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Environmental Engineering
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
TSS is solid materials, including organic and inorganic, that are suspended in the
water. These would include silt, plankton and industrial wastes.
1.1 Background of the study
Total suspended solids is a water quality measurement usually abbreviated TSS.
This parameter was at one time called non-filterable residue (NFR), a term that refers to
the identical measurement: the dry-weight of particles trapped by a filter, typically of a
specified pore size. However, the term "non-filterable" suffered from an odd (for science)
condition of usage: in some circles (Oceanography, for example) "filterable" meant the
material retained on a filter, so non-filterable would be the water and particulates that
passed through the filter. In other disciplines (Chemistry and Microbiology for examples)
and dictionary definitions, "filterable" means just the opposite: the material passed by a
filter, usually called "Total dissolved solids" or TDS. Thus in chemistry the non-filterable
solids are the retained material called the residue.
High concentrations of suspended solids can lower water quality by absorbing
light. Waters then become warmer and lessen the ability of the water to hold oxygen
necessary for aquatic life. Because aquatic plants also receive less light, photosynthesis
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decreases and less oxygen is produced. The combination of warmer water, less light and
less oxygen makes it impossible for some forms of life to exist.
Suspended solids affect life in other ways. They can clog fish gills, reduce growth
rates, decrease resistance to disease, and prevent egg and larval development. Particles
that settle out can smother fish eggs and those of aquatic insects, as well as suffocate
newly-hatched larvae.
Suspended solids can result from erosion from urban runoff and agricultural land,
industrial wastes, bank erosion, bottom feeders (such as carp), algae growth or
wastewater discharges.
Solids suspended in water may consist of inorganic and organic particles or of
immiscible liquids. Inorganic solids such as clay, silt, and other soil constituents are
common in surface water. Organic material such as plant fibers and biological solids
(algal cells, bacteria, etc.) are also common constituents of surface waters. These
materials are often natural contaminants resulting from the erosive action of water
flowing over surfaces. Because of the filtering capacity of the soil, suspended material is
seldom a constituent of groundwater.
Other suspended material may result from human use of the water. Domestic
wastewater usually contains large quantities of suspended solids that are mostly organic
in nature. Industrial wastewater may result in a wide variety of suspended impurities of
either organic or inorganic nature. Immiscible liquids such as oils and greases are often
constituents of wastewater.
Prevention methods include protection of the land in our watershed from erosion
by use of conservation tillage measures and giving urban runoff time to settle out before
reaching our surface waters.
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TSS of a water sample is determined by pouring a carefully measured volume of
water (typically one liter; but less if the particulate density is high, or as much as two or
three liters for very clean water) through a pre-weighed filter of a specified pore size,
then weighing the filter again after drying to remove all water. Filters for TSS
measurements are typically composed of glass fibers. The gain in weight is a dry weight
measure of the particulates present in the water sample expressed in units derived or
calculated from the volume of water filtered (typically milligrams per liter or mg/l).
Recognizes that if the water contains an appreciable amount of dissolved
substances (as certainly would be the case when measuring TSS in seawater), these will
add to the weight of the filter as it is dried. Therefore it is necessary to "wash" the filter
and sample with deionizer water after filtering the sample and before drying the filter.
Failure to add this step is a fairly common mistake made by inexperienced laboratory
technicians working with sea water samples, and will completely invalidate the results as
the weight of salts left on the filter during drying can easily exceed that of the suspended
particulate matter.
1.2 Scope of the study
In way to measure the TSS in wastewater, it has been compared between three
different types of wastewater which are river, industrial and domestic. A well-mixed
measured sample is filtered through a weighed standard glass-fiber filter and the residue
retained on the filter is dried to a constant weight at 103°C to 105°C. The increase in
weight of the filter represents the total suspended solids. If the suspended material clogs
the filter and prolongs filtration, it may be necessary to increase the diameter of the filter
or decrease the sample volume.
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1.3 Objective
The goal of this experiment is to determine value of total suspended solid (TSS)
in water and wastewater such as water sources from river, industrial as well as domestic.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Solids refer to matter suspended or dissolved in water or wastewater. Solids may
affect water or effluent quality adversely in a number of ways. Waters with high
dissolved solids generally are of inferior palatability and may induce an unfavourable
physiological reaction in the transient consumer. For these reasons, a limit of 500 mg
dissolved solids/L is desirable for drinking waters. Highly mineralized waters also are
unsuitable for many industrial applications. Waters high in suspended solids may be
esthetical unsatisfactory for such purposes as bathing. Solids analyses are important in
the control of biological and physical wastewater treatment processes and for assessing
compliance with regulatory agency wastewater effluent limitations.
