EYEWITNESS BOOKS

AMERICANREVOLUTION

Regimentalcoat

Signaling horn

Poster by Paul Revere

Drum

“Brown Bess”musket

Tea chest

Snuff box

Loading the cannon

Continental money

EYEWITNESS BOOKS

In Association with the Smithsonian Institution

Candle lantern

Telescope

AMERICANREVOLUTION

Written by

Stuart Murray

LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH, MELBOURNE, and DELHI

MEDIA PROJECTS INC.Executive Editor C. Carter Smith

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First American Edition, 20022 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataMurray, Stuart, 1948-

American Revolution / by Stuart Murray.American Revolution.—1st American ed.

p. cm. — (Dorling Kindersley eyewitness books)Written in association with the Smithsonian Institution.

Summary: A visual guide, accompanied by text, to the people,battles, and events of America’s war for independence.

ISBN 0-7894-8556-7 — ISBN 0-7894-8557-5 (lib. bdg.)1. United States—History—Revolution, 1775-1783—

Juvenile literature. [1. United States—History—Revolution, 1775-1783.] I.Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc. II. Smithsonian Institution. III. Series.

E208 .A427 2002973.3—dc212001047619

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Continental infantryman

Pipe tomahawk

Colonial doll

Regimental flag

Stoneware jug

Liberty cap weathervane

Purple heart

Contents

40France becomes an ally

42The war at sea

44Embattled New York

46Spies and traitors

48Home front and behind the lines

50Camps and prisons

52The soldier’s doctor

54War for the South

56 Yorktown

58The last two years of war

60Peace and the birth of a nation

62George Washington—Father of his Country

64Index

6Life in British America

8War in the New World

10Taxation without representation

12The Revolution’s opposing leaders

14Unrest becomes revolution

18Breed’s Hill and the siege of Boston

20Recruiting and training

22The armies of King and Congress

24Early Northern battles

26The Declaration of Independence

28Battles and campaigns

32Victory at Saratoga

34Attacks on the frontier

36Winter soldier

38Symbols of freedom

George Washington’s sword and scabbard

6

Life in British AmericaAFTER THE FRENCH WAR ENDED in 1763, peaceand prosperity came to the Thirteen Colonies,which had profited from supplying theempire’s military efforts. There were more than2,700,000 colonists by 1775, and Philadelphia(population: 30,000) was a leading city in theBritish Empire. The ports of New York, Boston,and Charleston were booming, too, but mostpeople lived on family farms, and agriculturalproducts were the main export. There was littleindustry, so manufactured goods, such astextiles, hats, and ironware, were importedfrom Britain. Each colony elected its own law-making assembly and had its own governor—most governors were appointed by the king.Many colonies printed their own currency topromote buying and selling of goods andservices. The colonials were proud to be Britishsubjects, but for years they had been left aloneto manage their own affairs. Now at peace withFrance and in possession of Canada, the Britishgovernment intended to keep the growingAmerican colonies under strict control.

New England ColoniesThe four northeastern colonies—Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire—relied on farming,

seafaring, fishing, andshipbuilding. Boston was themajor seaport, with Newport,Rhode Island, growing fast. Theunsettled region known as Maine wasimportant for great trees, which wereused as ship masts. New England hadmany free laborers, as well as skilledartisans such as carpenters, printers,tailors, wig makers, shoemakers, andgoldsmiths. There were few slaves.

A CAPTAIN’S DIARYNew England sailors and ships were highlyregarded around the world; Captain AshleyBowen of Marblehead, Massachusetts, recordedvoyages and drew pictures of ships in his diary.

FREEDOM SUITYoung men often bound themselves to atradesman for seven years as an apprenticeto learn a skill. At the end, they might receive

new clothes, a “Freedom Suit,” such as this onefrom Rhode Island.

THE THIRTEEN COLONIESThe American colonies that rose up against British rule lay along the Atlantic seaboard; territories occupied byEuropean and African populations are shown for 1660 (dark green), 1700 (lighter green), and 1760 (lightest green).

MASSACHUSETTS(MAINE)

NEWHAMPSHIRE

MASSACHUSETTSRHODE ISLAND

NEWYORK

PENNSYLVANIA

NEWJERSEY

DELAWARE

MARYLAND

CONNECTICUT

SalemBoston

Newport

New York

Baltimore

Philadelphia

Annapolis

Charlottesville

Charleston

AtlanticOcean

Savannah

VIRGINIA

NORTHCAROLINA

SOUTHCAROLINA

GEORGIA

APPALA

CHIA

NM

OU

NTA

INS

Settlement growth in 1660

Settlement growth in 1700

Settlement growth in 1760

The Thirteen Colonies

THE CENTER OF THE HOMEA colonial family in Malden, Massachusetts, gathered in this kitchen for

meals and prayers, or sat before the hearth at night to do handiwork,mending, spinning, and repair of tools and leather goods.

7

The Middle ColoniesNew York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware had twolarge cities: Philadelphia and New York. Most people lived onsmall farms, but Philadelphia was one of the empire’s largestcities, bustling with trade and commerce. Philadelphia was rich

in colonial culture, such asmusic and art. New York,with its fine harbor, was oneof the busiest ports in theempire and was also a centerof trade with native peoples.

THE STATE HOUSEThe colonial government of

Pennsylvania met in Philadelphia at the State House, built

between 1732–41, and oneof the handsomest

buildings in America.

RICE HOOK AND SCALERice made the “planter

class” prosperous in theCarolinas, where slavescut husks with short-

handled rice hooks;the rice was pounded

from the husks, then weighed

in a scale.

QUAKER FARMThis prosperous 18th-century Pennsylvania farm is a bustlingscene in summertime, with the farm family and hired handsplowing fields and managing horses and other livestock; in

1775, most colonials lived on farms, large and small.

VIRGINIA’S CAPITALRivaling Philadelphia in political influence, but not insize, Virginia’s capital, Williamsburg, boasted its own

magnificent government building.

Rice scale

Sickle

A New Jersey eighteen pence note, issued in 1776

The Southern ColoniesMost white people in Maryland, Virginia, NorthCarolina, South Carolina, and Georgia lived onfamily farms, but large-scale plantations dominatedthe economic and social systems. To produce cashcrops—mainly tobacco, indigo, and rice—for market,the plantations relied on the forced labor ofthousands of field slaves. Virginia, alone, had 200,000African-American and African-born slaves, almosthalf the total population. The South’s two largesttowns were Charleston and Baltimore.

SLAVE QUARTERSSlave families on large Southern plantations sometimes lived in cabins, but often

were crowded together in large barracks where there was little privacy; foodwas usually cooked on fires outside their quarters.

8

SLAUGHTER ON BRADDOCK’S ROADAn arrogant commander in chiefwho knew nothing of wildernessfighting, British general EdwardBraddock led an army of 1,400Redcoats and colonials againstthe French and Indiansdefending Fort Duquesne in July1755. Braddock’s army wasambushed and almost wipedout, except that young GeorgeWashington organized theretreat of the survivors. Thenearly 1,000 British and colonialcasualties included Braddock,who was buried under the roadthat was given his name.

WHENEVER FRANCE AND ENGLAND were at war, their Americancolonies also fought. The great Seven Years’ War of 1754–63 was aworldwide struggle on land and sea between the two mightiest

empires. In America, it was called the French andIndian War, with the outnumbered French and

their Native allies fighting the numerousBritish colonists and Redcoat soldiers sent over from Britain. In previous years,American campaigns involved small forces,but now the armies numbered in thethousands. A new generation of Americans,including the Virginian George Washington,

gained valuable military experience in thiswar. At first, the French won major battles,defeating Edward Braddock in 1755, but theFrench strongholds fell, one by one, andfortresses such as Quebec became Britishpossessions. With the coming of peace, therewould still be Indian uprisings, such asPontiac’s Rebellion, but the American colonieswere strong and prosperous as never before.

War in the New World

BRITAIN’S AMERICAN EMPIREVictory in the French and Indian Warbroke French power in America andbrought vast areas of eastern NorthAmerica into the growing empire of

English King George III; the colonies nowwere ready to expand westward.

British

French

Spanish

CANADA

FLORIDA

GA.S.C.

N.C.

VA.MD.DE.N.J.

PA.

N.Y.

N.H.

CT.R.I.MA.

European ColonialHoldings

Young WashingtonTroops from Virginia were led by militia colonelGeorge Washington. While traveling through thehills and forests of western Pennsylvania and theOhio Valley, Washington had to write manyreports for headquarters. Though just 26 years

of age, he rose to command a British brigade, the only American-born officer to reach such a

high rank during the war.

Colonel George Washington, c.1772

Officer’s writing setused on campaign

GRAND STRATEGISTWilliam Pitt, 1st Earl ofChatham, was Britain’sprime minister during

most of the Seven Years’War, and planned strategy

for the campaigns thatcaptured French Canada.

RETURN OF PRISONERSIn Pontiac’s Rebellion, warriors unexpectedly rose up against the

British, who had taken over the French outposts in what was calledthe Old Northwest. Indian war parties captured many settlers before

the uprising was finally defeated. Victorious British commanderColonel Henry Bouquet met with leading chiefs of the Shawnee and

Delaware nations to arrange for the return of their captives.

Pontiac’s RebellionSome native peoples who had foughtalongside the defeated French refusedto accept British rule after the Frenchand Indian War. Led by Ottawa chiefPontiac, several nations attackedBritish garrisons in May 1763 and laidsiege to Fort Detroit. Warriors alsostruck at the colonial frontier, burningcabins and driving out thousands ofsettlers. British and colonial troopssoon invaded and, afterhard fighting, forced the nations to make peace in 1766.

Pipe tomahawk, used both for smoking

and war-making

FALL OF QUEBECThe last great stronghold of the French army in Canada, Quebec

City stood high above the Saint Lawrence River, seeminglyimpossible to attack from water level. In September 1759, British

troops under General James Wolfe rowed ashore to climb thecliffs by an undefended track, then defeated the French under

the Marquis de Montcalm. Both commanders died in the battle.

French cannonball withroyal fleur-de-lis symbol

9

REGIMENTAL COATThis British uniform coatwas worn by Major John

Dagworthy, an officer in the44th Regiment of Foot,

which fought during theFrench and Indian War.

ENDURING MEMENTOSHundreds of British and French

cannonballs littered battlefieldsof the French and Indian War;

these were found at FortTiconderoga, a French-builtbastion on Lake Champlain

that was abandoned to the British in 1759.

“King’s Arrow,”also called “BroadArrow,” sayscannonball isroyal property

10

TARRED AND FEATHEREDRadical Bostonians attack a government tax collector, coating him with hot,

sticky tar and covering him with feathers.

Taxation without representation

THE BOSTON TEA PARTYSeveral ships carryingimported tea were attackedby colonial protesters, butthe most celebrated “teaparty” was on December 16,1773, when locals disguisedas Indians threw 342 teachests into Boston harbor.

IN THE 1760S, THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT placed new taxes on the colonies. The 1764 SugarAct, the 1765 Stamp Act, and the 1767 Townshend Acts put taxes and duties (fees) on importssuch as sugar and tea and on printed documents and publications. Many Americans objected,claiming that only their colonial legislatures had the right to tax them. Since colonies did notelect representatives to Parliament, these acts were illegal “taxation without representation.”Angry colonists resisted, refusing to import British goods until the acts were lifted;government officials were violently attacked to prevent tax collection. In 1768, 4,000 Redcoatsoccupied Boston to punish the city for its resistance, and conflicts erupted between Bostoniansand soldiers. The worst clash was the “Boston Massacre” of 1770, when Redcoats fired on a

threatening mob. Three yearslater, anti-Parliament leader

Samuel Adams organized agroup of men who boarded amerchant ship and dumped

its tea cargo into Boston harbor.

Tax collector'sbox

“No Stamp Act”A Virginia family’s teapot made itclear they opposed the 1765 Stamp Actthat required all legal documents andprinted paper to have revenue stamps;such stamps were kept in this leather boxmarked “GR,” meaning “George, Rex,” or “King George.” 1766 Williamsburg teapot

“GR” for“George, Rex”

Revenue stamps

11

The Boston MassacreConflict between Bostonians and Redcoats flaredinto violence in 1770, when soldiers on guardduty were harassed by a rowdy mob. Someenraged Redcoats fired, killing five people. Puton trial, the soldiers were defended by respectedattorney John Adams, who won acquittals formost, and for others only light punishment.

FIERY PROPAGANDAA poster by engraver Paul Revere

depicts troops at the Boston Massacrefiring together on command, which

was not the case.

COFFINS FOR VICTIMSThis period engraving laments the Boston Massacre,showing coffins inscribed with initials of the dead.

“C.J.A.” is for Crispus Attucks, the first African-American killed in the Revolution.

TEA CHESTTea grown in the Far East was shipped in stout boxesto America, where it was popular until colonistsstopped drinking it to protest British import duties.This is a miniature replica of one of the East Indian teaboxes said to have been thrown into Boston Harbor.

SAMUEL ADAMSMassachusetts radical SamuelAdams was one of the most

outspoken opponents ofParliament’s taxation of thecolonies; he was among the

first to consider totalindependence from Britain.

THE BRITISH SOVEREIGNIn the full glory of his coronation robes, King George III was just22 when he took the throne in 1760. Americans first objected to

British laws by petitioning the king to support the colonies’position, but he refused. George was determined to keep the

colonies obedient to England.

LORD FREDERICK NORTHPrime Minister North led politicians

who wanted to tax the colonies. North allied himself with King George,

opposing men such as Edmund Burke,who objected to Britain's colonial policies.

PROCLAMATION OF REBELLIONIn 1775, King George’s royal

proclamation declared theAmerican colonies to be in

rebellion. Many colonists, hesaid, had forgotten the

allegiance “they owe to thepower that has protected

and supported them.”

SIR WILLIAM HOWEA lifelong soldier who spentmost of his military career inAmerica, General Howe didnot agree with British colonialpolicies. Yet, he was a dutifulsoldier, and took command ofthe British army in NorthAmerica in 1775.

EMBLEM OF ROYALTYThe coat of arms of the British royalhouse features a lion and a unicorn

and the symbols of England,Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.

12

The Revolution’s opposing leadersKING GEORGE III WANTED REBELLIOUS AMERICA HUMBLED once andfor all. With the king’s support, Prime Minister Lord North led thegovernment’s military efforts to bring the colonies under control.Some British statesmen and generals, such as Member of ParliamentEdmund Burke, believed armed conflict would be a disaster for theempire. Another Englishman who hoped to avoid full-scale war wasSir William Howe, a general who had made America his home for 20years. The leading colonial military figure was Virginia’s GeorgeWashington, chosen to be commander in chief of the armies of Congress. New England patriots John Adams and JohnHancock were among the first delegates to the ContinentalCongress. Adams was a political theorist, while Hancockwas a wealthy merchant who became president ofCongress. New York’s John Jay, a skilled legal mind,

also became a president of Congress.Along with Adams, Jay later

traveled to France to represent America ininternational affairs.

WASHINGTON’S SPURSIn the winter of 1777–78,General Washington’shungry army at ValleyForge, Pennsylvania, desperately neededfood and clothing. He gave his own spurs to anofficer who wore them on a ride of more than300 miles to Boston to arrange for supplies.

