PURPOSE OF THE LESSON

“Ronald Reagan and Executive Power” examines the useof presidential powers by Ronald Reagan, the fortiethpresident of the United States. It explores Article II of theConstitution, which grants the president executive pow-ers. When you have completed this lesson, you should beable to explain and discuss how President Reagan exer-cised his authority under Article II of the Constitutionconcerning war powers, domestic policy, and foreign pol-icy. You should be able to explain how the brevity andambiguity of Article II allows presidents to interpret thesepowers, especially in relation to Congress. You should beable to evaluate and take positions on the constitutionalissues raised by the exercise of these powers, drawing onspecific examples from Ronald Reagan’s presidency.

RONALD REAGAN

Many well-known phrases in the political world areassociated with Ronald Reagan, the fortieth president ofthe United States. Many have called him the “GreatCommunicator.” Others refer to his era as the “ReaganRevolution.” Still others reflect on “Morning in America,”one of the most memorable campaign themes inAmerican history.

Ronald Wilson Reagan was born in the small northwestIllinois town of Tampico on February 6, 1911. Afterattending high school in Dixon, he studied economicsand sociology at Eureka College, where he was electedpresident of the student body. After his graduation fromcollege, he moved to Iowa, where he began a career inradio as a sports broadcaster.

RONALD REAGAN (1911–2004)Fortieth president of the United States

“No, democracy is not a fragile flower. Stillit needs cultivating. If the rest of this centuryis to witness the gradual growth of freedomand democratic ideals, we must take actionsto assist the campaign for democracy.”

ADDRESS TO MEMBERS OF THEBRITISH PARLIAMENT, JUNE 8, 1982

RONALD REAGANAND EXECUTIVE POWER

We the People: The Citizen and the Constitution is a nationally acclaimed civic education program forupper elementary, secondary, and post-secondary school students that focuses on the history and principlesof the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights. We the People is a program of the Center for Civic Education,whose mission is to promote an enlightened and responsible citizenry committed to democratic principlesand actively engaged in the practice of democracy in the United States and other countries.

February 6, 2011, marks the one-hundredth anniversary of Ronald Reagan’s birth, providing an occasionfor teaching and learning about President Reagan’s contributions to American constitutionalism andcitizenship. To this end, the Center for Civic Education and the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundationhave collaborated to produce this lesson. The lesson and materials to enhance this curriculum can befound at www.civiced.org/reagan.

While on assignment in California, Ronald Reagan tooka screen test and began working as an actor. He spent fouryears in the U.S. Army Air Corps during World War II.After completing his commitment to the army, hereturned to acting in motion pictures and began workingin television. Ronald Reagan appeared in a total of fifty-three films between 1937 and 1964.

While working in Hollywood, Ronald Reagan becameinvolved in the Screen Actors Guild, a labor union foractors, and became its president in 1947. He served as itspresident at a time when fears about the spread of com-munism led Congress and the FBI to investigatemembers of the entertainment industry for their politicalviews. His experiences during this period of his life deeplyrooted his commitment to fighting communism both athome and abroad.

In 1954, Ronald Reagan began hosting General ElectricTheater, a weekly television series. He became GeneralElectric’s spokesman, traveling to the company’s numer-ous plants across the country, speaking out against biggovernment, excessive taxation, and communism. Dur-ing his General Electric years, Ronald Reagan honed hismessage and polished his speaking skills.

Although Ronald Reagan was a supporter of Democraticpresident Franklin D. Roosevelt and maintained hismembership in the Democratic Party for many years, hispolitical beliefs became increasingly more conservative.Part of Ronald Reagan’s decision to join the RepublicanParty was its alignment with his anticommunist views. In1963, he became involved in the campaign of BarryGoldwater, the Republican nominee for president. InOctober 1964, Ronald Reagan delivered a speech thatbecame known as “A Time for Choosing,” in which heattacked the expansion of government and appeasementof communism, themes that would resonate throughouthis career. The speech thrust him into the nationalpolitical spotlight.

Ronald Reagan was elected governor of California in1966 and served two terms in office. While governor, hebecame prominent in national Republican politics as well.In 1976 he challenged incumbent president Gerald Fordfor the Republican nomination for president. Althoughhe did not win the nomination, he established his posi-tion as a leader within the Republican Party, emphasizingthe conservative ideals of less government regulation andtaxation, vigorous opposition to communism, and sup-port for a strong national defense.