2.1 Total suspended solid (TSS)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) is solids in water that can be trapped by a filter.
TSS can include a wide variety of material, such as silt, decaying plant and animal
matter, industrial wastes, and sewage. High concentrations of suspended solids can cause
many problems for stream health and aquatic life.
High TSS can block light from reaching submerged vegetation. As the amount of
light passing through the water is reduced, photosynthesis slows down. Reduced rates of
photosynthesis causes less dissolved oxygen to be released into the water by plants. If
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light is completely blocked from bottom dwelling plants, the plants will stop producing
oxygen and will die. As the plants are decomposed, bacteria will use up even more
oxygen from the water. Low dissolved oxygen can lead to fish kills. High TSS can also
cause an increase in surface water temperature, because the suspended particles absorb
heat from sunlight. This can cause dissolved oxygen levels to fall even further because
warmer waters can hold less DO, and can harm aquatic life in many other ways, as
discussed in the temperature section.
The decrease in water clarity caused by TSS can affect the ability of fish to see
and catch food. Suspended sediment can also clog fish gills, reduce growth rates,
decrease resistance to disease, and prevent egg and larval development. When suspended
solids settle to the bottom of a water body, they can smother the eggs of fish and aquatic
insects, as well as suffocate newly hatched insect larvae. Settling sediments can fill in
spaces between rocks which could have been used by aquatic organisms for homes. High
TSS in a water body can often mean higher concentrations of bacteria, nutrients,
pesticides, and metals in the water. These pollutants may attach to sediment particles on
the land and be carried into water bodies with storm water. In the water, the pollutants
may be released from the sediment or travel farther downstream. High TSS can cause
problems for industrial use, because the solids may clog or scour pipes and machinery.
2.2 Factor affecting total suspended solid
Soil erosion is caused by disturbance of a land surface. Soil erosion can be caused
by building and road construction, forest fires, logging and mining. The eroded soil
particles can be carried by storm water to surface water. This will increase the TSS of the
water body. During storm events, soil particles and debris from streets and industrial,
commercial, and residential areas can be washed into streams. Because of the large
amount of pavement in urban areas, infiltration is decreased, velocity increases, and
natural settling areas have been removed. Sediment is carried through storm drains
directly to creeks and rivers.
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As plants and animals decay, suspended organic particles are released and can
contribute to the TSS. The effluent from wastewater treatment plants can add suspended
solids to a stream. The wastewater from our houses contain food residue, human waste,
and other solid material that we put down our drains. Most of the solids are removed
from the water at the treatment plant before being discharged to the stream, but treatment
plants only remove some of the TSS. Important components of the TSS load from the
treatment plants include phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter.
2.3 Interpreting Test Results
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes standards for drinking
water which fall into two categories - Primary Standards and Secondary Standards.
Primary Standards are based on health considerations and Secondary Standards are based
on taste, odour, colour, corrosives, foaming, and staining properties of water. There is no
Primary drinking water standard for total dissolved solids, but the Secondary standard for
TDS is 500 mg/L.
The treatment option for an elevated total dissolved solid really depends on the
nature of the cations and anions. If the elevated total dissolved solid is due to cations like
calcium, magnesium, and iron, it may be possible to remove these ions using a water
softener. This process may not reduce the TSS concentration, but reduce the aesthetic
problems with the water. If the problem is associated with an elevated concentration of
sodium, potassium, etc, the primary recommendations would include a reverse osmosis
system or distillation unit.