A POLITICAL MASTERMINDLawyer John Adams of Massachusetts

was an early challenger to Britishcolonial policy. A leading delegate

to the Continental Congress,Adams nominated Washington

as commander in chief. Afterhelping draft the Declaration

of Independence, Adamsserved in France as

representative for the United States.

THE FIRST SIGNERSince Boston patriot John

Hancock was a smuggler whoavoided Parliament’s port fees,the British tried hard to arresthim. Hancock eluded captureand later became president of

the First and Second ContinentalCongresses. He was the first to

sign the Declaration of Independence.

AT HOME IN VIRGINIAWashington was a masterful horseman with a powerful physique.

These attributes combined with his wisdom and courage to help himendure eight years as commander in chief. He is pictured at his

beloved Mount Vernon plantation in Virginia. Washington left homeat the start of the Revolution and did not return again for six years.

The American commander in chiefThe Second Continental Congress appointed GeorgeWashington commander of all its forces because hewas the patriot with the most military experience.Washington swore always to obey Congress becausehe believed the military must never take the reins ofpower in a republic. Washington refused to becomedirectly involved in politics while he was a soldier.

Strap

JOHN JAYA brilliant New York attorney and jurist, Jay

served as a delegate to the Continental Congressand later was an important diplomat. Recognizedfor his ability in legal matters, Jay was president

of Congress from 1778-79. Soon afterwards hejoined the American peace commission in Paris.

Rowel

A BRITON FOR AMERICAEdmund Burke called,

unsuccessfully, forParliament to negotiate

with the Americancolonies, rather thanmake war. He also

championed the rightsof other British

colonies, includingIndia, and tried to ease government

oppression ofIreland, where he

had been born.

PENNSYLVANIA COAT OF ARMSThe newly independent states had to create their own official coats of

arms. Pennsylvania’s shows a ship, a plow, and sheaves of wheat along

with an eagle and two white horses.

13

14

TO PUNISH MASSACHUSETTS FOR THE BOSTON TEA PARTY, Parliamentvoted in 1774 to place harsh regulations on the colony. These werecalled the “Intolerable Acts” because the colonies would not toleratethem, or the “Coercive Acts” because Britain was coercing, orbullying, America. These acts closed the port of Boston until the tea

was paid for, and limited Massachusetts’s rights to rule itself. Farmers,artisans, and merchants from other colonies sent money and food tohelp Boston, and a “continental congress” was held in Philadelphia.This First Continental Congress united the colonies to stop buyingBritish goods until Parliament repealed the Intolerable Acts. Americanmen, women, and children organized at home to manufacture goods toreplace British imports, and a Second Continental Congress wasplanned for 1775 if Britain did not change its policies. Meanwhile,

Benjamin Franklin wasreturning to Philadelphiafrom London. He thenbelieved the colonies mustresist by force of arms.

Unrest becomes revolution

A TAVERN’S PEWTER WAREMany colonial tavern items, fromdrinking mugs, called “tankards,” toplates and small boxes, were made of pewter, which was tincombined withlead, brass, or copper.

Snuff box

PATRICK HENRYA radical Virginia legislator,

Henry believed King George hadno right to rule America; calling

for the colony to prepare for war,Henry declared, “Give me liberty

or give me death.”

The Raleigh TavernIn 1774, the Virginia legislators, or burgesses, preparedto vote against the Coercive Acts, but the royal governorrefused to let them meet in the Williamsburg statehouse;instead, they moved to nearby Raleigh Tavern,named for English adventurer Sir WalterRaleigh—misspelled “Ralegh” on its signboard.They agreed to boycott British goods, arm thecolony, and send delegates to the FirstContinental Congress in Philadelphia.

Raleigh Tavern’s signboard

Pewter tankard

15

Preparing for conflictThe colonies armed to resist British oppression, andgunsmiths turned out muskets as fast as they could.These were called “flintlocks,” because pulling thetrigger caused a flint to strike a spark and fire thebullet. Firearms and ammunition were secretlystored in remote barns and buildings where theking’s soldiers could not get at them. By early 1775,many Americans were ready to fight if the Britishkept suppressing colonial freedom.

Publisher, scientist, statesmanBenjamin Franklin was a Philadelphia author and publisher,known for his experiments with electricity. Early in hiscareer, Franklin moved briefly to England, where heworked as a printer. He later returned to London as acolonial representative. In 1775, after trying unsuccessfullyto reach a settlement between Parliament and the colonists, he came back to America, expecting an armed struggle.

SPINNING AND WEAVING FOR LIBERTYTo defy Parliament, Patriot women mobilized tospin thread and weave cloth that would replace

fabric normally imported from the British Empire.During the resistance period, women worked tomake the colonies more self-sufficient. They often

called themselves “Daughters of Liberty.”

Paper cartridge holds abullet and gunpowder

FREEDOM’S FORGEAmerican gunsmiths were skilled at manufacturing long-barreledhunting rifles, but soldiers needed short muskets that could take a

bayonet. Also, the musket could be loaded more quickly than the rifle.Rapid firing and bayonet charges by massed troops were essential

to the success of an 18th-century army.

Musket flints

“JOIN OR DIE”Franklin created this sketch

showing the individual Americancolonies as a snake that is cut into

pieces; in order for the snake—andthe colonies—to survive, the parts

must unite to work together.

Franklin ran this press in a

London printshop.

Portrait of Franklin

16

MILITIA CANTEENA soldier needs water, which wascarried by Connecticut militia

lieutenant Joseph Babcock in this wooden canteen.

Babcock, whose initialsare carved into the

canteen, responded to the “LexingtonAlarm” in April 1775.

The shooting beginsOn the night of April 18, 1775, General Thomas Gageordered Redcoats to search for colonial military suppliesbeing stockpiled in Concord. Patriot leader Dr. JosephWarren sent out riders, including silversmith Paul Revereand tanner William Dawes, to alert the militia. The nextday, British soldiers and Lexington militiamen fired oneach other. The Redcoats marched on to Concord, but themilitia forced them to retreat. The Americans laid siege toBoston—and the Revolution began.

LEXINGTON GREENBritish major John Pitcairn shouted “Disperse, ye rebels!” at defiant Minutemen

gathered on Lexington Green, and a moment later firing broke out. The Revolution hadbegun. The artist, Amos Doolittle of Connecticut, visited this site soon after the clash.

“ONE IF BY LAND, TWO IF BY SEA”One of two candle lanterns placed in the spire of Boston’sOld North Church on the night of April 18, 1775, to alert

militiamen that Redcoats were crossing to the mainlandby boat. Only one lantern would have meant theBritish were moving by land, two meant by water.

Continued from previous page

THE MINUTEMANThis statue by

sculptor DanielChester French honors

the Massachusettsmilitiamen of 1775, wholeft their plows to musterinstantly against Redcoats

marching out of Boston.

Shoulder strapfor carryingcanteen

Statue castin bronze

THE RIDE OF PAUL REVERERevere was part of a Patriot network organized to warn of any British militaryactivity. His mission was to alert leaders John Hancock and Samuel Adams in

Lexington. They escaped just as the first Redcoats arrived to arrest them.

17

PITCAIRN’S PISTOLSUnder heavy rebel fire during the Redcoat retreat to Boston,Major Pitcairn’s horse panicked and bolted, carrying away

the major’s pistols, which were captured by the militia.

Capture of Fort TiconderogaOnce-mighty “Fort Ti” was in poor repair in 1775 and occupied by only a few Britishsoldiers, but it controlled strategic Lake Champlain. The garrison did not expect anAmerican attack when it was awakened on May 10 by yelling rebels under the commandof leaders Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. The helpless British commander, CaptainWilliam Delaplace, was ordered to surrender or die—he surrendered.

Engraved silverdecoration

Broadsideannouncestaking of FortTiconderogaEthan Allen demands the surrender of Fort Ticonderoga.

ETHAN ALLEN’S COMPASSHis sundial compass helpedGreen Mountain Boys leader

Ethan Allen find the way to FortTiconderoga; the fort’s capture

was joyfully announced in aprinted broadside distributed in

New York and New England.

British commander, Captain William Delaplace

A BLOODY RETREATAfter reaching Concord, the Redcoats found themselves surrounded by thousands of armed and angry militia. The

march back to Boston, 20 miles away, became a fierce, running battle all through the day. From behind trees, houses,and stone walls, militiamen fired at the troops, who burned houses along the way and often counterattacked.

UNDER COVER OF DARKNESS ON JUNE 16, 1775, hundreds of Americanmilitiamen dug fortifications on Breed’s Hill, on the Charles Townpeninsula, across the Charles River from Boston. The orders were totake nearby Bunker Hill, but rebel general Israel Putnam mistakenlyseized Breed’s instead. The next day, General Gage’s Redcoat regimentsrowed across to the attack as their artillery fired on the Americans. The

British were pushed back twice before driving out therebels, but more than 1,000 Redcoats were killed

and wounded, compared to 500 rebel casualties.Two weeks later, General George Washingtonarrived to take command of the siege. The Britishgovernment was angry about such heavy Redcoatlosses, and in October replaced Gage withGeneral William Howe. Late that winter,American artillery officer Henry Knox broughtcaptured cannon to Washington, who soon aimedthem at Boston. Faced with this threat, Howe hadno choice but to evacuate the city, using everyvessel he could find. On March 17,after the Redcoats and thousands ofLoyalist civilians had sailed away,Washington’s troops marchedtriumphantly into Boston.

18

CHARLES TOWN BURNS,REDCOATS ATTACKBritish artillery in Boston and onwarships fire red-hot cannonballsinto Charles Town, setting itablaze. Redcoats disembark fromboats and form up in ranks for theassault on the rebels entrenched at the top of Breed’s Hill.

ATTACK ON BREED’S HILLThe Redcoats were twicedriven back by the Americandefenders, who finally wereoverrun by a third Britishassault. Among theAmerican dead was Dr.Joseph Warren; among theBritish was Major Pitcairn of the Royal Marines.

Breed’s Hill and the siege of Boston

THOMAS GAGEGeneral Gage was commander of British troops in the colonies.

Married to an American, Gage hadtried to avoid bloodshed, but after

Lexington and Concord his army wastrapped in Boston by thousands

of angry rebel militiamen.

PRESCOTT CALMS HIS MEN

British artillery fired cannonballs into the entrenchmentson Breed’s Hill. When a manwas killed, Colonel William

Prescott leaped into theopen, defying the fire.

Prescott’s men kept workingin spite of the artillery.

19

THE BRITISH EVACUATE BOSTONWith rebel guns preparing to bombard the city, British General Howe ordered his army

and the Loyalists to depart by ship. Before leaving, Howe’s men destroyed what military supplies they could not take and threw some heavy cannon into the bay

to prevent the Americans from getting them.

A YANKEE POWDER HORNSoldiers keptgunpowder inhollowed-out horns that they often decoratedwith carved pictures. This horn was carried by Connecticutsoldier Frederick Robbins duringthe siege of Boston. Carvingsshow rebels in camp, drilling with muskets and swords.

PUTNAM’S SWORDPatriot general

Israel Putnam, aleader at the siegeof Boston, owned

this sword. It couldhave served as a

weapon for combator as a dress sword

for formaloccasions.

“In Defence of Liberty” iscarved into horn

Ivory grip

Silver lionhead pommel

British ships

THE “BUNKER HILL” MONUMENTIn 1825, the people of Boston erected amonument to the battle at Breed’s Hill.

Visitors can climb the 294 steps of this obelisk(four-sided stone pillar) for a view of the city.

Statue of rebel officerColonel William Prescott

REBEL GUNS COME TO BOSTONIn the winter of 1775–76, Henry Knox and his

men dragged, pushed, floated, and carted59 heavy guns more than 300 miles to

Boston. The artillery came fromcaptured Fort Ticonderoga on Lake

Champlain. It weighed 60 tons andincluded mortars like this one,

which could fire explosiveshells high into the air

and drop themonto a target.

WASHINGTON REVIEWS HIS TROOPSGeneral George Washington took command of the rebelarmy besieging Boston and soon built strong defenses to

prevent the British from attacking. The Redcoats alsowere well fortified, however, and it seemed

Washington’s army could never drive them out.

221 feet tall

Steel blade, 27 inches long

Bronze mortar barrelweighs 700 pounds

Opening 8 inches wide

20

Recruiting and trainingIN 1775, MANY AMERICANS WERE members of militia companies—mainly socialclubs that met a couple of times a year on “training days.” When the Revolutionstarted, men turned out with local militia for a short term of service, sometimesonly a few weeks. This was not enough time to train and

organize a fighting force to meet the king’s professionalsoldiers, who were much better supplied and equipped.The states and Congress soon established regiments thatenlisted men for much longer terms. These volunteers

were taught military basics so they could maneuver onthe battlefield, and some became excellentartillerymen. Their officers usually learned from drillmanuals created for the rebel army. At first, there

were few uniforms, so most men worecivilian clothes, broad-brimmed hats,and homespun shirts. With strictdiscipline and training, Americansoldiers were able to stand up againstthe Redcoats and earned their respect.

FIRST RECRUITS FOR THE REVOLUTIONAs friends and family look on, officers teach unskilled volunteers in civilian clothes how to handle muskets while

standing in rank. By 1779, the best American regiments had uniforms and knew how to march. In later battles, these troops moved swiftly in well-disciplined formations that impressed both their French allies and British enemies.

THE DRUMMERA company’s drummer

rapped out rat-tat-tat beats thattold men to get up, to fall into ranks,when to eat, when to fetch water, wood,and more. In battle, drummers beat

commands so officers could controlthe movements of troops.

PRIDE OF THEMUSICIAN

An American carried thisdrum throughout the

Revolution. Drums hadto be well cared for sothey could send loud

signals to the troops overthe din of battle.

Equipping the recruitMilitia carried their own firearms, while the regiments ofthe states and Congress used government-issue weapons. Ifa man had money—which few did—he could buy his ownequipment. Congress and the states were unable to paytheir troops, who usually sufferedfrom lack of supplies. Mostsoldiers had to make their ownbullets, using a pliers-typebullet mold that formedlead into balls.

A MAJOR’S COATColonel Peter Gansevoort wore thisuniform coat as commander of the

3rd New York Continental Regiment,made up of Dutch-descended soldiers

from the Albany region. Many ofGansevoort’s men spoke more Dutch

than they did English.

BUCKSKIN BREECHESDragoons were mounted

infantry, meaning they rodeon horseback to battle but

usually dismounted to fighton foot. Dragoons wore

buckskin breeches,which were made for

rough service, givingprotection from

sharp branchesand saddle sores.

Leather cartridgebox for carryingammunition

HENRY KNOXBefore the Revolution,Boston’s Henry Knox

served in a militiaartillery unit,learning from

European books on gunnery. Knox

trained other officers, and they

in turn createdartillerymen who

were a match for the best

British cannoneers.

A New Jerseysoldier’s wallet

with state money

21

Toughbuckskinmaterial

Woolen jacket,colored blue withindigo dyes

Red facings

Bullet mold

HANDLING A MUSKETAs the American army developed, manuals were created

to teach soldiers to work together on the battlefield. Thesedrawings from a training manual showed the proper

steps for firing and loading. In battle, soldiers stood inranks, firing and reloading together on command.

