Exploring the Experience of Using Simulation-Games in ... · the acquisition of content” to simulation-games as “a means to bear resemblance to reality”. The main conclusion

Exploring the Experience of Using Simulation-Games in Project Management Teaching: a Phenomenographic Approach dos Santos, J. A. & Lameras, P. Published PDF deposited in Coventry University’s Repository Original citation: dos Santos, JA & Lameras, P 2018, 'Exploring The Experience Of Using Simulation-Games In Project Management Teaching: A Phenomenographic Approach', Archives of Business Research, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 144-157. https://dx.doi.org/10.14738/abr.65.4595 DOI 10.14738/abr.65.4595 ISSN 2054-7404 Publisher: Society for Science and Education Copyright (c) 2018 Archives of Business Research CC-BY Creative Commons License. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Authors wishing to include figures, tables, or text passages that have already been published elsewhere are required to obtain permission from the copyright owner(s) for both the print and online format and to include evidence that such permission has been granted when submitting their papers. Any material received without such evidence will be assumed to originate from the authors. Copyright © and Moral Rights are retained by the author(s) and/ or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This item cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder(s). The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders.

ArchivesofBusinessResearch–Vol.6,No.5PublicationDate:May.25,2018DOI:10.14738/abr.65.4595.

Santos,J.A.,&Lameras,P.(2018).ExploringTheExperienceOfUsingSimulation-GamesInProjectManagementTeaching:APhenomenographicApproach.ArchivesofBusinessResearch,6(5),144-157.

ExploringTheExperienceOfUsingSimulation-GamesInProjectManagementTeaching:APhenomenographicApproach

JorgeAlbertodosSantos

UniversidadeFederaldeViçosa,MG,Brazil

PetrosLamerasCoventryUniversity,Coventry,UK

ABSTRACT

This research describes how lecturers conceptualize the experience of usingsimulation-gamesintheteachingofmanagement,especiallyprojectmanagement.Theresearch uses a phenomenographic approach, seeking to explore and categorizeteachers’perceptionvariation.Theresearchwascarriedoutwithtwelvelecturersfromthree different universities in the United Kingdom. The data was collected usinginterviews. The data showed that the variation in teachers’ description of theirrelationshipwithsimulation-gamesinteachingmanagementcouldbesynthesizedinasetoffourdifferentcategories,rangingfromsimulation-gamesas“resourcetoimprovethe acquisition of content” to simulation-games as “ameans to bear resemblance toreality”.Themainconclusionisthattherearetwoorientationsinteachers’approachtosimulation-games: on the one hand, there are thosewho are interested in deliveringsomekindoflearninggoalsthroughit.Icalledthisteachers’orientationinstrumental.Ontheotherhand,therearethoseforwhomsimulation-gamespromoteaspecialkindofbondinstudents’relationshipwhich,inturn,helpthemachievetheirlearninggoals.Icalledthisteachers’orientationengagement.Keywords:ProjectManagementEducation,Simulations,games,Phenomenography.

INTRODUCTION

Teaching is an important and demanding task. Following the tradition of Dewey [1] and

Knowles[2,3]inadulteducation,thepurposeofteachingmaybeseenasanactivitytobringpersonalgrowththatimpactspositivelyindividuals’life[4].However,thenatureandmeaning

of teachingcannotbeunderstoodseparately fromtheconceptof learning.Although learningcantakeplacewithoutteaching,theoppositeisnottrue:teachingcannotbeconceivedwithout

learning.Therefore, teachingshouldbe locatedintoa frameworkinwhich learningtakesthe

centralrole.

Todohis/herjob,everylecturerneedstoemploysomekindofmethod.Inthisresearch,the

interest lays inhow lecturers conceivea specialmethod - theuseof simulationor games intheir teaching. In this ever-changing technological world, higher education should pay

attention togame-based learning [5].Thepaper looksespeciallyathow teachersexperiencethe use of simulations and games in management education – and especially in project

managementeducation-,researchingtherelationshipofteachers,studentsandcontextwhen

they areusing these tools. Simulations andgamesherehave a loosemeaning, including anyactivity used in class,which have features of gamification and thereafterwill be referred as

simulation-games. In short, gamification uses game mechanics to enhance learning,

commitment, and the enjoyment of players in a given environment [6,8]. The hope is thatmanagementeducationandespeciallyprojectmanagementeducationmaybenefitfromit.

ArchivesofBusinessResearch(ABR) Vol.6,Issue5,May-2018

Copyright©SocietyforScienceandEducation,UnitedKingdom 145

Managementeducationingeneralandprojectmanagementeducationinspecialhasstruggled

to findnewpedagogical strategies to conveymoremeaningful experience to students. Some

authorshavestatedthatprojectmanagementis“inherentlyanexperientiallearning”(p.1)[9]asprojectmanagement“isabout [people]makingsomethingcomplexhappen”(p.201) [10].

