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EVALUATING THE ROLE OF PARASOCIAL INTERACTION
IN THE MICROBLOG MARKETING CAMPAIGNS OF
WORLD WRESTLING ENTERTAINMENT
Ivan Moore
B.S., Slippery Rock University, 2007
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in the
School of Communication
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts
Committee:
Dr. Tatyana Dumova, Chair
Dr. Steven Hallock
Dr. Heather Starr Fiedler
Dr. Johan Yssel
Point Park University
2013
i
ABSTRACT
Social media is a powerful and widely used marketing tool. This study sought to
investigate the role of parasocial interaction in social media marketing campaigns of
World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), one of the global leaders in the sports
entertainment industry, in order to better understand how social media marketing can be
used effectively and ethically. The phenomenon of professional wrestling was chosen for
the analysis due to the comprehensive nature of WWE’s social media marketing
campaigns and high reliance on an enthusiastic, demographically diverse audience of
fans. Twitter, one of the most widely used microblogging platforms, was the primary
social media tool evaluated in this study. A survey instrument using the Audience-
Persona Interaction (PSI) scale as well as evaluative measures of the amount of social
media exposure and overall media consumption was developed and administered online.
A volunteer sample of 177 participants (two samples of 88 and 89 obtained one year
apart through a repeated cross-sectional survey) was recruited online via WWE message
boards and discussion forums. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, correlation
analysis, and a t-test. The study identified a positive relationship between the strength of
parasocial bonds and the level of social media engagement among WWE fans. The
analysis also suggested that participants with a higher level of social media engagement
interacted with WWE products more frequently. Results of this exploratory investigation
offer insight into the effectiveness of integrating social media strategies into modern
marketing practices.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1
Research Rationale......................................................................................... 1
World Wrestling Entertainment: A Global Leader in Sports Entertainment . 6
Professional Wrestling Fan Community ........................................................ 10
World Wrestling Entertainment and Social Media ........................................ 12
Study Overview ............................................................................................. 16
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................... 18
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................. 18
Defining Parasocial Interaction ...................................................................... 21
Professional Wrestling Fan Identification ..................................................... 23
Personal Influence of Professional Wrestlers on Fans ................................... 33
The Impact of Parasocial Bonds in Marketing…………………………… .. 37
Twitter, Parasocial Bonds, and Newscasters ................................................. 38
Research Hypotheses ..................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER III. METHOD ........................................................................................ 44
Study Population and Sample ........................................................................ 45
Survey Instrument .......................................................................................... 48
Measures…………………………………………………………………. ... 50
Identification ...................................................................................... 51
Interest…………………………………………………………….... 51
Group Identification……………………………………………….. . 52
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Social Attractiveness……………………………………………… .. 52
Data Analysis ................................................................................................ 53
Validity and Reliability .................................................................................. 56
CHAPTER IV. STUDY RESULTS ......................................................................... 58
Hypothesis 1................................................................................................... 58
Hypothesis 2................................................................................................... 60
Hypothesis 3................................................................................................... 67
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION ............................................ 72
The Role of Parasocial Interaction in Sports Entertainment .......................... 73
Social Media Marketing Campaigns and Microblogging .............................. 75
Study Recommendations ............................................................................... 79
Study Limitations ........................................................................................... 81
Directions for Further Research ..................................................................... 83
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 87
APPENDIX A. INSTITUATIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL ................. 99
APPENDIX B. INFORMED CONSENT FORM ................................................... 100
APPENDIX C. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT ........................................................ 101
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1: Hypothesis 1 Testing: Results of Correlation Analysis ............................... 59
Table 2: Hypothesis 2 Testing: Results of Correlation Analysis ............................... 61
Table 3: Mean Values for the Audience-Persona Interaction Scale .......................... 63
Table 4: Hypothesis 3 Testing: Results of Correlation Analysis ............................... 68
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1: WWE Wrestler Zack Ryder ....................................................................... 9
Figure 2: WWE Worldwide Trends ........................................................................... 13
Figure 3: Former WWE Wrestlers Randy Savage and Hulk Hogan ......................... 25
Figure 4: Former WWE Wrestler Jeff Hardy ............................................................ 28
Figure 5: Former WWE Wrestler “Stone Cold” Steve Austin .................................. 29
Figure 6: “Stone Cold” Steve Austin and WWE CEO Vince McMahon ................. 30
Figure 7: Trisha Pittman’s Twitter Feed .................................................................... 40
Figure 8: Participant Distribution by Gender............................................................. 48
Figure 9: Flowchart of the Data Analysis .................................................................. 55
Figure 10: The Percentage of Participants who Interact with their Favorite WWE
Wrestler via Twitter ................................................................................................... 61
Figure 11: Survey Results for the Participants’ Favorite WWE Wrestler ................. 65
Figure 12: Income among Participants ...................................................................... 70
Figure 13: Social Media Hub Model ......................................................................... 76
Figure 14: Social Media and Parasocial Interaction Model ....................................... 77
Figure 15: Social Media Marketing Campaigns Model ............................................. 80
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I want to thank Point Park University and in particular my
thesis committee chair, Dr. Tayana Dumova and the members of my thesis committee,
Dr. Steve Hallock, Dr. Heather Starr-Fielder and Dr. Johan Yssel, for allowing me to
conduct the research that I wanted to and for being patient and thorough throughout the
thesis process.
I want to thank my family for showing me love and support in my endeavors in
graduate school. Specifically, I want to thank my mom for everything she does for me on
a daily basis, Brianna for keeping me grounded and Heather for always showing
confidence in me.
Finally, I want to thank my friends Danny, Adam, Ray, Jason, Drew, Jeff, Steve,
Terry, and others for supporting this crazy love we all have for each other and
professional wrestling.
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Jeff Gregor, executive vice president and chief marketing officer of Turner
Network Television and Turner Broadcasting System and general manager of Turner
Classic Movies, calls modern marketing strategies “social by design” (Gregor, 2012).
Entertainment and media industries are increasingly relying on social media in the
emerging interactive or smart TV environment. The convergence of traditional broadcast
and cable television with the Internet-based interactive media, for example, on Smart TV
and IPTV platforms opens new horizons both in content delivery and marketing.
Numerous social media outlets such as Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter introduced
important new patterns in media consumption. This study focuses on the current trends and
the role of parasocial relationships in social media marketing campaigns of World
Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Parasocial interaction refers to the perceived social
relationship that individuals may form with media figures or fictional characters.
Identifying associations between parasocial bonds, program consumption, and Twitter
interaction may shed some light into the effectiveness of modern social media marketing
techniques in sports entertainment for communication scholars and practitioners
Research Rationale
A brief look at the history of advertising suggests that advances in media
technologies bring new marketing strategies. Over the years, print, radio, television, and
finally the Internet have all significantly affected marketing and advertising practices
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(Donovan & Henley, 2010; Fox, 1997). Next came the era of online social networking
tools, with microblogging advertising and viral marketing campaigns on social networks
(Solis, 2011). As Federal Communications Commission (2012) stated in a recent report,
the volume of professionally produced as well as user-generated content available to
online audiences has expanded:
Today, online viewers can watch television shows (including recently aired
episodes); newly released and older movies; sporting events; and other content,
including high-quality content produced specifically for online distribution. Online
video, like the Internet itself, has migrated beyond the computer to a wide variety
of devices (p. 4).
According to Arbitron, an international media and marketing research firm, advertising in
the social TV environment can often be more effective than on traditional broadcast or
cable TV (Swedlow, 2010). Turner Entertainment Networks, for example, purposely crafts
its content so that it is easily shareable and applicable to social media tools. Fox
Broadcasting Company routinely features Twitter hashtags, such as “#Glee” or
“#NewGirl,” above its station bug during the primetime line-up of shows allowing viewers
to reach each other with comments. A survey by the Nielsen Company (2011) revealed
that 86% of respondents with mobile Internet access use the Internet while watching TV;
among them, 40% visit social media sites. Another study of mobile phone users by the
Pew Research Center found that more than half of the people who download mobile apps
also browse the Internet or read email on their phones while watching TV; among them,
35% visit a website mentioned during the TV program, 20% use their phone to see what
others say online about the show, and 19% post comments (Smith & Boyles, 2012).
3
What makes social media so popular? For media producers, social media provide
low-cost and effective tools to create a space for consumers to talk about their products.
For media consumers, social media facilitate in-depth discussion about their favorite
brands, television shows, and performers. In the case of television entertainment, the
opportunity is created for fans to directly communicate with media figures and celebrities.
There have been numerous instances when viewer-generated responses fueled by
the Internet had a direct impact on the television and movie industry. The Columbia
Broadcasting System program “Jericho” was cancelled after just one season because of
lackluster ratings. However, the few that did watch it formed a vocal and dedicated group
that took to social media to save their favorite program. The enthusiastic fans went as far
as to suggest sending peanuts to the CBS offices in hopes of creating an attention-grabbing
message. The campaign was successful, and “Jericho” was revived for another season
(Viveiros, 2008). Then there was the Internet craze that surrounded the Samuel L. Jackson
film “Snakes on a Plane.” The loyal fans of the brash nature of most of the characters
Jackson has played in his long acting career lobbied via social media to get a specific line
of dialogue into the finished film. The filmmakers listened and added the now famous line,
“I’m tired of these [expletive] snakes on this [expletive] plane,” to the movie (Riveong,
2006). A more recent example occurred in 2009 when the filmmakers behind the low
budget, independent film “Paranormal Activity” created a social media campaign to
encourage moviegoers to insist that their local theater carry the feature. Nearly $200
million in profits and three sequels later, “Paranormal Activity” is a full-fledged cinematic
juggernaut that all started with an estimated $15,000 budget and some well-executed social
media marketing campaigns (Warren, 2009).
4
These are only a few examples of how fans can become profoundly involved with
the object of their fandom. Media researchers have long viewed this phenomenon as
parasocial interaction (PSI) describing it as a “seeming face-to-face relationship that
develops between a viewer and a mediated personality” (Horton & Wohl, 1956, p. 215).
Some researchers consider parasocial relationships to be a reflection of the basic human
need to interact and communicate (Rubin & McHugh, 1987; Rubin, Perse, & Powell,
1985). Prior studies have focused on various aspects of viewers’ parasocial interactions
around and during the airtime (Giles, 2002), but the focus of research into parasocial
relationships has changed with the proliferation of Internet-based digital media
technologies. These technologies gave birth to a cornucopia of applications and tools
aimed at creating and distributing user-generated content commonly referred to as social
media. They have also opened new opportunities for marketing and advertising. It is clear,
whether it is user-generated or created by a company, social media marketing is a powerful
tool and has changed marketing strategies. The present study argues that understanding the
role parasocial relationships play in social media interactions gives advertisers and
companies additional knowledge into the effectiveness of modern sports entertainment
marketing campaigns.
Founded in 2006, Twitter is a microblogging and social networking service that
allows its members to post short messages with 140 characters on the Internet.
Microblogging is a form of creating written content for the web that uses a limited
number of words or characters. Twitter services can be accessed through various
platforms and devices, ranging from desktop or laptop computers to mobile phones and
tablet devices. In June 2012, according to Semiocast, a Paris-based social media research
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and tracking company, Twitter user base surpassed the half-billion mark, with 140
million subscribers in the United States (Semiocast, 2012).
This study seeks to examine the role that parasocial relationships play in social
media marketing campaigns for sports entertainment. Specifically, the author applies the
lens of parasocial interaction to the analysis of social media marketing and focuses on
World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), a professional wrestling and media
conglomerate, that produces unique amusement spectacles combining sports and
entertainment for global audiences. In addition to having a distinctive entertainment
nature, WWE maintains a diverse, wide-ranging, and sophisticated media presence to
support its brand that traverses all existing media channels, traditional and new, and
ranges from print to social media. Identifying parasocial relationships in a particular
group of fans that use Twitter microblogging services to interact with other fans and with
their favorite media figures may provide communication scholars and practitioners with
vision into the psychology of social media marketing and the effectiveness of modern
sports entertainment marketing techniques. The present study advances parasocial
interaction research into the social media world by examining a medium with 24-hour
access to the media figures. This phenomenon has not previously been focused on in
parasocial relationship research. Additionally, by studying WWE marketing practices and
interactions within its fan base via social media, the author aims to develop
recommendations for marketing professionals for conducting effective and ethical social
media campaigns in the future.
6
World Wrestling Entertainment: A Global Leader in Sports Entertainment
Professional wrestling is a unique phenomenon, in part sports and in part scripted
entertainment. WWE, the largest professional wrestling organization in the world, creates
a line of products including TV programming, pay-per-view, and live events over about
320 days per year. WWE successfully competes for audiences with the four major U.S.
professional sports leagues—the National Football League, the National Basketball
Association, National Hockey League, and the Major League Baseball. From a marketing
perspective, WWE engages in business partnerships with top-branded companies like
Gillette, Ford, and Post Foods (WWE Corporate, 2013).
Many of WWE events are telecasted on NBC Universal cable networks USA and
SyFy, frequently making Top-5 nightly ratings (Gorman, 2011) or are webcast on the
Internet. Approximately once a month, WWE produces a live pay-per-view closed circuit
event (the largest being “WrestleMania”); every Monday it airs its flagship live broadcast
on USA called “Monday Night Raw,” and every week it produces a series of taped
events: “Friday Night Smackdown” that airs on SyFy, “WWE Tough Enough,” a reality
show that airs on USA, and “WWE Superstars” and “WWE NXT” that air weekly online
at WWE.com and Hulu.com. In July 2012, WWE aired its 1000th episode of “Monday
Night Raw” watched by six million TV viewers (WWE.com, 2012). WWE’s
management team currently considers launching its own 24-hour cable channel (WWE
Corporate, 2013).