Ronald Reagan won the Republican nomination for pres-ident in 1980 and went on to defeat the incumbent Dem-ocratic president Jimmy Carter in the election. He wassworn in as the fortieth president of the United States onJanuary 20, 1981, at the age of sixty-nine.

Some historians and political scientists have used thephrase “The Age of Reagan” to describe his importance inAmerican politics. Ronald Reagan’s administration wouldbe defined by its efforts to reduce the size and scope ofgovernment powers, reduce taxes, fight communismaround the world, and renew American patriotism. Thepursuit of these themes during Ronald Reagan’s presi-dency influenced the course of both domestic and for-eign policy.

PRESIDENTIAL POWERS

The Framers of the Constitution were somewhat uncer-tain about creating the office of the presidency. They hadfought the Revolutionary War against the excesses ofexecutive tyranny and knew from history the dangers ofconcentrating power in the hands of one person. But theyhad also experienced problems due to the lack of a strongexecutive under the Articles of Confederation. In creatingthe presidency, they were inventing an executive unlikeany that had ever existed in a democratic republic—one

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What themes from Ronald Reagan’s time as aspokesman for General Electric did he carryover into his later career?

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strong enough to be effective, but not so strong as to be-come oppressive. The result of their deliberations and at-tempts to strike this balance is found in Article II of theU.S. Constitution, which provides the basic structure ofthis office and a fairly brief list of its designated powers.

The Framers of the Constitution were aware that theoffice and function of the executive would need to adaptto the times and situations that the country would faceand would be shaped in part by those who occupied theoffice. Although each president puts a unique stamp onthe presidency, he or she must act according to the con-stitutional definition and limits of the executive and theprecedents of those who had previously served.

Upon reading Article II of the Constitution, one is struckby how brief the article is, considering how important theoffice it creates has become. The Constitution providesonly minimal guidance as to what the president isexpected to do or exactly how the president may exercisehis or her powers. For example, the president is directedto “from time to time give to the Congress Informationon the State of the Union, and recommend to theirConsideration [certain] Measures.” It is unclear exactlywhat the president’s involvement with the legislativeprocess should be, and this involvement has changedover time.

Each president must abide by the Constitution as boththe source of presidential authority and a limitation ofthat authority. In Article II, the president is given somespecific powers. Some of these powers are fairly clear andeasy to apply. The president, for example, is given thepower to veto legislation passed by Congress. But some ofthe president’s powers are less clear and more subject todiverse interpretations. The president is “vested” with theexecutive power and is charged with the responsibility to“take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed.” In thecontext of the pressing issues of the day, presidents havesometimes differed in their interpretation and applica-tion of these phrases.

The Constitution states that “the President shall be Com-mander in Chief of the Army and Navy.” Throughouthistory, this power of the president has been especiallysubject to interpretation. The extent of the president’sauthority over the military is unclear. Article I of theConstitution gives Congress the power to declare war, toraise and support military forces, and to raise and appropri-ate funds for those forces. As James Wilson stated at thePennsylvania Ratifying Convention, the Constitution wasdesigned to “prevent one man from hurrying us into war.”

In Federalist 69, Alexander Hamilton drew a distinctionbetween the powers of the president under the Constitu-tion and the powers of the King of England:

The President is to be commander-in-chief ofthe army and navy of the United States. In thisrespect his authority would be nominally thesame with that of the king of Great Britain, butin substance much inferior to it. It wouldamount to nothing more than the supremecommand and direction of the military andnaval forces, as first General and admiral of theConfederacy; while that of the British king ex-tends to the declaring of war and to the raisingand regulating of fleets and armies—all which,by the Constitution under consideration, wouldappertain to the legislature.

Of course, presidents and congresses have debated thedistribution of powers when applied to actual situations.The relative powers and responsibilities of the twobranches are particularly difficult to judge when Congresshas not declared war. Most of the military engagementsof the United States have never been formally declared byCongress. Presidents have on many occasions committedtroops to battle without a declaration of war from Congress.

After the Vietnam War, many members of Congress feltthat it was time to clear up some of the ambiguities inthe Constitution about the commitment of U.S. troops.In the War Powers Resolution of 1973, Congress soughta balance of congressional and presidential powers inmaking decisions about sending troops to war. The WarPowers Resolution stated that without authorization or adeclaration of war by Congress, “the President in every

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How did Ronald Reagan rise to nationalprominence as a politician? What issueswere important to him during his earlycareer and as president?