Bullet

22

IN 1775, THE BRITISH ARMY was one of the best in the world.Nicknamed “Redcoats” because of their red uniform jackets, theycame from England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. They werejoined by thousands of blue- or green-coated German soldiershired from the states of Hesse and Brunswick and termed“Hessians.” American Loyalists also formed fighting units,usually wearing green coats. The American revolutionary army was made up of “Continentals”—regiments raised by the Continental Congress—and regiments belonging tothe states. Also, civilian militia often left their homes tofight for the Revolution when the war swept into theirregion. Continentals usually wore blue or browncoats, while state regiments, riflemen, and militiavolunteers mostly wore civilian clothes or hunting

shirts. Continental and British infantry carriedsmoothbore muskets and used the same basic

battle tactics: massed firing by ranks and charging with the bayonet.

TRIUMPHANTOCCUPATIONPerfectly drilledcompanies ofRedcoats and theirGerman alliesparade throughNew York Citywhile mountedofficers andcivilians look on;the city wascaptured by theking’s forces in thesummer of 1776,and garrisoned by Redcoats,German troops, and Loyaliststhroughout the rest of the war.

The LoyalistsA third of the American population remained loyal toBritain, and thousands of “Loyalists” fought as theking’s troops. British officer Banastre Tarleton created aLoyalist cavalry legion that was the best mounted forceof the British army in America. Another notable unit wasthe 84th Royal Highland Emigrant Regiment, made upof Scottish colonists who opposed the Revolution.

The armies of King and Congress

REGIMENTAL NUMBERThis badge decorated a

leather cartridge box carriedby a British soldier of the

26th Regiment of Foot.

84th Royal HighlandEmigrant Regiment

camp flag

Tarleton’s Legioncavalryman

BRITISH GRENADIEREach regiment had a grenadier company—mentrained to throw grenades. By 1775, these companieswere the elite troops, distinguished by their tall hats,as seen on this 57th Regiment grenadier.

23

DRUMBEAT OF DISCIPLINEThe American army became more effective as its menlearned to march, form up in ranks, and behave like

disciplined soldiers; the drum and fife set the rhythm fortroops on the march and sounded out commands and

signals that could be heard across the battlefield.ArtilleryAmerican artillerymen were essential tothe success of the revolutionary forces.Forges from New England to Virginiamade cannon and shot, but Americangunners were always short of equipmentand ammunition. They often used gunsand gear supplied by their French allies and reused British cannon balls picked up during battles. Respected for their outstandingaccuracy and skill, rebel gunners helped win key battles in the Revolution.

“King’s Arrow,” statesthat cannonball is royal property

THE CONTINENTAL LINEThe Continental

infantryman, or “linesoldier,” was the heart

of the Revolutionaryarmy, trained to standfirmly in rank during

the heat of battle.REVOLUTIONARY HATAmerican colonists usually wore “old-fashioned” three-corner cocked hats,tricorns, while the latest British stylewas the two-cornered bicorn.

PHILADELPHIA LIGHT HORSE FLAGA distinguished Revolutionary unitwas the Philadelphia Light Horse,made up of men from leadingPennsylvania families; the troop servedthroughout the war as a valuablescouting force for Washington’s army.

“Brown Bess”musket

REBEL GUN CREWA well-trained crew could swiftly load, aim,and fire; these artillerymen swab their gun’s

hot muzzle with adamp sponge to

eliminate sparksbefore reloading.

Artillery gaugeshows the angle atwhich the cannonbarrel must beplaced to hit agiven target

Shell forexplosive

EARLY BATTLES IN THE NORTHEarly clashes occurred in the Lake

Champlain-Hudson River corridor—the mainroute of travel between Canada and New

York. Dotted lines indicate colonial borders.

EARLIEST TROPHYThe flag of theBritish SeventhRegiment of Foot was the first evercaptured by anAmerican force; it was won in 1775 at the fall of FortChambly in Canada.

MONTGOMERY FALLSAmerican brigadier general Richard Montgomery was struck by cannon fire in the failedassault on Quebec on December 31, 1775; the second-in-command was Colonel Benedict

Arnold, shown arriving at right, who would be wounded in the defeat.

Montreal

Valcour Island

HudsonRiver

St. Lawrence River

CANADA

New York

Fort TiconderogaCrown Point

MA.

N.Y.

N.H.

CT. R.I.

Quebec

THE TAKING OF ETHAN ALLENDuring the American campaign to capture Montreal in late 1775, a forceof New England volunteers under Ethan Allen was trapped by British

and Canadians who charged out and took them prisoner.

Montgomery’sofficer’s sash

24

Lake Champlain

Early Northern battlesLATE IN 1775, AMERICANS MARCHED against the Canadian towns of Montreal and Quebec to prevent the British Navy from landing apowerful force there. Led by New York generalsPhilip Schuyler and Richard Montgomery, theexpedition captured Montreal in November, then moved against Quebec. Anotherexpedition—commanded by Benedict Arnold of Connecticut—crossed the Maine wilderness in a brutal march to join them. The combinedAmerican force was defeated at Quebec,however, and Montgomery killed. In spring of1776, a British army arrived at Quebec by ship,drove the Americans out, then invadedsouthward over Lake Champlain. Arnoldhurriedly built gunboats to challenge the muchlarger British fleet at Valcour Island. His vesselsfought gallantly, but were defeated. Still, suchresistance made the British worry about beingcaught in the open by the approach of winter.Instead of continuing the invasion, theywithdrew to Canada, planning to return in 1777.

Battle of Valcour IslandIn October 1776, Arnold forced theBritish fleet on Lake Champlain toattack his vessels at Valcour Island.Arnold’s flotilla was destroyed,but its fierce resistance made theBritish fear the lake could not becaptured before winter set in.

ONE-SIDED BATTLEThe little Americanfleet took shelterbehind ValcourIsland, firing bravelyat the chain ofBritish gunboatssupported bywarships in theforeground.

RETREAT TO FIGHT AGAINSeveral American vesselsescaped from the ValcourIsland defeat, but most werebadly damaged, even ablaze,so their crews had to run themaground and flee on foot.

12-pounder gun inits original carriage

OUT OF A WATERY GRAVEThe rebel gunboat Philadelphia,

sunk at Valcour Island, wasraised in 1935, and carefully

preserved; she is the oldestAmerican fighting vesselin existence.

Gunboat is54’4” long

25

THE LABOR OF LIBERTYBenjamin Franklin, left, and John Adams, center, members of the Declarationdrafting committee, helped Jefferson, right, prepare the document. Discarded

pages littered the floor as the men worked on the momentous words thatwould declare the colonies to be independent states.

COMMON SENSEIn 1776, ThomasPaine’s 50-page

pamphlet CommonSense stirred

up Americandetermination for

liberty, assertingthat government wasintended to serve the

people and fostertheir happiness, not

oppress them. Hesaid, “the last cord

is now broken”between America

and Britain.

THOMAS JEFFERSONThe 33-year-old Jefferson drafted the

Declaration of Independence forCongress. An excellent writer, he triedto create an inspiring document that

would convince the colonists to unite as one nation.

Drawer forpapers, pens,and inkwell

JEFFERSON’S DESKFar from his home and office in Virginia, Jefferson

used this folding portable writing desk to draft theDeclaration. The work required many solitary hours of

thinking, after which he returned to his desk to compose. Thesmall drawer holds writing implements such as quills and ink.

26

The Declaration of IndependenceIN JUNE 1776, THE COLONIES were ready for independence, but anofficial document was needed to set out the reasons for separatingfrom England. The Second Continental Congress, which met inPhiladelphia, established a five-member drafting committee towrite the document. Thomas Jefferson composed the first draft forthe committee to work on. By that time, thousands of Americanswere inspired by patriot Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense,which said “A government of our own is our natural right,” andJefferson agreed. When the document was presented to Congress,it contained a list of complaints against Great Britain, includingobjections to troops being sent to the colonies and the levying of taxes without American consent. The 56 delegates hotlydebated the final wording until July 4, when Congressunanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence.The formal copy of the Declaration was ready forsigning in August, and John Hancock, president ofCongress, boldly wrote his name largest of all.

THE ASSEMBLY ROOMThe chamber in Independence Hall, in Philadelphia where

Congress met to approve the Declaration, was much smaller thansuggested by John Trumbull’s painting. President Hancock sat atthe center rear, and the delegates were at tables around the room.

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCESigned by delegates from all the states, the Declaration

of Independence bore the heading, “In Congress, July 4,1776,” with the subhead, “The unanimous Declaration

of the thirteen United States of America.”

PRESENTING THE DECLARATION TO CONGRESSOn July 1, 1776, the five members of the Declaration of Independence

drafting committee formally presented their finished document toCongress’s president John Hancock, seated; the committeemen were,

from the left, Adams, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, RobertLivingston of New York, Jefferson, and Franklin. This

painting was done several years later by artist John Trumbull.

CONGRESS’S INKSTANDDelegates used thequills of this silverinkstand to signthe Declaration.

John Hancock’ssignature

27

SIGNALING HORNDrums, fifes, whistles,

bagpipes, and blowinghorns were used to send

orders to troops. The sound of a horn carried a long distance

and could be heard even over the din of battle.

BULLET MOLDSoldiers made ammunition

using molds such as this onecarved from soapstone.

The two halves of themold were fastenedtogether and moltenlead poured into the

channels leading tothe hollow forms. When

the lead cooled, the mold was opened to reveal musket balls.

A failed British attackBritish commander Sir Henry Clinton led a fleet of nine warships and 2,500 Redcoats againstCharleston in June 1776. Clinton landed troops toattack the fort on Sullivan’s Island, which guardedthe harbor, but the Redcoats were forced back.Then the fort’s guns so pounded the warships thatthe invasion was called off, and Charleston saved.The fort was named Fort Moultrie in honor of itscommander, Colonel William Moultrie.

CHARLESTON’S DEFENDERSouth Carolina’s Colonel

William Moultrie (1730–1805)was the hero of the Sullivan’sIsland engagement in 1776.Moultrie had only 21 gunsagainst the overwhelming

firepower of ten enemywarships, but his men fired

more accurately than the British.

AFTER WASHINGTON FORCED SIR WILLIAM HOWE toevacuate Boston in the spring of 1776, the British lookedfor another place to attack. Howe soon sent a smallexpedition against Charleston, South Carolina, but wasrepulsed. Next, he landed an enormous invasion force near New York and advanced across LongIsland to defeat Washington’s army. Outnumbered more than two to one, the Patriots regrouped,but were defeated again and again. Washington had to retreat across New Jersey, then over theDelaware River into Pennsylvania. It seemed Philadelphia would soon fall to the British. However, on Christmas Eve, Washington counterattacked, routinga detachment of German troops at Trenton, and a few days later he defeateda British force at Princeton. The Patriot army marched to Morristown in theNew Jersey hills, where it would remain camped for the winter. The British

victories at New York seemed less decisive nowthat Washington had struck back.

Battles and campaigns

28

A SOLDIER’S RAZORBeards were unfashionable among

Revolutionary soldiers of botharmies. When not on the march,

the men used straight razors to keep their faces clean-shaven.

A SECOND STUNNING BLOWEarly in January 1777, the aggressive British general, Lord Cornwallis, came after Washington to

avenge the Trenton defeat, but his quarry slipped away in the night. Washington’s 5,200-man armyimmediately struck at Cornwallis’s rear-guard in Princeton, inflicting casualties of 400 killed,

wounded, or captured. Only 40 patriots were killed or wounded.

RISING FROM DEFEATDriven from New York in1776, Washington’s army

retreated across theDelaware River. On

Christmas Day, hegambled everything by

crossing back over the ice-choked river and

surprising Germansoldiers at Trenton. The

victory stunned the Britishhigh command, whorealized the war was

not yet over.

AMERICAN GRENADIER CAPLike the British, some Patriottroops wore tall caps thatindicated they were in an elitecompany called grenadiers.This cap belonged to a soldierof the 26th Continental InfantryRegiment, which fought atTrenton in 1776.

THE BATTLE OF LONG ISLANDIn August 1776, Sir William Howe landed 32,000 troops close to NewYork City. Howe sent 20,000 soldiers against Washington’s 8,000-manarmy, which was fortified on Long Island. The Patriots were defeated

and trapped against the East River, but under cover of darknessWashington evacuated his army to Manhattan island.

Grenade design

Steel blade, 5 3/4 inches long

29

Boston

Newport

Battle of Long Island

PrincetonTrenton

Monmouth

Ft. Lee

Ft. Ticonderoga

Saratoga

Oriskany

New York City (Ft. Washington)

Long IslandDelaware R.

Lake Ontario

Lake Erie

Lake Champlain

Montreal

Quebec

Morristown

Philadelphia

Brandywine

Yorktown

GermantownValley Forge

Williamsburg

Charleston

Savannah

Cowpens

Guilford Courthouse

Ft. Detroit

Albany

West PointStony Point

Newburgh

Lexington & Concord

Virginia

North Carolina

South Carolina

Georgia

Pennsylvania

New York

CANADA

Maine(part of Mass.)

EAST FLORIDA(SPAIN)

Md. De.

N.J.

Ct.

Ma.

N.H.

R.I.

Atlantic Ocean

�

All

eghe

nyM

ount

ains

Hudson

River

Chesapeake Bay

St.

Law

renc

e R

iver

LETHAL POLE ARMSSpontoons were

symbols of rank andalso weapons for close

combat. At first,sergeants carried halberds

and officers carriedspontoons, or half-pikes. In

time, halberds were replacedby more effective swords or

muskets with bayonets.

Wooden shaft

THE COURSE OF WARIn 1777, Howe moved against Philadelphia and defeated Washington at

Brandywine and Germantown. Howe was forced to resign, however, for failing todestroy Washington’s army. Howe was also faulted for not supporting Burgoyne,who was captured at Saratoga. The new British commander, Sir Henry Clinton,abandoned Philadelphia in mid-1778 and returned to New York. Clinton then

shifted the main theater of action to the South in the hope of pacifying that region.

Battle siteTown or fort

KEY

Iron spontoons

Halberd

30

The greatest battlesIn August 1777, Sir William Howe landed15,000 British troops near Philadelphia andmet Washington’s army of 10,500 atBrandywine Creek. Howe triumphed andtook possession of Philadelphia. Yet, the rebelarmy remained intact. In September,Washington attacked British encampments atGermantown, Pennsylvania. The assaultdrove the enemy back, but Americaninexperience allowed a British counterattackto win the day. There was hope for theRevolutionary cause, however, as Burgoynewas captured at Saratoga in October. Duringthe following winter of 1777–78 at ValleyForge, Washington’s men were drilled inbattlefield maneuvers until they wereaccomplished soldiers. By summer, they wereready to attack the new enemy commander,Sir Henry Clinton, who had replaced Howe.Clinton abandoned Philadelphia, sending hisarmy across New Jersey toward New York.Washington attacked him at Monmouth, andthe battle ended a draw. Washington nextmoved his army to the Hudson Valley tocontinue the siege of New York City.

Continued from previous page

ANTHONY WAYNE (1745–96)Wayne was an aggressive

Continental commander,known as “Mad Anthony”because of his reckless spirit.

A Pennsylvanian, he fought inCanada and in the Philadelphia

and Monmouth campaigns of1777–78. He won fame in 1779for storming Stony Point

on the Hudson.

WASHINGTON STOPS LEE’S RETREATAs General Lee rode back with his division in full retreat,Washington arrived and angrily demanded to know why. Lee, aformer British dragoon officer, claimed his men could not standagainst such a formidable enemy. Washington exploded in anger,sent Lee to the rear, and hurried his troops into battle order. Leewas court-martialed and suspended from duty.