WWE television programming airs in 145 different countries and is translated into
30 different languages (A Special Look at WWE, 2010). In a latest development, in
spring 2012 WWE’s superstars and divas performed in Russia with a groundbreaking live
7
event in Moscow and 6,000 fans in attendance at the Luzhniki Sports Arena. The
company issued a statement:
Since the launch of WWE’s flagship weekly TV show WWE RAW on 2x2 in
February 2011, the company has seen a steep rise in popularity across Russia.
Now both WWE RAW and WWE SmackDown are seen in more than 24 million
Russian TV households every week and a Russian language WWE website
(ru.wwe.com) with Tvigle launched earlier this year (WWE Corporate, 2012).
WWE.com provides the official home for WWE’s extensive online activity. Nearly every
prominent wrestler has his or her own Facebook fan page, Twitter feed, and YouTube
presence. More than 60 professional wrestlers, both male and female, have official
Twitter accounts (Twitter.com, 2013). In 2010, WWE signed a deal to distribute its
original content with full episodes and clips of “Raw,” “Smackdown,” “Superstars,”
“NXT,” and “Tough Enough” on WWE’s YouTube channel. After two years, this
channel, which features new content every day, has acquired close to 600,000 subscribers
and over 300 million video views (YouTube.com, 2012).
WWE, like any other event-driven business, depends on ticket purchases, TV
ratings to attract advertisers, and merchandise sales. WWE performers create unique and
carefully scripted characters for television programming, however casual and impromptu
they may appear on the screen. These are real athletes, often with sports backgrounds,
creating characters that can range from being “good guys” or faces in professional
wrestling jargon, which dates to the time of carnivals and travelling circuses, to playing
outlandish personas or heels. For example, former WWE world heavyweight champion
Mark Henry wrestles with the moniker “The World’s Strongest Man.” Henry has
8
previously competed in Olympic weightlifting as well as World’s Strongest Man
competitions. His nickname and character stem from real-life events. The opposite side of
the spectrum features characters like Hornswoggle, an Irish leprechaun who can only
speak in nonsensical grunts, or Goldust, an effeminate man who paints his face gold. The
wrestlers’ Twitter accounts are heavily promoted by WWE, and the tweets hopscotch
from real-life happenings to antics making it nearly impossible for the audience to tell the
difference.
One particular WWE performer has gained worldwide popularity by developing a
character with the help of social media. For over a year, Zack Ryder (Figure 1) has
produced a weekly YouTube series called “Z! True Long Island Story” which averages
150,000 weekly viewers. Ryder ends every episode by saying, “watch my videos, leave a
comment, subscribe to my channel, ‘like’ me on Facebook, ‘follow’ me on Twitter, buy
my t-shirt, and take care, spike your hair” (Z! True Long Island Story, 2012). Ryder’s
viewership has grown to over one million Twitter followers and 10 million YouTube
views, and is currently featured as a weekly series on WWE’s YouTube channel with
Ryder running weekly contests via Twitter for fans to appear on his show as “Broski of
the Week” or the “#areyouseriousbro? Tweet of the Week.” This YouTube series has
been responsible for an increase in Ryder’s television appearances and merchandise
available (Z! True Long Island Story, 2011).
9
Figure 1. WWE Wrestler Zack Ryder
WWE presents a mix of live events and scripted storytelling that attracts and
keeps a diverse, worldwide audience. Additionally, WWE features TV characters who
vary from close to their real-life personalities to completely fictional figures, and both
sides of the character spectrum actively pursue relationship building with fans via social
media. Although WWE wrestlers may have from 80,000 to over 1 million followers, they
do not entirely depend on the wrestler’s ring scores. For instance, Zack Ryder, who has
won only one singles championship and is frequently not featured on the live broadcast,
is fairly popular among WWE fans and has over 1 million Twitter followers. John Cena,
a 12-time WWE Champion is featured weekly on the live broadcast and makes public
appearances at award shows and in movies. Cena has over 4 million followers as well as
over 14 million fans on Facebook (Twitter.com, 2013). Thus, social media platforms
Note: WWE wrestler Zack Ryder on his way to the ring with
a lower third graphic promoting his Twitter account
Source: World Wrestling Entertainment, 2011.
10
allow for both building and maintaining WWE brand loyalty and quantifying the market
appeal of individual media figures.
Professional Wrestling Fan Community
According to WWE, its programming maintains an unparalleled connection with
its audience and its fan community is one of the most dedicated in the U.S. sports
entertainment history (WWE Corporate, 2013). The WWE fan community is different
from the fan communities of other sports. Where there are enthusiastic local communities
of fans in different markets, such as a fervent Pittsburgh Steelers or St. Louis Cardinals
fan communities; the WWE fan community can come together in any city across
America where WWE performs on a given day and easily fill arenas for forty to fifty
thousand spectators. Fans drive and fly from the surrounding areas to watch live
wrestling matches and interact with other WWE supporters. While going to a live event is
a unique experience, social media allowed supplementing it with sharing emotions
through YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, and other social media platforms on a more
frequent basis.
A vivid example of WWE popularity would be an analysis of the worldwide
trends (or immediately popular topics) on Twitter. Twitter hashtags (used to mark
keywords) in any given tweet allow for quantifying fans’ activities to be represented in a
measurable way so that WWE can react to in its marketing campaigns. For example, if
John Cena, American professional wrestler and actor, won a championship during a live
broadcast, the term “Cena wins” might be trending worldwide on Twitter. Fans can then
access all of the tweets hashtagged “Cena wins” and WWE in turn has the knowledge
11
that Cena’s victory is one of the most popular topics on Twitter. Examining Twitter
content can provide a key to understanding the level of intensity at which fans engage
with the entertainment product developed by WWE.
Without doubt, professional wresting shows are a place where interpersonal
interactions can take place and where fans can talk to wrestlers and purchase the
wrestler’s merchandise, e.g., t-shirts or buttons, and obtain pictures and autographs.
Beard and Heppen (2012) showcased what transpires when fans can interact with
professional wrestlers face-to-face.
Live events are the best way to observe professional wrestling fans’ desire to
interact with their favorite superstars. Hours before the event fans gather around the back
entrance of the arena with their cameras and sharpies in hand trying to meet their idols.
Technology-mediated communication makes a certain level of intimacy possible, and it
fills the void, created by the big arenas where interactions with wrestling performers are
rare. With the injection of social media outlets like Twitter, fans do not have to wait for
their favorite performer to roll into town on the tour bus or wait outside at a loading dock
to snap a picture. Social media platforms make WWE talent and other celebrities
accessible 24 hours a day across the globe through picture and video sharing, blogs and
microblogs, instant chat, and texting. Forming a more intimate relationship between fans
and WWE performers helps create a sense of community and turn a passive audience into
an active and loyal fan base (Beard & Heppen, 2012).
12
World Wrestling Entertainment and Social Media
As fast as social media platforms have been evolving, World Wrestling
Entertainment has managed to stay ahead of the market. At the end of 2012, for example,
WWE launched a social media hub, WWE Active, which allows fans to interact directly
with WWE talent and commentators during live broadcasts with comments via an online
chat and tweets linked to their Twitter and Facebook accounts. WWE scoops from one to
four worldwide trends on Twitter every Monday night during its live “Raw” broadcast
(illustrated in Figure 2). The driving force behind WWE’s social media practices is Jason
Hoch, WWE’s senior vice president of digital operations. When asked about the fallout
he has seen since WWE increased its social media campaigns, Hoch responded:
We love the passion and enthusiasm of our fans, and that excitement translates
amazingly well with social media. We are constantly surprised by how our fans
react online to the action they experience at a live event or on TV. With over 67
million total Facebook followers and 25 million Twitter followers across the
WWE brand, that’s comparable to hundreds of sold-out stadium crowds
screaming and cheering with us online (as cited in Cane, 2012).
The results of WWE’s widespread use of social media are evident in WWE television
ratings, in a demographically diverse audience of fans, and stable video and merchandise
sales (WWE Corporate, 2013).
It should be noted that professional wrestling is different from traditional
competitive sports. The main difference is that it is scripted and the athletes work to
promote themselves. When a wrestler is associated with a brand like WWE or its
competitors, Impact Wrestling and Ring of Honor, it may be hard to recognize the
13
amount of self-promotion they are involved with making social networking vital to a
wrestler’s personal success. Independent wrestling promotion efforts, which can be seen
in small towns and venues all over the world, are an essential part of wrestlers’ lives.
Wrestlers often carry boxes of t-shirts and photos while charging five dollars for an
autograph, and constantly conduct their own public relations. With the backing of the full
marketing force of WWE, however, the self-marketing becomes easier with the newest
social media tools at the wrestler’s fingertips. Currently, WWE and its performers are
embracing microblogging for marketing and self-promotion.
Figure 2. WWE Worldwide Trends
Note: Worldwide trends during a
“Monday Night Raw” broadcast.
Source: Twitter.com, 2011.
14
When in 2012 WWE aired its unprecedented 1000th episode (WWE Corporate,
2005) of “Monday Night Raw,” as a part of the historic broadcast, WWE announced a
“Celebrity Social Media Ambassador.” This celebrity ambassador had to follow the
action and supply commentary via Twitter. For this novel experience of merging two
different media, a live broadcast and a Twitter-cast, WWE went to actor Charlie Sheen, a
celebrity that has made his fair share of headlines in 2012 (Renken, 2012). Using a social
media ambassador during a live event is an example of WWE embracing social media as
a mode to interact with fans and an example of WWE staying on the cutting edge of such
interaction. Also, at the 2013 “SXSW Interactive Festival,” WWE was recognized as a
leader in social media marketing with a panel, which included WWE wrestler John Cena,
that spoke about the importance of engaging an audience through social media (SXSW,
2013). During the SXSW panel, WWE talked about how they even have a special area
backstage at its events that allows wrestlers to tweet before going on TV (Arrington,
2013).
Not everything that WWE touches in the realm of social media produces success.
In 2008 entering a competition with Facebook, WWE started its own social network,
“WWE Universe,” with superstar profiles, message boards, live blogging, interactive
comments, discussion groups, and options to hold live chats, upload images, and video
(WWE Corporate, 2008). However, this experiment was discontinued at the beginning of
2011 and the focus of WWE’s social media activities shifted to Facebook, Twitter, and
YouTube. However, the fact that at the time of this writing WWE Facebook page
featured 12,053,613 “likes” and 247,146 “talking about this” suggests that the wrestling
15
conglomerate retreated from the social networking game prematurely still being on a
learning curve.
Social media, for better or worse, create a sense of empowerment among WWE
fans who crave every opportunity to make an impact on show storylines and character
development. This becomes evident from a cursory examination of discussion forums and
message boards entries, tweets or Facebook comments, as the following excerpt from a
fan’s comment suggests:
Wrestling may be built around the idea of Faces and Heels. But it is up to us
whom we cheer for. WWE can try to make us hate one guy and love another, but
fans shouldn’t be mindless puppets lapping up the show WWE spoon-feeds them.
If that were the case we’d have had no Stone Cold Steve Austin… Honestly, I
think the days of telling us who to boo and cheer, of cookie-cutter goodies and
baddies, are done. Just put a guy out there, see how the crowd reacts, and let
his/her storyline grow accordingly (Best & Worst WWE Tweets, 2012).
Overall, the use of microblogging and other social media tools for marketing is a
noticeable trend especially for companies such as WWE whose livelihood depends on a
dedicated fan base and brand loyalty. WWE’s unique entertainment nature and
widespread social media presence allow for forming and maintaining parasocial bonds
which make it a suitable subject for a study on how parasocial relationships affect social
media marketing. A study of parasocial relationships within WWE’s fan community may
shed additional light on the effectiveness of social media techniques in marketing in
general.
16
Study Overview
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to this study. The distinctive sports
entertainment nature, structure of television programming and its digital extensions, and
marketing practices of World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) are described, including
WWE’s use of social media. Professional wrestling fan identity and culture are
introduced covering various WWE characters with strong fan identification. Further, new
media consumption patterns brought about by digital technologies and the need for
research into audience’s parasocial interaction with media personalities from WWE
television programs are discussed. The research rationale and the purpose of the current
study are presented.
Chapter 2 offers the review of relevant literature. The uses and gratifications
perspective, which provides a theoretical framework for much of parasocial interaction
research, is introduced. The theory and examples of recent studies involving audiences’
parasocial interactions with media figures are discussed. Next, the chapter presents an
overview of parasocial interaction research following with a discussion of commonly
used attributes of parasocial relationships. Finally, three research hypotheses are posed.
Chapter 3 outlines the method of the current study. Audience-Persona Interaction
(PSI) scale and the four main elements of parasocial interaction adopted for the
development of a survey instrument are presented: (a) identification, (b) interest, (c)
group identification, and (d) social attractiveness. The population and the sample for the
present study are also described in this section. The chapter concludes with a discussion
of methods of data collection and analysis as well as issues of validity and reliability.
17
Results of the study are presented in Chapter 4. The data collected for the study
are evaluated by utilizing correlation analysis aimed to determine relationships between
variables. Additionally, this section includes certain demographic information about the
participants.