Despitethat,PantandBaroudi[11]pointoutthat“projectmanagementdisciplinestillappears

toplace greater emphasis onhard skills at the expenseof the softer human skills” (p. 127).Classroom technologyhasbeenupgradedconstantly,butwhatmisses, according toWood&

Reiners [12], isa “changetomakethematerialmoreengaging forstudentsandtoprovideasense of immersion” (p. 315). This immersion may also help participants to acquire

employability skills, “which include theability toproblemsolve,workaspartof a teamand

managetimeeffectively”(p.38)[13].Employabilityskillsarethemostimportantfactorwhenrecruitinggraduates[13].Simulation-gamescanplayaroleinthisdirection.

Themainquestionoftheresearchis:howdoteachersconceptualizesimulation-gamesintheir

teaching experience? Simulation-games herewill be defined in a very broad sense,meaning

any kind of experience that engages students in relating to the content of the disciplinecooperatively or competitively. The answer to this question will be responded in a

phenomenographicperspective.

Thestructureofthispaperisasfollow.Firstly,theliteratureisrevisitedinthreebasicareas:

firstly,whatconstitutetheteachingand learningexperience;secondly, theroleofsimulationandgamesinmanagementeducationand,finally,howsimulationandgamesmaybeimportant

in one specific area of management education: project management. After that, the

fundamentalsofphenomenographyarerevisited.Following,thedataisdescribedandanalysedandfinally,discussionandconclusionarepresented.

LITERATUREREVIEWTheExperienceofTeachingandLearningTheexperienceof teachinghasbeenresearched fromavariedofperspectives. In thispaper,the phenomenon is inspired by a holistic and relational model called the Constitutionalist

ExperiencetoTeachingandLearning[14].ThismodeloriginatedfromMitzel’sconceptscalled

the3Pmodelof teachingand learning (Presage–Process–Product).Through interaction -representedbylearningactivitiesortasks–teachersandstudentsengageinaprocessphase,

in which is expected an outcome represented by a development in what students candemonstrate they have taken out from the teaching and learning experience. It is implicitly

expectedthatstudentshaveacquiredsomenewcontentorskills,whichwouldnotbepossible

withouttakingpartintheexperience.ProsserandTrigwellconcludethatthreemainelementsand their relationship are important to understand a teaching and learning experience: a)

teachers(andtheirconceptsandapproachestoteaching);b)students(andtheirconceptsandapproachestolearning)and;c)context.

Firstly, the thoughtsandbeliefs teachersbring to theclassroom are considered important asteachershavethepowertochoosethemethodsandtoolstheyaregoingtousetomediatethe

interaction. Therefore, understanding the innerworld of thoughts and emotions of teachers

mayleadtounderstandtheouterworldoftheirbehaviour[15].

In respect to teachers’ thought of teaching, phenomenographic studies have greatly

contributed to clarify what teacher’s conceptions are. Trigwell et al. [16], for example,identifiedfivequalitativelydifferentwaysinwhichteachersapproachteaching.Thesewereas

follows: a) a teacher-focused strategy with the intention of transmitting information tostudents;withafocusonfactsandskills;b)ateacher-focusedstrategywiththeintentionthat


URL:http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/abr.65.4595. 146

studentsacquiretheconceptsofthediscipline;c)ateacher/studentinteractionstrategywith

theintentionthatstudentsacquiretheconceptsofthediscipline.Thedistinctivefeatureofthisapproachistheactiveengagementofstudentsintheteaching-learningprocess;d)astudent-

focused strategy aimed at student developing their conceptions; e) and finally, a student-

focusedstrategyaimedatstudentschangingtheirconceptions,inwhichteachersacknowledgestudents themselves have to re-construct their knowledge to produce a newworld view or

conception.Trigwelletal.’scategorizationiscongruentwithotherworks[17];[18];[19];[20];[21]; [22], [23] which also demonstrate that teacher’s approach to teaching could be

categorizedinanarrayofwaysrangingfromalimitedconceptionofinformationtransmition

toamoreorlesscompleteapproachofstudents’conceptionchangehelpers.

