Examining Student Spatial thinking in preparation for the ... · Examining Student Spatial thinking in preparation for the integration of GIS in the Egyptian geographical ... components

International Journal of Science Commerce and Humanities Volume No 3 No 1 January 2015

52

Examining Student Spatial thinking in preparation for the integration of GIS

in the Egyptian geographical Primary Curriculum.

Yaser Abdel AzimSamak1

Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt

Abstract

Spatial abilities studies tackled the topic from different aspects and pivots. Our study concentrated on primary

education students so as to develop geographical curricula to cope with their potential abilities especially this

generation that is distinguished with technological abilities that were not available before such as maps

development, students eagerness to navigate through Google earth maps and games that are more complicated

than GIS programs, thus the researcher designed a scale of spatial abilities consistent with the mental age of

students and the development of Mathematics curriculum that is promoting spatial abilities to make a good use

of students' abilities and the curricula development in order to develop Egyptian primary geography curriculum

in addition to promoting GIS that are promoting spatial awareness via developing Teachers abilities, then their

method of teaching via GIS in school activities. In a correlational study, 311 participants were tested and they

were randomly selected from primary stage. The study approved the validity of the scale and its reliability to be

applied according to the purpose of design. The study approved the existence of significant differences between

males and females, and primary students and preparatory students and students' abilities to deal with the

components and items of GIS representing in GPS mobility. The study revealed students' cartographical

abilities and survey abilities on sketch map after evaluating the drawing according to Kevin Lynch's method.

The results indicate that there are many indexes encouraging students' spatial thinking and promoting the

spatial awareness

Keywords: GIS, spatial abilities, curriculum, GIS Applications, Egyptian Primary Curriculum

Introduction

Learning to think spatially is a key educational goal as the Egyptian society faced many struggles leading to

increasing the need to improve education; it becomes a must to put standard levels in which the various

components of the educational system will be evaluated and developed, including the curriculum, and standard

based reform becomes the motive for many educational institutions that are affirming the necessity of

developing education and promoting students' performance.

Consequently, the movements of educational standards spread in the last decade (Saleh, 2011). Supporting

spatial thinking in curricula requires preparing young children of kg-12 so as to get rid of technological literacy

so as to make a good use of technologies such as geographic information system (GIS) for supporting spatial

thinking of the graduates in the light of market requirements. The U.S. National Research Council 2

recommended evaluating empirical and theoretical curricula in psychology and education that supports the use

of GIS as new necessary tools for education leading to many inquiries about how to support spatial thinking

1Corresponding author: Dr. Yaser Abdel Azim Samak; Faculty of Arts, Department of Geography, Assiut University, Old University Building, M.B,

71515, Assiut, Egypt prof.dr.yasersamak[at]gmail.com. Mobile No +201024578401

2- http://www.nationalacademies.org/nrc/index.html

http://www.nationalacademies.org/nrc/index.html


53

abilities via education and training. How mightcurrent versions of GIS be incorporated into existing standards-

based instruction in all knowledge domains across the school curriculum? How can cognitive developmental

and educational theory be used to develop new versions of GIS that are age appropriate in their design and to

implement new GIS curricula that are age appropriate in their scope and sequence? And all these inquiries are

considered in the long-term objectives of the current study. Spatial ability is the ability tounderstand and

remember the spatial relationships among objects, manipulate images in space, and visualize how separate parts

of complex physical systems interrelate. This ability can be viewed as a unique type of

intelligencedistinguishable from other forms of intelligence, such as verbal ability, reasoning ability, and

memory skills3. Visual-spatial skills are of great importance for success in solving many tasks in everyday life.

For instance, using a map to guide you through an unfamiliar city4.

The idea for this research arose from the lack of students joining the departments of geography in

academic education in comparison with other departments although geography department contributed to the

development of the graduates represented in providing them with vital majors such as: GIS, and Survey and

maps, consequently, the researcher tried to investigate the reasons for the inadequacy and unattractiveness of

the geography department to many students via examining the basics of teaching geography in the main

education stage. The public education system in Egypt consists of three levels: the basic education stage for 4–

14 years old: kindergarten for two years followed by primary school for six teaching and preparatory school for

three years. Then, the secondary school stage is for three years,for ages 15 to 17, followed by the tertiary level.

Education is made compulsory for 9 academic years between the ages of 6 and 14, so as to evaluatestudents'

capabilities and their spatial thinking to revealcurriculum needs to cope with current abilities of students, as this

generation is distinguished by its abilities of dealing with computers, and GIS software compatible with

students age during primary stage such as Gateway into Bali, KanGIS and NYGPS..5 The primary advantage of

introducing GIS in school education is seen as: '... to provide a continuity of education in GIS and to equip the

next generation with the tools to make use of spatial data' (Warr, 1996).