The concluding section in Chapter 5 addresses the role of parasocial interaction in
sports entertainment marketing and advertising. Social media outlets are considered in
relationship to marketing campaigns of World Wrestling Entertainment. Several
recommendations are provided on how social media can be effectively employed as a
marketing tool based on the analysis of WWE’s social media marketing efforts. A two-
way relationship model between media figures and media consumers in social media
marketing campaigns is proposed. Finally, study limitations and directions for future
research are identified.
18
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The development of a theoretical understanding of parasocial interactions began in
the mid 1950s. Horton and Wohl (1956) identified parasocial interaction as a seemingly
face-to-face relationship between a media viewer and a media figure. These researchers
were the first to describe the phenomenon of viewers not only passively watching TV but
also developing bonds with onscreen characters and media figures such as nightly news
anchors apparently looking out from behind the news desk straight into the audiences’
living rooms. This phenomenon applied primarily to television because radio broadcasts
did not offer visual stimuli to form strong parasocial bonds. As one can see with television
and radio, new media can change the ways the audience interacts with media content and
impact the motivation the audience may have to maintain parasocial relationships.
Theoretical Framework
The captivating power of television brought about many theoretical musings
researching the motives, psychological antecedents, and types of gratification derived from
watching TV shows. Some of them were based on prior research into radio listening and
the functions of mass communication. Uses and gratifications as a theoretical framework
was introduced in the early 1970s (Blumler, & Katz, 1974; Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch,
1974; Rosengren, Wenner, & Palmgreen 1985). Uses and gratifications theory states,
“People are not passive recipients of media. Instead they selectively use media to fulfill
personal needs, therefore affecting the development of media (Association for Education
19
in Journalism and Mass Communication, 2012).” The arrival of the Internet and social
media did not negate the value of the uses and gratifications perspective for
communication research in explaining why and how people use the media since one of the
core premises of the theory is an active audience and its ability to interpret media content
and negotiate its meaning (Ruggiero, 2000). The present study, informed by uses and
gratifications theory, explored how professional wrestling fans fulfill their social needs
through interacting with their favorite wrestlers via Twitter and how these social activities,
in terms of their use as a marketing tool in the context of sports entertainment marketing,
affect social media marketing campaigns.
A recent analysis of the involvement of mass media (Phillips, 2013) in the 2012
political campaigns in Egypt, outlines two major factors that uses and gratifications theory
establishes:
The reasons why audiences expose themselves to different mass
media means; television, radio, printed material and internet (Luo, 2002).
The theory was first used to explain how people use mass media during
political communication campaigns, dealing with audiences as voters.
The Uses and Gratification Theory is used later on to understand more
about social uses of mass media, entertainment and consumers behaviors,
especially in times of political campaigns for gathering information…and
the main needs that people try to satisfy from using the mass media. The
theory supports the idea that the psychological and social needs
determine the different patterns and expectations of the people from the
media (p.14)
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Uses and gratifications theory has been widely applied in mass communication and media
research (Baran & Davis, 2012; Papacharissi, 2010; Rubin, 2009) and has extended into
the study of parasocial interaction (Greer & Ferguson, 2011; Beard & Heppen, 2012).
Most uses and gratifications analyses aim to identify motivations for users to engage with
a particular medium or media product in lieu of various needs supplied by interacting
with that media. Currently, some scholars debate the utility of the concept of mass
communication in the Internet era (Metzger, 2009; Napoli, 2010). However, emphasis on
active user involvement with the media motivates many researchers to continue to pursue
the uses and gratifications approach.
In regards to Twitter, researchers Johnson and Yang (2009) theorized that
information-seeking and social needs (such as a feeling of love and belonging) are the two
main gratifications for social media use. Results of another investigation (Chen, 2011)
found a positive relationship between the time spent on Twitter and gratification of a need
for social connection.
The uses and gratifications perspective has also been applied to the study of
parasocial interaction in various aspects of audiences’ social media involvement:
befriending on social networks (Ancu & Cozma, 2009), motivations for connecting to
blogs (Kaye, 2010), or TV viewer reactions to a temporary parasocial breakup situation
(Lather & Moyer-Gusea, 2011). A recent study by Greer & Ferguson (2011) focused on
parasocial relationships and Twitter affecting the gratification of information seeking. The
researchers delved into the benefits for news personalities to use Twitter and how
parasocial bonds created a more loyal viewing audience. One of the main reasons
discovered for newscasters to use Twitter is speed of information dissemination (Greer &
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Ferguson, 2011). The Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication
says of uses and gratifications theory, “In the age of social media, uses and gratifications
research is experiencing a renaissance (Association for Education in Journalism and Mass
Communication, 2012).” Uses and gratifications theory was valuable for the present study
because identifying parasocial relationships in WWE fans provides insight into why and
how they use social media and why WWE social media marketing campaigns can be
effective.
Defining Parasocial Interaction
Since Horton and Wohl’s (1956) initial parasocial interaction research during the
early days of television, several studies have been completed using a variety of settings
and demographics on subjects ranging from soap operas to home shopping channels to
more current TV dramas like “Lost.” Currently, the term “parasocial interaction” is used
by scholars to broadly define the process of forming perceived relationships with media
figures. In the context of the current study, group identification refers to the notion of
being a part of the community surrounding the program. Evaluating group identification
involves identifying whether the viewer can see the characters as people they would be
friends with or would interact with in social settings (Auter & Palmgreen, 2000).
The concept of identification has often been associated with parasocial
relationships. Perceived similarities in background, appearance, beliefs, and so forth can
result in a viewer liking or disliking a character or program (Tian & Hoffner, 2010). This
trait of parasocial relationships includes finding common ground or recognizing a lack of
common ground, each of which determines how the viewer engages with the product.
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Interest, sometimes referred to as affinity, encompasses how much the viewer likes the
character. Physical attributes still play a role in selecting of a favorite character, and while
this may not be as strong as a relationship as identification, it is influential in viewing
habits (Cohen, 1999, 2001). Viewers still watch characters they simply like because he or
she is physically attractive. Finally, beyond physical attraction is social attractiveness.
Social attractiveness involves beliefs, attitudes, and problem solving abilities (Auter &
Palmgreen, 2000).
Research into parasocial relationships did not consistently build over time. There
was a gap that spanned for three decades. Researchers Rubin, Perse, and Powell (1985)
found that in the decades between 1956 and 1985 when parasocial interaction was first
defined, there was extensive curiosity about the phenomenon but limited content that
provided a method to empirically measure parasocial relationships. Toward the end of the
1980s, researchers were beginning to understand the importance of parasocial interaction
research. What was missing was a reliable instrument for measurement. An empirical
scale that could evaluate the presence or absence of parasocial relationships in audience
engagement was needed. Rubin, Perse and Powell (1985) created perhaps one of the most
influential measurement tools in parasocial bonds studies, an empirical measure that has
become widely used in the field. The scale provided a foundation for a generation of
empirical studies into parasocial interaction, which spanned into the current century.
For a long time, research focused on physical traits of the media figures and the
demographics of the media viewers. However, as Rubin, Perse, and Powell’s (1985) scale
has evolved over time, parasocial bonds have been more categorically defined by
accessing the essential parts of the whole of a parasocial relationship. These elements
23
have been identified as (a) identification, (b) interest, (c) group identification, and (d)
social attractiveness (Auter & Palmgreen, 2000). Auter and Palmgreen (2000) created the
most affective measure for parasocial relationships. They used statements developed over
time to tap into the multiple dimensions of parasocial bonds. This provided an empirical
measure of the phenomenon that makes it possible to correlate parasocial relationships
with other measures of the media studied such as program exposure and, in the case of
the present study, social media use (Auter & Palmgreen, 2000). In some forms of
entertainment, some of these elements may be more prevalent than others. This study
demonstrates that all four are present in the world of professional wrestling fans.
Research into parasocial relationships has migrated into new media technology
resulting in the development of Hartmann’s two-level model of parasocial interactions, a
theory that assesses the audience’s perception of a media figure after the program is off-
air (Hartmann, Schramm, & Klimmt, 2004; Schramm & Hartmann, 2008; Schramm &
Wirth, 2010). However, this research has yet to include social media interactions and is
still developing with an understanding of the audience engaging in limited exposure,
focusing on programming being the only source of interaction. The current study, by
focusing on the role of parasocial relationships in social media marketing, takes into
account the growing accessibility of media figures through microblogging platforms like
Twitter.
Professional Wrestling Fan Identification
Fan identity in professional wrestling has been investigated by Beard and Heppen
(2012). Their approach was to examine the complicated relationship fans have with
24
professional wrestling and the various levels of suspension of disbelief during fan-media
figure mediated interactions. The study focused on independent, or local, professional
wrestling events and how the fan community has grown and matured over the years. From
a uses and gratifications perspective, the community built within professional wrestling
viewers fulfills a social need. The results provide a detailed illustration of the relationship
professional wrestling fans have with the product.
Beard and Heppen (2012) made several technical distinctions between types of
professional wrestling fans. They defined in detail the difference between what wrestling
fans call “marks” and “smarks.” These definitions also give an indication into the history
and traditions of professional wrestling. “Mark” is a term adopted from the world of con
artistry. A “mark” is the victim of the ruse. Professional wrestling’s ruse is that the
outcomes of the matches are predetermined. The difference in the types of professional
wrestling fans is based on just how the knowledge of wrestling’s predetermination effects
their engagement in the sport. These definitions of different fan identities have changed
over the last 30 years. During the professional wrestling boom of the late 1980’s and early
1990’s, the first “Wrestlemania” was held and stars like Hulk Hogan and “Macho Man”
Randy Savage were becoming household names (see Figure 3).
25
Computer-mediated communication began to be injected into the professional
wrestling fan community in the 1990s and the suspension of disbelief became harder and
harder. More and more of what Beard and Heppen (2012) call “smarks” were being
created. Suddenly the secret was out. Professional wrestling was labeled with a term that
professional wrestlers take extreme offense to: “fake.” Something else was happening,
though. Fans now had the knowledge of the nature of professional wrestling, but it did not
seem to matter. Here Beard and Heppen offer their definition of a “smark” or a “smart
mark,” a term that defines the psychology of the professional wrestling fan base:
A “smark,” or genuine local pro wrestling fan, is someone who is cognitively
aware that the match is staged. At the same time, they become affectively invested
in the match outcome. They want their performer of choice to win. And, at the
Figure 3. Former WWE Wrestlers Randy Savage and Hulk Hogan
Source: WWE.com.
26
behavioral level, they root for their wrestler of choice. The affective and behavioral
dimensions of their identity as a fan are at odds with the cognitive dimensions of
that identity (p. 29).
Why doesn’t it matter that the ending is predetermined? First, it is still entertainment, but
beyond that and applicable to the current study, fans relate with professional wrestlers on
several levels. Beard and Heppen’s (2012) definition of “smarks” suggests a hint that the
professional wrestling fan is invested in his or her favorite performer. Even though fans are
becoming knowledgeable in increasing numbers, it doesn’t matter because, as this research
hypothesizes, the professional wrestling world is privy to parasocial bonds. Researchers
describe what the relationship between fans and wrestlers looks like for modern audiences;
“The local pro wrestling fan has the clarity of vision to see through the artifice and yet,
under certain conditions, to allow their emotions to be riled and their body to join in the
chants and hollering” (p. 29).
The study by Beard and Heppen (2012) concentrated on how professional wrestling
fans interact with the product, the wrestlers, and, finally, the other fans in the community.
They discussed the idea that professional wrestling exists in a periodic market. Events like
live shows or even the Monday night live WWE broadcast act as an opportunity for fans to
gather and make possible certain social interactions with other fans that would otherwise
be impossible.
Even though Beard and Heppen focused primarily on local professional wrestling
shows in the Minnesota region, the concepts they introduced can be applied to mainstream
professional wrestling. The multifaceted identity experienced by “smarks” becomes even
27
more complex when fans can interact with their wrestlers directly through social media, a
space where the wrestlers can either be more themselves or stay more in character.
Although Beard and Heppen did not specifically identify fan-wrestler relationships
as parasocial bonds, they did describe an atmosphere in which fans identify and
communicate with their favorite wrestlers, identify with a special group or community,
show their affinity for their favorite wrestler by buying their merchandise and cheering for
them, and root for success in all of their favorite wrestler’s endeavors. These components
are identified as the elements of parasocial relationships (i.e., identification, interest, group
identification, and social attractiveness). Beard and Heppen comprehensively defined a
group of fans with a complex fan identity. The current research takes these dimensions and
applies them to parasocial interaction research.
Blue collar identification
Identification plays a key role in parasocial relationships, but as previously stated,
some professional wrestling characters are so far outside accepted norms that it would be
nearly impossible to identify with them. Most of these outlandish characters, performers
like Doink the Clown, Sharkboy, or Mantaur, do not lead to mass popularity or
championship success. There still is no hard and fast rule on what makes a popular
wrestler easy to identify with. Former WWE champion Jeff Hardy was, by many
standards, a social outcast. He would create abstract art and music and would occasionally
paint his face with his abstract designs (see Figure 4). However, Hardy’s style and
daredevil ring persona spoke to the uniqueness of the audience. Hardy created a mass
following of fans and to this day has had some of the loudest and continuous live event
28
crowd responses of all time (Dunn, 2009). The case of Jeff Hardy is a rarity in terms of
identifying with a mass professional wrestling audience.