The Battle of MonmouthAs Clinton’s army of 10,000 men left Philadelphia in June1778, Washington decided to attack it. He sent GeneralCharles Lee with 6,400 men to begin the action, but Leelacked confidence and retreated when Clinton’s brigadesturned to face him. Washington, with 7,000 men, appeared at the crucial moment to stop the retreat. Furious with Lee,Washington took command and beat back several Britishassaults. Each side lost about 360 men. The Redcoats held thebattlefield but withdrew in the night, heading for New YorkCity. Monmouth was the last major battle in the North.

MOLLY PITCHER FIGHTS AT MONMOUTHWomen who carried water for their men in battle weregiven the nickname “Molly Pitcher.” The most famous

Molly was Mary Ludwig Hays, whose husband—aPennsylvania artilleryman—fell wounded at Monmouth.

Mary took his place, and after the battle, Washington,himself, commended her bravery.

DANIEL MORGAN (1736–1802)A frontier leader, General Morgan served againstBurgoyne and Howe in thebattles of 1777–78. He wasa skillful commander ofsharpshooting riflemen.Morgan’s great victorywas destroying a force of 1,100 in

1781 at Cowpens, South Carolina.

ATTACKING THE CHEW HOUSE AT GERMANTOWNThe first American assaults at Germantown drove the enemy back until 120Redcoats made a stand in a stone house belonging to the Chew family. The

Americans could not capture the house and their advance was held up. Then,confusion in heavy fog caused some Americans to fire on each other,

resulting in panic, and Washington’s army retreated.

A BRITISH “BROWN BESS”The Redcoat musket was

named for the brownish color of itsbarrel. A “Brown Bess” fired a .75-

caliber lead ball, accurate to about 75yards. The soldier carried a pick and

brush to clean black powder residue thatclogged the touch hole, which had to be clear

for the spark to ignite the charge.

Brush

Pick

Touch hole pickand brush

31

Touch hole

“Brown Bess”musket

MontrealSt. John

Ft. Chambly

Ft. Ticonderoga

Saratoga

AlbanyMASS.

VERMONT

CANADA

CONN.

Long Island

NEW YORK

New York City

Bennington

Hud

son

Riv

er

A CORRIDOR OF WARThe Lake Champlain-Hudson River

region had long been a strategicmilitary zone; Burgoyne thought hecould divide New England from therest of the colonies by capturing it.

THE FALL OF GENERAL FRASERThe most experienced British officer at Saratoga was General Simon Fraser, who was killed by an American sharpshooterfiring from high in a tree. Fraser had served in the colonies through the French and Indian War and was much loved by

his men; he often argued against Burgoyne’s misguided plans, but the overconfident commander ignored him.

32

Americansharpshooter

General Simon Fraseris shot

Victory at SaratogaA ROYAL ARMY SET OUT FROM CANADA in June 1777, journeyingover Lake Champlain in hundreds of vessels, large and small.Commanded by English general John Burgoyne, the force numberedabout 7,000, including Redcoats, Germans, loyalist Americans who

opposed the Revolution, and a few hundredIndian warriors. Burgoyne aimed to capture

Albany, New York, and join up with theBritish army operating around New YorkCity. In July, he captured Fort Ticonderoga.The British force advanced slowly downthe Hudson River north of Albany, but inAugust part of the army was defeated nearBennington, Vermont. In October, aftera month of fierce fighting at Saratoga,Burgoyne’s entire force was defeated andcaptured. This battle was the turning pointin the Revolution, convincing France thatthe American cause was worth supporting.JOHN BURGOYNE

The dashing General Burgoynewon the confidence of King GeorgeIII, who placed him in command of

the royal Northern Army for the 1777 campaign; Burgoyne

underestimated the strength of the American opposition, which

surrounded and captured hisexpedition at Saratoga, New York.

BURGOYNE OFFERS HIS SWORD IN DEFEATAt the Saratoga surrender ceremonies, General Gates receives Burgoyne, who offers his swordto the victor; at right, American officers look on, with royal officers at left. Following militarytradition, Gates only touched the sword, then allowed Burgoyne to keep it as a sign of respect

for a gallant, though defeated, opponent. Burgoyne was able to have the surrender terms called a “convention,” or agreement, rather than an unconditional surrender.

Powder measure

Ramrod

THE HEROIC ARNOLDBefore Benedict Arnold betrayed the cause of Revolution and joined the British, he was one of the best American generals; leading a successful assault against

German defenders during the Saratoga fighting, Arnold was shot from hishorse and severely wounded in the leg.

THE VICTORIOUS GATESAs overall commander

of the American army that triumphed at Saratoga,General Horatio Gates received

credit for the victory; in fact, Gates stayed away fromthe heat of battle, remaining safely at headquarterswhile Arnold and others led his troops into action.

A PRIZE OF WARThe American army never had enough artillery, soBritish guns such as this howitzer captured at Saratogawere often sent to other troops who needed them; thiscannon was inscribed by its captors with the proudwords: “Surrendered by the Convention of Saratoga,October 17, 1777.”

SHARPSHOOTING RIFLEThe most accurate firearm of the day,rifles were used by rangers andsharpshooters in both armies; the riflewas loaded with a measure of blackpowder poured into the barrel, followedby a lead ball pushed in with a woodenstarter and forced all the way down with a ramrod.

Rifle ball starter

REDCOAT KETTLE DRUMEach British regiment had a corps of

musicians that led the way on marchesand in parades, and in battle set

instruments aside to carry woundedmen; this kettle drum of the Ninth

Regiment of Foot—the Royal NorfolkRegiment—was captured by the

Americans at Saratoga.

33

GIFTS OF HONORGorgets were decoratedplates worn at the throat

by army officers toindicate rank. Some

were given by colonialgovernments to honor

native chiefs. The silvergorget with a neck strap

is believed to havebelonged to Iroquois

Joseph Brant.

SLAUGHTER AT ORISKANYIn 1777, an army of British, Loyalists, and Iroquois invaded New York from Canada, advancing along the Mohawk River. They attacked Fort

Stanwix, which refused to surrender. Militiamen hurrying to aid

Stanwix were ambushed at Oriskany by Iroquois led by war chief Joseph Brant. The militiamen retreated, but a fresh Patriot force caused the invaders to withdraw, and Stanwix was saved.

NATIVE PEOPLES WERE CAUGHT between the British and the Continental Congress during the Revolution.Indians feared a Patriot triumph would lead to masswhite migration into their lands, so most tribesremained loyal to Great Britain. Hoping the kingwould defend them, approximately 13,000 warriorsfought for the British, only a few hundred for therebels, and thousands more remained neutral.Vicious fighting between whites and Indians ragedalong the frontiers, from New York to Georgia. Earlyin the war, loyal Indians in the South were defeatedby Patriot forces, but in New York’s Mohawk Valley,Iroquois under Chief Joseph Brant joined loyalwhites and Redcoats to raid Patriot strongholds yearafter year. Armed by the British, warriors from theNorthwest Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois attacked frontier settlementsand farms. Led by George Rogers Clark, Virginia frontiersmen invaded theNorthwest in 1778–79, capturing the British governor and reducing attacksfrom that region.

Attacks on the frontier

JOSEPH BRANT (1742–1807)Called Thayendanega by his Iroquoispeople, Brant was a Loyalist during

the Revolution. Educated in aConnecticut Indian school, he becamesecretary to the British superintendentof Indian affairs and later commanded

Iroquois forces fighting patriots on the New York frontier.

34

The daring Long KnivesPatriot frontiersmen of Kentucky and western Virginia werenicknamed “Long Knives” because they carried extremely largehunting knives. Throughout the Revolution, their scouting partiesfought bitterly against Loyalist Indian nations. In 1778, 200Long Knives led by George Rogers Clark journeyed into thewilderness of the Old Northwest—Ohio, Illinois, andIndiana—to surprise important British trading posts. Clarkcaptured forts at Vincennes and Kaskaskia and made aprisoner of Redcoat commander, Lieutenant Colonel HenryHamilton. As a result, the British Army held only FortDetroit in the Northwest.

POWDER HORNPrecious blackgunpowder used inthe frontier long riflewas kept safe and dry inhollowed-out cow horns thatwere sealed with carved wooden plugsand slung on rawhide thongs. Even in wetwilderness conditions, powder horns wereeffective in protecting gunpowder.

TERMS OF SURRENDERBy marching 20 flags back and forth

behind thickets and beating on drums,Clark tricked Hamilton into believing apowerful Patriot force surrounded the

fort. Hamilton soon agreed to signClark’s articles of surrender.

THE AMERICAN RIFLEMANThe frontier rifleman was

physically tough and knewforest fighting as well as anyIndian warrior. He wore afringed hunting shirt andleggins and carried atomahawk and long-bladedknife. Respected assharpshooters and scouts,riflemen roved the forestpaths to protect settlementsand watch for enemy warparties. Frontiersmen oftenambushed the enemy andwere ambushed in turn.

Long rifle

Cowhorn

Rawhide strapfor carrying

Hunting knife

Iron blade

Round-brimmedhat with feather

Legginsprotect legsand feet

GEORGE ROGERS CLARK (1752–1818)This Virginia frontiersman was an explorer

and surveyor in the Ohio Valley andKentucky when the Revolution began.Clark commanded the region’s Patriotmilitia, which defended Northwestsettlements against Loyalist raidersand their Indian allies. In 1778, he leda force into Illinois territory andcaptured key enemy forts.

FORT SACKVILLE FALLS TO CLARKIn his 1778–79 campaign, Colonel George Rogers led a grueling winter march to capture Fort Sackville at

Vincennes, on the Wabash River. British commander Henry Hamilton surrendered the post to Clark,assuring Patriot control of a vast frontier region that included the future Indiana and Illinois.

HUNTING KNIFEFrontiersmen

depended on a goodknife for skinning

game, preparing food,and for close-in fighting.

This long blade has ahandle made of antler.

35

FREEZING DUTYA winter encampment had tobe guarded at all times, sosentries like this shiveringsoldier wrapped themselves in

whatever they could find tokeep off the cold. This

man has bundledhimself in ablanket coat andwrapped hishead and feet incloth rags.

VISITING THE TROOPSGeneral Washington, left, rides out

from headquarters to see how well hismen are keeping warm and dry.

Accompanied by French volunteer theMarquis de Lafayette, Washington

makes sure the sentries are alert andon guard, like the soldier standing at

attention before him.

ICE CREEPERSBound with leather straps toshoes or boots, these iron cleatsallowed a soldier to cross a frozensurface without slipping. Men in winter campworked outside caring for livestock, erectingbuildings, and fetching water and firewood.

Leather strap

VON STEUBEN’S MANUALBaron Von Steuben wrote a drill

manual, Regulations for the Order and Disciplineof the Troops of the United States, which was

used to train the entire American army.

Winter soldierWHEN COLD WEATHER CAME, American forces in northern climateshad to survive the bitter conditions. Although both armies usuallystayed in quarters during the worst weather, Washington wasalways on the alert for a surprise enemy attack. In the winter of1778–79, his little army was weak and hungry when it went intocamp at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. By spring, however, itemerged as a solid fighting force. This was thanks to former

Prussian officer Baron Friedrich vonSteuben, who for months trainedofficers and men in essential battlefielddrills. Yet, winter quarters were morethan just a time for drilling and trying to keep warm. Since the army usuallyhad a different camp each year, the menhad to build log huts and shelters forlivestock, equipment, and supplies. At Morristown, New Jersey, forexample, Washington’s army required more than 1,200 buildingsfor its encampment.

BARON FRIEDRICH VON STEUBEN

A soldier in his nativePrussia, Von Steuben joinedWashington’s army at Valley

Forge and organized asystem of drilling troops.This Prussian nobleman

trained a group of officerswho, in turn, taught their

own men what they had learned.

36

THE SOLDIER’S WINTER HOMEClose quarters, but warm, a log hut held twelve men, who slept on

bunks three high. Loose straw covered with a blanket served asbedding, and it was in his bunk that the soldier kept his few personal

effects—clothing, letters, Bible, and playing cards.

WASHINGTON’S LIFE GUARDOn duty at a winter encampment, this dashing soldier is a member of

the corps that protected GeneralWashington. Called the “Life

Guard,” this unit of speciallychosen men numbered

between 180–250 duringthe war. The men of theLife Guard protected

headquarters and livednear the general’s residence.

Officer’s uniform

OFFICER’S TRUNKThe few possessions an American officer

brought with him to camp could be carried inthis leather-covered trunk. The inside is linedwith blue paper, the outside studded with brasstacks that protect it during rough handling.

MOUTH HARPThis musical instrument

gave a twanging soundwhen it was held

between the teeth and the steel vibrator,

which is missing in the picture, was plucked.

37

Missing steel vibratorwould be here

Iron mouth harp

BUILDING LOG HUTS IN THE SNOWIt was already cold and snow had fallen by the time the American

army withdrew from the field after a warm-weather campaign. Before troops could go into winter encampment, they had to build their own

shelters, hundreds of them. Men chopped down logs in the forest and carried them to huts under construction, while teams of oxen hauled heavier loads and flattened roadways through deep snow.

THE BETSY ROSS TALEIn 1777, the new United

States needed a “nationalcolor” to replace the “Grand

Union” flag that bore theBritish Union Jack. Once the

new design of stars andstripes was approved byCongress, legend has it,Philadelphia seamstress

Elizabeth “Betsy” Ross wasasked by General

Washington to sew the firstnational flag. No historicalevidence other than a Ross

family tradition backs upthe Betsy Ross legend, yetit has been popularized inhistories and celebrated in

many dramatic illustrations.

THE NATIONAL COLORSThe first American flag wasthe “Grand Union” flag,combining the BritishUnion Jack and 13 stripesfor each state. On June 14,1777, Congress resolved theflag of the United Stateswould be 13 stars on a bluefield and 13 red and whitestripes. No definitearrangement of the starswas determined, so variousdesigns were used at first:one had stars in a circle,others had the starsarranged as seen above.

Symbols of freedomTHE EARLY FLAG OF THE UNITED STATES HAD 13 STRIPES TOrepresent the states, and it displayed the Union Jack to honorthe colonies’ British heritage. When independence became thegoal, Congress adopted a new flag with a field of stars for thestates. Philadelphia’s “Liberty Bell,” which rang out to celebratethe Declaration of Independence, became a symbol of theRevolution. So did artifacts once used on the battlefield orowned by patriots. Another celebration of liberty was “YankeeDoodle,” a well-known tune sung by Redcoats with versesmocking Americans. New verses soon were composed bypatriots, who expressed the pride of the revolutionaries:“Yankee Doodle is the tune/That we all delight in;/It suits forfeasts, it suits for fun,/And just as well for fighting!” Onerevolutionary symbol, the “Liberty Cap,” became a popularelement on weather vanes for many years to come.

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LIBERTY BELLIn 1751, Pennsylvania ordered a

bell from England for the newstate house. Inscribed “Proclaim

Liberty thro’ all the land,” thebell cracked the first time it wasrung and had to be repaired. In

use for more than 75 years, ittolled sadly in 1765, when the

hated Stamp Act went into effect,and joyously to celebrate the

act’s repeal. In 1776, it rang evenmore joyously for the

Declaration of Independence. Itcracked again in 1835.