Secondly,researchalsopointstotheinfluenceofstudents’conceptsandapproachestolearning,individual learningstyles [24] and personalitytraits[25]; [26] and how these features affecttheirachievements.Despitethat, it isunquestionablethattheunidirectional-lecture-drill-test

methodcontinuestobethemostcommonapproachusedbyteachers. Nevertheless,schoolswould benefit from using more differentiated instruction strategies to meet the needs of

students.Itisafactthatstudentsnowadayshaveaccesstoinformationmucheasierthanever,

makingthem,forexample,freetoprogressinthepacetheyfeelmorecomfortable.Therefore,schoolsshouldofferstudent-centredmethodstoengagestudentsinlearning.

Finally,theinclusionofcontextinourframeworkisintunewithanothersetofstudies,whichcontendthat,theenvironment(context,situation)andtherelationshipbetweenlearnersand

theirenvironmentisaspecialfeaturethatinfluencesstudentoutcomes.ThisviewderivesfromtheworkofLaveandWenger[27-28]whoproclaimedthatthesocialrelationsofnewcomers

and old timerswithin communities of practice is responsible for transformation in thewayapprenticesconstructthegeneralideaofwhatconstitutesthepracticeofacommunity.AsFox

[29] adds “situated learning theory (SLT) is distinctivebecause it perceives learning tobe a

sociallyrelationalratherthanamentalistprocess”(p.727).

SimulationsassituatededucationaltoolsThere ismuchdiscussionaboutterminology inthefieldofsimulationandgames.Termslikeexperiential,organizedplay,prescribedrules,competition,funandothersarereferredtowhen

considering the definition of these activities. Some definitions may even mix these twoactivities.According toBates [30], for instance, “simulationsaregames that seek to emulate

thereal-worldoperatingconditions”(p.9).Asthefieldevolves,though,terminologybeginsto

bemoredistinctivealthoughstillconfusing. Inthispaper, thetermusedissimulation-games.Some authors stress the abstract and ontological characteristics of simulations [31], while

othersrefertothedynamicsoftherelationshipsandtheauthenticcausalprocessesembedded

inthem[32].

The simplest definition of simulation is found in Robinson’s book [33]: simulation is “animitation of a system” (p. 2). In this sense, anyminiature or largermodel of something is a

simulation.Theseexamplesarecalledstaticsimulations.Amoreappropriatedefinitioninthecase of this research is that of Kapp et al. [34]: “simulation is a realistic, controlled-riskenvironmentwherelearnerscanpracticebehavioursandexperiencetheimpactofdecisions”

(p.58).Thiskindofsimulationinvolvesthepassingoftimeanditiscalleddynamicsimulations.Insummary,simulationsservewellthepurposeofmanagementeducation,especiallyproject

managementeducation-arelationshipbetweenactivitieswhenagoalischased.



Whatisaprojectandwhatisprojectmanagement?According to the Project Management Body of Knowledge [35] a project is a “temporary

endeavourundertakentocreateauniqueproduct,service,orresult”(p.5).Thisdefinitionhastwodistinctivecharacteristics.Firstly,theoutcomemustbeclearlydefined; leavingnodoubt

that the objective should be achieved at some point in time. Turner [36] adds that projects

mustdeliver“beneficialchange”,that is, theproject isnotdoneforitsownsake; insteadoneshouldexpecttheproject“tosatisfysomepurposeorproducesomebenefit”(p.5).Secondly,

althoughtwodistinctiveprojectsmayhaveverysimilaroutcomedescriptions,“notwoprojectsareeverexactlyalike;evenarepeatedprojectwilldifferfromitspredecessorinoneormore

commercial, administrative or physical aspects.” (p.1) [37]. Additionally, the process of

achieving the outcome is resource consuming, being resources defined as some kind ofmaterialorsimplytime.

Project management may be defined as “both science and art to planning, organizing,

implementing,leading,andcontrollingtheworkofaprojecttomeetthegoalsandobjectivesof

theorganization”(p.9)[38].Inthissense,projectmanagementencapsulatesthedefinitionofmanagement into a project-based scenario. It is a social-technical endeavour [39]. The

technicalsideof theprojectmanagementdealswith the logicalandcalculatedaspectsof the

project: scope, schedules, resource allocation, budgets and reports. The social side of theproject management deals with the communication process, integrating subjects like

leadership, teamwork, negotiation, politics and stakeholders’ expectations. The client, forexample,maybeuncertainormayhavedifficult todescribehis expectation [40].Nomatter

whatthedefinitionis,themanagementoftheprojectiscrucialtodeterminethesuccessorthe

failureoftheprojectoutcome[41].

Nowadays, project management is a distinctive discipline in a curriculum, especially in

managementandengineeringeducation.Teachingprojectmanagement isdifficultbecause itencapsulates many other disciplines. As put by Martin [10], “project management is about

makingsomethingcomplexhappen(ontime,withbudgetandtospecification)throughotherpeople,which is a fundamental prerogative ofmanagement in general” (p. 201).Moreover,

project management includes all the major functions of management (planning, organizing,

directing and controlling) and many of the challenges a manager encounters in his dailyoperation (decision making, motivating people, assessing risks, etc.). Invariably, projects

demandteamswhichmustcollaboratealbeittheymaybespreadgeographically[42].