Figure 4. Impact Wrestling and Former WWE Wrestler Jeff Hardy
Usually for performers to be identified with it takes a character that is a little more “down
to earth” and such a concept is realized not in professional wrestling but in a soap opera,
“Simplemente Maria,” which became one of the most apparent examples of parasocial
interaction in television history (Singhal & Rogers, 1999).
“Simplemente Maria” (1989) is a Peruvian soap opera following the life of Maria,
a maid who rose to fame as a fashion designer. What stands out about this example? Maria
was engaged in a special will-they-won’t-they relationship with her literacy teacher that
lasted 20 years. When they finally married, 10,000 fans showed up to the make-believe
wedding as if it were really happening. Singhal and Rogers (1999) cite the audience’s
Source: Impactwrestling.com.
29
identification with the characters and parasocial bonds as the contributing factors to the
success of “Simplemente Maria.” Maria was a hero to women because she was a blue
collar maid determined and motivated to better herself. She would never stop working and
even the fact that she was taking literacy classes motivated a lot of the female audience to
seek out classes themselves. Men empathized with Maria’s groom, Esteban, throughout the
20 television years it took him to get Maria to marry him. Letter writing was another ritual
besides the wedding celebration and the rise of the number of women learning to read; that
is how “Simplemente Maria” was reaching its fan base and forming strong parasocial
bonds. Thousands of letters were written to the characters of the telenovela as if they were
real people.
Note: Former WWE wrestler “Stone Cold” Steve
Austin in his infamous “Austin 3:16” t-shirt
Source: WWE.com.
Figure 5. Former WWE Wrestler “Stone Cold” Steve Austin
30
Professional wrestling has its own Maria, “Stone Cold” Steve Austin (Figure 5). He
began in rival World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as “Stunning” Steve Austin, a
bleached blonde showboat who was hardly a fan favorite. However, by the mid 1990s
Austin had transformed into a foul-mouthed, beer-drinking everyman nicknamed “Stone
Cold” Steve Austin. The “Stone Cold” persona was fierce and unpredictable in the ring,
but outside of it this role was played as a blue collar personality with simple ideas and a
penchant for having a good time. Originally, Austin was portrayed as a villain, mocking
wrestlers with high morals and giving the middle finger to fans, but eventually this
rebellious behavior and Austin’s blue collar mentality made him a fan favorite. Outsiders
might have seen Austin with his plain black wrestling gear and marked him off as nothing
special. However, his “Austin 3:16” t-shirt remains one of the most popular t-shirts in
WWE history, and Austin himself is becoming somewhat of a pop culture icon. His
character was only the base for why he was so popular, though.
Figure 6. “Stone Cold” Steve Austin and WWE CEO Vince McMahon
Source: WWE.com.
31
Has there ever been an employee that has been oppressed or ridiculed by a mean
and controlling boss that hasn’t contemplated pummeling that boss? In a long-lasting feud
with WWE CEO Vince McMahon, Austin did just that. McMahon, a former wrestler
himself, was playing his ultimate villain character, simply named Mr. McMahon, and tried
to apply his boss attitude to make Austin’s life in the ring less enjoyable, but Austin would
usually gain the upper hand (Figure 6). Currently, Austin is retired from professional
wrestling and, not surprisingly, has had a successful career as a movie actor with
“Expendables” and “The Longest Yard” as his most notable appearances. The performer
has left a lasting impression on the WWE fan base. The minute his entrance music hits
when he returns for infrequent surprise visits, the audience is in an uproar and another of
his favorite catch phrases can still be heard on WWE programming as the crowd chants
“What?” to just about any villain trying to talk. Austin was a blue collar hero to fans and
the way fans identified with him and established parasocial bonds can be seen in his initial
rise to fame and his continued popularity (Dunn, 2012).
International identification
The quest for easily relatable characters extends beyond Austin and even beyond
America, as WWE is a global entertainment company. WWE has long history of wrestlers
who have been billed from places all over the world and even the fictional “Parts
Unknown” such as “The Depths of Hell” or “Freedomville USA.” Again, analyzing the
distinct characteristics of WWE’s international characters helps grow an understanding
into how the product has changed over the years and how it continues to supply the WWE
audience around the world with characters to whom they can relate.
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Looking back to the early days of WWE, one of the central villains, mainly due to
his opposition of the “Real American” Hulk Hogan, was The Iron Sheik. Sheik’s character
was an ultra-stereotype of Middle Eastern people, who at the time of the George H. W.
Bush presidency was an easy villain for the WWE audience to boo. The Iron Sheik even
had a tag team partner that had been getting the ire from WWE fans for years during the
Cold War era, a stereotypical Russian nicknamed Nikolai Volkoff. Jumping forward and
evaluating the current WWE roster, there is a vast difference in how international
superstars are portrayed. Instead of being turned directly into the program’s villain or a
heel, international superstars are celebrated for their ethnic heritage. Wrestlers like “The
Celtic Warrior” Sheamus or South Africa’s Justin Gabriel take pride in their ethnicity, and
when WWE travels abroad, the promoters encourage face-to-face interactions of the
international star wrestlers with the fans.
The shift from stereotypical caricatures of different ethnicities to celebrated
international superstars probably started with the late Eduardo Gory “Eddie” Guerrero
Llanes. Eddie Guerrero hailed from a Mexican-American family that was a staple in
professional wrestling history on both sides of the Rio Grande. Almost his entire family
participated in the sport in some way, and currently his wife, Vicki, carries on the Guerrero
legacy as one of WWE’s top managers. When Guerrero first entered WWE, it was more of
the old brand of international talent. His nickname was “Latino Heat,” as he portrayed the
persona of a Latino lover. After a few years, WWE decided to attempt to capitalize on its
growing Latino audience and make Guerrero a serious championship contender. Guerrero
captured the WWE championship and became incredibly popular with fans of all
ethnicities. By reaching the top of WWE, Guerrero staged a feat that paved the way for
33
international wrestlers to be less of a stereotype and more of a realistic, relatable character.
Before Guerrero became champion, popular Latin wrestlers were just seen as small, risk
takers who would be used in matches early in the event but would never be the main draw.
Guerrero changed that and showed that there was an entire segment of the audience WWE
was ignoring by not giving them anyone to relate to (Marquez, 2006). After Guerrero,
another famous Latino wrestler, Oscar Gutierrez, who performs as Rey Mysterio, won the
world heavyweight championship even though he stands only 5 feet 6 inches tall and
weighs 175 pounds. After that another Latino wrestler, Alberto Del Rio, has become the
next in a line of Latino WWE champions. WWE currently boasts wrestlers from Canada,
Ghana, Guyana, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Italy, Scotland, England, India, Japan, and many
more. Thus, WWE has the ability to create parasocial relationships with its audience in the
145 countries in which they go on air by meeting the demand of the international fans for
the wrestlers they can identify with and relate to.
Personal Influence of Professional Wrestlers on Fans
Athletes in traditional sports have always been seen to have a certain degree of
influence on the world, especially with their fans. A study by Brown and de Matviuk
(2010) took a measurable look at the impact athletes have and how that is related to
parasocial interaction. Brown and de Matviuk’s research involved health and social issues
and how athletes, even through negative actions, can influence public awareness. Athletes
can receive a great deal of media attention; one example pointed out by Brown and de
Matviuk is former Major League Baseball player Mark McGwire. McGwire, of the St.
Louis Cardinals, participated in a much-publicized race to break a long-standing home run
34
record and due to his clean-cut persona and cordial relationship with media, fans, and his
main opponent, Chicago Cub, Sammy Sosa, McGwire was seen as a hero (Brown & de
Matviuk, 2010). Researchers point out that through this big sports event in baseball history
the influence athletes have through positive and negative situations can bring awareness to
health issues. At the time of the home run race, McGwire was actively working with the
issue of child abuse, even establishing a charitable foundation. The publicity McGwire was
receiving during that season brought more attention to the problem and his fans, the people
who had established parasocial bonds with him, were more aware and involved with the
issue as a result (Brown & de Matviuk, 2010). However, the positive press did not last
long.
Steroid use in Major League Baseball became a major concern after the McGwire –
Sosa home run race and even eventually caught the attention of the federal government.
McGwire was not spared of the accusations of performance-enhancing drug use, and all of
the positive stardom he had received as a hero quickly turned negative. However, this new
negative publicity produced a similar result for the health issue of steroid abuse as the
positive attention did for the issue of child abuse (Brown & de Matviuk, 2010). Noticing a
trend, Brown and de Matviuk decided to research just what role parasocial interaction
plays in the influence athletes have on raising the awareness of fans. Their study used the
rise-and-fall story of Argentinean soccer superstar Diego Maradona, described as follows:
In 1986, the World Soccer Cup was held in Mexico, and Maradona played as a
member of the Argentinean National Team. In the quarterfinal, Maradona scored
his most famous and controversial goal with his hand. Despite doubt and protest
from the British, the referee considered the score valid following his colleagues’
35
assurance that the hand did not touch the ball. Soon after this controversial score,
Maradona followed it up with a magnificent second goal in a 2-1 victory over
England. Argentina’s triumph over England was powerfully symbolic because the
country had just lost possession of the Malvinas Islands (or Falkland Islands) after
a war with England. In the finals, Maradona led Argentina to victory over West
Germany. During the national celebration in Buenos Aires, people danced in the
streets, blared horns, and hung posters declaring, “Maradona Presidente” (Brown &
de Matviuk, 2010 p. 359).
Athletic heroism made Maradona a star and gave him the kind of publicity such a status
usually receives.
However, the rest of Maradona’s story does not continue on so triumphantly. What
followed those World Cup victories was a tragic series of events that included drug abuse,
Maradona getting banned from soccer for more than a year, and an early end to a
promising career. Brown and de Matviuk’s (2010) study first found that fans were forming
strong parasocial bonds with Maradona and then tested those relationships to see if they
had an influence on the awareness of the risks associated with drug abuse, concern about
the use of drugs, abstinence from using drugs, and support for drug prevention programs.
Brown and de Matviuk did find that parasocial relationships were a valuable predictor of
these behaviors in Maradona’s fans. This study showed how influential parasocial bonds
can be; it also defined the difference between parasocial interaction and identification.
Identification can be a part of these relationships; Brown and de Matviuk commented that
there were more than likely fans that were dealing with drug related issues that could
identify with Maradona, but parasocial bonds require a more compressive form of
36
relationship. Maradona’s fans do not have to be able to identify with his drug problems in
order to be influenced by his message. Brown and de Matviuk called this sending an
indirect message (2010). Through his drug abuse and his fall from fame, Maradona was
sending a message to fans to not be like him.
Part of the job of a WWE wrestler is to harness a tide of influence that parasocial
bonds can create. There is no greater example in recent WWE programming than the
WWE championship feud between CM Punk and John Cena from the summer of 2011.
During the weeks of promotion for the match that Punk and Cena would have at the
WWE’s pay-per-view event “Money in the Bank,” Punk managed to take from Cena a fan
favorite status and turn him into the villain. How did he do this? He became a hometown
hero much like Maradona was before his drug abuse. “Money in the Bank” was set to take
place in CM Punk’s hometown of Chicago. WWE created an elaborate story in which
Punk became outspoken and claimed to be standing up for all of the voiceless fans that
were becoming bored with Cena as perennial champion and that he instead would walk
into his hometown and become victorious. When it finally came time for the match, the
18,000 fans in the Allstate Arena in Rosemont, IL, were vocally unified in their support of
Punk. In professional wrestling, that kind of influence is used in many ways. WWE is
involved in several philanthropic efforts much like McGwire. WWE does work with USO,
Make-A-Wish, and runs several other programs involving issues like low voter registration
and children’s literacy (WWE Corporate, 2013). However, the most recognizable realm in
which mass influence is taken advantage of is in WWE’s commercial pursuits. Punk has
become the face of WWE. One example of his new marketability is the recent
37
announcement that Punk would be on the cover of the next installment of WWE’s popular
video game franchise, “WWE ‘13.”
The Impact of Parasocial Bonds in Marketing
Previously, parasocial interaction has been found to play a role in marketing and
retail mainly through the analysis of home shopping programming such as “QVC.” Auter
and Moore (1993) found that television retail programs would benefit from becoming
more interactive and engaging. Stephens (1996) theorized that the hosts of television
shopping shows could use more conversational communication to establish and maintain
parasocial relationships with the audience and create more impulse buying. Levy (1979)
who was one of the early researchers of parasocial interaction concluded that those media
users that had developed parasocial relationships would watch the programming more
often. Park and Lennon (2004) combined these concepts of parasocial relationships having
an effect on the success of specific home shopping programming finding that viewers that
watched home shopping programming more frequently and established parasocial bonds
purchased more items.
Research indicates that social media marketing can be effectively used by
celebrities to maintain their star status and actively contribute to the construction of their
persona through public interaction with fans. However, the same tool that helps create
relationships can also create the distance that makes these relationships parasocial in
nature. For example, while Ashton Kutcher may not write back to every tweet from a
follower, a fan typically writes back to him, and Ashton Kutcher generally responds to the
38
tweets of other celebrities (Marwick, 2011). The wall between celebrities and media users
is still there but the illusion of intimacy is as prevalent as ever.
