day connected to the internet (Fig. 3). And they were starting to adopt the


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idea of ubiquitous access; while they still primarily connected to the internet from their

home or place of work, 44% accessed wireless from remote locations at least

occasionally.

Figure 3. Percentage of students indicating amounts of time spent online per day

Exploring what theyre doing with their time online, students engaged in a range

of activities (see Table 4 below). Much of their time was dedicated to furthering their

academic and personal interests; with 58% of the students saying that while online they

nearly always were engaged with learning, while another 76% engaged in some form of

learning quite frequently. A great deal of their time was also dedicated to

communicating with others. Nearly all of the students reported that they engaged in

direct communication (such as email, social software, instant messaging, or Skype) quite

frequently or nearly always. Students also used the internet for day to day life

management, and, unsurprisingly, for amusement.

Never Once in

Awhile

Sometimes Quite

Frequently

Nearly

Always

Work related directly to

academic studies

20% 36% 44%

Direct communication with

others

4% 16% 40% 40%

0%

12%

8%

28%

16%

36%

Amount of Time Spent Online Per Day

Less Than 1 Hour

1 - 3 hours

3 - 6 hours

6 - 8 hours

More than 8 hours

Nearly always connected


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Daily life management 20% 16% 64%

Engaged with learning or

hobbies

12% 26% 40% 12%

Amusement 12% 24% 60% 4%

Table 4: Percentage of students indicati

Documents

Facebook in the Lives of Oxford Postgraduates