The GIS in the two phases of primary and secondary education in Egypt is not the issue of time, not least

because the recent amendment in the scientific content of the curriculum at the secondary level did not receive

the desired GIS attention, as is the case in developed countries such as Finland, which GIS in education is

currently a topical issue. GIS was mentioned for the first time in 1991 but without any major effects on

educational practice. The educational use of

GIS in secondary schools has been widely promoted in the United States of America but according to Joseph

Kerski (Kerski, 2001). Since so the activation of GIS applications must be preceded by the assurance of the

primary students' acquisition basic spatial abilities. As a result of students efficiency increases in spatial

abilities skills, the researcher was obliged to design a spatial abilities' scale that is compatible with students age

at the main education stage afterwards he designed a scale to measure students' abilities concerning survey and

their usage of GIS tools, and finally a scale for measuring the basic elements of map composition. The great

advancement induced by Mathematics curriculum for the grades (4-6) at primary stage motivated the researcher

to change the curriculum of Geography of social studies course for the grades (4-6) at primary stage, as the

study of 6th grade students of the scale in Mathematics enabled the students to easily differentiate between

large-scale maps and small-scale maps(Government of Ireland, 1999). In the early years, children have the

3- http://web.jhu.edu/cty/STBguide.pdf 4-http://cty.jhu.edu/talent/testing/about/stb.html 5- For details go to : http://www.gislounge.com/k-12-education-in-gis/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindergarten

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_school

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_school

http://cty.jhu.edu/talent/testing/about/stb.html

http://www.gislounge.com/k-12-education-in-gis/


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opportunity to explore scale drawings, models and maps and relate them to measurements of real objects, by

engaging in activities such as: modeling a scale drawing of any room at home or classroom. The influence of

mathematics is as follows:

1. Enabling the child to think and communicate quantitatively and spatially.

2. Solving problems, recognizing situations where mathematics can be applied.

3. Using appropriate technology to support applications.

4. Exploring spatial awareness and its application in real-life situations.

5. Developing a sense of spatial awareness.

(The State of Michigan, Department of Education,1998).

Students have the ability to work out problems concerning distance calculating between two zones if they know

the actual distance between them and vice versa via determining map drawing scale of the two known zones as

a result of their study of mathematics elementary activities enlisted in the courses of measurement and geometry

and two or three dimensions of visual patterns as of grade2 as one of the most important pillars of spatial ability

variables. Evident improvement in the level of spatial perception with exposure of students to a number of

educational activities such as reading a map and default visits, makes a certain amount of environmental

expertise and a clear improvement in the level of spatial cognition of geographical features (Abel Baset, H. A.

M., 2008). Mathematics education enables the child to think and communicate quantitatively and spatially.

(Government of Ireland, 1999).

In grades K-4, the U.S.National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) recommended changes to

the content and emphasis of the mathematics being taught, developing spatial sense, concepts related to

measurement, and estimation of measure affirmed the spatial sense as a result of the development of

mathematics focusing on forming samples and relations instead of being previously a group of facts and

procedures (Abed, 1996). In the light of all that is mentioned above, arises the following question arises: why

does not the geographical curriculum conform with what was achieved by the mathematics curriculum by

getting the benefit from mathematics via making geography the application field of advanced mathematics?

Background literature:

Various studies tackled the topic of spatial abilities from different attitudes such as military, engineering,

physical education and geography. In the light of the current study, Visual-spatial skills are of great importance

for success in solving many tasks in everyday life. Educational studies evaluated the first and second part of

primary education such as Allam (1993) about the social studies curricula in primary stage in the light of social

skills, and it aimed at determining the objectives and skills that must be available for primary stage students in

the light of the objectives and content of the curriculum, and revealed the skills lacked in the content. A study of

Kamel (2003) revealing the required map skills and the effectiveness of a suggested program to develop spatial

ability of Grade 8 students.

A study Maqlad ( 2011) on the effectiveness of using multi-media mental maps in teaching social

studies on cognitive attainment and promoting deductive thinking of preparatory stage students recommended

the necessity of supporting class education with multimedia presentations. One of the most important studies

which emphasizes importance of geographic information systems in the curriculum study Yahia, It was about

the advanced trends of promoting geography teaching as pointed out that GIS provides students with many

skills and applied and practical advantages as being computer technology motivating geography in general. GIS

is promoted as an educational tool to encourage positive learning of data exploration, critical thinking, literacy,

computer skills, and spatial awareness (Faison 1996; Audet and Paris1997; ESRI 1998; ESRI 2006). GIS has


55

shown promise in Project-Based Learning (PBL) environments, but many obstacles exist in its integration into

school curriculums (Henry, P., &Semple, H., 2012). Hagevik (2003) concluded that learning with GIS

developed students‘ spatial-visual thinking skills.

Many studies have investigated thestandard and gradual content of GIS that must be included in the curricula. .

In addition to many studies tackling spatial abilities such as Roosenboom (2011) in his thesis about spatial

awareness of Dutch children aged 8-11. Other studies tackled sex differences concerning small-scale spatial

abilities (e.g., mental rotation) reflecting differences in large scale navigation abilities between males and

females. Another Study of Goede (2009), concerning gender differences in spatial cognition and the Study of

Neilson (2004) on sex differences in spatial cognitive: an evolutionary approach. . Various educational studies

dealing with spatial abilities affirming the distinguish between these abilities using agents and motivations such

as wall maps or navigating digital maps but most of the studies depended on paper and pen such as Montello, D.

R. et al.1999, Hegarty, M. et al. 2006, Lohman, D. F. 1988. Other theories (Jones, Braithwaite, & Healy, 2003)

suggest that differences in sex spatial abilities, whether the large or small scale reflects the same abilities and

causally significant.