The famous crack

Liberty cap design

SONG OF DEFIANCEEarly in the Revolution, the song“Yankee Doodle” was sung byRedcoats whose verses mockedNew England “Yankee” militiamen,calling them “doodles,” or fools.Later, when the Yankees werevictorious in battle, they hurled theinsult back at the British by singingthe “Yankee Doodle” melody withnew, patriotic words.

LIBERTY CAP IN IRONOne of the symbols of the

American Revolution was aknitted hat with a dangling tassel.Known as a “Liberty Cap,” it wasworn defiantly as a statement of aradical political position. The capwas so popular that iron weathervanes were forged into the cap’s

shape, painted, and fixed proudlyto the peaks and cupolas of barns

and houses.

FRANKLIN’S GIFTTO WASHINGTONBenjamin Franklinspecified in his will

that his “fine crab treewalking stick with a gold

head curiously wroughtin the form of a cap of

liberty” would be left to his “friend and the friend

of mankind, GeneralWashington.” Franklin

died in 1790.

FIFE AND DRUM OF FREEDOMThis applewood military fife was played by Jonathan Curtis of

Concord, Massachusetts, a militiaman in the Revolution. The drum belongedto militiaman William Diamond of Lexington, Massachusetts, who beat out thesignal for his companions to muster and confront the Redcoats on LexingtonCommon on April 19, 1775, where the first shots of the war were fired.

Militia fife

Drum body, painted

HoopsLeather lugsfor tighteningropes

Ropes fortension

Tassel

Painted finish

Walking stickmade from crabtree wood

39

FRANKLIN AT THEFRENCH COURT

Scientist, inventor,philosopher, writer, and

diplomat BenjaminFranklin was famous

throughout France andwarmly welcomed when

he and the Americandelegation arrived in 1777.

They were presented atthe royal palace of

Versailles to King LouisXVI, who approved

financial and militarysupport crucial to the

success of the Revolution.

GOLDEN LOUISThis French Louis D’Or goldpiece was a boon to theRevolution when it, andthousands more just like it,arrived in America as a gift from France. Decorated with the fleur-de-lis and the likeness of the French king, the“Louis” helped turnthe tide in favor of the Revolution.

A NOBLE VOLUNTEERIn 1777, French nobleman Marquisde Lafayette volunteered as an aide

to General Washington. Unlikesome French officers, who

demanded a high rank, Lafayettemodestly offered to do whateverwas needed. An excellent officer,

he quickly became a general.

Image of King Louis XVI

Crown

Fleur-de-lis

FRENCH ROYAL SYMBOLThe fleur-de-lis, or “lilyflower,” decorated thecoat of arms of theBourbons, the Frenchroyal house.

France becomes an allyAMERICA DESPERATELY NEEDED MILITARY SUPPLIES, cash, and anavy. That meant finding allies. The most obvious was France,eager to avenge defeat by Britain in the Seven Years’ War. By mid-1776, France was secretly sending financial aid and supplies tosupport the Revolution, but more was needed. That year, BenjaminFranklin traveled to Paris to arrange a formal alliance with King

Louis XVI. Much admired in France as a diplomat, inventor, andwriter, Franklin was head of the American negotiators, who includedJohn Adams. The Americans found a friend in the foreign ministerComte de (Count of) Vergennes, who masterminded France’s warefforts. More cash—gifts and loans—went to America, as didshiploads of military supplies. By early 1778, a state of war existedbetween France and Britain. Adventurous French officers volunteeredfor the American army, one of the best being the Marquis deLafayette. Eventually, more than 12,000 French troops would fight inAmerica under their main commander, Comte de Rochambeau.

40

FRENCH SWORDThere were many

types and sizes ofswords, from the

cavalryman’s heavysaber to this light and

slender French “smallsword,” ideal for an

infantry officer. The blade is iron, with silver

decorating the hilt—as the handle was called.

LOCK FROM A FRENCH MUSKETThis iron gunlock, the firing mechanism of a Frenchmusket, was found on a Revolutionary Warbattlefield. Thousands of muskets were sent to helpthe Americans. The cock holds a piece of flint thatstrikes the steel frizzen when the trigger is pulled,making a spark that ignites gunpowder in the panand fires the bullet in the barrel of the musket.

THE FRENCH COMMANDERThe leader of French troopsin North America, JeanBaptiste Donatien de Vimeur,Comte de Rochambeau, hadhigh regard for GeorgeWashington. Rochambeaucommanded more than 7,000well-equipped Frenchsoldiers. He treatedWashington and theAmericans as equals, eventhough the Revolutionaryarmy was weak andimpoverished compared tothe French. At one point,Rochambeau opened hisarmy’s war chest toWashington, offering to sharehalf of the money it held.

JOHN ADAMS INSPECTS FRENCH MARINESThe French army included several regiments of Irish-born troops, who often wore red uniforms. These men,who are being inspected by American diplomat John Adams in l’Orient on the coast of France, are Irishmen

from the Regiment de Walsh-Serrant. They have volunteered as marines for the American warship Bonhomme Richard. The ship was commanded by John Paul Jones, who made raids from French ports.

Cock

Pan

Frizzen

COMTE DE VERGENNESFrench foreign minister Charles Gravier, Comte de

Vergennes, was a key player in the early secretcontributions of funds and supplies to the

American revolutionaries. Vergennes aimed toweaken the British Empire so France could become

the world’s greatest power. France’s support ofAmerica led to all-out war in 1778.

Gap for flint

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Royal Navyensign

SEAMEN WANTED!Posters called for sailors to enlist with commander John Paul Jones and make their fortunes. When an enemy vessel was captured—made a “prize”—it was sold off and the money dividedamong the victorious officers and crew.

A FRENCH ADMIRALAdmiral Charles Comte d’Estaing was an

unsuccessful French leader. In 1778, he failedto seal off, “blockade,” New York harbor. Next, he

refused to aid an American attack on Rhode Island, andlater could not wipe out weaker enemy squadrons in the Caribbean. Hewas wounded in a defeat at Savannah in 1779.

South Carolinanaval flag

AMERICANS LACKED WARSHIPS to challenge thepowerful British Navy, but soon tried a newinvention: the submarine. In 1776, the Turtleattempted to attach a bomb beneath a warship inNew York harbor. When the plan failed,submarines were forgotten for decades to come.British ships dominated American waters until theFrench fleet arrived to challenge them in 1778. TheFrench were unsuccessful in the beginning, mainlybecause the first French admiral to appear, Comted’Estaing, was inexperienced. While huge sea battlesraged between French and British fleets in Caribbeanand European waters, the Americans had triumphs of

their own. Congress authorized privateship owners—“privateers,”—to attackenemy vessels. Military stores brought back by privateers and by merchant ships that ran the British blockade were essential

to the Revolutionary cause. John Paul Jones was the best of the Americancommanders.

The war at seaDrill to bore a holein aship’s hull Propeller

to rise orsubmerge

Propellerto moveforwardRudder

steers vessel

THE TURTLEThe first combat submarine,called the Turtle, went into action in September 1776 in

New York harbor. Its one-mancrew tried unsuccessfully toattach a bomb to the hull of

a British warship.

Bomb hold

NAVAL FLAGSThe British Royal Navy’s flag, orensign, has the Union Jack in theupper left corner, on a red field.The independent statesdesigned flags for their ownwarships. South Carolina’sships displayed a rattlesnakewith the warning, “Don’ttread on me.”

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Anchor

Bowsprit

Rudder

Gun portsfor cannon

Captain’s cabin(Great cabin)

Mizzen mast

Ship’s wheel

Fore top mast

Fore top platform

Main mast

Main top mast

Mizzen top mast

A battle to the deathJohn Paul Jones captured many British merchantvessels and also won victories against warships. In 1779, Jones led his Bonhomme Richard in a fatalbattle with the enemy’s flagship, Serapis—misspelled “Seraphis” in the art at right. TheBritish captain saw the American ship was sinkingand demanded Jones’s surrender. Jones answered,“I have not yet begun to fight!” He captured theSerapis as his own vessel went down. In 1787, agrateful Congress honored Jones with a goldmedal for his service.

Jack staff

SCENES FROM THE CAREER OF JOHN PAUL JONESJohn Paul Jones was a daring commander of a Continental Navy squadron. The centralimage shows Jones attacking one of his officers, who wanted to surrender during battle

with the Serapis. Jones eventually seized the enemy ship—picture top right.1787 John Paul Jones Medal

THE CONTINENTALNAVY’S RALEIGHThe 32-gun frigate Raleigh wasone of the 13-ship fleet of the firstContinental Navy. Frigates werefast, medium-sized warshipscarrying between 28 and 60 guns.Raleigh was eventually capturedby the British, who so admiredher design that they copied it for their own vessels.

Revolutionarywarship John Paul

Jones

Fore mast

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ALEXANDER HAMILTON(1755–1804)

Born in the West Indies,Hamilton came to New

York while in his teens. Hestudied at King’s College

and became an active Patriot,serving as an artilleryman.

Hamilton later becameWashington’s military secretary and

was known as the “Pen of the Army.”

SIR HENRY CLINTON (1738–95)Known for bravery on the battlefield, Clinton was

Howe’s top lieutenant general during the invasionof New York in 1776. In 1778, he succeeded Howe in

overall command, but resigned in 1781 after failing toachieve victory over the revolutionaries.

GERMAN TROOPS LAND IN NEW YORKThe British hired regiments of German soldiers to fight in America. Germans

helped capture New York in 1776, then occupied Manhattan.

THE BEGGAR’S OPERANew York was known for itslively theaters, and the mostpopular musical play of theperiod was “The Beggar’sOpera.” A comedy thatmade fun of highsociety, “The Beggar’sOpera” was enjoyedby citizens, as wellas Redcoat officersand soldiers.

DOWNING THE KING’S STATUEA celebration was held in July 1776, when the

Declaration of Independence was read to the Americanarmy occupying New York. Wanting more excitement, a

mob at the Bowling Green tore down a lead statue ofKing George and chopped off its head.

BATTLE FOR A LIBERTY POLEBefore the Revolution, Patriots and Redcoatssometimes clashed in New York City. Often,

Liberty Poles were the cause of hostility. Symbolsof resistance to the British, Liberty Poles wereraised by Patriots and torn down by soldiers

after bloody fights.

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Embattled New YorkIN 1775, PATRIOT ACTIVISTS SUCH AS Alexander Hamilton andthe Sons of Liberty were outnumbered by Loyalists in NewYork City, which was bitterly divided. After losing Boston earlyin 1776, Sir William Howe captured New York that summer,driving out Washington and the rebel sympathizers. Patriotsburned down part of New York, but Redcoats held on to thecity for the rest of the war. Loyalists fled there by thethousands, causing overcrowding and food shortages. Folk in the besieged city tried to go on with their lives, holdingtheatrical performances and bright social events. Yet, the many burned houses still lay in ruins, and troops had to be quartered in churches and publicbuildings. After peace was made, the last British soldiers left New York onNovember 25, 1783. This was known as “Evacuation Day,” and Washingtonand his few remaining officers rode into take back the city.

The great fireAs the British moved into New York in 1776,Washington wanted to prevent use of the city asa British base. Although it is not known if directorders were given, rebel infiltrators soon setmuch of New York ablaze, destroyingbuildings that would have becomeRedcoat barracks and residences.

Washington’s main army had been disbanded by November 25, 1783,when he and a small group of officers rode in to take possession of New

York City from the departing British. Known as “Evacuation Day,” thisdate was celebrated in New York for many years to come.

FLYING THE STARS AND STRIPES

British soldiers leaving NewYork nailed the Union Jack

to a flagpole, making itdifficult to get down. WhileRedcoats watched, a Patriot

climbed up, tore off theflag, and put up the Stars

and Stripes instead.

Steel striker

Flint

TINDER LIGHTERLike a flintlock musket, this lighter

sparked to ignite tinder—flammable material kept dry

in a box. Burning tinderwould then be used toignite kindling to start afire. A steel striker wasstruck against flint tocreate a spark.

Tinder box

BURNING AND KILLINGAs buildings in New York roared into flame on September 21, 1776, British

soldiers beat and bayonetted suspected arsonists. Servants salvaged what theycould from the fires, but the destruction was widespread. For years to come, the

lack of housing was a hardship for occupying soldier and civilian alike.

TRIUMPHANT ENTRY INTO THE CITY

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SPYING ANDSCULPTINGFamous for

fashioning headsout of putty or

wax, American-born sculptor

Patience Wrightowned a studio in

London. A supporterof the rebel cause,Wright conversed

with her subjects about British military

plans, then passed on to Patriot agentswhatever she learned.

A LIFE FOR THE CAUSE OF LIBERTYIn mid-1776, Connecticut Patriot officerNathan Hale slipped into occupied NewYork City disguised as a schoolmaster.While observing British defenses, hewas taken prisoner and sentenced to be hanged. Legend has it that Haleannounced, “I regret that I have but one lifeto give for mycountry!”

HOLLOW BULLETA piece of paperbearing a messagefrom one Britishcommander to anotherwas folded tightly and

concealed in this hollowbullet made of silver.

COIN FORCONSPIRACIES

Very little “hardmoney,” as coins

were termed, existedin Revolutionary

America, and what there wasincluded Spanish silver reales,sometimes cut into several pieces.Spies had to be paid, and secret

messengers needed cash to buyhorses or pay for ferries or

food, and any silver moneywould do.

Silver coin cut into quarter

46

Spies and traitorsDURING THE REVOLUTION, SECRET MESSAGES were

sometimes written in code, often hidden in shoe heels,and at least once in a hollow silver bullet. If disguisedcouriers and spies were captured, they were hanged.This was the fate of Nathan Hale, a 20-year-oldContinental officer caught while spying inNew York in 1776. One patriot courier wasDeborah Champion, who rode more than 75miles from her home in Connecticut, carryingmilitary dispatches to George Washingtonnear Boston. She was allowed to pass byBritish patrols who considered her harmless.Through much of the war, Washingtoncounted on Major Benjamin Tallmadge tomeet secretly with undercover agents andto keep them provided with money. NewJersey-born Patience Wright, who lived inEngland during the war, hid messages inside

sculptures that she made and shipped back toAmerican patriots. The most notorious traitorwas Benedict Arnold, a rebel general whoturned against the Revolution. Arnold’splan to surrender West Point in 1780was uncovered in the nick of time.

A PATRIOT WOMAN’S CLOAKDuring Washington’s 1775–76

siege of Boston, DeborahChampion (1753–1845) secretlycarried messages and the army

payroll to rebel troops there.Wearing this hooded cloak,

Champion rode from Norwich,Connecticut, with dispatchesand funds sent by her father,General Henry Champion.

WASHINGTON’S SPYMASTERDragoon major Benjamin Tallmadge

(1754–1835) was a link between Washingtonand secret agents operating in and around

British-controlled New York City. Quickaction by Tallmadge in 1780 revealed that

captured Major John André was a British spy,exposing Benedict Arnold’s plot to betray

West Point, a key fort on the Hudson River.

Turncoat heroGeneral Benedict Arnold had great success on thebattlefield, but he came to despise Congress when it placed other officers ahead of him in rank.Disillusioned with the Revolution, he conspired in1780 to help the British capture West Point. Whenthe plot was discovered, he escaped to join theBritish. The royal army had little use for hisservices, however, so Arnold went to Englandwith his wife and children.

A LOYAL WIFEPhiladelphian Peggy(Shippen) Arnold marriedBenedict Arnold when hewas commander of thatcity’s Patriot garrison. Shewas with him during theWest Point espionageaffair but was notconsidered a co-

conspirator. Afterward, she and their son, Edward,were allowed to rejoinArnold behind British lines.