2.4 Potential Health Effects
An elevated total suspended solids (TSS) concentration is not a health hazard. The
TSS concentration is a secondary drinking water standard and therefore is regulated
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because it is more of an aesthetic rather than a health hazard. High total dissolved solids
may affect the aesthetic quality of water interfere with washing clothes and corroding
plumbing fixtures. An elevated TSS indicates the following:
a) The concentration of the dissolved ions may cause the water to be corrosive, salty or
brackish taste, result in scale formation, and interfere and decrease efficiency of hot
water heaters
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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS & METHODOLOGY
3.0 MATERIALS & METHODOLOGY
3.1 Material
i. Glass fiber filter disk, 47 mm
ii. Measuring cylinder, 100 mL
iii. Analytical balance
iv. Oven – preheated purpose (1030C to 1050C)
v. Desiccator
vi. Bunchner flask and funnel
vii. Vacuum pump
viii. Aluminium weigheing dishes/ crucible dish
ix. 50 mL of river sample
x. 50 mL of domestic sample
xi. 50 mL of industrial sample
xii. 50 mL of distilled water
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3.2 Methodology
Figure 3.1: Method Determination of TSS for Different Sources of Water
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1. 3 filter disks with different tagging (industrial, river, domestic) were dried in oven at 1050C for 1 hour, cooled in desiccator and weighted
2. The filtering apparatus, filter and begin suction were assembled and the pump is switched on
3. 50mL of industrial samples was flow through filter disk in a Buchner flask
4. 10mL of distilled water was flow to allow complete drainage about 3 minutes after sample's filtration was complete
5. the filter disk was removed carefully from filtration apparatus and transfered to aluminium weighing dished
6. step 4 until 6 was repeated by domestic and river samples
7. All the filter disks were dried in oven at 1050C at least 1 hour, cooled in dessicator and weight
CHAPTER 4
RESULT & DISCUSSION
4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Result
Table 4.1: TSS value of industrial, domestic and river
Sample
Sources
Weight of
Filter (mg)
Weight of
filter + dried
residue (mg)
Net weight
(mg)
TSS
(mg/L)
Industrial 0.1536 0.1550 0.0014 0.0280
Domestic 0.1531 0.1534 0.0002 0.0004
River 0.1519 0.1529 0.0010 0.0200
TSS – total suspended solid
4.2 Discussion
The solid has property which is able to disperse in water in both types whether as
suspended forms or dissolved forms. The solid in the suspended forms is known as the
suspended solid meanwhile the solid in the dissolved form is known as dissolved solid.
The suspended solid is one of the types of physical water-quality parameters (Peavy
1985). The suspended solid usually comprised of fine particulate matter with the diameter
less than 62µm.
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According to the result above, the value of total suspended solid (TSS) can be
calculated by using equation below:
mgTSS
L=
( A−B )V
x1000 ..... (1)
Where:
A = weight of filter + dried residue (mg)
B = weight of filter (mg)
V = Sample’s volume (mL)
Therefore, the TSS value for the industrial sample is:
TSSindustrial=(0.1550−0.1536 ) mg
50 mLx 1000
¿0.028 mg /mL
Then, the value of total suspended solid for the domestic and river samples also
calculated by using equation 1 above and the value are 0.0004 mg/mL and 0.02mg/L
respectively. This experiment also shows that industrial waste contain high amount of
TSS, followed by river water and lastly is domestic wastewater. This result also has been
approved by Mulligan (2009) which state that the pollution from the industrial effluents
able to produce high levels of suspended solids in water.
According to the third schedule of environmental quality act, EQA 1974 for
environmental quality of sewage and industrial effluents, there are several parameter
limits such temperature, pH, BOD, COD as well as suspended solid for the effluents of
standard A also standard B. Indah Water Konsortium Sdn. Bhd. has stated that the
effluent that discharged upstream of the water supply intake should meet the standard A.
Meanwhile, effluent that will discharges to the downstream needs to meet the standard B.
The limit value of the suspended solid for the standard A is 50mg/l and for standard B is
100mg/l (Indah Water Konsortium Sdn. Bhd.; EQA 1974). When comparing the standard
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value from Environmental Quality Act, EQA 1974 with the result in this experiment, it
shows that value of total suspended solid (TSS) for all three samples which industrial,
domestic and river in this experiment are lower than the standard value which are
0.028mg/l, 0.004mg/l and 0.02mg/l respectively.
The suspended solid (SS) may affects several properties of water bodies which are
can be divided into three such as physical, chemical and biological properties. These
changes of properties is caused by the increasing the SS concentration in water (Bilotta,
2008).
The changing of physical properties by SS are likes reduction of penetration of
light onto water because of the cloudiness of water surface, changing temperature in
water as well infilling of channels and reservoirs when solid are deposited. In the term of
chemical properties changing caused by SS are releasing the contaminants like heavy
metals and pesticides, and nutrients such phosphorus. Last but not least, the effect on
biological property which usually on organisms are as described in table below:
Table 4.2: Effect of different concentration of SS on organisms
Organism SS Concentration
(mg/l)
Effects
Macrophytes and
algae
8 3-13% reduction in primary productivity
2100 No primary production
Phytoplankton 10 40% reduction in algal biomass
Macrophytes and
algae
40 13-50% reduction in primary productivity
Periphyton
200 Significant reduction in biomass and
filament length
0 - 6500 Abrasive damage and reduced biomass
Source: Bilotta, G. S & Brazier, R. E. (2009)
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Besides that, organisms like phytoplankton, periphyton and mac rophytes, SS also
able give effects on the aquatic invertebrates and also salmonid fish. The invertebrates’
aquatics are determined to those that remaining in the water column like zooplankton.