Objectives of the study:

1. Describe Students' spatial abilities in the primary stage from 9 to 12 years old.

2. Test differences between males and females in spatial abilities.

3. Explore howvariance of age and grade impact on spatial abilities.

4. Examine students' response concerning items related to spatial geography and GIS.

5. Describe students' abilities concerning survey and Cartography.

Key questions for of the study (The researcher suggests the following assumptions):

1. Are there any differences between males and females in spatial abilities?

2. Are there any differences in ages (9-12) in spatial abilities?

3. Are there any differences in grades in spatial abilities?

4. Are there any differences among students according to age and gender concerning survey and

cartography skills?

5. Does GIS learning amend spatial thinking skills?

6. Which location and GIS applications' appeal to primary stage students?

Methods

Spatial abilities test.

Spatial thinking has a nebulous identity in the geography education literature as various terms, such as

thinking spatially, geospatial thinking, spatial intelligence, or spatial ability, are used synonymously (Huynh, N.

& Sharpe, B. 2012). Spatial ability is measured by 13 different tests with focus on visualization, orientation, and

perception (Huynh, N. 2009). Psychometric tests have been used extensively to assess spatial abilities,


56

especially spatial visualization and spatial orientation (Kail et al. 1979; McGlone, 1981; Miller &Santoni, 1986;

Goldstein et al. 1990; Newcombe&Dubas, 1992). Spacial' in the psychometric tests, however, refers to small-

scale (table-top) space, which is not the scale most pertinent togeography (Lee and Bednarz 2009).

The researcher designed a spatial ability scale among primary stage students in the light of scientific

criteria in educational aspects so as to get a response of many categories that cannot be measured by

questionnaires as in academic studies with othercategories. One of these criteria that the researcher put into his

consideration is the notes of geography curriculum and the development of mental and skillful abilities for this

stage so as to cope with the abilities of this generation, thus the objective of the spatial abilities scale is to

recognize students' spatial abilities during primary stage and their advanced geographical skills, and the scale

can be used for evaluation and educational orientation, and as a test for scientific hypotheses of the study, and

affirming its efficiency in measuring student's spatial abilities, and extracting its results to deepen the geospatial

applications in Egyptian primary stage.

Scale Validity

Validity concept is linked to its validity to be used, as a valid test is the test that can be used in the light

of the objectives for which it was designed (Abed Elhady, 2001), Test validity depends on the function that can

be done by it or the category or the group supposed to be exposed to the test (Molhem, 2009).

First: Content Validity:

Many definitions of content validity have been published (Anastasi, 1988; Messick, 1993; Nunnally&

Bernstein, 1994; Suen, 1990; Walsh, 1995) Content validity is the degree to which elements of an assessment

instrument are relevant to and representative of the targeted construct for a particular assessment purpose

(Haynes, & et al. 1995). The scale was tested by experts in Psychology, geography, and geography teaching

methods and 90% of them agree that its items suit the content for which it is designed.

Second: Internal Consistency:

Coefficient was suggested by Cronbach (Meehl, &Cronbach, 1995) as one of the evidence that must be

selected to support the scales virtual formation (Allam, 2006). He calculated the coefficient between every

variable and its related dimension as the highest value among variables is visualizations (0.45-0.79), and it was

significant with a value of (0.01) while the highest value among variables of perception(0.23-0.81), and it was

significant with a value of (0.01), the higher and least values of the correlation coefficient of orientation (1 -

0.17), and it were significant with a value of (0.01) except the tenth question which was significant with a value

of (0.05). The higher value and the least value of the correlation coefficient between scale sub-dimensions, and

the total scale ranged between (0.99 - 0.29) and were significant with a value of (0.01) as indicated in Table 1.

Third: Validity of factor contracture: the researcher used factor analysis of spatial abilities variables to be

sure of the factors of scale as indicated in Table 2. As the value of first factor latent root is 1.64 and this

explains13.7% of the variance, namely the test measures only one value that is spatial ability, and the next four

factors are similar and near the test concerning variance; consequently, the test measures what was designed for.

Reliability:

Reliability coefficient was designed to offer quantity estimation of scale accuracy, thus it is used for one

of the following: first, it indicates the accuracy of the scale; the other use is to offer estimation for consistency

of the performance on the sample (Omar, 2010). While increasing the number of items in a scale can thus

improve the scale's reliability. Split – Half Reliability is used when the process of the retest greatly costs or may


57

lead to inaccurate results, thus correlation coefficient value was estimated between dimensions then being

corrected by using Spearman-Brown Coefficient with a value of (0.71) that is considered accepted value

affirming the validity of the scale to be applied, and the internal consistency coefficient using Cronbach's Alpha

with a value of (0.6) is considered a good value affirming the validity of the scale to be applied.

Mental map assignments:

The researcher applied another practical test on the participants as an annex for the last final test of

spatial ability and cognitive maps representing in two types of mental map assignments:

1. Surveying of an area and then drawing it by using a suitable drawing scale.

2. Using GIS as a separate apparatus of the type Garmin, and another one supported with mobile and

Google maps for showing the location of some land marks, route retracing and direct navigation.

3. The student draws his house in details using suitable drawing scale.

Participants:

Three hundred and eleven participants took part in the study, and they were randomly selected from

primary stage students at schools affiliated to Baqour educational Administration, Menofia Governorate; Arab

Republic of Egypt aged between 10-12 years old in grades (4-6), and a similar sample of inhabitants Egyptians

in Jeddah, KSA .Another sample of preparatory students aged from (13-15) as a comparative and control group

at the same time so as to examine the conformity of the scale with their age and educational stage and revealing

the differences between their response and the response of primary stage students. All students answered all

required questions, and none of them was excluded from the sample.