Insummary,fromamanagementperspective,aprojectmanagerhastodeliversomethingthat

meets others’ expectations within a defined time and within a determined budget, usinglimitedresources.

According to some authors [37, 43]; project management is growing in importance inindustriesandbusinessofallkinds.Thatmakesprojectmanagementeducationadistinctive

andimportantdisciplineintheprogrammeofmanycoursesandrelevanttotheeducationofmanykindsofprofessionalsbothfromtheprivateandthepublicsector:engineers,managers,

administratorsandothers.

Furthermore, project management education is a widespread area, with many topics to be

coveredand interconnectionwithmanydifferentdisciplines.Moreover,projectmanagement

education should stress the necessity of teamwork in any kind of project, consider theconflicting necessities of many stakeholders and balance the trade-offs of cost, time and

quality.



TeachingwithProjectManagementSimulationsTo deal with the complexity of learning project management, some project managementeducators have trusted in project management simulations. Simulations have been used in

projectmanagementeducationsincelong.Intheirs1986’paper,Roundsetalli.[44]describe

thedevelopmentofasimplifiedmicrocomputerprogrammewhichsimulatedtheprogressandproject reporting structure of an industrial construction project. The users set up the

programme specifying “the desired type, frequency, and detail of reports as well as theintensityofpredefinedproblemsthattheprogramintroducestodisturbtheproject”(p.272).

The programwaswritten in FORTRAN and run under theMS-DOS operational system. The

main objective of the programme was to strength the project management skills ofparticipants.

Simulations canbe thought as a natural though controlledwayof putting students into real

situations.However,usingsimulations to teachanydisciplineentailsmanychallenges.From

thestart,thechallengeistofindthesuitablesimulationtopick.DeFreitas&Martin[68]offerafour-dimensionalframeworkwhichmayhelptutorstoevaluatethepotentialofusinggames

andsimulation-based learning intheirpractices,basedonthefollowingdimensions:context,

attributesoftheparticularlearnerorlearnergroup,theinternalrepresentationalworldofthegameorsimulationand,finally,theprocessesoflearning.Nevertheless,theauthorsrecognized

that the framework needs improving “both as an analytical tool for researchers and as apragmatictoolforpractitioners”(p.23).

Havingchosenthespecificsimulationtobeused,Egenfeldt-Nielson[45]presentsanothersetof challenges: learning environments, personal learning factors and learning outcomes.

Learning environments are problematic because schools or learning spaces in general arepreparedtomoretraditionalactivitiesoflearning.Simulationsideallyneeditsownspacetobe

run. Personal learning factors raise very intriguing questions. One, for instance, is the

suitabilityofgamesandsimulationsrelatedtotheacademicabilityofthestudent.Aregamesand simulationsmore suitable to less academic skilled students or to high academic skilled

ones?[45].Finally,anotherquestionisaboutwhatgamesandsimulationscandointermsof

learningoutcomesandhowcanthelearningeffectofgamesandsimulationsbemeasured?

Therefore,teachingandlearningprojectmanagementisamassiveundertaking.Manyauthors[9,46,47,48]havestatedtheinadequacyoftraditionalmethodstoundertakethisendeavour.

Telukuntaetal.[9],forinstance,arguethatthereisaninadequacyofpurposeandmethodin

project management education. While project management is inherently an experientialactivity, most project management education strategies are based on sage on the stage

methods. Bell’s work [48] confirms that “lectures appear to be the predominantmethod of

teaching” (p. 221) in project management. Nevertheless, Telukunta et al. [9] defends thatprojectmanagementeducationrequiresanenvironment“wherealearnercanactasaproject

manager…withoutthecostsandrisksassociatedwithanunsuccessfulprojectdelivery”(p.1).They propose simulations as one adequate tool to deliver that. Similarly, Bonazzi et al. [47]

statethat“projectmanagementisadisciplinethatrequiresknowledgeandreflectivepractice

thatallowsplayerstoleadtheprojectteaminanemergentway”(p.492).

Wetermanetal.[46]alertthatbusinesssimulationsalonemaynotbeaneffectivepedagogyforteachingterminology,factualknowledge,basicconcepts,orprinciplesinprojectmanagement

education;andthatthesebasicscanbedeliveredbylectures.Nevertheless,asCaulfieldetal.