The idea of social media as a venue for establishing parasocial bonds may seem
contradicting some of the early definitions of parasocial interaction that define the
phenomenon as not reciprocal in nature. Social media are designed to be a space where
one can network with other people and engage in social interactions. However, what
happens in many instances is developing parasocial relationships with many and personal
relationships with a few. Social media can then transform from a one-to-one mode of
interaction to a one-to-many and many-to-many very rapidly which will be discussed in
Chapter 5. It is said that the average Facebook user has about 130 “friends” (Erkkola,
2009). How many of those 130 users communicate frequently and on a personal level? The
same dilemma is true for celebrities and popular brands. Producers who want to form
bonds with consumers should be aware that these types of relationships often take form of
parasocial interaction. That is why establishing lasting parasocial relationships becomes
the basis of social media marketing.
Twitter, Parasocial Bonds, and Newscasters
The study by Greer and Ferguson (2011) discussed earlier may be the most relevant
work in social media and parasocial interaction research to date. Through the scope of the
information-seeking gratification, Greer and Ferguson tested for affinity in viewers’
Twitter interactions with newscasters. Specifically, they asked the question, “What is the
relationship between parasocial interaction and TV station affinity, Twitter affinity, and
Twitter news usage motivations?” (p. 149).
39
Twitter has become a tool that TV news stations can use to get information out that
is urgent or is too timely for the next live broadcast (Greer & Ferguson, 2011). The traffic
information for the morning commute is one valuable example of how TV news stations
can use Twitter. The traffic report appears periodically on the TV and radio broadcasts, but
if the traffic reporter’s Twitter is pumping out constant information in the morning, the
viewer doesn’t have to wait through commercials and other segments to find the
information he or she needs. Using tools like Twitter to engage the audience is an example
of the news station competing in the Internet age, when updated information is faster and
easier to find, by keeping their reporter’s face on the lightning fast information. There is
also an entertainment aspect to the news-Twitter phenomenon. An example of
entertainment and news meeting in social media takes place in Pittsburgh. WPXI traffic
correspondent Trisha Pittman uses the Twitter account “@WPXITraffic” to not only
release information about traffic patterns and accidents, but throughout the morning she
tweets in conversations with local morning radio personalities Mikey and Big Bob from
96.1 KissFM’s “Morning Freakshow.” News dissemination in social media is not only a
normal venue for entertainment, but Trisha Pittman has found a way to connect with fans
while supplying the information for the viewers of WPXI’s news broadcast (see Figure 7).
This is the type of situation Greer and Ferguson (2011) approached in their study.
Much like the current study, Greer and Ferguson (2011) distributed their survey
through online sources; however, they did have one distinct advantage. The researchers
solicited the help of the top ten newscasters according to followers on Twitter and those
newscasters then distributed the survey to their followers. The survey reached 30,000
followers, and that method of distribution gained 212 survey responses. WWE does not
40
respond to academic requests so this method would have been impossible to complete for
the current study. That being said, because WWE has a worldwide audience and
newscasters have local, segmented audiences, WWE fans are more easily accessible
through social media. Greer and Ferguson’s survey was very similar to that of the present
study in that it was developed from similar scales in past research that tested parasocial
relationships.
Greer and Ferguson (2011) found that parasocial bonds are related to affinity to the
local TV station where the newsperson works. They also concluded that parasocial bonds
Note: WPXI Pittsburgh’s traffic reporter Trisha Pittman tweets back
and forth with local radio hosts during the live broadcasts
Source: Twitter.com.
Figure 7. Trisha Pittman’s Twitter Feed
41
are related to daily Twitter use for information seeking meaning that the TV newscasters
can enhance the relationships they have with viewers if they take advantage of the
parasocial relationships that can form from using social media as a way to report
information and communicate directly to their viewers. Also, the results mean that the
process of working Twitter use into the newscaster’s parasocial relationship development
bodes well for the TV station as a whole because it can establish loyalty among the
audience. The authors made a couple very astute observations about such behavior:
The more the respondents used Twitter each day for news, the more affinity they
felt towards the news personality’s station…Rather than seeing the tweets of news
workers as simply information, followers appear to perceive content from a more
personal level (Greer & Ferguson, 2011, p. 154).
The current research draws from the conclusions made by Greer & Ferguson (2011)
regarding local TV station loyalty and applies them towards brand loyalty in marketing
and advertising. Just as a relationship was shown in non-fictional newscasters, past
research indicates that parasocial relationships form, and sometimes even more so, with
fictional characters. Therefore, the current study adopts the Greer and Ferguson approach
to analyzing Twitter use in terms of marketing with WWE characters and the parasocial
bonds that can form applying the general theoretical framework of the uses and
gratifications theory.
Research Hypotheses
As indicated, WWE offers a diverse cast of characters and storylines that allows
the viewing audience to form parasocial relationships exhibited by fan-superstars
42
interactions. The characters are both of a realistic and fantasy nature, but are representative
of various social and ethnic backgrounds. Therefore, the audience has ample room to
identify with the characters and storylines. WWE has perfected its brand so well that there
is the opportunity for WWE fans who use web tools to identify as a member of the WWE
Universe, or to display group identification. WWE wrestlers are offered various ways to
participate in many forms and venues of programming. The online WWE audience is able
to demonstrate degrees of interest through social media. The storylines of the WWE
provide the wrestlers with situation in which their beliefs and problem solving skills can be
put on display. Therefore, the first research hypothesis states:
H1: There will be a positive relationship between the strength of parasocial bonds
and the frequency of consuming WWE programming.
Social media provide fans with the newest tools for interacting with entertainment
programming. Once it is established that parasocial bonds are formed between WWE fans
and WWE wrestlers, the next step is to evaluate the relationship between parasocial bonds
and the varying levels of social media engagement. The second hypothesis posits:
H2: There will be a positive relationship between the strength of parasocial bonds
and the level of Twitter engagement among WWE fans.
Research has shown that the more the audience members interact with the media
figure or program, the more they become engaged with the product. WWE uses social
media as an essential part of its marketing plan. Twitter is often used as a method to
engage the audience. The goals of WWE marketing campaigns are to attract audience for
its weekly shows, accumulate merchandise sales, and to produce live event sales both
through attendance and pay-per-view programs. Before one can determine whether or not
43
WWE’s social media tactics are effective, it is important to identify at what level the
audience is engaged with the product. Therefore, the third hypothesis predicts:
H3: There will be a positive relationship between the level of Twitter engagement
among viewers with strong parasocial bonds and their level of engagement with
WWE products.
44
CHAPTER III
METHOD
The present study utilized a repeated cross-sectional survey design as a method of
data collection. Surveys provide a basis for more than 90% of the quantitative research
evaluating communication industries (Reagan, 2006, p. 91). Surveys can be used to
examine attitudes, opinions, and trends in attitudes and behaviors (Rubin, Rubin, & Piele,
2005, p. 227). A cross-sectional survey allows researchers to make inferences about a
specific phenomenon at one point in time. A repeated cross-sectional survey provides a
stronger design because changes that might have occurred in the targeted subgroup of the
population since the first survey can be identified. Groups targeted for a cross-sectional
study are usually purposely selected based upon existing characteristics rather than
random sampling.
Using Auter and Palmgreen’s (2000) multi-dimensional Audience-Persona
Interaction (API) scale, the author developed an online survey to identify parasocial
relationships among WWE fans and professional wrestlers. Researchers have spent
several decades evolving research instruments to measure the strength of parasocial
relationships, which led to survey research becoming the most widely applied method to
study parasocial bonds. Following Auter and Palmgreen’s API scale, data collection
methods have been created using Hartmann’s two-level model of parasocial interactions,
a framework that tests the audience’s perception of a media figure after the program is
off-air, although they were limited to measuring parasocial relationships during a time of
exposure (Hartmann et al, 2004; Schramm & Hartmann, 2008; Schramm & Wirth, 2010).
45
However, the nature of social media creates an environment where media figures are
accessible 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Hartmann (2004) created a scale that is
unable to measure social media engagement because it requires the media figure to be
absent. Therefore, in the present study, which seeks to measure parasocial relationships
and social media interactions, the API scale provided the most accurate measure of
parasocial relationships. A repeated cross-sectional survey was used to track any changes
that might have occurred over the course of a year due to the dynamic nature of social
media.
Study Population and Sample
WWE’s online audience features 13 million weekly, unique visitors to WWE.com
(WWE Corporate, 2013). That online audience also translates to a substantial social
media presence. WWE fans interact with the brand online in many ways. WWE’s
YouTube channel gathered 1.5 billion views in 2012 (WWE Corporate, 2013). Wrestlers’
top five Twitter accounts (The Rock, John Cena, Randy Orton, CM Punk, and Shawn
Michaels) have over 14 million followers combined (Twitter.com, 2013). WWE’s global,
social media fans were the target of the present study.
A number of venues were used for recruiting study participants, including
Twitter, Facebook, and several professional wrestling fan discussion boards; therefore,
only fans with Internet access were included in the sample. One can say that the
professional wrestling fan base is pseudo-journalistic in character. As long as
professional wrestling has been popularized, dating back to the late 1960s and early
1970s, there has always been an enthusiastic following. Fans would track their favorite
46
wrestlers from town to town and then report back to other fans with news and rumors. At
the time, professional wrestling was not widely televised on national networks and relied
heavily on live events and word-of-mouth marketing. Those grassroots marketing
techniques quickly developed into print with the advent of publications called “dirt
sheets,” fan-produced wrestling magazines and newsletters that featured news and
speculative rumors. When the Internet came along, these dirt sheets transferred to the
online world creating a community of websites filled with wrestling news and gossip.
Each of these sites also features a discussion forum for fans to post live event results,
speculations, and comments about the shows and characters. Therefore, discussion
forums became a valuable resource in recruiting study participants. Wrestlingforum.com,
Wrestlezone.com, and Wrestlingclique.com were used to reach out to potential
participants. Prior to posting announcements through these web tools, permission was
sought from the administrators of each forum. Messages soliciting responses were posted
weekly during the month of February 2012 and 2013 to discussion boards specifically
sequestered for discussions relating to the “Monday Night Raw” broadcast. The
discussion boards experience the most activity the day after “Raw” has aired.
The current study used two volunteer samples with a total of 177 participants (88
and 89 one year apart). This method to solicit responses was chosen despite the
possibility of a self-selection bias because the study required a sample of respondents
who are using web tools to interact with WWE and the pro wrestling fan community.
Daniel (2012) argued that the ability to target specific subgroups of a population is one of
the strengths of nonprobability sampling. Even more so, according to Daniel, a
nonprobability sample may be more appropriate when research has an exploratory
47
purpose, there is a need to target specific subgroups of the population, the population is
highly scattered, and the sampling frame is not available. Recent research into parasocial
relationships with media figures has relied on nonprobability sampling techniques
(Brown & de Matviuk, 2010; Greer & Ferguson, 2011; Johnson & Yang, 2009).
Considering the limited budget, widely scattered population, and the desired setting of the
current study, using nonprobability sampling techniques was chosen (Rubin, Rubin, &
Piele, 2005; Reagan, 2006; Daniel, 2012).
The samples were comprised of those who interact with their favorite wrestlers
via Twitter and those who don’t to compare the strength of parasocial bonds in both
groups. Originally, there were 96 responses in 2012 and 136 responses in 2013 to the
survey. After initial data screening, several incomplete responses were excluded creating
final samples of 88 responses in 2012 (Sample 1) and 89 responses in 2013 (Sample 2)
for a total of 177 participants. Of the 88 respondents in 2012, 81 were male and seven
were female. In the 2013 survey, 88 were male and only one was female with the total
gender split represented in Figure 8. While nearly 40% of WWE fans are female, what
WWE refers to as its “passionate fans,” like those found in online discussion forums and
makes up about 8 million households in the U.S., are predominantly male (WWE
Corporate, 2013). Among the participants, 86 of the respondents fell within the targeted
18 - 35 age demographic with only two falling in the 36 - 55 age bracket.
48
Survey Instrument
The survey consisted of 22 questions organized in three parts (see Appendix C:
Research Instrument). The first question asked the participants about their favorite WWE
wrestler. Ten questions were used to gauge parasocial relationships, four questions were
used to evaluate Twitter engagement, four questions measured overall product
interaction, and three were demographic questions. A 5-point Likert scale was used to
evaluate 17 of the 22 questions. The remaining questions were yes/no, male/female, and
multiple choice.
The statements measuring parasocial relationships were developed directly from
Auter and Palmgreen’s (2000) Audience-Persona Interaction scale. The questions
involving Twitter were formulated by studying the various ways in which users can
Figure 8. Participant Distribution by Gender (n = 177)
169 (95%)
8(5%)
Male
Female
49
interact with that social media application. Product interaction was concerned with
categorizing WWE’s core services and asking how often the user engaged each product.
A second section of the survey was dedicated to social media consumption and
engagement with WWE. Seven total questions inquire about the respondents’ habits
when interacting online with their favorite WWE wrestler and how they contribute to the
overall business of WWE. Social media behaviors were measured by how often they
follow or directly message their favorite WWE wrestler. Examples of these questions
include, “How often do you mention (using @ or #) your favorite WWE wrestler in your
tweets?” and “How often do you follow links, videos, or pictures tweeted by your
favorite WWE wrestler?” Once the results indicated the amount of social media
consumption by those who have formed parasocial relationships, Hypothesis 2 was
tested.