The study Area:

A residential area was selected for survey and cartography by the student that is the University

district, Jeddah Governorate, Makkah Zone, KSA.

Tools:

Spatial ability scales, measuring tapeline, GPS, GPS supported with mobile cell phone, paper maps

for study area, Laptop, Mobile phone Google maps, and the registration notebook. The period was from March

to mid of May2013.


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Table No (1) Correlations between dimensions and variables of spatial abilities in the study and the total Scale

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Q : 1 Q : 2 Q : 3 Visuali-

zation

Q : 1 Q : 2 Q : 3 Q : 4 Percepti

on

Q : 1 Q : 2 Q : 3 Q : 4 Q : 5 Orienta-

tion

Q : 1 1

Q : 2 .276*

*

1

Q : 3 .094 .134* 1

Visualiza

tion

.794*

*

.717*

*

.447*

*

1

Q : 1 .217*

*

.030 -.017 .145* 1

Q : 2 .261*

*

.115 .020 .227** .141* 1

Q : 3 .099 -.019 .015 .057 .005 .199** 1

Q : 4 .082 .056 -.017 .074 .202*

*

.222** .212** 1

Perceptio

n

.083 -.049 .103 .061 .180*

*

.134* .041 .174** 1

Q : 1 .234*

*

.068 -.008 .178** .597*

*

.484** .467** .807** .228** 1

Q : 2 .082 .152* -.029 .118 .089 .109 .224** .172** .016 .236*

*

1

Q : 3 .056 .055 -.010 .059 -.041 .270** .108 .216** .067 .208*

*

-.015 1

Q : 4 .194*

*

.227*

*

.014 .239** .157* .323** .285** .375** .016 .454*

*

.299** .205*

*

1

Q : 5 .114 .119 .023 .138* -.098 .159* .302** .009 .092 .085 .109 .109 .110 1

Orientati

on

.200*

*

.235*

*

.013 .247** .150* .337** .305** .381** .024 .463*

*

.340** .246*

*

.997*

*

.165* 1

Total .245*

*

.250*

*

.026 .287** .229*

*

.387** .349** .469** .057 .576*

*

.349** .257*

*

.986*

*

.168* .991**


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Table No (2) Indicates construct Validity, factors, Latent root value, and the percentage of variance and

cumulative.

Cumulative % % of Variance Latent Root Value Factors

13.70 13.70 1.64 1

26.57 12.87 1.54 2

38.64 12.07 1.45 3

49.72 11.08 1.33 4

60.37 10.65 1.28 5

Figure: 1 Suggested surveying area which it will be cartographically drawn

Source: Goggle Maps


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Procedures:

1. Students had been provided with scale instructions before answering the test in order to avoid being

affected by any other external factors that may affect scale reliability. Test period was 35 minutes.

Students' whole scores were calculated and the score of every question in accordance with his/her

age, gender and study grade, to be statistically analyzed via SPSS Program.

2. Students were asked to wander in a selected area that was previously selected as indicated in Fig. 1.

At Jeddah Governorate. This area is supposed to be drawn by students who walked for 600m as

indicated in Fig. 4. Pupils began their survey from ELImamELShafi Street at the point (A), turned

toward the southwest of the point (B), At ELManbar Street, they turned toward the southeast

reaching the beginning of Abdel Aziz IbnZayd then they turned toward the south west again and

returned from the same street to EL Manbar street again turning to the south east toward Baghdad

street then to the northeast till the point (G) then turned toward the northwest across Daaem EL

Marefa street at the point (H). The whole distance from the beginning to the end was 600m. Fig. 5:

A. B, C, and D Indicate students survey using foot space in surveying, transforming ground length to

scale length. Then registered in the notebook number of steps between a point and the following

point, measuring step distance, turning measurements between points into meters as a preparation for

cartography.

3. After two weeks of zone cartography, students were asked to determine eight landmarks on the

drawing:

1. Point of beginning

2. The mosque.

3. The School

4. The grocery shop

5. Water desalination station

6. Restaurant

7. Washing machine shop

8. Point of End

Name of streets must be written and accurately determined on the map the finish the rest of the

cartography and the final figure of the drawing as indicated in Fig.2.

9. Students made another survey after being divided into groups using the meter tape after reminding

them with what they had studied in mathematics so as to be applied on drawing scale and coordinate

graph as maps and drawing their house in details with suitable drawing scale, and the result was it

was shown in Fig. 3. by a student in the 6th primary grade.

10. The last field task for students was to use GPS to make direct navigation to reach specific targets

located on paper and digital maps by separate GPS, and Cell phone supported GPS to notice the

impact of using different means.