BENEDICT ARNOLD (1741–1801)Once the most popular Americanmilitary hero after Washington,

Arnold became, in 1780, the mosthated turncoat when he tried to

arrange the British capture of WestPoint, which he commanded. He

escaped and joined the royal forces,but saw only limited action and left

American for Britain in 1781.

DOCUMENT BOXImportant papers,correspondence, andmilitary dispatches neededto be sheltered from theelements and from pryingeyes. This leather, brass,and canvas strongboxcould be locked securelyto protect its contents.

47

Traveling in disguise after secretly meeting American turncoatBenedict Arnold in 1780, British major John André wasstopped by rebel sentries, who discovered a suspicious

message hidden in the heel of his boot. André was condemned and hanged as a spy. Many on both sides, includingWashington, regretted the execution of so fine an officer.

CAPTURED AND EXPOSED

REDCOAT PILLAGINGAlthough British and American soldiers were not encouraged to

raid farmsteads and steal from houses, it often happened thatcivilians known to support one cause were treated severely by

hostile soldiers. These Redcoats, with officers and the distraughtfamily looking on, are ransacking a house in New Jersey. A malemember of the family has been injured and lies stunned nearby.

FARM WORK GOES ONMost Americans lived on family farms during theRevolution, and despite the war, planting and harvestinghad to be done according to the seasons. The cropsdepended on the simple plow, held by the strong-backedfarmer while draft animals pulled.

AFTER PLANTING, THE HOEING

To keep weeds downbetween the rows of

corn, vegetables, andtobacco, farmers

worked the earthwith an iron

hoe attachedto a stout

handle.

Home front and behind the linesTHE REVOLUTION WAS A BITTER CIVIL WAR, with Americans dividedinto three equal camps: Patriots, Loyalists, and neutrals. The armies in thefield were small, only a few thousand on each side, but for eight long yearsa vast country from Maine to Georgia was in a state of war. Loyalistsgathered in cities that were British strongholds, while Patriots gained militarycontrol of most of the countryside. People changed sides according to whicharmy was in power locally, and those who wanted to remain neutral were oftenharassed by both armies. In country between the hostile forces, such as NewJersey and southern New York, no one was safe from raiders and pillagers, bothmilitary and civilian. Yet, life went on according to the seasons, and families worked

hard to survive, hoping war would notsweep their way. Most Americans

made the best of things, stayedwarm by their own firesides, metneighbors at the public house, andkept out of the fighting.

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Hearth and homeHome life centered on the hearth, where foodwas cooked and hands warmed. The hearthmight be made of brick, cut stone, or driedclay, but it always had to have a readysupply of kindling and firewood—the taskof the children, who fetched it from the

woodshed. Family, servants, and farmhandscame together in the kitchen-gathering roombeside the fire burning in the hearth.

HUNGRY FOR NEWSPatrons of a New York City coffeehouse read the newspapers, which mightconsist of recent editions published in the British-occupied city, month-old

papers from England, or journals from rebel-held New Jersey. As many as 40newspapers thrived in the colonies in Revolutionary times, publishing news,

announcements, and advertisements.

A PRIZED JUGPottery works were foundthroughout America, butfamily heirlooms broughtfrom Europe were treasured

and handed down throughthe generations. This Rhenish

jug is gray salt-glazedstoneware, probably broughtover from Germany.

COMFORTABLE AND GRACIOUSThe woman’s everyday dress ofthe period combined grace andelegance with practicality and

comfort. The close-fitting bodiceabove a petticoat and full overskirt

allowed freedom of movementwhile modestly concealing the

woman’s ankles from view.

THE FAMILY MEALThe women of the house were in charge of the kitchen and the hearth, andspent many hours preparing food, preserving fruits and vegetables, dryingherbs, and smoking meat. The hearth was almost always in use, although in

warm climates families often used outside kitchens, too.Finely dressedcolonial doll

A FAVORITE PIPEIn public houses, clay pipes were available

to guests. A small piece of the end wasbroken off so the guest would have

a fresh stem to smoke.

Fill hole

Corkscrew

Woodenstaves

Iron hoops bindwooden staves

Fitted bodice

Brown tabbysilk material

A KEG FOR STRONG DRINKBrewed and distilled spiritswere consumed widely inAmerica, where water wasoften too polluted to drink.Instead, hard cider and beer

quenched the thirst. The mostcommon alcoholic beveragewas rum, stored in wooden

kegs sealed by a cork.

Green-lead glass bottle

The public houseTaverns and inns were known as “public houses,”where folk gathered to drink and eat, read newspapers,share stories, and gossip—as well as gamble at dice and cards.Also called “ordinaries,” the public house offered room and boardfor travelers. Political meetings were often held in public houses,as neighbors debated the important issues of the day.

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FEEDING AND EQUIPPING THE ARMIES came beforecaring for captured enemy soldiers, so prisonersfrom both sides were poorly treated. Alwaysshort of money, both Congress and Parliamenttried to avoid war expenses as much as theycould. This meant ignoring the needs ofprisoners, who were too often treated

inhumanely. British prison ships were notoriouslycruel, and so were Patriot prison camps where

captured Loyalists and Redcoats were kept. Wealthyprisoners, such as Patriot diplomat Henry Laurens,could purchase what they needed to survive, butmost captured soldiers were in for a desperateexperience. It was no wonder that prisoners werebadly cared for since the enlisted soldier also wasoften neglected. While British soldiers were far betterfed and equipped than Americans, both dependedon their camp followers to give them comfort.The women and merchants following thearmies provided food, drink, and welcome companionship to theoff-duty soldier.

UNLOADING ESSENTIAL SUPPLIESMilitary encampments required asteady flow of loaded wagons to

feed, clothe, shelter, and equip thetroops. Rugged Conestoga coveredwagons pulled by teams of four to

six oxen or horses were capable ofhauling 15,000 pounds of cargo over

rough roads. During the first years ofthe war, Patriot encampments received little

in the way of supplies or equipment andmen made do with half rations.

Door forreplacing orextinguishingcandle

WORTHLESS MONEYCongress created its own “Continental”money, coins and paper dollars to bespent for the war effort. Many peopledid not want to accept Continental

money in payment, however,because the rebels might lose

the war, which would make themoney worthless.

IMPRISONED IN THE TOWERA former president of Congress,

South Carolina patriot HenryLaurens (1724–92) was captured

while journeying by ship in1780. Laurens was thrown intothe infamous Tower of Londonand threatened with execution.

Exchanged for GeneralCornwallis, Laurens went to

Paris as a peace delegate.

Camps and prisons

CANDLE LANTERNIron lanterns with candles

inside were carried around orsuspended on a hook. Theselanterns gave little light, but

few people went out afterdark, especially since candles

were scarce in wartime.

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The fortunes of warPrisons for the enlisted men of both sides wereunhealthy, cruel places, where thousands died orpermanently lost their health because of the abuse oftheir captors. Officers were treated far better, andwere usually exchanged for an enemy prisoner ofequal rank. The average soldier, however, was throwninto a hell-hole of captivity and left to rot for years,with a slim chance for survival or recovery.

CAVERNS CALLED “HELL”Just as cruel as British prison ships, the

American prison in the copper minesof Newgate, Connecticut, took the

lives or health of many hundredcaptured Loyalists. Prisoners were

forced to work deep beneath thesurface in caverns they called

“Hell.” These men were brutallytreated by their guards, whodespised them for opposing

the Revolution.

THE CRUEL PRISON SHIPSPatriot prisoners in the New York area were crammedinto old ships anchored around the city. These “prisonhulks,” such as the Jersey, anchored off Brooklyn, were

damp, filthy, and cold, causing hundreds of starvedprisoners to fall ill and die. Vicious military guardsadded to the woes of those Americans unfortunate

enough to be kept in the prison hulks.

COOKING FOR THE TROOPSCamp followers were also found near prisoner-of-war enclosures, and a

certain amount of communication was allowed between captives andtheir families. These folk cooked on open fires in their own encampments,often selling food to captive and sentry alike. Many women earned a little

money by washing the laundry of men from both armies.

EATING UTENSILSWith long hours in camp,

soldiers had time to carve boneand horn and whittle wood. Among their

creations were spoons and cups, whichwere needed to replace utensils lost whilecampaigning. A fine fork was precious—

hard to come by for a soldierwith no money inan army that was

just as poor.

Carvedinitials,“WCW”

Drinking cup madefrom a horn

Gridiron for cookingover campfire

Legs to standover flame

Brass fork withwooden handle

Spoon carvedfrom deer antler

Following the troopsFor every army in the field or in camp, therewere crowds of civilians who stayed close by.These “camp followers” included wives andchildren of soldiers and merchants who soldwares to the troops. When not marching orfighting, soldiers had considerable freedom tovisit their families among the camp followers,enjoying meals that were better than army fare.

51

LANCET AND CASEThis two-bladed lancet

has pointed, double-edgedblades used for bloodlettingand cutting veins; the lancet

was also for opening upinfections to drain them.

Leather carrying case

Steel lancet blades

BATTLEFIELD FIRST AIDA foot wound is bandaged as thesoldier groans, since anesthesia to easepain was unknown in Revolutionarytimes. The surgeon tries to stop thebleeding. His small medicine chest ofsupplies contains no antiseptic

for cleaning wounds. As withanesthesia, antiseptics are not yet known to doctors.

The soldier’s doctorIN 1775, THE COLONIES HAD ABOUT 3,500 PHYSICIANS, butonly 400 had university degrees. The rest had learned theirskills through apprenticeship. Few trained doctors servedwith the Revolutionary armies. One leading Patriotphysician, Dr. Benjamin Rush of Philadelphia, wrote amanual on keeping soldiers healthy, but diseases such assmallpox, typhus, and malaria killed ten times more menthan died in battle. Because Congress did not provide theneeded funds, military hospitals were short-staffed andlacked supplies, medicine, and healthful food. Medicines ofthe day ranged from herbal remedies to prepared mixtures ofpowdered drugs and chemicals, but little was available tomilitary hospitals. There, conditions were primitive: surgicaltools for extracting bullets, amputating limbs, and drawing bloodwere not sterilized or even washed, and bandages were reused.Many men died from minor wounds that became infected and did not heal. In time, better hospitals were designed, improving chances for recovery.

BENJAMIN RUSHA leading patriot and politician, Dr. Benjamin Rush served as a

Continental Army medicaladministrator, but resigned infrustration over the hospitaldepartment’s incompetence.

Rush went on to be an influentialAmerican physician, writer,

and educator.

52

IMPROVED HOSPITALSMilitary planners eventually built specially designed cabins to replace crowded,

unhealthy sick chambers in tents and private homes. This Valley Forge hospital hut wasbuilt to allow the free flow of air, which helped improve patients’ health.

MedicalequipmentOld bandages were pulledapart by iron forceps to seeif the wound was healing.Placing a glass cup against theskin—“cupping”—drew bloodand pus to the surface. A pewter

bowl caught bloodand fluids but wasseldom used for waterbecause wounds were

not cleaned.

Forceps

THE APOTHECARY’S ARTApothecaries made, mixed, and sold drugs, butmost families used homegrown medicinal herbs.

For serious illnesses the apothecary hadimported drugs—such as cinchona bark for

malaria—and prepared purgatives to cleansethe system: ipecac, tartar emetic, and jalap.

PORTABLE MEDICINE CHESTMilitary physicians kept

medicines in a wooden chest thatalso held syringes, sponges,

forceps, bandages, twine, andpharmaceutical equipment for

weighing and mixing ingredients.Hospitals used large chests, with

80 or more different medicines,while regimental surgeons in the

field carried smaller chests.

Cupping glass

Pewter bowl

Side compartments swing open on hinges, showing more

storage space

Compartments for storing medicines

Cupping glassMedicinebottle

53

BATTLES IN THE SOUTHThe British won most battles in the South—

including Savannah, Charleston, Camden, andGuilford Court House. Yet, the region was too

large to capture and hold; American commanderNathanael Greene organized fresh resistance

wherever the enemy marched.

DRAGOON FLAGCut from fabric thatcovered the back of achair, this flag wascarried into the Battle ofCowpens by WilliamWashington’sdragoons, whofollowed it to asmashing victory.

HORSEMAN’S SABERThis heavy, curved sword, called a saber, belonged to

an American cavalryman. A trooper learned touse the saber while also managing ahorse—practicing slashes and thrusts

and blocking opponents’ blades.

DEATH OF PULASKIPolish volunteer, General Casmir

Pulaski, was killed leading a charge atthe 1779 Siege of Savannah, a defeat for

an army of Americans and French.Pulaski had served in the American

army since 1777. He performed gallantlyin many battles, including

Germantown and Brandywine.

Hilt

Guilford Court House

NORTH CAROLINA

VIRGINIA

SOUTH CAROLINA

GEORGIA

Wilmington

Williamsburg

Yorktown

Charleston

Atlantic Ocean

Ninety-SixCamden

King’s MountainCowpens

Savannah �

Alleghen

y Mounta

ins

Iron blade,35 inches long

Bright red fabric cut from the back of a chair

Regimental badge

CAPTURED COLORSAt Cowpens, Morgan’s

troops captured theregimental flag of the British7th Fusiliers, proud Redcoat

professionals. Tarleton lost morethan 320 dead and wounded,

and 600 others were takenprisoner. American casualties

were 22 killed, 60 wounded.

The Roman numeral “VII”shows this is the flag of the 7th Fusiliers

LATE IN 1778, THE WAR SHIFTED to the South as the Britishcaptured Savannah, Georgia. In October 1779, they defeated a forceof Americans and French who tried to lay siege to Savannah. In thespring of 1780, Charleston, South Carolina, fell to royal forces, andGeneral Charles Cornwallis took command of the king’s army.Cornwallis soon destroyed an American force at Camden, SouthCarolina. His triumphant officers included cavalryman BanastreTarleton, notorious for slaughtering captured rebels. GeorgeWashington sent Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island to take chargein the South. Although Greene lost several battles, he inflictedheavy British casualties that seriously weakened Cornwallis. OtherAmerican commanders won important victories—at King’sMountain, North Carolina, October 1780, andCowpens, South Carolina, January 1781. InMarch, Cornwallis defeated Greene at GuilfordCourt House, North Carolina, but sufferedgreat losses. Cornwallis withdrew to the sea,and eventually to Yorktown, Virginia, toawait support that would never come.

War for the South

A DANGEROUS ENEMYBritish dragoon commanderLieutenant Colonel Banastre

Tarleton was hated byAmericans, who named him

“Butcher” for his ruthlesspolicy of taking no

prisoners. Tarleton servedthroughout the war and was

most successful whenleading hard-hitting Loyalist

troopers on sudden raids.

54

VICTORY IN DEFEATIn 1781, Greene’s force of 4,400 Continentals and militia took on the advancing

Cornwallis at Guilford Court House, North Carolina. The British had only1,900 men, but most were seasoned regulars. The battle was bitter, with

furious hand-to-hand fighting. Cornwallis held the field but suffered morethan 500 casualties. Greene lost fewer—78 were killed and 183 wounded.

CARTRIDGE BOXProbably once the property of a

German soldier, this brass cartridgebox kept ammunition safe and dry.

Cartridges were made of paperwrapped around a measured amount of

black powder and a lead ball.