[49]putit,evenifsimulation-gamesarenotsufficienttolearnprojectmanagement,theyare,definitely,welcomedinprojectmanagementeducation.



METHODOLOGYThisresearchusesaphenomenographicapproach[50],seekingtoexploreandcategorizethe

variation in perception of teacher’s conception of simulation and games environments inmanagementeducation.Phenomenographyhas itsappeal forat least tworeasons.Firstly,as

Cousin[51]putit,“phenomenographyenablestheresearchertoidentifytherangeofdifferent

waysinwhichpeopleunderstandandexperiencethesamething”(p.183).Asarguedby[52],having knowledge about current understandings is likely tomake educational development

morefocusedandeffective.

Another point is that phenomenography does not aim for correct or incorrect views of the

world and is not interested in classifying some experiences asmore significant than others.Theaimofphenomenographyisnot“toclassifypeople,norisittocomparegroups,toexplain,

topredict,nortomakefairorunfairjudgmentsofpeople”[53].Eachexperienceisconsideredlegitimate in its own right and should be considered equally in comparison to any other

experience.

Therefore,inthisstudy,thereisnotacorrectanswertothequestion“howdidyouexperience

themanagementsimulation?”Whatever is theanswer, therewill stillbe interest inmapping

and understanding the relationship between the object of experience and the participants’particularwayof thinking.Concluding,Marton[53]asserts that “Ifweare interested inhow

peoplethinkabout,thenwehavetoinvestigatethisveryproblembecausetheanswercannotbederivedeitherfromwhatweknow…aboutthegeneralpropertiesofthehumanmind...(p.

178)[53].

FundamentalsofPhenomenographyThe first concept that is important to take note of in phenomenography is the concept of

intentionality. Intentionality is the phenomenological principle “denoting that consciousnessmustbeunderstood in termsofwhata subject isawareof inbeingawareof something” (p.

106) [54]. Intentionality is the notion that all that is “psychic” refers to something that isbeyonditself(p.84)[50].Inthisstudy,intentionalitywasunderstoodasteacher’schoice[or

not]tousesimulation-gamesintheirclasses.

This“wayofexperiencing”isthe‘what’aspectofexperiencing.However,experiencinginvolves

also to “experiencesomething inaway”.This is the ‘how’aspectofexperiencing.Taking theverb to learn as an example Marton and Booth [50] state that “‘to learn’ has to have two

objects:…[thewhatandthehow];theformerreferringtothetypeofcapabilitiesthelearneris

tryingtomaster…thelatterreferringtotheexperienceofthewayinwhichtheactoflearningis carried out” (p. 84). In their classes,management teachers always should choosewhat to

approachandhowtoapproach.

Carryingoutaphenomenographicstudymustconsiderthreetypesofentities:theresearcher,

the phenomenon of study and the subjects who have experienced that phenomenon. “Theobjectofstudyinphenomenographicresearchisnotthephenomenonbeingdiscussedperse

[or the relationsbetweenresearcherandphenomenon,or relationsbetweenresearcherand

subjects],butrathertherelationbetweenthesubjectsandthatphenomenon”(p.12)[55].

Thisrelationalpositionisthereasonwhyresearchersshouldstepbackintheresearchprocess,

especially in thedataproductionphase.They are encouraged - although impossible - not tocontaminatethedatawiththeirownviewsonthephenomenaandnottoconstructmeanings

thatsubjectsdonotsupport.



Phenomenographyhasanempiricalorientationandaninductivenature[21,56,57].Interviews

were used to generate the empirical material that constituted the data in thisphenomenographic research. Interpretations and findingswere grounded in these raw data

[58].

To achieve that, the researcher should read and re-read the data generatedmany times to

becomefamiliarwithit[59].Atthebeginning,thedatamaybeconfusingandindistinguishable.Atthispoint,theresearchershouldbeasopenaspossibletoconsidertherangeofpossibilities

in interpretingthedata.Theresearchershouldalsomaintainan interactiveprocesswiththe

data, in the sense that readingsmaygive rise tomeaningand interpretationand, in reversemode; meaning and interpretation should be checked against the data to be validated.

Hopefully,thisprocesswillcometoanendwithastablesetofcategoriesofdescription.Whenpossible,thesetofcategoriesthatweregeneratedshouldbecheckedbyanindependentjudge,

althoughsomeauthorsarguethatthischeckingisverydifficult,sinceonlytheconstructorof

the categories could totallygrasp the relationality containedbetween the categoriesand thedata[60].