The third section of the survey asked about the viewers’ contributions to WWE
businesses by how often they purchase tickets and merchandise and how often they watch
WWE programming. Examples of these questions include, “On average, how often do
you watch WWE television programming including online streaming and home video
products?” and “On average, how many pieces of WWE merchandise do you purchase in
a given year (t-shirts, home videos, memorabilia)?” This section addressed the issue of
effectiveness of WWE’s social media marketing campaigns. The measure was then used
to test Hypothesis 3 asking if those who are engaged in parasocial relationships and
frequently interact via social media with WWE wrestlers are buying more merchandise or
consuming more WWE products.
50
The survey was available online during the month of February in 2012 (Moore,
2012) and February of 2013 and was hosted by eSurveyspro.com. Respondents were
asked for consent before taking part in the research and completing the survey (see
Appendix B: Informed Consent Form). Each section of the survey featured clear
instructions on how to complete each question. Scoring the survey was done
electronically via the web tools at eSurveyspro.com and outputted to a spreadsheet. The
survey was designed to take approximately 15 to 20 minutes to complete.
Measures
The initial conceptualization of parasocial interaction offered by Horton and Wohl
(1956) provided a foundation for the creation of a number of empirical measures of
parasocial interaction. Rubin, Perse, and Powell (1985) developed an original 20-item
parasocial interaction audience scale that inspired most parasocial interaction research
that followed. Two years later they modified the measurement scale to limit it to a 10-
item questionnaire (Rubin & Perse, 1987). These elements were further adapted and
grouped into four sub-scales or categories by Auter and Palmgreen (2000) to create the
multidimensional Audience-Persona Interaction (API) scale for measuring parasocial
relationships. The four sub-categories were: (a) identification with favorite character, (b)
interest in favorite character, (c) group identification, and (d) favorite character’s problem
solving ability. According to Auter and Palmgreen, “Identifying with a persona, interest
in that persona, and liking that persona’s methods of solving problems are certainly
different aspects of the desire to ‘interact’ with that individual” (2000, p. 86). In the
current research, the statements used to measure the dimensions of the parasocial process
51
were adopted from Auter’s Audience-Persona Interaction scale and modified to focus on
WWE programming.
Identification
Wishful identification has been defined as the desire to be like or behave in
similar ways as your favorite character (Hoffner, 1996). Measurement of identification
was based on how similar the respondent sees himself or herself compared to his or her
favorite WWE wrestler. As seen with the examples such as “Stone Cold” Steve Austin,
current WWE champion CM Punk, and others, WWE provides a diverse cast of
performers that offer an assortment of different personalities. That diverse environment
offers the WWE audience several different options of performers with which to identify
with. There is a wrestler for just about every kind of person represented no matter his or
her belief, ethnicity, music tastes, etc. Identification was tested with statements like “I
can see myself being my favorite WWE wrestler” or “My favorite WWE wrestler
reminds me of myself.”
Interest
The concept of interest deals more with the respondents’ relationships than it does
with the respondent himself or herself. Interest is the desire to form a social relationship
with your favorite character (Cohen, 2001). Interest also concerns how much the viewer
likes the performer. The success of a WWE wrestler often times depends on his or her
marketability across media forms. John Cena and Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson have
both found success in movies, Mick Foley has been a New York Times best-selling
author, Chris Jericho has had tremendous success overseas with his rock band “Fozzy,”
John “Bradshaw” Layfield is featured regularly on cable news programs talking about
52
finance, The Miz was a reality show celebrity on MTV’s “The Real World” before
coming to WWE, and the list goes on. All of those wrestlers have found championship
success and popularity among WWE fans. Part of this success is their crossover ability
and the level of interest fans form with them. Examples of the statements used to measure
interest are “I would like to meet my favorite WWE wrestler” and “I would watch my
favorite WWE wrestler on another program or movie.”
Group identification
Group Identification refers to the idea that as a fan of a particular program you are
included in a community of other people who are fans of that program (Auter &
Palmgreen, 2000). WWE has coined a term for its fan base, “The WWE Universe.” This
was also the name of WWE’s short-lived, in-house social networking tool. A tight-knit
group exists among professional wrestling fans. Professional wrestling is unique because
there are forms of it that have found mass popularity like WWE, but there are also forms
of it that are extremely niche like some of the independent, non-televised promotions.
Also, professional wrestling comes with its own language and suspension of disbelief that
sometimes only fans can understand. These are all reasons behind a group dynamic
among wrestling fans unlike more popular sporting events. For this study, it is relevant to
know if our respondents feel as if they are a part of The WWE Universe but also if they
participate. Group identification was measured through statements such as “I am part of
The WWE Universe” and “I consider myself a fan of WWE.”
Social attractiveness
The problem-solving abilities of the respondents’ favorite WWE wrestlers may be
the most important component to the parasocial interaction scale in this study. Earlier
53
studies concluded that social attractiveness or characteristics like good problem-solving
skills and treating other people nicely are even more important to favorite character
selection than physical attractiveness (Rubin & Perse, 1987). Hoffner commented on the
importance of social attractiveness saying that, “In general, the positive or negative
consequences experienced by the characters may be more important than their social
behavior per se in wishful identification and parasocial interaction” (Hoffner, 1996). On
weekly broadcasts, WWE wrestlers face with a wide range of problems such as winning
matches, competing at a high level with personal drama in their lives, overcoming injury
or other adversities, and more. Since its debut on January 11, 1993, “Raw” has featured
hundreds of different storylines and situations. The audience can witness behaviors and
outcomes for countless social situations and this can influence selection of a favorite
wrestler. Social attractiveness was measured with statements such as “I wish I could
handle problems like my favorite WWE wrestler does” and “I usually agree with my
favorite WWE wrestler.”
In this study, the above criteria (i.e., identification, interest, group identification,
and social attractiveness) were applied to design a survey instrument in which the
participants responded to a total of 10 statements measured at a 5-point Likert scale
ranging from 1 (“Strongly Disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly Agree”).
Data Analysis
Data analysis included descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and a t-test. The
online survey provided a data collection instrument for obtaining descriptive statistics of
the different dimensions of parasocial relationships among WWE online fans and media
54
characters. Responses to the questions on parasocial relationships provided a mean score
that indicated the strength of the overall parasocial bond in each respondent. This process
using mean scores, consistent with similar past research (Brown & de Matviuk, 2010;
Greer & Ferguson, 2011; Johnson & Yang, 2009), is illustrated in Figure 9. Parasocial
bonds were measured using the API scale described above. Twitter engagement
considered retweets, mentions, and the number of links to photos and videos. Product
interaction measured the amount of WWE programming, merchandise, live events, and
pay-per-views each participant consumed.
The creators of the API scale determined the Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient to analyze their data (Auter & Palmgreen, 2002). Responses to the questions
on parasocial relationships provided a mean score that indicates the strength of the
overall parasocial bond in each respondent. Using the same technique, a Pearson’s
correlation coefficient was calculated to evaluate the association between parasocial
bonds and the level of Twitter engagement and the frequency of interaction with WWE
products to test the research hypotheses of the current study.
55
Figure 9. Flowchart of the Data Analysis
56
Reliability and Validity
The design of the survey instrument was based on results of past research and
existing measures that have been empirically tested for validity and reliability and have
exhibited consistent results over time. Auter and Palmgreen (2000), who developed the
multidimensional Audience-Persona Interaction (API) scale, established the reliability and
validity of their measurement tool to assess the dimensions of the parasocial process: “The
linear positive relationships found between the four sub-scales (and the total scale) and the
program exposure measure constitute preliminary evidence of construct validity, and
indicate the API Scale may be used in investigations of the development of parasocial
interaction” (p. 87). Schramm and Hartmann (2008) considered the scale to be a valid
measure to assess users’ positive parasocial relationships to their favorite character. The
Audience-Persona Interaction scale was formed so that it could be adapted in research
involving parasocial relationships created through different types of media and was applied
directly to the present study.
A pilot test comprised of the first ten completed surveys, that were not included in
the samples or results, was conducted to identify any potential logistical problems with the
questionnaire design and data collection procedure. A pilot test is a trial version of a full-
scale study and is a critical part of research design. For exploratory studies, a sample
between 10 and 30 units is recommended (Reinard, 2006, p. 38). Pilot testing is important
because it allows researchers to establish content validity of scores on an instrument as
well as improve the questionnaire format prior to engaging in a full-size study (Creswell,
2014). Based on the pilot test, the organization of questions on the survey and the response
category language were edited for clarity. For example, demographic questions were
57
moved to the end of the survey. Statements measuring the four elements of parasocial
relationships—identification, interest, group identification, and social attractiveness—were
repeated in at least two variations to maximize reliability. The research procedures used in
this study were evaluated and approved by an institutional review board (see Appendix A:
Institutional Review Board Approval).
58
CHAPTER IV
STUDY RESULTS
This study sought to investigate the role that parasocial interaction may play in
social media marketing campaigns of the sports entertainment industry. The research
involved identifying and analyzing the association between the strength of parasocial
bonds and the level of social media engagement among WWE fans who are online users.
The study applied the theoretical conceptualization of parasocial interaction to the current
trends in social media marketing, mainly microblogs. The results offer new empirical
data on the potential of integrating social media strategies into modern marketing
practices. Once parasocial relationships are identified as a contributor to the effectiveness
of social media campaigns, advertisers and social media strategists can apply the concept
of parasocial interaction to their campaigns more meaningfully.
H1: There will be a positive relationship between the strength of parasocial bonds and
the frequency of consuming WWE programming.
The analysis established the existence of parasocial relationships between the
participants and their favorite WWE wrestlers with 64 (73%) of the participants in the
2012 sample and 59 (66%) of the participants in the 2013 sample exhibiting a level of
agreement on the API scale. The four elements of parasocial bonds—identification,
interest, group identification, and social attractiveness—were compared with the
frequency of the respondents’ interaction with WWE programming (weekly television
shows, online video content, home video products). Tables 1, 2, and 4 show the results of
59
the correlation analysis for the four categories of data collected: parasocial relationships
(as measured by the API scale), Twitter interaction (those who interact with their favorite
wrestler via Twitter), program consumption, and product interaction. Pearson’s
correlation coefficient reflects the strength and direction of the relationship between two
continuous level variables. A correlation coefficient greater than 0.7 to 0.8 is considered
strong while the values between 0.4 and 0.7 are viewed as moderate. The data revealed a
significant positive correlation with moderate strength between parasocial relationships
and the amount of consumption of WWE programming in both Sample 1 (r(86) = .47, p
<.001) and Sample 2 (r(87) =.37, p <.001). Table 1 presents these correlations. The
analysis suggests that the more WWE programming fans consume, the stronger their
parasocial relationship will be with their favorite WWE wrestler. This positive correlation
aligns the present study with the consensus of past research when it comes to parasocial
relationships increasing with the amount of media use (Auter & Palmgreen, 2000).
Therefore, Hypothesis 1 was supported.
Table 1
Hypothesis 1 Testing: Results of Correlation Analysis
Variables Correlation
Sample 1
Coefficient
Sample 2
Program Consumption versus Parasocial Relationships 0.47* 0.37
*
Product Interaction versus Parasocial Relationships 0.49* 0.40
*
Note: * p < 0.001
P values that are < 0.05 are considered statistically significant
60
H2: There will be a positive relationship between the strength of parasocial bonds and the
level of Twitter engagement among WWE fans.
Table 2 points out that there is a significant positive correlation with moderate
strength between parasocial bonds and Twitter interaction in both Sample 1 (r(86) = .50,
p <.001) and Sample 2 (r(87) =.23, p <.05). The strength of parasocial relationships and
the amount of interactions between fans and WWE wrestlers via Twitter were related.
The stronger the participants’ parasocial bonds with WWE characters, the more likely
they were to follow their favorite personalities on Twitter. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 was
supported.
An independent sample t-test was also performed comparing the parasocial
relationships in those who interact with their favorite wrestler on Twitter and those who
did not. Those who interact with their favorite wrestler on Twitter exhibited stronger
parasocial bonds in Sample 1 (t(51) = 3.77, p < .05) and Sample 2 (t(36) = 1.56, p < .10)
although the difference was not statistically significant in Sample 2. This may be
explained by the fact that in Sample 2 there were fewer participants who interacted with
wrestlers via Twitter or by proliferation of other social media tools that also grew in
popularity since the time of the first survey (Pinterest, Instagram).
These results indicate that the stronger the parasocial relationship the respondents
have with their favorite WWE wrestler, the more they will interact with that wrestler on
Twitter via rewteets, mentions, and following links. The correlation was stronger in the
2012 sample compared to the 2013 sample. Overall, there were fewer respondents in the
2013 sample who interacted with their favorite WWE wrestler via Twitter (Figure 10).
Twitter has grown to over 500 million users (Twitter.com, 2013), so this does not reflect
61
the growth of Twitter use overall. However, having a less engaging Sample 2 to compare
with the more engaging Sample 1 enables the present study to examine both an
interactive and less interactive environment side by side.
Table 2
Hypothesis 2 Testing: Results of Correlation Analysis
Variables Correlation
Sample 1
Coefficient
Sample 2
Twitter Interaction versus Parasocial Relationships 0.50**
0.23*
Figure 10: The Percentage of Participants who Interact with their Favorite WWE
Figure 10: The Percentage of Participants who Interact with their Favorite WWE
Wrestler via Twitter.