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possible instance shall consult with Congress before in-troducing United States Armed Forces into hostilities.”But the resolution recognizes that serious and immediatethreats may require swift action, and consultations maycause too much delay. In such cases, after dispatchingtroops, the president is required to report to Congress,and Congress determines whether the troops should re-main or be removed from the situation.

Presidents since Richard Nixon have maintained thatthe War Powers Resolution is unconstitutional becausethey claim it conflicts with the president’s authority ascommander in chief. On the other hand, some scholarshave claimed that the War Powers Resolution is anunconstitutional delegation of congressional power tothe president.

EXECUTIVE POWER AND THE CONTEMPORARY PRESIDENCY

Every presidency begins against the backdrop of currentevents. In the decades prior to Ronald Reagan’s inaugu-ration, the country had experienced the expansion ofpresidential powers during the administrations ofLyndon Johnson (1963–1969) and Richard Nixon(1969–1974), and then the contraction of presidentialinfluence under the presidencies of Gerald Ford (1974–1977) and Jimmy Carter (1977–1981).

During the 1960s and 1970s, policymaking centered inthe executive branch resulted in concerns that the powerof the presidency had grown too large and that certainactions of the presidents were unconstitutional. A primeexample of presidential strength was the direction of thewar in Vietnam, which has been described as a “presi-dential war,” over which Congress had little influence.The term imperial presidency has been used to describe an

office that some felt had expanded or grown too power-ful. The Watergate scandal of Richard Nixon’s presidencyreaffirmed this belief.

Upon the resignation of President Nixon, his vice presi-dent, Gerald Ford, assumed the office of president. Con-gress, in reaction to recent events, was committed toasserting its constitutional power in relationship to thepowers of the president. When Jimmy Carter was electedpresident in 1976, Congress asserted itself further. Somescholars have referred to the administrations of PresidentsFord and Carter as the imperiled presidency. The Consti-tution’s lack of a detailed explication of the formal pow-ers of the presidency had enabled Presidents Johnson andNixon to expand their powers. That same lack of speci-ficity enabled Congress to attempt to restrict the powersof the presidency during administrations of PresidentsFord and Carter.

In his first inaugural address, President Reagan expressedhis optimistic view that the problems of the nation couldbe overcome with conservative policies. At the heart ofhis economic plan was the concept that “government isnot the solution to our problem; government is the prob-lem.” He explained this by saying,

We are a nation that has a government—not theother way around. And this makes us specialamong the nations of the Earth. Our govern-ment has no power except that granted it by thepeople. It is time to check and reverse thegrowth of government, which shows signs ofhaving grown beyond the consent of the gov-erned. It is my intention to curb the size and in-fluence of the Federal establishment and todemand recognition of the distinction betweenthe powers granted to the Federal Governmentand those reserved to the States or to the people.

Although it is difficult to select a few isolated actions tobe representative, presidential dealings can be dividedinto war powers, domestic politics, and foreign relations.We will examine Ronald Reagan’s use of presidentialpower during his administration as it relates to each ofthese categories.

PRESIDENT REAGAN AS COMMANDER IN CHIEF

One short military engagement illustrates Ronald Reaganas commander in chief. President Reagan’s administrationwas concerned about Soviet and Cuban influence inCentral America and the Caribbean. On the smallCaribbean island nation of Grenada, a pro-Soviet

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What constitutional principles were embodiedin President Reagan’s first inaugural address?

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communist government with close ties to communistCuba seized power in 1979 and was proceeding withconstruction of a large airfield. President Reagan believedit would be used by the Soviets and Cuba to supplycommunist groups in Central America.

In October 1983, the government of Grenada was over-thrown and the island’s military assumed control. In re-sponse, President Reagan ordered American troops toinvade. Several other Caribbean nations also sent troops.The invasion, conducted as a rescue mission, ensured thesafety of about a thousand Americans on the island.

The mission achieved success quickly. The Americans onthe island were evacuated to the United States, pro-communist forces—largely Cuban troops—were defeated,and a new civilian government was formed. Even so, theinvasion raised some of the same questions regardingexecutive authority that had been raised during theVietnam War a decade earlier with previous presidents.