Phenomenography is made possible and relevant because the content of the relationshipbetween subject and phenomenon of study is different for different subjects although the

phenomenon is identical. The point of departure of phenomenography begins thenwith thepuzzlingquestion“howcanpeopleexperiencedifferentlysomethingthatisidentical?”Thisis

referredtoasthevariationtheory.Peoplewilldiscerndifferentelementsofthephenomenon

andthesituation.Somewillbeawareofsomerelationships;otherswillbeawareof,ordiscern,other relationships. For some, particular features will be to the fore; for others, different

characteristicswillblossom[61].

Nevertheless, the variation does not correspond with a one-to-one representation of the

subject’s description of the phenomena in the sample. The variation is a “limited range ofdifferent ways of experiencing”, that gives rise to a theory of variation. Moreover,

phenomenographydoesnotaimat“generalisationsoruniversalstatements”(p.17)[55]based

onthisvariation.Whataphenomenographicresearcherislookingforistherangeofvariationin conceiving or inways of experiencing a phenomenonwithin a sample of subjects,which

helps in understanding the phenomenon. Unlike research surveys, for example, inphenomenographicresearchit isnotimportantthatsomecategorieshaveappearedinx%of

thesampleandothersiny%ofthesample.Inphenomenography,thespectrumofvariationis

whatmatters,notthefrequencyofthecategories.

ORGANIZINGTHEDATAANDTHEDATAANALYSISOrganizingtheDataIn this research, data were the interviewees’ utterances in the interview process. The data

sampleconsistedoftwelveone-to-oneinterviewsconductedwith lecturers inthreedifferentUniversitiesintheUnitedKingdom.Anumberwasusedtolabeleachinterview,forinstance,

(1). The number is not indicative of any order, be it temporal, gender or importance. The

interviewees were primarily from the business schools, but two lectures were from theengineeringschool.Theywereinterviewedbecausetheytaughtprojectmanagementandused

simulations.

The main question of the research was how teachers had used simulation-games in their

classroomexperience?Togodeepintothemeaningoftheirresponses,someotherquestionsfollowed: “whydoyouusesimulations”; “what isyourrole in thesimulation?”; “howdoyou



support students in the simulation?” I also asked them to recall some happenings in the

runningof the simulationandremind theiractions, thoughtsand feelingsat the time.Those

whohadnotusedsimulationsandgameswerequestioned the reasonwhyand theiroverallviewaboutusingsimulationsinmanagementeducation.

Theinterviewswererecordedandlastedfromhalfanhourtohourandahalf.Theyproducedalargestreamofdatathatwerelistenedtoandre-listenedtomanytimesuntilIfeltfamiliarized

with thedata.The analysiswasdone first tobring relevant themes to the front and then insuchawayastoformphenomenographic‘categoriesofdescription’.

The analysis of data showed that respondents expressed four qualitatively differentconceptions of simulation-games. This is what is called the ‘outcome space’ of

phenomenographic research. Below, the meaning of each one of the four categories ofdescription that were constructed through the analysis of data are briefly related and

described.Therearealsosomeexamples.

TheCategoriesofDescriptionThe data showed that teachers’ experience of using simulations-games in management

teachingcouldbeviewedas:a) Simulation-gamesasaresourcetoimprovetheacquisitionofcontent;b) Simulation-gamesasanactivitytogivestudentscompetenceinspecificskills;c) Simulation-gamesasatooltoarisestudents’engagement;d) Simulation-gamesasameanstobearresemblancetoreality.

Simulation-gamesasanadditionalresourcetoimprovetheacquisitionofcontent;In this category, teachers experience simulation-games as resources that help students

understandthecontent,whichwasorwouldbepresentedtotheminclasses.Inthisway,thiscategoryofdescriptioncomparessimulationandgamestoaformofdeliveringcontent,which

complementstheroleofbooksorlectures.Therelationshouldbeveryclearbetween[thesimulationandthecontent]…ifthegameisnotrelatedtothetopicthestudentswillquestion…(1)

Also in this category, there is a sense that the simulation and games used should fit the

students’needsintheirareaofspecialization,asdescribedbyinterviewee(2):Login Cab [software] is about construction… Family Life [software] is aboutmagazine…[but]mystudentsdon’tworkinmagazines…mystudentsaren’tonconstructions…wherearemystudents?Wheredotheyneedsimulationsin?(2)

In summary, in this category, simulation-games help teachers to deliver the content of the

disciplinetheyareoffering.