Discussion of hypotheses analysis and results:

1. Are there any differences between males and females concerning spatial abilities variables?

Self and Golledge (1994) ( Self, 1994; Golledge, 1994 ) suggested that every geography educator should be

aware that males and females may differ in their abilities to interpret or use spatial or geographic

information presented in different ways: by studying significant differences between males and females, the

study pointed out as indicated in Table. 3. The existence of significant differences (sig=0.003) as the

average of males was 36.2 while the females average was33.9, and this result consistent with other results

such as the study of (Abed, 1996) on the interaction between students educational performance in primary


61

stage, sex, and their attainment in mathematics using spatial abilities test. Males outscored females with an

average of 12.88 versus 10.57 for females. Montello (1999) affirmed that males‘ spatial abilities are superior

to those of females, and consequently, that certain job classifications and tasks (e.g., engendering, physical

science, and occupations involving navigation skills, such as pilots or delivery services). For the scale sub-

dimensions, there are no significant differences between males and females concerning the variables

"Visualization" and "Perception" as their average for perception was 6.03 versus 5.59 for females. For

visualization, the average was 2.91for males and 2.92 for females. There is a significant difference in favor

of males concerning with an average of 27.3 versus 25.4 for females.

Table 3.Significant differences between males and females through spatial abilities scale and its sub-

dimensions.

Dimension

male

(96=N)

female

(N= 204)

df t Sig

Mean Std.

Dev.

Mean Std.

Dev.

VISUALIZATION 2.91 0.327 2.92

0.32

298

-.384 .461

PERCEPTION 6.03 1.93 5.59 1.67 2.039

.979

ORIENTATION 27.28 8.83 25.43 10.42 1.504 .010

Total Degree 36.22 9.31 33.94 11.34 1.715 .003

Are there any Age differences concerning spatial abilities variables?

Spatial abilities with their sub-dimensions varied with age variance and there are significant differences

indicating this result and to be sure of this hypothesis, one-way ANOVA was used and Table. 3. Pointed out

the significance in the light of scale main dimensions concerning age impact. LSD Test was used to

recognize significant differences between age as Table. 4. Indicates averages and standard deviations of

spatial abilities per every age, and the analysis will be separated for every dimension:

First: for visualization significant differences were between 10 years old from one part and (12-13-15)

from the other part, and the results revealed via means that it were in favor of the ages (12-13-15) via their

means, and this result indicated the increase of spatial awareness with the increase of age, and also affirming

differences between 11 from one side and 13,15 from the other side. Many studies such as De Lisi. (De

Lisi& et al. 1995) confirm this result.By these results, we prove that there are significant differences among

different ages of primary stage students.


62

Table 4. Variance Analysis and average differences

Dimension The Source Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

VISUALIZATIO

N

Between

Groups 2.068 6 .345

3.500

.002 Within Groups 28.849 293 .098

Total 30.917 299

PERCEPTION

Between

Groups 70.509 6 11.752

4.001

.001 Within Groups 860.621 293 2.937

Total 931.130 299

ORIENTATION

Between

Groups 5176.958 6 862.826

10.328

.000 Within Groups 24477.878 293 83.542

Total 29654.837 299

Total Degree

Between

Groups 6322.329 6 1053.721

10.893

.000 Within Groups 28342.001 293 96.730

Total 34664.330 299

Second: For "perception dimension" there are significant differences between 10 years old and (11-12)

years old in favor of the older group, but the younger groups in this dimension and"orientation" performed

better than the older one and there is no contradiction in this point as this can be attributed to the great link

between students' study in Mathematics curriculum and scale dimensions as the curriculum of mathematics

in primary stage included most of the items of the scale, thus the performance of primary students was

better than the preparatory stage students. The study revealed the increase of spatial awareness for older

groups in the primary stage than the younger groups in the same stage as it was clearly indicated in

perception dimension between 10 years old and (11-12) in favor of the older group, and (11-12) and (13)

years old in favor of the younger group, and this will be subsequently indicated in the educational stages

assumption.


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Table 5. Sample means and standard deviations of spatial ability scale in the light of age.

Age

Dimension

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Mean S.D Mean S.D Mean S.D Mean S.D Mean S.D Mean S.D Mean S.D

VISUALIZAT

ION

2.67 .577 2.80 .530 2.85 .402 2.95 .222 3.00 .000 3.00 .000 3.00 .000

PERCEPTIO

N

5.33 .577 5.22 2.10 6.41 1.77 6.03 1.98 5.10 1.61 5.33 1.16 5.56 1.09

ORIENTATI

ON

22.8 10.26 30.04 6.09 30.83 3.86 20.18 12.09 18.67 3.22 24.48 11.48 22.8 10.26

Total Degree 22.0 16.52 30.82 11.9 39.30 6.96 39.81 3.95 28.28 13.15 27.00 2.646 33.04 11.578

3. Are there any differences of grades concerning spatial abilities variables?

The researcher applied spatial abilities test on another sample of preparatory stage students so as to

reveal performance differences between them and the students of primary stage. Via T-test, there are

significant differences between students of primary stage and preparatory stage in favor of primary stage

students with an average of 36.9 versus an average of 30.1 for the preparatory stage students and this result

can be attributed to the fact that older children are better than younger in the same stage and this can be

affirmed through the means; also older children in preparatory stage are distinguished with higher means

than the younger in the same stage as it was indicated in the differences between 13 and (14-15).On the

other hand, there are significant differences between 13 and 15 years old in favor of 15 years-old students as

revealed by Table. 5. The reason for the increase of primary stage means in comparison with the preparatory

stage is that the researcher designed the questions consistent with what the students studied in mathematics

curriculum focusing on visualization and perceptions spatial and the questions were designed in a way to

distinguish them in intelligence, attainment, school experience, and males in the age of (9-10) superseded

females concerning intelligence (Oeida, 1996).