The constitutional division of war powers between thepresident and Congress has been debated since the Con-stitutional Convention. History provides us with manyexamples of presidents committing troops without eithera declaration of war or prior congressional approval. Butthe War Powers Resolution of 1973 required presidents toconsult with Congress before committing troops, exceptin cases of serious and immediate threats. In the case ofGrenada, Ronald Reagan’s administration informed somecongressional leaders but did not seek actual consultationor advice before the invasion.

President Reagan’s position was that as commander inchief he had an obligation to ensure national security andprotect the interests of the country and its citizens. As forthe War Powers Resolution, President Reagan reported toCongress, but only consistent with, not under the WarPowers Resolution. He stated that he was acting underhis constitutional authority to swiftly commit troops.Subsequent presidents have also used this distinctionwhen reporting to Congress concerning troop deploy-ment and have not sought formal consultation with Con-gress before committing troops.

The invasion of Grenada is often cited as an example ofPresident Reagan’s decisiveness and action against the ex-pansion of communism. Although there was some con-troversy over this exercise of presidential power, theinvasion denied communism another foothold in theCaribbean and restored Grenada’s parliamentary govern-ment, which continues to hold free elections. TheGrenada invasion is also regarded as a return to presi-dential domination of war powers.

DOMESTIC POLICY:THE AIR-TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS’ STRIKE

A president can clearly point to the commander in chiefclause of the Constitution as a basis for his or her au-thority to deploy troops. However, many other actionsthat presidents take consist of a combination of powersderived from various constitutional clauses and an inter-pretation and application of these powers to particularsituations. Actions taken in domestic policy are often amix of powers.

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How did President Reagan justify his constitutionalauthority to invade Grenada? Do you think thepresident had the authority to commit troopswithout congressional approval? Explain whyor why not.

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What issues did President Reagan have to considerwhen he made his decision to fire the strikingair-traffic controllers? Do you think he made theright decision? Explain why or why not.

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The president is charged with the general responsibility to“take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed.” TheConstitution notes that “the executive power shall bevested in a President of the United States of America.”Of course, the legislature is given specific powers of itsown, such as the power to create laws and appropriatemoney. However, the Framers were vague on howdomestic policy would be administered by the president.

Early in President Reagan’s administration, the nation’sair-traffic controllers went on strike, seeking highersalaries and fewer working hours. The controllers wereemployees of the federal government and their strikeviolated federal law, which prohibited federal workersfrom striking. Although the controllers’ union and sev-eral other unions had called similar strikes under previouspresidents, no action had been taken against them. Withthe controllers on strike, the nation’s air travel was brieflycrippled and millions of Americans were adversely af-fected. President Reagan announced that the striking con-trollers must return to their jobs within 48 hours or theywould be fired. When most of the workers did not returnto work, he kept his promise and fired more than eleventhousand air-traffic controllers, replacing them with mil-itary controllers, supervisors, and nonstriking workers.President Reagan banned the striking workers from beingrehired. The Justice Department pursued fines against theunion. Within months, the union was decertified and waseffectively broken.

President Reagan’s action in firing the striking workerswas controversial. The strike and subsequent firing ofthese workers resulted in cutting roughly half the sched-uled commercial flights on the first day of the strike, andthe airline industry lost substantial revenue. Firing theworkers went against the precedents of the four previouspresidents, who did not fire government workers in sim-ilar situations. The Federal Aviation Administration facedthe need to immediately hire and train new controllers.Commercial flights recovered quickly, however. The air-traffic control system continued to function. Most Amer-icans supported President Reagan’s actions. The Sovietspaid close attention to this incident and were struck byPresident Reagan’s resolve and decisiveness.

Some critics claimed that the firing seemed to contradictPresident Reagan’s campaign promises to the air-trafficcontrollers’ union, the only union to have supported hiselection campaign. His decision to fire the strikingworkers showed that President Reagan did not intendhis view of limited government to mean that he favoreda weakened presidency.

THE PRESIDENT AND FOREIGN POLICY

One important role of any president is that of “chiefdiplomat.” Although these specific words do not appearin the Constitution, the president is given the authorityto receive foreign diplomats. The president also acts asthe director of foreign policy by appointing the secretaryof state and ambassadors to foreign countries. These pow-ers are shared with the Senate, which has the authority toconfirm presidential appointments to these offices and toadvise on and consent to treaties made by the president.In practice, the presidency has gained many informal for-eign policy powers not written directly into the Consti-tution. The ability of the president to react swiftly, tospeak as a single voice—in contrast to the many voices inCongress—and the central position of the president inAmerican politics have created a dominant role for thepresident in foreign policy making. As international travelhas become easier, presidents have capitalized on theopportunity to conduct diplomatic meetings with headsof state around the world.