Simulation-gamesasanactivitytogivestudentscompetenceinspecificskills;Inthiscategory,lecturesexperiencesimulation-gamesastoolsthatarecapableofignitesome

students’skills,especially,teamworkandleadership.Inotherprofessionalfields,asinclinical

education, simulation has moved from the province of a few enthusiasts to a mainstreamlearningmodality [62]. In these settings, simulations are largely used to prevent errors and

improvepatientsafety.TheConfederationofBritishIndustries(CBI)statesthatgraduatesare

limitedintheiremployabilityskillswithhalfoftheemployersexpressingconcernsaboutbasicliteracyandnumeracyskills [13]. It isbelievedthat insimulatedrehearsals,mistakescanbe

made without harming anyone. In the same vein, the data in this research shows thatsimulation-gamesmaybeseenastoolstogivestudentscompetenceinsomeskills,especially



teamworking,decision-makingand leadership.Oneof the interviewsstates thatsimulations

“encouragethingsliketeam-workingwhichisquiteimportant…anditcan[also]helptobuildcommercialawareness”(11).Anotherintervieweedescribeshowleadershipmayarouseinthe

teamwork:

Although I tell them that they can select a leader or not select the leader…whathappensisthat[students]whomakessenseofit[thesimulation]quickly…becomeleaders…andstudentswhoarestrugglingtomakesenseofit…justfollowtheleader…(7),

and he follows to observe that the process may be the other way round with “one personstartingoff asa leader…andsomeoneelse takesover…as they start tounderstandwhat’s

goingon…”

Insummary,inthiscategory,simulation-gameshelptounveilanddevelopbehaviouralskillsin

theparticipants.

Simulation-gamesasatooltoarisestudents’engagement;In this category, teachers experience simulation-games as resources to capture students’attentionandmotivation to their classes.Some teachersstruggle toengagestudents in their

classes.Simulation-gamesmaybeseenasakindofsocialgame,wherestudentslookforsomekindofcompensationandamusementtoengageintasks.AccordingtoSchwan[63],apud[64]

playersmaybeclassifiedin,atleast,fourdifferenttypes):impassioned,wanna-be-player,fun

playerandoccasionalplayer.Thosewhoareimpassionedmaybeenthusiasticastheylookfora challenge and have high motivation and tolerance to frustration. Wanna-be-players like

playing but have low tolerance to frustration. Fun-players treat playing as recreational andoccasional-playersplayforamusement.Insummary,simulation-gamesseemtogivestudentsa

senseofmeaningfulness,becausestudentscanseealinkbetweenknowledgeandwhatgoeson

intherealworld.Thatseemstobeperceivedbyteachers,asseeninthisquotation,This[activity]really,Ifind,engagesstudents…getsthemtoreallythinkabout…thedifferentstakeholdersintheprojectwhichisimportant…aboutwhatcangowrongintheproject…whycangowrong…(7)

However, in this category, simulation-games may be seen just as recreational activities toentertain students or given them alternatives to lectures. Asked why students enjoyed

simulations, one interviewed answered: “everything that will keep them hands-on … they

wouldlike”(5).

Insummary,inthiscategory,simulation-gamesstimulateparticipantstotakepartintheclass,

andhopefullytolearn,especially,iftheyarehavingfundoingit.

Simulation-gamesasamediumtobearresemblancetoreality.In this category, simulation-games are experienced as resemblance to reality, that is, the

activityisaninstanceofwhatcouldbehappeningintherealworld.Insomeactivities,students

aregiventheopportunitytomakechoicestocheckhowtheycompromise.Forexample,inoneof these games, students had to deal with limited resources. As one interviewee put it, the

students had then to choose, as in life, “whether they’re going to share those resources orthey’re going to be so very selfish” (1). In summary, as interviewee (3) mentioned, in this

category,asimulatedactivitymay“becomeverypractical,veryrealistic,…verydifferentfrom

anacademicwayofthinking”.



DISCUSSIONBefore turning to the discussion of the categories of description found in the data, it is

important tonote that intervieweesposed some criticisms to simulations-games.Oneof themajor difficulties some interviewees faced in using simulations or games was the lack of

technical support. Some software simulations are still difficult tomanage andmay present

technicalproblems,unrelatedtothesubject,whichneedstechnicalsupporttosortthemout.Thismaysometimesbechallenging.Interviewee(1),forinstance,claimedthatthesimulation

she/heusedhad“lotsofchallengesintermsoftechnologicalissues”.

Another challenging characteristic of simulation-games was the teacher’s feeling of losing

controloverstudentsandoverthefluxofteaching,whatmaybeuncomfortable. Interviewee(3)observedthatinsimulation-games“youdon’tknowexactlywhat’sgoingtohappen…you

havetorespond…andsometimesdosomequickthinking…whichisabitofathreat”.Forhim,“onlyexperiencemayprovidealittleofcomfortableforteachers”.