British dragoons of Tarleton’s Legion surround American cavalry commanderColonel William Washington, at the Battle of Cowpens. Washington, on thewhite horse, was in mortal danger until his body servant, left, fired a pistol,

wounding an attacker. Another American dragoon arrived to drive the enemyaway. Tarleton’s 1,100-man British and Loyalist army was wiped out by anAmerican force of about the same size under General Daniel Morgan.

CAVALRY FIGHT AT COWPENS, SOUTH CAROLINA

LOST THE BATTLES, BUT WON THE SOUTH

Rhode Islander NathanaelGreene commanded rebel forcesin the South. He inflicted heavylosses on Cornwallis, whowithdrew to Yorktown in 1781,hoping for reinforcements.

The key to final victoryNathanael Greene was perhaps Washington’s best general.Greene served in the field and at one point also tookcharge of military supply. In the South, his strategy was tokeep the men fighting and avoid crushing defeats. He waspursued for months by the main British army, while otherrebel commanders attacked enemy supply lines and forts.By late 1781, almost all British posts outside Charlestonand Savannah were abandoned.

Lid

SHOT BAGSRevolutionary militia

soldiers sometimes carriedhunting firearms into battle;

these leather shot bagsheld five bird-shot balls,

which were smaller thanthe musket or rifle balls

of military firearms.

Forest motifs

Plug top

Servant rescuingWilliam Washington

55

FRENCH ADMIRAL DE GRASSEFrench warships under Admiral

Francois de Grasse (1722–88)landed 3,000 soldiers to help

besiege the British at Yorktown inSeptember 1781. When enemy ships

appeared, De Grasse fought themoff after a two-hour battle, sealing

Cornwallis’s doom.

THE DECISIVE SEA BATTLEDe Grasse outfought British admirals Hood and Graves at the Battle of the Chesapeake Capes on September 15,

forcing them back to New York. If the British Navy had brought reinforcements or rescued Cornwallis, theYorktown campaign would have been a failure and the war could have turned in favor of the British. This

naval engagement was among the most important battles of the entire Revolution.

BRITISH ADMIRAL HOODSir Samuel Hood (1724–1816)

tried to prevent the French navyfrom blockading Cornwallis. TheFrench fleet engaged the forces ofHood and Admiral Thomas Graves

and forced them to withdraw, leaving Cornwallis trapped.

POCKET TELESCOPEObserving enemy troop movements by

telescope was essential to militaryleaders. On ships, telescopes

showed flag signals fromfriendly vessels, especiallyfrom a commander’s ship.

Eyepiece

Screw capprotects lens

Lens

YorktownDURING 1781, GENERAL CORNWALLIS almost wipedout Patriot armed resistance in the South but couldnot destroy the elusive Nathanael Greene, whoskillfully held his fighting force together. By August,Cornwallis and his 7,500 veterans were at Yorktown,Virginia, awaiting reinforcements and supplies fromBritish-held New York. Washington and Frenchgeneral De Rochambeau swiftly moved to trapCornwallis, and the French fleet arrived to blockadeYorktown. The Franco-American armies numberedmore than 17,000 troops. When the British fleetappeared in September, French admiral De Grassedrove it back to New York, maintaining the blockade.Avoiding costly frontal attacks, Washington fireddevastating artillery barrages day after day, until Cornwallis gave up. OnOctober 19, the defeated royal army marched out of Yorktown to yieldtheir muskets and proud flags to the victors. Washington, however,would be cheated of his greatest triumph, for Cornwallis said he wasill and sent his second-in-command to surrender the army. Yorktown

was the last major battle of the Revolution.

WASHINGTON AT YORKTOWNRiding alongside the Marquis de Lafayette, his dependable

young general, George Washington directs American and Frenchtroops in this folk art painting of the great victory at Yorktown, inthe fall of 1781. This was the final major battle of the Revolution.

56

WASHINGTON’S GREATEST VICTORYCornwallis claimed to be too ill to attend the surrender ceremonies afterYorktown. Instead, the British second-in-command offered his sword to

Washington, who refused it, directing the sword be given to his own second-in-command, General Benjamin Lincoln of Massachusetts.

ARTILLERYMAN’S LINSTOCKGunners at Yorktown used alinstock such as this to holdthe smoldering match thatfired a cannon. The matchwas brought to the touch

hole, igniting thegunpowder that in turn

fired the charge.

LORD CHARLES CORNWALLIS (1738–1805)

Cornwallis won battles but couldnot destroy the rebels. In mid-1781,he moved his army to Yorktown towait for reinforcements that never

came. After the war, he becamegovernor general of India and a high

official in the British government.

STORMING THE YORKTOWN REDOUBTWashington moved his trenches and artillery steadily closer tothe British fortifications by digging new works under cover ofdarkness. Cornwallis was forced into an ever-smaller defensiveposition. On October 14th, Captain Alexander Hamilton led a nighttime assault against a British redoubt, while French infantry attacked another. When the cannon captured in those redoubts were turned on Yorktown, Cornwallis had no choice but surrender.

57

Match rope

Wooden shaft

Iron linstockpiece is 14inches long

THE DEADLY BAYONETAt the start of the Revolution, a bayonet wielded by a

Redcoat was the most feared of weapons. By the end ofthe war, elite American troops also were skilled in

bayonet attacks; this was how they captured a keystrongpoint at Yorktown, forcing Cornwallis to give up.

Spear point

A CASUALTY’S HATConnecticut militiaman Phineas

Meigs was 74 when he answeredan alarm in 1782. A Britishwarship was raiding EastGuilford, and shots were

exchanged. Meigs fell, mortallywounded in the head, the

bullet passing throughhis hat. He was one of the

last to die in the Revolution.

HEADQUARTERS ON THE HUDSONWashington could have gone home to

Mount Vernon during the winter of 1782–83,but he stayed with the army instead.

He wanted to be with the troops to keep them well-disciplined

until peace terms were finalized.The Americans were based near

Newburgh, New York, about 50 milesNorth of British-held New York City. The

general lived in the Hasbrouck house, witha long view southward down the HudsonRiver, where American tents can be seen.

LOSS OF LIFE CONTINUESA former aide to Washington,

and much admired forgallantry, Colonel John

Laurens (c.1754–1782) waskilled during a minor clash

near Charleston in his nativeSouth Carolina. Laurens was

the son of Henry Laurens,former president of Congress.

Various caliberlead bullets

THE BATTLES ENDED WITH YORKTOWN, but the war would not beover until peace was signed. There were small clashes, and men stilldied. One of Washington’s favorite aides was killed in a skirmishwith Redcoats in South Carolina. Also, there were occasional enemyraids along the coast, which cost more lives. Washington promised

to remain in the field until New York City, the lastRedcoat foothold, was evacuated. Through much

of 1782–83, Washington was with his army nearNewburgh, New York. His officers and men wereangry that Congress was unable to provide theback pay it owed them. In part to lift their spirits,the general created a special decoration, the“Badge of Military Merit.” First awarded in 1783,it later became known as the “Purple Heart.” Inthis time, Washington met with Sir Guy Carleton,the highly respected new British commander, toarrange the peaceful entry of American troopsinto New York on November 25, 1783.

SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES

Congress agreed in 1782 ona final concept for America’s

official seal. Secretary ofCongress Charles Thomson

drew the above sketch,which was used as the basis

for the seal design. Themotto “E Pluribus Unum”means “One out of many.”

The last two years of war

58

The soldiers go homeDisbanding the Continental Army was done in stagesduring 1783, with several regiments at a time givenleave. Once back home, the men were officiallydischarged, without getting the back pay owed them.Congress lacked the funds to pay the army. Onereason the troops were discharged a few at a time wasto avoid an angry mass mutiny by the unhappy men.Many returned home embittered that Congress had notkept its promises. Years would pass before the troopsreceived their long-deserved pay and pensions.

THIRTEEN HEARTS, THIRTEEN VERSESCelebrating American liberty, this

printed linen handkerchief has 13hearts for the new states and bears

illustrations showing domesticscenes. Its 13 verses honor

soldiers away at war and familiesworking at home: “While they

our Liberties defend/Let us toHusbandry attend.”

SIR GUY CARLETON (1724–1808)Carleton replaced Clinton as

commander of Britishforces in America.Carleton worked closelywith Washington toarrange a peacefulevacuation of Redcoatsfrom New York inNovember 1783. Bothcommanders madesure there was nolooting by mobs in the

hours after the Britishleft the city and before

the American takeover.

A LOYALIST’S COATMunson Hoyt of Norwalk, Connecticut, owner of this

coat, was a Loyalist lieutenant in the Prince of WalesVolunteer regiment. Hoyt relocated in New

Brunswick, Canada, where thousands of Loyalistsmoved after being forced to flee their homes. He

eventually returned to live in the United States.

THE “BADGE OF MILITARY MERIT”Washington awards “Purple Hearts” at his

Newburgh, New York, headquarters in1783. Sergeant William Brown of the 5th

Connecticut Continental Line receives hisbadge while Sergeant Elijah Churchill of the

2nd Continental Light Dragoons awaits.Sergeant Daniel Bissell, Jr., of the 2nd

Connecticut Regiment, was honored later.

The Purple HeartTo award soldiers for outstandingacts of courage, Washington createda “Badge of Military Merit” in theform of a purple cloth heart. The

general wanted to show “The road toglory in a patriot army and a free country is

thus open to all.” Only three such badges wereawarded—all in 1783. The badge was almostforgotten until 1932, the 200th anniversary ofWashington’s birth, when it was reactivated as the “Purple Heart,” a decoration forindividuals wounded in action.

Design oforiginalpurple heart

Thirteen hearts Domestic scenes

Stanzas of verse

FAREWELLS AT NEW WINDSORRevolutionary troops begin to leave their quarters

at New Windsor, New York. The HudsonHighlands in the background were a strong

position to prevent the British striking northwardout of New York City. The New Windsor quarters

were near enough to the enemy occupiers tothreaten them with sudden attack.

Modern-daypurple heart

59

AMERICAN PEACEMAKERSArtist Benjamin West paintedportraits of the American peacenegotiators in Paris to include them in a larger painting alongwith British negotiators. Since theBritish refused to pose, West leftthem out of the picture. TheAmericans were, left to right, John Jay, John Adams, BenjaminFranklin, Henry Laurens, andWilliam Temple Franklin, their secretary.

PROVISIONAL PEACE AGREEMENTThe provisional, or preliminary,

peace treaty to end theRevolutionary War was

signed by the negotiatorson November 30, 1782. It

required ten more months towork out all the details of the

final document, which wasapproved on September 3,

1783, and named theTreaty of Paris.

LOCKET OFREMEMBRANCE

During the Revolution,patriot John Adams of

Massachusetts was oftenaway from his belovedwife, Abigail. When he

went to Paris to negotiatethe peace, he gave this

locket to Abigail for herto remember him by.

Peace and the birth of a nationFROM MID-1782 UNTIL SEPTEMBER 1783, British and American delegates inParis negotiated peace terms. The Americans were led by Benjamin Franklinand John Adams. The final 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized theindependence of the United States, with the Mississippi River as its westernboundary. A few weeks later, in December 1783, George Washingtonresigned as American commander in chief and returned to his belovedMount Vernon. The end of the Revolutionary War did not, however,guarantee the states would unite under onegovernment. Several years of labor, debate, andnegotiations were required before a Constitutionwas drafted that all the states could accept.Important national leaders in this periodincluded Robert Morris, who worked on plansto finance a federal government, and politicalthinker James Madison, who helped write theConstitution. The Constitution of the UnitedStates was drafted in 1787and went into effect onMarch 4, 1789, as thefundamental law ofthe new nation.

60

WASHINGTON SUBMITS HIS RESIGNATIONAt the height of his glory as a conquering hero, George Washington faithfully returned

his commander in chief’s commission to members of Congress assembled at Annapolis,Maryland, on December 23, 1783. King George, himself, was impressed that the widely

admired Washington resigned instead of choosing to become a military dictator.

THE CONSTITUTION OF THEUNITED STATES

On September 17, 1787, fouryears after the end of the

Revolutionary War,representatives of the thirteenstates met in Philadelphia to

approve an officialConstitution. This documentestablished a federal system

of government for the states,and was declared “the

supreme law of the land.”The American Constitution

became one of the mostadmired and influential

documents in the world.

JAMES MADISONThe cornerstone of the newAmerican republic was itsConstitution. A key authorof the Constitution wasVirginian James Madison(1751–1836), considered anarchitect of the document,which created a

government, or federation, of the newly independent

states. Madison eventuallywould become the fourth

President of the United States.

REVOLUTIONARY FINANCIERPhiladelphia merchant Robert Morris

(1734–1806) was an early Patriotleader who headed the ContinentalCongress’s Department of Financeduring the war. Morris raisedmoney and arranged loans tofinance the Revolution, andafterward helped lay thefoundation for the all-importantfinancial operations of the newUnited States.

A NEW NATION AND ITS CLAIMSMany of the independent states

claimed ownership of westernlands, but these claims were

eventually turned over to thefederal government. In this map,

claims to western territory areshown in a tint of the same color as

that of the claiming state.

GENERAL LINCOLN’S TEAPOTThe symbol of the Society of the

Cincinnati, a fraternity of Revolutionaryofficers, decorates this teapot. It is part of

a set of porcelain tableware that bears the initials “BL,” honoring General Benjamin Lincoln.

The Society of the Cincinnati

61

Bidding farewellAfter the British evacuated NewYork City, Washington gathered

with his remaining officers onDecember 4, 1783, atFraunces Tavern. There, hethanked them for their

“glorious and honorable”service. Next, Washington rode to Annapolis, Maryland,to resign as commander inchief. This journey was one

long adoring parade; peoplelined the roads to see him,and balls were held in his honor.

THE GENERAL’S PISTOLSWashington owned this pair of

silver-mounted pistols during theRevolution. They were made in England and

bear designs that include the lion and theunicorn. Washington eventually presented them to hisprivate secretary, and nephew, Bartholomew Dandridge.

WASHINGTON IN VICTORYPatriot artist Charles Willson Pealecreated this image of the general a

few months after the 1779 liberationof Philadelphia. The painting

commemorates Washington’s victoryat Princeton two years earlier. He

posed for Peale in Philadelphia,where the populationconsidered him their

greatest hero.

Silver decoration with the lion and the unicorn

The Fraunces Tavern Museum Washington’s farewell to his officers in Fraunces Tavern.

EARLY IN DECEMBER 1783, Washington bade farewell to hisofficers in New York. Among them was General Henry Knox,one of the first to publicly call Washington the “Father ofHis Country.” A few weeks later, Washington resigned his commission before Congress, which was meeting at Annapolis, Maryland. He immediately rode back to Martha and Mount Vernon, but his country sooncalled again. Washington presided over the 1787Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, where heurged that a strong union of the states be established.He served as the first President of the United States,from 1789–1796. The first capital was in New YorkCity and then was changed to Philadelphia—both far from Mount Vernon. Glad to return home after his presidency, he enjoyed the life of a Virginia planter for his last few years. George Washington died at Mount Vernon on December 14, 1799.

George Washington—Father of His Country

62

Home at Mount VernonWhile stationed in military headquarters or as the UnitedStates president in New York, Washington often longed tobe at home with Martha in Mount Vernon. He loved hisestate, which overlooked the broad Potomac River, and he was happiest as a hardworking Virginia planter.Washington managed Mount Vernon’s agriculture, selectedthe crops, planned development, and added on to themansion. The Washingtons were the guardians of two oftheir grandchildren, who enrichedhome life at Mount Vernon.