Sample 1
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.0001
P values that are < 0.05 are considered statistically significant
35 (40%)
53 (60%)
Do not interact with their favorite WWE wrestler on Twitter
Do interact with their favorite WWE wrestler on Twitter
Interact with their favorite WWE wrestler on Twitter
Do not interact with their favorite WWE wrestler on Twitter
62
Sample 2
The relationship in Hypothesis 2 was also supported by looking at the descriptive
statistics in the responses to the API scale between the two samples. The responses
measuring parasocial relationships in the 2013 sample were generally lower than those in
the 2012 sample (see Table 3) and, knowing that there were fewer respondents using
Twitter in the 2013 survey, the research again suggests a relationship between interacting
via Twitter and parasocial bonds. Also, although the responses in 2013 were generally
lower than in 2012, in both samples the level of agreement with the API items was above
2.5 on the 5-point scale in most categories.
51 (57%)
38 (43%)
Do not interact with their favorite WWE wrestler on Twitter
Do interact with their favorite WWE wrestler on Twitter
Interact with their favorite WWE wrestler on Twitter
Do not interact with their favorite WWE wrestler on Twitter
63
Table 3
Mean Values for the Audience-Persona Interaction Scale*
Parasocial Relationship Statements
Sample 1
M
SD
Sample 2
M
SD
My favorite WWE wrestler reminds me of my
friends. (Identification) 2.15 1.07 2.19 1.10
I would watch my favorite WWE wrestler on another
program or movie. (Interest) 4.00 1.01 3.81 1.18
I consider myself a fan of World Wrestling
Entertainment. (Group Identification)
4.49
0.64
4.37
0.65
I would like to meet my favorite WWE wrestler.
(Interest)
4.39
0.79
4.13
1.00
I have the same beliefs and attitudes as my favorite
WWE wrestler. (Social Attractiveness)
3.14
1.14
2.90
1.03
I wish I could handle problems like my favorite
WWE wrestler does. (Social Attractiveness)
3.07 1.29 3.08 1.26
I feel as if I am a part of the WWE universe. (Group
Identification)
3.03
1.26
2.67
1.18
I can imagine myself as my favorite WWE wrestler.
(Identification)
2.75
1.29
2.82
1.15
The interactions of my favorite WWE wrestler are
similar to mine and my friends. (Identification) 2.51 1.10 2.37 1.09
I hope my favorite WWE wrestler achieves his/her
goals. (Social Attractiveness)
4.63
0.61
4.51
0.61
Table 3 also illustrates which statements received less support among the
respondents. The statement that the participant’s favorite WWE wrestler reminds him or
her of his or her friends yielded the lowest score. The statements measuring identification
received the weakest response. WWE characters do tend to be larger than life and
sometimes depicted even larger than that. Examples such as “The Big Show,” who is
over 7-feet tall and weighs 500 pounds, or even John Cena, who sports big muscles, can
* A 5-point Likert Scale
64
shed some light on why the average WWE fan may show weaker responses for the
statements measuring identification.
Conversely, the highest level of agreement for any of the statements evaluating
parasocial relationships came from the question asking if the participants felt his or her
favorite WWE wrestler achieved his or her goals. Only one respondent rated this
statement with low agreement. In fact, 58 (69%) of participants in the 2012 sample and
50 (56%) of the participants in the 2013 sample “Strongly agreed” with that statement. In
WWE, may mean being featured more in the events and on merchandise, but since the
product is depicted as a competitive sport, the main goal is to win. When asked about
their favorite WWE wrestlers, the majority of participants chose CM Punk. Punk was the
current champion during the 2012 survey and during the 2013 survey had just ended a
stint of carrying the WWE championship for 434 consecutive days. Only one respondent
(1%) in the 2012 survey and three respondents (3%) in the 2013 survey named a wrestler
who has never held a championship in WWE (see Figure 11).
65
To measure group identification, the survey asked the participants to respond to
two questions. The first asked if the participant agreed to be considered a fan of WWE,
the second asked if the participant agreed to be considered a part of the WWE Universe,
an official term describing the WWE fan base. It was also the name of its, now defunct,
social networking website. The participants’ response to being a fan of WWE exhibited a
higher level of agreement than the response to being a part of the WWE Universe in both
surveys.
Another statement that received a high level of agreement both with followers and
non-followers was “I would like to meet my favorite WWE wrestler.” This statement,
Figure 11. Survey Results for the Participants’ Favorite WWE Wrestler
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Series1
Sample 2
Sample 1
Sample 1
Sample 2
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along with, “I would watch my favorite WWE wrestler in another program or movie,”
were designed to measure interest or affinity with the respondent’s favorite WWE
wrestler. A real-life example of the first statement takes place at any WWE live event.
When WWE comes to a fan’s city or town, it is the fan’s chance to see his or her favorite
wrestler in person. For many WWE fans, such an opportunity means arriving at the arena
several hours early and waiting outside the parking lot entrance to catch a glimpse of
their favorite star, but, if their lucky, they may get a chance to obtain an autograph or a
photo. Hundreds of people literally line the parking lot fences at these events, so the
response to this question was not a surprise. The other interest statement also received a
higher level of agreement. WWE has branched out in the last five years to embrace a
number of new divisions including WWE Films. This all began with Dwayne “The
Rock” Johnson and his early film “Walking Tall.” WWE Films currently features several
of its top wrestlers in a wide range of projects from the coming-of-age story “That’s
What I Am” starring actor Ed Harris and former WWE champion Randy Orton to the
straight-laced action movie “12 Rounds” starring John Cena. WWE Films provides the
WWE fans a chance to see their favorite WWE wrestlers in roles outside of their normal
headlocking and chair swinging. In the spring of 2013, The Rock had three consecutive
feature films debut in the number one spot at the domestic box office, and also held the
WWE championship for four months (Boxofficemojo.com, 2013; WWE.com, 2012).
When evaluating the participants’ level of Twitter engagement and the strength of
parasocial bonds, no participants who exhibited a weak parasocial relationship were
found to be highly engaged with their favorite WWE wrestler via Twitter. This is an
important observation given the hypotheses of this research. In the present study there
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was no evidence that a WWE fan could be highly engaged with his or her favorite WWE
wrestler on Twitter and not have an established parasocial bond. Such a circumstance
further illustrates the reciprocal relationship between those two variables.
H3: There will be a positive relationship between the level of Twitter engagement among
viewers with strong parasocial bonds and their level of engagement with WWE products.
Analysis indicates that that WWE programming can create strong parasocial
relationships between viewers and WWE wrestlers and that there is a positive correlation
between the amount of consumption of WWE programming and the strength of
parasocial bonds. Also, the data have shown a positive correlation between the strength
of a parasocial relationship and the participant’s amount of interaction with his or her
favorite WWE wrestler on Twitter. Twitter interaction was significantly correlated with
the amount of interaction the participants had with WWE products in the first sample,
r(86) = 0.49, p < 0.001, but not in the second sample, r(87) = 0.16, p = .12 (see Table 4).
The correlation was weaker in the 2013 survey which may also be a result of less overall
Twitter interaction as reported in Figure 10. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was partially
supported.
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Table 4
Hypothesis 3 Testing: Results of Correlation Analysis
Variables Correlation
Sample 1
Coefficient
Sample 2
Program Consumption versus Twitter Interaction 0.30**
0.24*
Product Interaction versus Twitter Interaction 0.49***
0.16
The question evaluating product interaction that displayed the highest level of
agreement was, “On average, how many pieces of WWE merchandise do you purchase in
a given year (t-shirts, home videos, memorabilia)?” Participants also claimed to be
actively engaged in WWE programming responding with high levels of agreement for the
question, “On average, how often do you watch WWE television programming including
online streaming and home video products?”
The survey question determining levels of Twitter engagement that received the
highest response of agreement from the participants was, “How often do you follow
links, videos, or pictures tweeted by your favorite WWE wrestler?” Often wrestlers share
links to their personal websites, pictures of books or comics that they’re reading or fan art
they’ve received, and videos of their matches or WWE YouTube content. This is a
function of Twitter that heightens interactivity among someone’s followers. For example,
if one of Zack Ryder’s Twitter followers wishes to watch Ryder’s YouTube show and
show his or her support, then he or she just has to wait until Ryder links the video
through his Twitter, a practice he does two to three times a week. If one of CM Punk’s
* = p < 0.05; ** = p <0.01; *** = p < 0.0001
P values that are < 0.05 are considered statistically significant
69
followers wants to talk to Punk about the latest comics Punk is reading, then he or she
just has to wait until Punk tweets a picture of his latest stack of readings, something Punk
does every few weeks. The popularity of WWE t-shirts has also spawned a few
independent t-shirt merchandise websites that have been endorsed by WWE wrestlers on
Twitter. What is one of Curt Hawkins’s Twitter followers wants to have a t-shirt
promoting Hawkins? WWEShop.com does not feature Hawkins merchandise because he
is not a top performer with the company, but t-shirt website Barbershopwindow.com sells
a Curt Hawkins t-shirt, the link to which Hawkins tweets about once a month.
The participants responded with the highest level of agreement to the questions
regarding product interaction involving WWE programming and purchasing WWE
merchandise. New WWE programming is available every day of the week through
different forms of media. In addition to its cable programming, WWE offers streaming
videos from WWE.com as well as YouTube. This content is free and available at all
hours of the day, so the response here came as no surprise. The most unexpected result of
the survey comes from the products WWE offers for sale. WWE provides a wide range of
products from t-shirts, hats, stickers, watches, DVDs, posters, action figures, and much
more. The pay-per-view and live event sales are also factored into WWE products. Even
though product interaction increased with Twitter interaction, the annual income
demographic showed that the average annual income of those who don’t interact with
their favorite wrestler on Twitter was actually similar to, and in the 2012 survey lower
than, those that do. For Sample 1 the mean score of the annual income of followers was
2.36 and the mean score of the annual income for non-followers was 2.54. In Sample 2
these means were 2.50 and 2.41 respectively. This is also considering that the mean
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income of the entire respondent population was also in the $10,000 to $24,000 range,
which, in the U.S., is in the lower to working class income ranges (Figure 12).
Sample 1
Sample 2
Figure 12. Income among Participants
40 (45%)
9 (10%)
12 (13.5%)
16 (18%)
12 (13.5%)
Under $10,000
$10,000 to $14,999
$15,000 to $24,999
$25,000 to $49,999
$50,000 or over
34 (39%)
16 (18%)
11 (12%)
20 (23%)
7 (8%)
Under $10,000
$10,000 to $14,999
$15,000 to $24,999
$25,000 to $49,999
$50,000 or over
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Certain interpretations can be made regarding the results related to the
participants’ interaction with WWE products. Respondents were asked at what frequency
they attended live events and at what frequency they purchased a WWE pay-per-view
event. These two statements were expected to yield low values for a number of reasons.
First, WWE live events occur about 320 times every year in cities all over the world.
However, the probability that each of the respondents had the opportunity to see a WWE
live event is relatively low as WWE does not always visit the same cities every year,
rarely ever visit smaller cities, and international audiences may not get a chance to see a
WWE live event in a given year due to scheduling. Secondly, WWE pay-per-view events
happen at a frequency of about one per month. The price tag for home viewers of these
events ranges from 40 dollars to 60 dollars with “WrestleMania” being the most
expensive. These prices may be out of the range of the average viewer, but WWE does
inspire group viewing. Watching WWE pay-per-view television programming becomes
an event amongst groups of friends that are WWE fans to help diminish the individual
cost of the production and to create a more social atmosphere.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
Based on the results of this study, several conclusions can be drawn that may
contribute to the overall discussion of the role of social media tools in sports
entertainment marketing. The present study aimed to gain a better understanding of social
media marketing by evaluating the role that forming parasocial relationships plays in the
effectiveness of social media marketing campaigns. The application of the uses and
gratifications theory and the concept of parasocial interaction to the analysis of WWE’s
social media marketing practices was found fruitful. Two hypotheses were supported and
one received partial support. The study identified a positive relationship between the
strength of parasocial bonds and the level of social media engagement among WWE fans
in the sample. The results demonstrate that WWE fans in the sample with stronger
parasocial bonds with their favorite wrestlers interacted with those wrestlers on Twitter
more frequently and, in turn, interacted with WWE’s products more frequently. Since
parasocial relationships are likely to be developed through social media, by focusing on
strategies like creating more one-to-one interactions, marketing campaigns using web
tools like Twitter can be more targeted. The results of the study contribute to a better
understanding of the important role of parasocial relationships between audience
members and media figures in sports marketing strategies and may help determine
directions for the future of microblog marketing campaigns in sports entertainment.
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The Role of Parasocial Interaction in Sports Entertainment
This study suggests that microblog marketing campaigns in sports entertainment
might be more successful when created intentionally to utilize parasocial relationships.
Previous parasocial interaction research identified that there are different ways in which
media producers can create more intense parasocial relationships. These include
techniques like talking directly to the camera; providing a diverse, relatable cast, and
creating a sense of empathy in the audience. While those tactics continue to be relevant
and useful for media producers, this research discusses one more platform that is being
widely employed in entertainment, social media.
As noted, World Wrestling Entertainment was chosen because of its
comprehensive use of Twitter as a mode of marketing and maintaining brand loyalty.
Twitter lends itself very easily to WWE because of the live event nature of WWE
broadcasts. Also, there is a desire for WWE to interact with its fan base because the fans
drive the company’s bottom line through several commercial avenues. Through this
research, one example of successful use of social media as a marketing tool was
exhibited. The results indicate that social media can help create stronger parasocial
bonds, but also that WWE excels at utilizing these new tools. After the WWE’s “assault”
on Twitter in 2010-2012, it has consistently seen three to four worldwide trends every
Monday night during WWE live broadcasts. When it is time for “Monday Night Raw,”
that is what the Twitter world is talking about more than any other topic. The results of
this study show that that kind of audience engagement may lead to more product
interaction.