Table. 6. Indicating the results of LSD Test concerning differences among age averages of spatial ability

and its dimensions

Dimension Age 10 11 12 13 14 15

VISUALIZATION

9 -.137 -.178 -.282 -.333 -.333 -.333

10 -.041 -.145* -.196* -.196 -.196*

11 -.104 -.155* -.155 -.155*

12 -.051 -.051 -.051

13 .000 .000

14 .000

PERCEPTION

9 .118 -1.075 -.701 .233 .000 -.228

10 -1.193* -.818* .116 -.118 -.346

11 .375 1.308* 1.075 .847*

12 .934* .701 .472

13 -.233 -.462

14 -.228

9 -8.804 -16.042* -16.831* -6.175 -4.667 -10.479

10 -7.238* -8.027* 2.629 4.137 -1.676

11 -.788 9.867* 11.376* 5.563*


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ORIENTATION 12 10.656* 12.164* 6.351*

13 1.508 -4.304*

14 -5.813

Total Degree

9 -8.824 -17.296* -17.814* -6.275 -5.000 -11.041

10 -8.472* -8.990* 2.549 3.824 -2.218

11 -.518 11.021* 12.296* 6.255*

12 11.539* 12.814* 6.772*

13 1.275 -4.766*

14 -6.041

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table.7. T_Test for detecting mean differences between primary stage and preparatory stages and their

significance on spatial abilities scale and its sub-dimensions

Primary

(N=186)

prep

(N= 114)

df t Sig

Mean Std.

Dev.

Mean Std.

Dev.

VISUALIZATION 2.87 .400 3.00 .000

298

-3.583 .000

PERCEPTION 5.94 1.968 5.39 1.307 2.671 .003

ORIENTATION 28.08 8.071 22.67 11.724 4.731 .000

Total Degree 36.89 9.136 31.05 12.20 4.715 .000

4. Are there any differences among students according to age and gender concerning survey and

cartography skills?

The sketch maps were evaluated and analyzed according to Kevin Lynch (1960), Lynch‘s research

provides a framework by which mental maps can be compared to each other. Similar elements can be

identified on different maps. The frequency and accuracy of the different elements determine the quality

of the mental map (Roosenboom, 2011). Students' ability test revealed students' abilities of cartography

through field survey, and the increase of the ability of drawing ,the decrease of making mistakes with the

increase of age. Males are better than females in drawing as many studies have affirmed this fact. For

maps drawing and the drawing of his house, the student mastered the drawing in the age of 12 more than

younger years and this can be attributed to the content of amended Mathematics curriculum including

scales, coordinate graphs positive numbers, coordinate graphs as maps, calculating of cubes and surveys

and all these items promoted their abilities of survey and cartography. The following is one of samples of

drawing and cartography for two students in the 5th and 6th primary stage and the details of the drawing

are indicated in the Figures 3 and 4. According to the analysis of Kevin Lynch (1960) there are some

elements to guarantee the quality of drawing, and it was noted that they are available in Figure. 4. As

students accurately identified the locations of target points such as school, market, and mosque…etc,

using drawing scale in their correct positions. In the figure No.4 the two students accurately drew their

villa next to point (A) as it shown via the satellite image No. 2. Lynch Elements of drawing quality are

available such as landmarks represented in rooms' intersections and paths represented in sidewalls and

edges represented in villa boundaries in addition to the integration of Cartography drawing elements such

as drawing scale, north arrow, and the map legend consequently; the hypothesis was proved to be correct.


65

Table. 8. The amount of elements defined by Lynch and enlisted in the maps drawn by children.

What was counted Count Element

All the intersections 6 Nodes

All The Streets 6 Paths

Buildings 7 Edges

Labeled Items On The Map 7 Landmarks

(A) The beginning Point. (B) The Mosque (C) School. (D) Grocer's

shop. (E) Water Desalination Station. (F)Restaurant. (G) Washing

Machine (H) The End Point

Source: Goggle Erath

Figure: 2. A satellite image showing landmarks locations identified by subjects


66

Figure: 4. Map drawn by two of the subjects

Figure: 3 sketch Map of two pupils Villa at 4th

and 6th

Grade.


67

Figure: 5. Two of the subjects during their field work, surveying, converting steps to meter, drawing, and

using GPS


68

5. Does GIS learning amend spatial thinking skills?

Possibilities in using Geographical Information System (GIS) as an Interdisciplinary Project Work (IPW)

or a component of it would ensure that Geographic Literacy education can start as early as primary school.

In the level Primary 4 alone, the use of GIS and GPS can, in fact, enhance the teaching of other subjects, like

Area and Perimeter in Mathematics, rivers and water system in Science and even National Education (Jalil,

2011). One of the obstacles hindering GIS from being included into the social studies curriculum in primary

stage is the term GIS itself. Many primary schools managed to use GIS making a good use of students'

aspire to play using Google Maps to promote their abilities in digitizing such as Woodvill primary School at

Cape Town in South Africa as it taught the students how to reach their school through maps, then printed

and inserted as an image to begin digitizing it inside Arcmap and distribute garbage areas inside school and

how to get rid of it.

