Excretory System1

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Excretory system


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regulate the chemical composition of bodyfluids by removing metabolic wastes andretaining the proper amounts of water,

salts, and nutrients. Components of thissystem in vertebrates include the kidneys,liver, lungs, and skin .


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Single-celled organisms have most of theirwastes diffuse out into the outsideenvironment. Multicellular organisms, and

animals in particular, must have aspecialized organ system to concentrateand remove wastes from theinterstitialfluidinto the bloodcapillariesand

eventually deposit that material at acollection point for removal entirely fromthe body
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Osmoregulationrefers to the state aquaticanimals are in: they are surrounded byfreshwater and must constantly deal with theinflux of water.

Animals, such as crabs, have an internal saltconcentration very similar to that of thesurrounding ocean. Such animals are known asosmoconformers

as there is little water transport between theinside of the animal and theisotonicoutsideenvironment .
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Excretory System Functions |

Collect water and filter body fluids .

Remove and concentrate waste productsfrom body fluids and return othersubstances to body fluids as necessary forhomeostasis .

Eliminate excretory products from thebody .
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Many invertebrates such as flatworms useanephridiumas their excretory organ. Atthe end of each blind tubule of the

nephridium is a ciliatedflame cell .As fluidpasses down the tubule, solutes arereabsorbed and returned to the body

fluids .
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Body fluids are drawn into theMalphigiantubulesby osmosis due to largeconcentrations of potassium inside the

tubule. Body fluids pass back into thebody, nitrogenous wastes empty into theinsect's gut. Water is reabsorbed and

waste is expelled from the insect.
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Urinary system


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Functions of the urinary system

Regulate plasma concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride,calcium and other ions by controlling their loss in the urine.

Regulate blood volume and blood pressure by adjusting water lossas well as producing the hormones erythropoietin and renin

maintain stable blood pH conserve nutrients by limiting their loss in urine eliminating organic waste, especially nitrogenous waste such as

urea and uric acid synthesize calcitrol, one of the vitamin Ds that increases calcium

absorption in the intestines

assist the liver in detoxification


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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Kidney-Tubules.gif


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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Kidney-Tubules.gif


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Endothelial of glomeruluscapillaries

FenestrateOr hole


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NFP = GBHP - (BCOP + CHP)


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Typical values might be:

NFP = GBHP - BCOP - CHP= 55 - 30 - 15


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The urine is a pale yellow coloured fluid. The yellow


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p y ycolour is due to the presence of urochrome pigmentformed from the haemoglobin of dead RBC's in the

liver cells. It is acidic in nature and has a pH of 6.0. It has a faint

anamalic odour due to the presence of urinod. It soongets a strong smell of ammonia which forms as a

result of degradation of urea. Daily urine output is 1.5 to 1.8 lts. The volume of urine

output is directly proportional to the fluid intake .Chemically it is formed of water 95 - 96%, urea 2%,other wastes like uric acid, hip puric acid, createnine,phosphates and oxalates 2-3%. It also contains non-nitrogenous organic compounds like vitamin C, oxalic

acid and phenolic substances.


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Filtration/min


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Glomerular filtration rate is controlled by two intrinsic mechanisms,which provide autoregulation. They are:

1) Myogenic mechanism Myogenic mechanism helps to control variations of the blood flow to

the glomerulus due to fluctuations in blood pressure. An increase inblood pressure makes the wall of the afferent arteriole contract thusreducing the diameter of the arteriole and increasing the resistanceto flow.

2) Juxtaglomerular apparatus

When there is a decrease in blood pressure or blood volume in theafferent arteriole of the glomerulus, the Justaglomerular Apparatus(TGA) that is situated between the afferent and efferent arteriolesrelease an enzyme 'renin' into the blood stream. A plasma proteinangiotensinogen is converted to apeptide angiotensin II by renin.


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Autoregulation


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Autoregulationmyogenic cells of af.


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Juxtaglumerular apparatus


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Calcium re-absorption


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The four parathyroidglands are located

adjacent to the muchlarger thyroid gland.

Secretion ofparathormone (PTH)

is a direct responseto an abnormaldecrease in theconcentration ofcalcium ions.

Parathormonesaction to restore


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action to restorenormal calciumlevels include

increased calciumreabsorption in thekidneys, increasedcalcium-liberatingactivities ofosteoclasts, andincreased formationof vitamin D, whichincreases uptake of

dietarycalcium in thegastrointestinal tract.

Calcitriol


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Calcitriol

Calcitriol is 1,25[OH]2 Vitamin D3, the active form ofvitamin D. It is derived from

calciferol (vitamin D3) which is synthesized in skinexposed to the ultraviolet rays of the sun

precursors ("vitamin D") ingested in the diet. Calciferol in the blood is converted into the active vitamin

in two steps:

calciferol is converted in the liver into 25[OH] vitamin D3

this is carried to the kidneys (bound to a serum globulin)where it is converted into calcitriol. This final step ispromoted by the parathyroid hormone (PTH).
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Hydrogen Ion Regulation:


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Filtered bicarbonate

ions are reabsorbedby contributing tothe generation ofnew bicarbonateions inside the

tubule cells.

Peritubul

arcapillary


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In a personsuffering acidosis,additional bufferingcan be gainedwith new

bicarbonate ions,

synthesized in thetubule cells, as longas a sink forhydrogen ions (hereHPO4

2-) is available.Peritubul

arcapillary


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In a personsuffering acidosis,additional newbicarbonate ionsare synthesized

from catalysis ofthe amino acidglutamine.

Peritubul

arcapillary


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Erythropoietin (EPO)


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Erythropoietin is a glycoprotein. It acts onthe bone marrow to increase theproduction of red blood cells. Stimuli such

as bleeding or moving to high altitudes(where oxygen is scarcer) trigger therelease of EPO.
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Kidney failure


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In a kidney-failurepatient undergoing

dialysis, the blood isbriefly removed fromthe body to becirculated through adialyzer, where

dialysis fluid andblood move incounter currentdirections to removenitrogenous and other

wastes and adjustosmolarity before thebloodis returned to thebody.


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Birds kidney


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Excretory System1