Washington’scandelabrum

Porcelain serving dishfrom Mount Vernon

THE VIRGINIA PLANTERWashington enjoyed working on his plantation, overseeing theplanting and harvesting of crops. Mount Vernon’s fields weretended by slaves, who—in accord with Washington’s will—

were given their freedom after he and Martha died.

MARTHA CUSTIS WASHINGTON(1731–1802)

Martha Washington was a devoted wifewho shared her husband’s joys, sorrows,and duties. Known for her kindness andwisdom, Martha carried herself with thenatural style and grace that befitted the

first First Lady of the United States.

SIGNING THE CONSTITUTIONWashington was unanimously elected presiding officer of the

Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. He was the one mosttrusted by the delegates, who were debating bitterly while drawing

up the document. On September 28, 1787, as pictured above, the delegates signed the document. In 1789, Washington became the first President of the United States.

George Washington’sgrandchildren

Reflector

STATELY MOUNT VERNONWashington inherited Mount Vernon fromhis brother, Lawrence, who built it. WhenWashington married Martha Custis,who owned several estates, hebrought her to Mount Vernon tolive. Today, Mount Vernon is a popular place for visitorswho wish to learn aboutthe life of anAmerican hero.

63

64

AAdams, Abigail 60Adams, John 12–13,

26–27, 40–41, 60Adams, Samuel 10–11, 16Albany, N.Y. 21, 32Allen, Ethan 17, 24Annapolis, Md. 61–62André, John 46–47Arnold, Benedict 17, 24–25, 33,

46–47Arnold, Edward 47Arnold, Peggy (Shippen) 47Attucks, Crispus 11

BBabcock, Joseph 16“Beggar’s Opera” 44Bissell, Daniel, Jr. 59Bonhomme Richard 41Boston 6, 10–11, 14, 16–19, 28, 46“Boston Massacre” 10–11Bouquet, Henry 9Bowen, Ashley 6Braddock, Edward 8Brandywine Creek, Battle of 30Brant, Joseph 34Breed’s Hill (Bunker Hill),

Battle of 18–19Brown, William 59“Brown Bess” 23, 31Burgoyne, John 30, 32–33Burke, Edmund 12–13

CCamden, Battle of 54Canada 6, 9, 24, 31, 32, 59Champion, Deborah 46Charleston, S.C. 6, 28, 54–55, 58Carleton, Guy 58–59Chesapeake Capes, Battle of 56Churchill, Elijah 59Clark, George Rogers 34–35Clinton, Henry 28, 30–31, 44Coercive Acts 14Common Sense 26Concord, Mass. 16–18, 39Connecticut 6, 16, 19, 24, 26–27,

34, 46, 51, 58–59Constitution of the

United States 60–63Constitutional Convention

62–63

Continental Congress 12–14, 20–22, 34, 38, 43, 47, 50, 52, 58–59

Continentals 22–23Cornwallis, Charles 29, 50,

54–57Cowpens, Battle of 31, 54–55Curtis, Jonathan 39

DDagworthy, John 9Dandridge, Bartholomew 62Daughters of Liberty 15Dawes, William 16Declaration of Independence

13, 24, 26–27, 38–39Delaplace, William 17Delaware 7Delaware Nation 9Diamond, William 39Doolittle, Amos 16

EF84th Royal Highland Emigrant

Regiment 22Estaing, Comte d’ 42“Evacuation Day” 44–455th Connecticut Continental

Regiment 5957th Regiment of Foot 22Fort Chambly 24Fort Detroit 9, 35Fort Duquesne 8Fort Moultrie 28Fort Sackville 35Fort Stanwix 34Fort Ticonderoga 9, 17, 19, 32France 8–9, 13, 20, 32, 40–41, 56Franklin, Benjamin 14–15,

26–27, 39–40, 60Franklin, William Temple 60Fraser, Simon 32Fraunces Tavern 62French, Daniel Chester 16French and Indian War 8–9

GHGage, Thomas 16Gansevoort, Peter 21Gates, Horatio 33George III (King) 8, 10, 12, 32,

61Georgia 7, 34, 48, 54Germantown, Battle of 28–29Grasse, Francois de 56Graves, Thomas 56

Green Mountain Boys 17Greene, Nathanael 54–56Guilford Court House, Battle of

54–55Hale, Nathan 46Hamilton, Alexander 44, 57Hamilton, Henry 35Hancock, John 12–13, 16, 26–27Hasbrouck House 58Hayes, Mary Ludwig

“Molly Pitcher” 31“Hessians” (German troops)

22, 28–29, 32–33, 44Hood, Samuel 56Howe, William 12, 18–19,

28–30, 44Hoyt, Munson 59

IJKIndependence Hall 27Illinois 34–35Indiana 34–35Intolerable Acts 14Ireland 13Jay, John 12–13, 60Jefferson, Thomas 26–27Jones, John Paul 41–43Kaskaskia 35Kentucky 34King’s Mountain, Battle of 54Knox, Henry 18–19, 21, 62

LLafayette, Marquis de 36, 40, 56Lake Champlain 9, 17, 19,

24–25, 32Laurens, Henry 50, 58, 60Laurens, John 58Lee, Charles 31Lexington, Mass. 16, 18, 39Liberty Bell 38–39Liberty Cap 38–39Liberty Pole 44Lincoln, Benjamin 57, 61Livingston, Robert 27Long Island, Battle of 28–29“Long Knives” 35Louis XIV, (King) 40Loyalists 22, 44, 48, 50–51, 59

MMadison, James 60–61Maine 48Malden, Mass. 6Marblehead, Mass. 6Maryland 7, 61–62

Massachusetts 6, 14, 16–17, 39Meigs, Phineas 58Monmouth, Battle of 30–31Montcalm, Marquis de 9Montgomery, Richard 24Morgan, Daniel 31, 54–55Morris, Robert 60–61Morristown, N.J. 28, 36–37Moultrie, William 28Mount Vernon 58, 60–63

NNew Hampshire 6New Jersey 7, 21, 28–30, 46,

48–49, 51New Windsor, N.Y. 59New York 7, 24, 27–29, 34,

44–45, 48, 51New York City 6, 7, 13, 17, 22,

28, 30, 32, 42, 46, 49, 56,58–59, 62

Newburgh, N.Y. 58–59Newgate, Conn. 51Newport, R.I. 69th Regiment of Foot 33North, Frederick 12North Carolina 7, 54–55North Church 16

OPQOhio 34–35Oriskany, Battle of 34Paine, Thomas 26Pennsylvania 7, 13, 22, 31, 36Philadelphia 6, 7, 14–15, 26–27,

30–31, 38, 52, 62–63Philadelphia (gunboat) 25Philadelphia Light Horse 23Pitcairn, John 16–17Pitt, William 8Pontiac’s Rebellion 7–8Prince of Wales Regiment 59Pulaski, Casmir 54Purple Heart 58–59Putnam, Israel 18–19Quakers 7

RSRaleigh (frigate) 43Raleigh Tavern 14Revere, Paul 11, 16Rhode Island 6, 42, 55Robbins, Frederick 19Rochambeau, Comte de 40–41,

56Ross, Elizabeth “Betsy” 38

Rush, Benjamin 52Saratoga, Battle of 30–33Savannah 42, 54–55Schuyler, Philip 242nd Connecticut Regiment 592nd Continental Light

Dragoons 59Serapis 43Seven Years’ War 87th Fusiliers Regiment 547th Regiment of Foot 24Shawnee Nation 9Sherman, Roger 27Society of the Cincinnati 61Sons of Liberty 44South Carolina 7, 28, 31, 42, 50,

54–55Steuben, Friedrich von 36Sugar Act 10Sullivan’s Island 28Stamp Act 10, 39

TUV.Tallmadge, Benjamin 46Tarleton, Banastre 22, 54–55Thomson, Charles 58Townshend Acts 10Treaty of Paris 60Trenton, Battle of 28–29Trumbull, John 2726th Continental Regiment 2926th Regiment of Foot 22Turtle 42Valcour Island 24–25Valley Forge, Pa. 13, 36, 53Vergennes, Comte de 40–41Vincennes 35Virginia 7, 8, 10, 14, 23, 26,

34–35, 54, 61–63

WXYZWalsh–Serrant Regiment

(French) 41Warren, Joseph 16, 18Washington, George 8, 12–13,

18–19, 23, 28–31, 36–41,44–47, 56–63

Washington, Martha 63Washington, William 55Wayne, Anthony 31West, Benjamin 60West Point 46–47Williamsburg, Va. 7, 14Wolfe, James 9Wright, Patience 46“Yankee Doodle” (song) 38–39Yorktown, Siege of 30, 54–58

The author and Dorling Kindersley offertheir grateful thanks to: Ellen Nanney andRobyn Bissette of the Product Developmentand Licensing Department of the SmithsonianInstitution; Barbara Clark Smith, Jennifer L.Jones, Marko Zlatich, and Lisa KathleenGraddy of the National Museum of AmericanHistory, Behring Center; Catherine H. Grosfils,Colonial Williamsburg Foundation;Christopher D. Fox, Fort Ticonderoga Museum;Joan Bacharach and Khaled Bassim, NationalPark Service, Museum Management Program;Carol Haines, Concord Museum(www.concordmuseum.org); Peter Harrington,Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection; RichardMalley, Connecticut Historical Society; AndreaAshby, Independence National Historical Park;Claudia Jew, The Mariners’ Museum; andTordis Isselhardt, Images from the Past.

Photography Credits:t = top; b = bottom; l = left; r = right; c = centerAbby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum,Williamsburg, VA: 7tr, 39bl. Adams NationalHistorical Park: 60tl. The American Revolution,by John Fiske: 8tl, 12cl, 13bc, 18cr, 28cr, 31tr,41br, 42cl, 44c, 46tr, 47bc, 47br, 54cr, 56bl, 56cr,57bl, 58tr, 59cr. Anne S.K. Brown MilitaryCollection, Brown University Library: 12bl, 17t,

18tl, 18-19t, 19bl. Boston National HistoricalPark: 19br. Boston Tea Party Chapter, DAR:11cl. © David Cain: 8tr, 24bl. Center of MilitaryHistory, H. Charles McBarron: 24tr, 31bl, 32b,35br, 55cr, 57t, 59br. The Charleston Museum:7c, 7cr. The Colonel Charles WaterhouseHistorical Museum: 20b, 25b, 36bl, 41t.Colonial Williamsburg Foundation: 7bl, 7br,10t, 12br, 12tr, 14c, 15c, 23cl, 44cl, 46cr, 48cl,49bl, 49bc, 49br, 51br, 53tr, 56tr, 61cr. ConcordMuseum, Concord, Massachusetts: 16tc, 39tc,59c, 61tr. Connecticut Historical Society: 16bl,16cl, 19cl, 19tr, 24c, 46tl, 48b, 51tl, 58cl, 59tl.Dahl Taylor: 6tl. Dover Publications: 15tl, 21tr,31tl, 34b, 42bc, 44bl, 44tl, 46bl. FortTiconderoga Museum: 9c, 9cr, 15tc, 17bl, 17br,17cr, 19c, 22c, 22tr, 46c. © The Frick Collection,New York: 32tl. Independence NationalHistorical Park: 13c, 13cr, 13br, 21cr, 27c, 27bl,31cl, 36tr, 39tr, 52tr, 55bl. The Institute ofHeraldry: 59bl, 59cl (drawing by JamesBurmester). Library of Congress: 7cl, 8cl, 9br,10b, 11b, 11tc, 11tr, 12bc, 14bl, 15bc, 15bl, 18b,19tc, 22b, 23tl, 24br, 26br, 27br, 29b, 29cr, 29tl,33cl, 34tr, 35bl, 36cr, 38cl, 39tl, 40br, 42bl, 42br,42tr, 45b, 45cr, 45tr, 47t, 51tr, 53tl, 54tl, 55t, 58b,59tr, 61bl, 61c, 62br, 63cr. Lexington,Massachusetts Historical Society: 17c, 17cl.Marblehead Historical Society, Marblehead,

MA: 6c. The Mariners’ Museum, NewportNews, VA: 9t, 38tl, 43t, 43br, 56br.Massachusetts Historical Society: 10cr.Morristown National Historical Park: 44br.Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association: 13tl. MPIArchives: 7tl, 40bl, 63cl. National Archives: 16tl,58tl, 60tr. National Museum of AmericanHistory: 6bl, 6br, 9cl, 10cl, 15br, 21bl, 25c, 25t,26c, 29tc, 34tl, 39br, 63bc, 63br. NationalNumismatics Collection: 40cb, 40ct, 43bc, 43bl,50bl, 50cl. National Park Service: 21cl, 20tr, 31c,37tr, 37b, 37tc, 53ct. National Park Service, DonTroiani: 20tl, 22cr, 22tl, 23b, 23tc, 35tr, 37tl, 50br,52-53b, 54bc, 54br. National Park Service,Museum Management Program and GuilfordCourthouse National Military Park, photos byKhaled Bassim: 28tr, 28cl, 41c, 45c, 45cl, 45tc,45tl, 48tr, 49crb, 49crt, 49t, 49tc, 49tr, 50tr, 51bc,51bl, 52cb, 52ct, 53bl, 53br, 53cb, 55bc, 55br,57cr, 58ct. National Park Service, MuseumManagement Program and Valley ForgeNational Historical Park, photos by CarolHighsmith and Khaled Bassim: 8cr, 9bl, 14br,14cr, 15tr, 21br, 21tc, 21tl, 23c, 23cl, 23cr, 29tr,30r, 31cr, 33tc, 33tl, 35cl, 35cr, 36bc, 36tl, 37cr,41tr, 47bl, 51crb, 51crt, 54cl, 56cl, 57bc. NationalPortrait Gallery: 11tl, 13bl, 14tl, 26tr, 33tr, 35tl,40tl, 41bl, 44cr, 46br, 50tl, 61br, 63bl. PeterNewark’s Pictures: 26bl. © Ron Toelke

Associates: 30l, 32tr, 54bl. SmithsonianAmerican Art Museum: 16br, 23tr. Sons of theRevolution in the State of New York, Inc./Fraunces Tavern® Museum, New York City:31br, 38-39b, 62bl. State Historical Society ofWisconsin: 8bl. U.S. Capitol: 27t, 33br, 57br,61tl, 63t. U.S. Senate Collection: 28b, 62tr.©1996, Virginia Historical Society, Lora RobinsCollection of Virginia Art: 13tr. West PointMuseum, Photos © Paul Warchol Photography,Inc.: 24cr, 33cr, 33bl, 62c. Winterthur Museum:60b.

Main cover credits: Colonial WilliamsburgFoundation: front bl, front bc. The ConnecticutHistorical Society: front c. The Mariners’Museum: front cl. National Park Service, DonTroiani: back clb. National Park Service: clt.Smithsonian American Art Museum: front br,back crb. West Point Museum, Photos © PaulWarchol Photography, Inc.: back br, back bl, crt.

Cover credits for top bar images from left toright: Library of Congress: 1st from left.Connecticut Historical Society: 2nd.Smithsonian American Art Museum: 3rd. WestPoint Museum, Photos © Paul WarcholPhotography, Inc.: 4th. Colonial WilliamsburgFoundation: 5th. National Portrait Gallery: 6th.

Acknowledgments

Index