The researcher tested the students' readiness to deal with one of the components of GIS by using GPS to

make navigation for specific objectives determined by GPS, and then the path will be traced and returning

again to the beginning point. The students did their tasks without making a mistake. They changed GPS with

mobile GPS and navigated in unknown area for them as they had to go to a specific point and returned again

to the beginning point. During field survey of study area that are cartography drown; the researcher on

purpose did not allow the students to see the area via GPS and Google's maps. After they had finished their

field survey, he allowed them to see the target area via Digital Personal Aid represented in GPS the matter

that facilitated the navigation, survey and field orientation and determining land marks and this is an

indication that GIS can help students develop spatial abilities (Self et al. 1992; Albert &Golledge, 1999).

6. Which Location and GIS applications suit with primary stage students?

Geographic Information Systems and public K-12 education first experienced a unity in 1992 with the

publication of a seminalarticle by Robert Tinker. Tinker's work exposed the possibilities of representing data

with digital maps in many curricula. He described the power, flexibility and intrigue that maps offered to

4th, 5th, and 6th grade students studying various aspects of the environment. (Baker, 2000). GIS students

attainment depends upon the ability of teachers to prepare educational materials using GIS and

distinguishing and classifying the types and indicating their role in solving problems. The following figure

(6) indicates the relation between spatial abilities and the activities that can be supported with GIS.

In the classroom, presentation of map-based data should begin by exploring paper maps and data that

students see most frequently. A GIS presentation could use layers depicting the local community with roads,

rivers, and political boundaries. (Baker, 2000) Accordingly, the application of these activities to students; It

Confirms the possibility of achievement of GIS applications by actuating the appropriate activities of spatial

abilities; the hypothesis was proved to be correct.


69

The Results:

The researcher prepared a scale to measure spatial thinking of primary stage students and its relation

to other factors such as individual differences according to gender, age, stage, and the study year in each

stage. The development of students' spatial thinking and the quality of their performance is linked to other

curricula especially the amended mathematics curriculum. The research reveals that there are many indexes

encouraging students' spatial thinking and promoting the spatial awareness as there is a part of mathematics

curriculum concerning geometry and measurement concentrated on defining curriculum parts, shapes, and

shapes relationships , and the curriculum aims at developing spatial sense and affirmed that they need both

analytical and spatial abilities, spatial sense is developed when student recognize, draw, construct, visualize,

compare, classify, and transform geometric shapes in both two and three dimensions (The State of Michigan,

Department of Education (1998).

In the light of the advanced trends , putting into consideration students' mental age and the

incompatibility of the geography curriculum in social studies course with students' creative abilities such as

the use of GIS equipments and programs as GPS and Google Maps, lacking the support for developing

geography curriculum using mathematics curricula that can be used to facilitate students' recognition of

geography curriculum updates in primary stage, the researcher designed spatial abilities scale in which the


70

items were ordered from easiness to difficulty so as to cope with the components of mathematics curriculum

for promoting spatial abilities and awareness to detect their potential abilities concerning spatial thinking.

For scale validity and reliability, experts agreed on the validity of the scale as it contains items for

measuring the target objectives. For the internal consistency coefficient, there are significant differences

between every variable and its dimension as correlation value of visualization were (0.45-0.79), perception

variables were between (0.22-0.8), and orientation variables were between (1-0.17) and all these values were

significant with a value of (0.01). For constructive validity, it is proved to be valid as the scale is measuring

one trait which is spatial ability. Scale reliability value by split-half reliability and spearman-brown was

(0.71) which is considered an acceptable value affirming the validity of the test to be applied.

The study revealed according to the first hypothesis that there are significant differences between

males and females in favor of the males with an average of (36.2) versus (33.9) for females, and this result is

being affirmed by many studies detecting the differences between them via spatial abilities whole scale. For

sub-dimensions, there are no differences according to perception and visualization while there are

differences for orientation with a value of (27.3) for males versus (25.4) for females. There are significant

differences for the second hypothesis via the whole scale and the sub-dimensions as a result of age impact.

Statistical analysis pointed out the increase of students' spatial awareness with the passage of time, and this

can be noted through the visualization dimension as there are differences between 10 years old students and

the older ones in favor of the older ones. For the dimensions orientation and perception, the differences

between 10 years old and (11-12) years in favor of the older as the scale contained items derived from

mathematics curriculum of the 5th and 6th primary stage students.

The researcher examined the performance of preparatory stage students by a pilot study so as to

detect the differences between the primary stage and preparatory stage. He found out that there are

significant differences in favor of the primary stage students with a mean of (36.9) for primary stage and

(30.1) for preparatory stage. It was expected that the differences will be in favor of preparatory stage

students as the questions are supposed to be more easily for them, on the contrary, the differences were in

favor of the primary stage students due to their study of mathematics at the same time and this does not

contradict with the fact that the older students proceeded the younger in performance as a result of the

increase of spatial ability and awareness.

By evaluating students' cartography and drawing abilities according to Kevin Lynch method

stipulating the necessity of existence of some items to examine cartography. All these elements are found

representing in nodes landmarks, edge and path in the map drown by the 5th and 6th primary students of the

study area and the area where they live.

For the fifth hypothesis, the researcher tried to offer one of the components of GIS for children so as

to examine their response, thus he provided them with GPS to make a navigation for specific points and

returned to the beginning point, or reaching unknown place, and he found out that the students can deal in an

easy way as they affirmed that if they were provided with GPS in the field survey, the work would be easier.