Limiting the expansion of the Soviet Union’s influencebecame one of the main goals of U.S. foreign policy afterWorld War II. The struggle between liberal democracy,led by the United States, and totalitarian communism,represented by the Soviet Union, was called the ColdWar. To challenge each other’s influence, both the UnitedStates and the Soviet Union built up their militaries andarms stockpiles and extended them to their respectiveallies during this period.

Convinced that weakened U.S. military forces onlyinvited Soviet expansionism around the globe, RonaldReagan promoted strengthening the U.S. militarythrough increased defense spending as one of the majorthemes of his 1980 presidential campaign. Militaryspending had been declining since the end of the VietnamWar—resulting in shortages of military parts and equip-ment—and had begun increasing at the end of PresidentCarter’s administration. Furthermore, President Reaganand his advisors believed that because the Soviets wereoutspending the United States in military weaponsprocurement, there would be a potentially dangerousimbalance of power.

President Reagan also aimed to reduce the influence ofthe Soviet Union and “roll back” or eliminate commu-nist regimes around the globe by supporting anti-Sovietgovernments and groups. These included the mujahideenin Afghanistan, the Contras in Nicaragua, and the Soli-darity Movement’s struggle for freedom in Poland. Thisbecame known as the “Reagan Doctrine.”

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President Reagan was very vocal in his opposition to com-munism. He predicted that communism would be left“on the ash heap of history” with other “tyrannies whichstifle the freedom and muzzle the self-expression of thepeople.” He referred to the Soviet Union as an “evilempire.” This dramatic statement and President Reagan’spolicies toward the Soviet Union generated a great deal ofcontroversy. Some saw his words as an important reasser-tion of American resolve. Others worried that they need-lessly antagonized the Soviets and increased the risk ofwar. To alleviate these concerns, the president spoke ofhis program as “peace through strength.”

Early in President Reagan’s second term, a reform-mindedleader, Mikhail Gorbachev, assumed power in the SovietUnion. Like previous presidents, Ronald Reagan madeplans to meet the new Soviet leader. During his presi-dency, President Reagan met with General SecretaryGorbachev on five occasions from 1985 to 1988. Thetwo leaders developed a personal relationship and workedtogether to reduce the tensions of the Cold War.

In June 1987, President Reagan stood before the famousBrandenburg Gate, which had been blocked by the BerlinWall. The wall had been constructed in 1961 by commu-nist East Germany to isolate West Berlin and to preventEast Germans from fleeing to the West. It had become asymbol of communist repression around the world. In whatwould become one of his most famous speeches, PresidentReagan challenged Secretary Gorbachev and said,

General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace,if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union andEastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, comehere to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate!Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall! 7

How did Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachevcontribute to ending the Cold War?

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Also in this speech, President Reagan called for a lessen-ing of the arms race between the United States and theSoviet Union. Just six months later, the two leaders signeda treaty to reduce nuclear weapons.

Mikhail Gorbachev introduced sweeping reforms to theSoviet Union that gave his people a greater measure ofpolitical and economic freedom. He hoped this wouldstrengthen the weak Soviet economy and improve citi-zens’ well-being. The reforms, however, unleashed a waveof protests. The protest movements led to the collapse ofcommunism all over Central and Eastern Europe. InNovember 1989, the Berlin Wall was opened and even-tually dismantled. The destruction of the wall became asymbol of this historic turning point. In 1991, the SovietUnion was dissolved and Mikhail Gorbachev resigned.

President Reagan’s “peace through strength” strategy hasoften been credited as contributing to the collapse of theSoviet Union and the end of the Cold War. PresidentReagan himself believed that when given the choice, peo-ple will always choose freedom.