The SS can damage exposed respiratory organs or will make the organisms more
susceptible to predation through dislodgement. Meanwhile, salmonid fish is considered as
important members of aquatic food chain, including trout, whitefish, grayling and
salmon. The presence of SS can directly act on the free-living fish by clogging and being
abrasive to their delicate gill structures. Besides that, it also prevents the sufficient
exchange of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide between respiring eggs/ larvae and
flowing water.
The suspended solid occur in water may contain of inorganic or organic particles
or also of immiscible liquids. The inorganic particles or solids can be divided into clay,
silt, or the other soil constituents. Meanwhile, the matter considered as organic materials
are like plant fibers and biological solids such algal cells, bacteria and others. All these
materials are often natural contaminants resulting from the erosive action of water
flowing over surfaces.
The other suspended solid also may cause from human use of the water such
domestic wastewater. The domestic wastewater usually contains large quantities of
suspended matter which mostly organic in nature. In addition to that, SS also caused by
livestock confinement areas, grazing lands, forest, cropland, building sites, stream banks,
urban areas as well as roadways (K.State).
In order to determine the amount of solids, there are several available tests can be
conducted like electro coagulation (Solak, 2009) as well filtration (Mulligan, 2009). Most
of the suspended solid can be determined or removed from water by using filtration
process (Peavy, 1985; Mulligan, 2009).
Besides that, in conjunction with the different concentration of suspended solid in
the water, there are several assumptions has been made most people about appearance of
water. For instance, most people have considered water to be clear if concentration of
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TSS is less than 20mg/l. Meanwhile, water may tend to appear cloudy with TSS
concentration in the range of 40mg/l to 80mg/l and lastly water will appear dirty when
the TSS concentration is more than 150mg/l.
The suspended solids such as organic or biological in nature are an important
parameter of wastewater. There are several usage of the suspended solids parameter
which are used to measure the quality of the wastewater influent and to monitor several
treatment processes. Besides that, this type of parameter is used to measure the quality of
the effluent. EPA has set that the maximum suspended solid standard of 30mg/l for the
most treated wastewater discharges.
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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATION
5.0 CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
As the encapsulation, the goals of this experiment which is to determine the total
suspended solid (TSS) from different sources of water such industrial, domestic and river
were achieved. The TSS amount of industrial, domestic and river water sources are
0.028mg/l, 0.004mg/l and 0.02mg/l respectively and these amount is far away less than
standard A and standard B limit in Environmental Quality Act, 1974 for environmental
quality of sewage and industrial effluents.
5.2 Recommendation
The amount of the total suspended solid (TSS) may increase by reduce the size of
filter disk, where with the smallest size, there are no solid able to flow through the filter
disk. The filter paper need to be dried properly so there is no moisture at all on the filter
paper that can affect the result of the experiment.
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REFERENCES
Bilotta, G. S., & Brazier, R. E. (2009). Understanding the influence of suspended solids
on water quality and aquatic biota. Review. Water Research, 42, 2849 – 2861
DEGEN, J. & F.E. NUSSBERGER. 1956. Notes on the determination of suspended
solids. Sewage Ind. Wastes 28:237.
Indah Water Konsortium Sdn. Bhd. Sewage Facts. Available online at
http://www.iwk.com.my/f-sewerage-fact.htm [Accessed on November 2011]
Mulligan, C. N., Davarpanah, N., Fukue, M., & Inoue, T. (2009). Filtration of
contaminated suspended solids for the treatment of surface water. Chemosphere,
Chemosphere, 74, 779 – 786
Peavy, H. S., Rowe, D. R., & Tchobanoglous, G. Environmental Engineering. McGraw-
Hill International Editions, pp 15 – 17
SMITH, A.L. & A.E. GREENBERG. 1963. Evaluation of methods for determining
suspended solids in wastewater. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 35:940.
Solak, M., Kılıç, M., Yazıcı, H., & Şencan, A. (2009). Removal of suspended solids and
turbidity from marble processing wastewaters by electrocoagulation: Comparison of
electrode materials and electrode systems. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 172, 345 –
352
Suspended solids: A water quality concern forn Kansas. Kansas State University
Agricultural Experiment Station and Coorporative extension Service. Available online at
http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/h20ql2/mf2501.pdf. [Accessed on November 2011]
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Third schedule, Environmental Quality Act 1974. Available online at
http://www.sabah.gov.my/jpas/Assessment/eia/sp-eias/Benta/eia/AnnexB/AnnexB.pdf
[Accessed on November 2011]
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