The results related to the sixth hypothesis can be summarized in the necessity of promoting teachers'

abilities and changing their way of presenting scientific materials using GIS, and this demands more training

on using Information system programs in presentation and analysis in a frame indicating its importance in

solving problems, and the researcher viewed some activities in the light of GIS reflecting students' spatial

abilities gained as a result of their practice for such activities.

Recommendations

1. Developers of Geographical educational curricula must be sure that the use of GIS efficiently

contributes to the development of cognitive maps and the accurate understanding of Geography.


71

2. Getting rid of obstacles hindering the application of GIS through curricula, including teacher's

performance, and school infrastructure such as laboratories, Computer programs and Internet networks.

3. Indicating the methods helping students to use spatial thinking via GIS.

4. Developing research based curricula that are testing groups of students concerning learning and

teaching GIS educational materials.

5. Preparing teachers to be acquainted with GIS rules in curricula so as to support spatial thinking and

conclusion of students.

6. Setting use of GIS in discovering the local environment as one of the educational objectives.

7. Conducting researches detecting the progress of study attainment via using GIS.

8. Making a good use of advanced mathematics curriculum, which is supporting understanding and spatial

abilities in developing primary schools geography curriculum.

9. Getting the benefit of ESRI company applications such as Arc GIS for schools, Arc Voyager, and other

various programs encouraging pupils to discover their technological abilities in addition to Google

Earth applications that can be used in the same field.

10. Making a good use of students' talents and spatial abilities in childhood stage via using technological

abilities in the light of the available funds.

11. Redistribution of time allocated to geographical studies by adding geographical activities supporting the

mix of GIS with curricula.

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Appendix: The scale of spatial abilities.

Spatial Abilities Test of Primary Stage Pupils

Prepared by

Dr/Yaser Abdel AzimSamak Lecturer at Geography Department

Faculty of Arts -Assiut University

March 2013

Answer the following questions during half an hour

1- Look at the foolowing Figure (pattern) :

Then put the mark ( √ ) before the figures that are similar with it :


75

2- How do you see this figure by using letters?

3 - Complete the model as seen in the figure

4 - At this figure

1- Where is the horse ?

(A) Northeast. (B) Southwest. (C) Southeast (D) Northwest

2- Where does the book lie?

(A) Northeast (B) Southwest (C) Southeast (D) Northwest

3- What is the location of the tree for the house?

(A) Northeast (B) Southwest (C) Southeast (D)

Northwest

5 -The book at the figure lies at the points

1. 2,5 (B) 3,4 (C) 3,5 (D) 4,6


76

6 -There is a rotated shape similar to the one on the right, circle the shape that is similar to the right shape.

7-There is a rotated shape similar to the one on the right, circle the shape that is similar to the right shape

8 –Figures in the first group (A) similar to the figures of group (B) but it is rotatedand relocated.

Group A Group B


77

In the following Table, write before every number of group A the letter of every figure similar to it of group B

Number Letter Number Letter Number Letter Number Letter Number Letter

1 z

7 T 13 N 19 H 25 B

2 AD

8 W 14 Q 20 K 26 E

3 Y 9 S 15 M 21 G 27 A

4 AB 10 U 16 O 22 I 28 C

5 AE

11 X 17 R 23 L 29 F

6 AC

12 V 18 P 24 J 30 D

9 -There are two figures below that could be formed from these parts.

10 - Which figure of the figures below can be formed from these parts.


78

11- Which figure of the following figures if being folded will give us the figure before us?

Circle the suitable Letter.


79

12- Look at the map then answer the following questions:

1. Abd Allah stands at Abbas ibn Abdel motaleb street ,D is on his rigt hand, thus the direction behind him is:

1. The North (B)The south (C)The East (D)The west

2. Abd Allah walks till Yousef Aboel Mohsen Street reaching cars stop on his right, thus the direction before

him is:


2. Abd Allah continues his walk to Hasan ELShoshawy and reaching Om ELMomeneen street then he wants

to go to (B) so he will go towards:


1. Abd Allah reached the point (B), if he wants to return to the point (D), he will go towards:

1. North then west (B)East then North (C)East then South (D)South then North.

Instructions for the one applying this test on pupils

Spatial Abilities Test on primary stage pupils:

The Test reveals pupils' abilities incluiding:

1. Spatial abilities of figure's compatibility in which two groups of similar figures are presented and one group

is being rotated, thus the pupil has to link between the figure and its equivalent from the other group (This

type of questions is represented by 1-30 of the question No.8)

2. Spatial abilities of groups rotations:Five or six two-dimensional figures, and the pupil has to find out the

rotated figure. This type of questions is represented in the questions 3,6,7.

3. Spatial abilities to link figures in which a group of two-dimensional figures is presented, and one figure is

being cut.The pupil has to determine which figure is being cut. This type of questions is represented in the

questions No. 9 and 10.

4. Spatial perception ability of Three-dimensioal cubes in which three distinguished faces of cubes appeared

before the participant, the he is given unfolded cubes incluiding the ditinguished cube as one of the four

cubes given to him. This type of questions is represented in the questions No. 11.

5. Spatial ability of reading cognitive maps,schema, and tracing directions as a result of recognizing one of the

directions.This type of question is represented in the question No.12.

6. Spatial abilities through visual models:

1. The ability to describe the model representing in the question No.2

2. The ability to recognize repeated models representing in the question No.1

7- The ability to determine coordinates of chart representing in the question No.4.

8- The ability to determine relative coordinates of charts representing in the question no.5

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