RONALD REAGAN AND THE PRESIDENCY

President Reagan’s reassertion of presidential power left asignificant mark on events of the 1980s and reinvigoratedthe office of the presidency. It is generally acknowledgedthat President Reagan’s policies were key factors leading tothe collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the ColdWar, liberating millions. President Reagan proved flexiblein his dealings with the Soviet Union, reducing tensionsand negotiating a reduction in arms. However, opponentsthought that President Reagan’s policies of strengtheningthe American military and confronting the Soviet Unionwould increase the danger of armed conflict while addingto the budget deficit. In some instances, these policies ledto claims that the United States had supported govern-ments and outside groups that at times disregardedhuman rights. Nevertheless, during his eight years inoffice, Ronald Reagan’s political instincts and determinationto spread democracy and freedom raised Americanmorale and promoted liberty around the world. Althoughscholars continue to debate the merits of his policies,popular esteem for Ronald Reagan has risen over time. Pub-lic opinion polls indicate that he remains one of the coun-try’s most popular and admired presidents.

WEBSITESwww.civiced.org/reaganVisit www.civiced.org/reagan to access a full spectrum ofresources that will enrich your study of Ronald Reagan and theConstitution. Resources include critical thinking exercises, atimeline, a biography of Reagan, frequently asked questions onPresident Reagan’s administration, links to websites related tothe president, and a helpful list of additional readings.

www.reaganfoundation.orgThe Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation is the sole non-profit, nonpartisan organization dedicated to the preservationand promotion of the legacy of Ronald Reagan and his timelessprinciples of individual liberty, economic opportunity, globaldemocracy, and national pride.

www.reagancentennial.comThe Ronald Reagan Centennial Celebration is a historic, year-long celebration to commemorate the one-hundredth anniver-sary of Ronald Reagan’s birth on February 6, 2011. The RonaldReagan Presidential Foundation has planned a worldwide Cen-tennial Celebration to pay tribute to the legacy of the fortiethpresident through public outreach and education.

www.ReaganLibrary.govAdministered by the National Archives and Records Adminis-tration, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library & Museum hasserved thousands of researchers and millions of visitors since itsopening in 1991.

CREDITS© 2011, Center for Civic Education. All rights reserved. Permission isgranted to freely reproduce and use this lesson for nonprofit, educationalpurposes. Copyright must be acknowledged on all copies. Images used inthis lesson may be subject to copyright restrictions and may not be repro-duced without prior written permission from the copyright holder. Pleasevisit the Center for Civic Education’s website at www.civiced.org.

This supplemental lesson commemorating the centennial of RonaldReagan’s birth was made possible by a grant from The J. Willard and AliceS. Marriott Foundation.

Images were provided by the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library &Museum, the Department of Defense, and Getty Images (page 5).

This supplemental lesson on Ronald Reagan was authored by LauriMcNown, who teaches in the Department of Political Science at theUniversity of Colorado at Boulder.

REVIEWING AND USING THE LESSON

� What powers related to waging war are given toCongress under Article I? What powers are grantedto the president under Article II? Why are there con-flicts in this division of power between the presidentand Congress as they relate to war powers?

� Why do you think members of Congress thoughtthey needed to pass the War Powers Resolution?Why have presidents asserted that the War PowersResolution is unconstitutional? Do you agree withthe position of Congress in 1973 or the positionof subsequent presidents? Why or why not?

� How do the terms imperial presidency and imper-iled presidency reflect the fears of the Framers of theConstitution? How do the presidential leadershipstyles of Presidents Nixon and Johnson compare tothe leadership styles of Presidents Ford and Carter?

� What constitutional principles concerning thepowers of the federal government did PresidentReagan describe in his first inaugural address?What founding philosophical principles doesPresident Reagan echo in this passage?

� Discuss President Reagan’s actions in Grenada withreference to the Constitution and the War PowersResolution. Did the president act within his consti-tutional powers? Did he act within the boundariesof the War Powers Resolution? Why or why not?

� What parts of the Constitution did PresidentReagan rely on in his firing of the air-traffic con-trollers? Do you see a conflict in President Reagan’sactions in this case and his goal of limiting thepower of the government? Why or why not?

� Do you see a conflict between the goals of limitingthe power and size of the federal government andthe expansion of the military? Why or why not?

CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISES

Critical thinking exercises for this lesson can be found atwww.civiced.org/reagan.These exercises develop intellectualand participatory skills and offer an opportunity to assessstudents’ capacity to develop and defend an argumentand to support it with evidence.R

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Ronald Reagan Centennial Celebration

Center for Civic Education

We the People: The Citizen and the Constitution