These teacher’s challenges in applying the technology may explain the finding of a bidimensional structure of the outcome space. This bi dimensional structure of the outcome

space facilitates the understanding of teachers’ experience of simulation and games in

management education. The four categories of description shown in section 4.2 werecharacterized as being composed by two logical dimensions of variation in teachers’

experience:instrumentandengagement.

In the instrumental dimension, teachers conceive simulation-games as tools to achieve pre-

definedlearninggoalsastheynormallydointhetraditionallecturing.Thefirsttwocategories,a) Simulation-games as a resource to improve the acquisitionof content, andb) Simulation-

games as an activity to give students competence in specific skills are instances of this

instrumentalorientation.

In the engagement dimension, teachers conceive simulation-games as resources to enablestudents’participation, inthehopethatthisparticipationmaybringbenefitstostudentsand

helpthemgraspwhatmanagementis.Thetwolastcategoriesc)Simulation-gamesasatoolto

arise students’ engagement, and d) Simulation-games as a means to bear resemblance torealityareexamplesofthisengagementorientation.

Bidimensionalstructuresoftheoutcomespacehavealreadybeenusedinphenomenographic

works, for example, in Åkerlind’s research [65]. Åkerlind constructed a bi dimensional

outcomespacewithcategoriesofdescriptiondescribingkeyaspectsofqualitativelydifferentways of experiencing the phenomenon in question and dimensions of variation, that is,

“commonthemesofexpandingawarenessrunningthroughthecategoriesofdescription”[56].

This structure of the outcome space identifies two opposing views on the nature of

descriptionsgivenbyteachersinrespecttothemeaningoftheirexperiencewithsimulation-games: at one pole, teachers who described their experiences with simulation-games as a

‘frustratingexperience’,independentlyofthisfrustrationbeinggeneratedbythemethoditself

or by external constraints as, for example, lack of technical support. Although none of theintervieweesopposedvigorously to themethod, somewere reluctant to the ideaofusing it.

Thesuggestionisthat,althoughthereisahugeefforttothegamificationofhighereducation,

thereisstillalongwaytomakethemethodtrustful.

Attheotherpole,therewereteacherswhodescribedtheirexperiencewithsimulation-gameswithasenseofmeaning;theyfeltbeingengagedandself-satisfiedbyexperiencingandusing



themethodology.Themethodwasperceivedbytheseteachersnotonlyasaspaceforstudents

experiencebutalsoasasituationthatwentbeyondtheconstraintsoflearningenvironments;asituationthattheycouldmentionas‘realistic’initsownright.

Thistypeofconstructionoftheoutcomespaceofteachers’experienceofsimulation-gamesinproject management education is important because simulation-games constitute what has

been labelled in the literature ‘complex learning-teaching arrangements’ [66]. Although alllearning environments may be considered complex, some learning environments as, for

example lectures and case studies, contrive the complexity by delimiting in someways the

contentwhichwillbedealtwith.

On the other hand, types of complex learning-teaching environments, as is the case ofsimulation-games, are arrangements that “allow both the simulation of experiences that

studentsmighthaveintherealworldandthecreationofcompellingexperiencesthatcannot

normallybeexperienceddirectly”(p.331)[67].Thefabricofthiskindoflearningenvironmentisintriguingbecausedesignersneedtotakeaccountoftwodifferentdidacticdemands:firstly,

theyneedtofiltratethepartsof“reality”whicharerelevanttothepointtheyaremakingand,

secondly,theymustconsiderthedidacticperspectiveoftheirview,thatis,theconsiderationofthelearningoutcomeswhichshouldariseoutofstudents’experience.

CONCLUSION

Thefourcategoriesofdescriptionshowninthisresearcharenotexhaustive.Duetothelimited

nature of the sample, a full detaileddescriptionof teachers’ experienceof simulation-gamesmaynothavebeenachieved.Nevertheless,thesampleshowedaverydistinctivedualnatureof

teachers’ experience of simulation-games. On the one hand, there are those who usesimulation-gamesastoolstopursuepredeterminedlearningoutcomes.Thesimulation-gameis

ameanstotransfertheselearninggoals,whichevertheyare,tostudents.

On the other hand, there are those who use simulation-games as an engagement tool. The

student engagement is a critical priority for some teachers as it arises motivation and

participation.Teachingandlearningiseasierinsuchenvironment.

Insummary, simulation-gameshavegainedspace inmanagementeducationalenvironments,despitethemanychallengestheystillmayhavetoovercome.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis researchstudywassupportedbyCoordenaçãodeAperfeiçoamentodePessoaldeNível

Superior–CAPES,Brazil[ProcessoBEX0086/15-0]

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Exploring the Experience of Using Simulation-Games in ... · the acquisition of content” to simulation-games as “a means to bear resemblance to reality”. The main conclusion