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One notable attribute of WWE marketing practices is that it continues to try new
tactics to interact with its audience. WWE’s use of Twitter began with a push to have its
talent on Twitter and to invite fans to follow their favorite wrestlers. Soon it evolved into
Twitter graphics during every match updating fans on trending phrases and reminding to
use proper hashtags to follow the conversation. At present, WWE uses Twitter to make
big announcements, like in May 2012 when John Cena tweeted that “Monday Night
Raw” was moving to a 3-hour broadcast permanently (Ball, 2012). WWE also uses
Twitter for fan polling by giving the audience hashtags and seeing which one trends
higher. Another example of the success WWE has seen using Twitter was its
WrestleMania XXVIII campaign. For one calendar year the main event match at
WrestleMania XXVIII was set, John Cena versus Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson. Another
example of the success WWE has seen using Twitter was its 2012 WrestleMania XXVIII
campaign when the main match was set as John Cena versus Dwayne “The Rock”
Johnson. The year leading up to WrestleMania XXVIII was filled with Cena and Johnson
engaging in a war of words via Twitter and when it came time for the two to appear on
the ring, they were the ones with most worldwide trends. What kind of return on
investment did WWE get from this yearlong Twitter war? WrestleMania XXVIII gained
1.3 million pay-per-view sales, a record for the organization (WWE.com, 2012).
Inspecting pay-per-view sale rates and other financial indicators can demonstrate
if a company is doing well marketing itself. However, the present study aimed to dig
deeper than hard financial numbers when it comes to marketing success. The present
study suggests that in sports entertainment parasocial relationships play an important role
in creating and maintaining brand loyalty through social media marketing campaigns,
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which can in turn lead to higher levels of commercial success. WWE is a company that
other sports entertainment organizations may want to model when planning their social
media strategies.
Social Media Marketing Campaigns and Microblogging
As indicated, Twitter is one of the most popular microblogging platforms in the
world. Sports Illustrated reported that during the 2011 Super Bowl XLV between the
Pittsburgh Steelers and Green Bay Packers there were as many as 4,064 tweets per second,
which was a record until the same year the UEFA Champions League final at Wembley
Stadium in London topped it out at more than 6,300 per second (Wertheim, 2011).
Messages of 140 characters or less are “tweeted” via a computer, smartphone, tablet, or
another mobile device and viewed by anyone who chooses to “follow” a particular feed or
hashtag. The following model (see Figure 13) illustrates what kind of social experience
microblogging and social networking tools such as Twitter can provide. According to this
model, the social media platform is performing as a hub in a two-way interaction between
all users. Each person communicates and connects with everyone else resulting in a many-
to-many interaction.
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Figure 13. Social Media Hub Model
However, with media figures using social media tools for marketing purposes, the
hub model does not always apply. Instead, social interactions can become targeted and
highly directional stemming from the media persona using a particular social media
service for disseminating information. Figure 14 illustrates the interaction that takes place
when select media figures utilize social media tools such as Twitter to communicate and
market to a specific group of fans. In this model there is little to no back-and-forth
communication between the media figure and their fans. Instead, the media figure is
blasting out information to the masses without the intention of beginning dialogue.
Source: Moore, 2013
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Figure 14. Social Media and Parasocial Interaction Model
Thus, the analysis sheds light on the intricacies of parasocial relationships between
media figures and specific groups of users. The results suggest that microblogging and
social networking can be used in social media marketing in several ways and different
modes. Viewers are encouraged to tweet their thoughts and responses to episodes, movies,
or news letting Twitter take the place of the message board. Another popular use for
Twitter is hashtag campaigns. Hashtags allow Twitter users to connect with other people
commenting on the same topics. Twitter provides one click access to these hashtags
making them a very easy tool to both track events and evaluate how many people are
interested in them. One more aspect of microblogging is that is easy to track “followers.”
Twitter users can be encouraged to follow a particular company, TV show, or character in
order to get the most updated information “from the horse’s mouth” as well as to interact
with the source directly. The number of followers a person or company attains has become
Source: Moore, 2013
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a status symbol of success of a social media campaign. Aston Kutcher, one of the first
celebrities to promote the use of Twitter, has over 7 million followers (Qualman, 2011).
Twitter is becoming more and more of a “go-to” marketing tool and the company
itself is recognizing that and developing ways for users to utilizes its marketing
functionality. In an attempt to capitalize on its growing audience, Twitter launched a new
marketing tool, the Promoted Tweets advertising model, where the site helps companies
and brands increase their following with users it suggests in its Who to Follow feature
(Ouellette, 2010). More recently, in summer 2012 Twitter introduced yet another tool,
Twindex or Twitter Political Index, designed to evaluate nearly 2-million weekly tweets
related to the Obama-Romney presidential race, thus, ushering microblogging into the
realm of public opinion research (Honan, 2012).
In 2002, Giles predicted that the future of parasocial interaction research was in
recognizing differences in media channels. In the new millennium, users’ social
interactions are impacted by media convergence leading to a participatory culture, and
guided by a collective intelligence (Jenkins, 2006). Media convergence has changed the
way consumers interact with each other but also how media producers marketed their
products. Internet users look to Wikipedia for basic information. They depend on online
dating sites such as eHarmony to find a soul mate and spent hours updating their Facebook
profiles, reading tweets, or immersing themselves in the virtual worlds. They scour the
photo sharing website Pinterest for creativity and inspiration. As time goes on, more and
more aspects of modern culture, such as social interactions, become technologically
mediated.
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Study Recommendations
As Twitter and other social media tools continue to attract new users, social media
are becoming the logical target of parasocial interaction research. The current study
measured how often Twitter followers retweet and mention their favorite WWE wrestler.
Results support prior analyses that show that over 70% of tweets elicit no reaction. In
other words, more than two thirds of all tweets see no retweeting, quoting, or mentioning
(Sysomos.com, 2010). One way to create stronger parasocial relationships with the
audience would be to make the Twitter environment more engaging, and this is
something WWE does well: members of the organization are encouraged to stay
connected with the fans— before, during, and after media events, for example, WWE
often runs contests that require retweeting in order to be eligible to enter. Raising the
level of interactivity can be accomplished by giving both the performers and the audience
an easy ways to do so such as through hashtags or other innovations.
Now that it has been suggested that social media can play a role in successful
marketing campaigns, it is the job of marketers and social media developers to design
strategies to help establish parasocial relationships within the WWE fan community
practices. One tactic WWE performers tend to employ is direct messages. Frequently, top
stars such as Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson or Zack Ryder participate in a 30-minute
question and answer sessions via Twitter that involve instantly firing answers directly
back to the audience. Prior parasocial interaction research confirms that it is always
beneficial for business organizations to talk directly to their customers.
Another strategy for companies is to use Twitter in conversations with the target
audience and to be aware of what is trending daily worldwide and in the target region.
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This can be accomplished through Twitter which makes hashtagging and trending easy to
monitor. It should be noted that hashtagging plays into the element of parasocial
relationships such as group identification and personal interest. If the organization’s
Twitter connections are related to trending topics, it helps create parasocial bonds.
Figure 15. Social Media Marketing Campaigns Model
While Figure 13 presents a one-to-many model of mass communication prevalent
in the majority of Twitter-based interactions and Figure 14 displays a one-way type of
relationship, Figure 15 demonstrates a two-way relationship between media figures and
users in social media marketing campaigns. Capitalizing on the power of social media
tools, specifically microblogging, involves introducing two-way, many-to-many models
of interactions. Fostering two-way relationships between business organizations and
customers can create benefits for social media marketing campaigns. The two-way model
in Figure 15 is recommended for social media marketing campaigns to take advantage of
the stronger parasocial relationships that can form through social media interactions.
Source: Moore, 2013
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WWE has created an ideal environment for building parasocial relationships
because of its diverse universe of characters and willingness to facilitate a space for
social interaction between the organizations and fans, WWE stars and fans, as well as
between fans. This three-prong strategy has successfully incorporated social media into
WWE’s marketing efforts and should be studied further to provide advertisers and
marketing professionals with additional knowledge for developing new concepts, tactics,
and campaigns.
The results of this study demonstrate that the participants with stronger parasocial
bonds demonstrated higher levels of Twitter engagement and those more heavily engaged
in WWE products may exhibit stronger parasocial relationships. This association, along
with WWE’s claim that social media have contributed to a 25% increase in revenue
(Arrington, 2013), indicates that creating stronger parasocial relationships through social
media such as Twitter may result in higher levels of product interaction. In terms of
WWE, this means more fans buying tickets to attend live events, watch WWE
programming onscreen, and buy WWE merchandise. Overall, the findings of this study
confirm the results of past research and suggest that the nurturing parasocial relationships
in social media campaigns in marketing for sports entertainment should be further
explored.
Study Limitations
The current study is not without limitations. Although the results provide useful
insights into parasocial relationships playing a role in social media marketing strategies,
the sample does not represent the entire population of WWE fans. The study relied on a
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volunteer sample, therefore, the overall results are exploratory and cannot be generalized
to all users. Future research should attempt using random sampling techniques to reduce
the possibility of self-selection bias and ensure the generalizability of the results. Another
limitation is that the sample was confined to Internet users and does not cover the full
range of potential viewers. However, because the study aimed to evaluate fan interaction
through WWE social media campaigns, it was appropriate. The original strategy for
recruiting study participants was via Twitter messages mentioning WWE Universe and
top followed wrestlers like John Cena and Zack Ryder. However, most respondents were
recruited by posting announcements on professional wrestling discussion boards.
Creating honest, representative samples in social media research remains as a difficult
obstacle, especially when using survey research (Hookway, 2008; Pettit, 2010).
While the diverse cast of characters made WWE a good subject for this study, it
also presented some challenges. Even though it is true that most WWE wrestlers, past and
present, have embraced social media, not all have started using Twitter. The Undertaker
has been one of the most recognizable faces in professional wrestling for the last 20
years. Not only does he not use Twitter, even if he wanted to it doesn’t really fit his
character.
What makes social media an inspiring field to study is the fact that their growing
dissemination is making them a media force in a matter of a few years. However, social
media are also constantly changing. From the time this study began in February 2012
until the time it was completed in February 2013, WWE had gone through several waves
of social media campaigns. After studying WWE’s willingness to engage in the newest
marketing tactics, there is such a potential for growth that future research into the WWE
83
may yield different results in terms of higher participation in social media and even more
respondents.
The author anticipated that the study would be male dominated. The viewing
audience of WWE is fairly split, but the online discussion board community skewed
towards males. That became apparent through this study as 95% of the respondents in the
sample were male. It would have been useful to be able to compare some data by gender,
but there were not enough female respondents. Finally, it may have been valuable to
integrate participants’ geographic location and cultural background in the analysis. WWE
has a broad, international audience and it may have been important to see how that was
reflected in the results but it also would be of interest to see how different cultures
respond to parasocial interaction.
Directions for Further Research
The method used in this study could be applied to wide variety of entertainment.
As Twitter and other social media tools continue to become more popular and advertisers
continue to discover new and inventive ways to use them effectively, more research will be
needed to address these changes. It may also be beneficial to produce research involving
social media quickly. As mentioned, the landscape of WWE social media changed
throughout the time this study took place. Capturing an accurate depiction of the social
media landscape for a specific moment of time may require a quicker turnaround. WWE
worked well for this study because the wrestlers are a mix of character and celebrity. It
may be recommended to focus on the content of tweets by celebrity tweeters like Ashton
Kutcher and how he relates to the character he plays on TV. Is there a difference and can
84
the audience identify that through his Twitter? As web video content becomes more widely
used giving programming more on-demand capabilities, the entire field of sports
entertainment television could change. Further research can focus on on-demand video
services.
Further research into parasocial relationships created through social media can
also focus on some of the ethical issues associated with celebrity social media use. The
allure of Twitter for the viewers is direct contact with their favorite media figures.
Twitter offers interaction with media figures by being diligent in verifying the accounts
of notable people. Several celebrities tweet with a frequency comparable to instant
messaging and their followers can tweet to them directly by mentioning them (using the
@ symbol followed by the Twitter name) or by retweeting or reposting their tweets.
Transparency can come into question when thinking about the ethical implications
of social media. Are these celebrities really posting these messages? Just recently a person
posing as an employee for Exxon Mobil was found out to be a fraud. She was answering
questions from consumers and making statements about the future of the company
(Owyang, 2008). Is it ethical to utilize viewers’ parasocial bonds for marketing purposes?
AMC, the network behind Emmy favorite “Mad Men,” deleted the Twitter accounts they
set up for the fictional characters of the show (Terrazas, 2008). For the most part, due to
the personal information such as photos, it is believed that most celebrities post their own
tweets, but that does not mean someone else tweeting does not happen. Rapper 50 Cent
and Kanye West are two well-known examples (Cohen, 2009). For the followers, there
usually is no question, and most of them would not complain anyway. They enjoy the
access to their celebrity and being entertained by their favorite tweeters. Twitter is a
85
socially interactive form of entertainment and that makes it the ideal social media tool to
study its effect on parasocial bonds. Further research may delve deeper into the
consequences of the lack of transparency in celebrity social medial use.
Recently, WWE has begun using a social media application called Tout. Tout is a
tool that allows users to create 15-second video microblogs. If video mircoblogging with
Tout and other programs become popular it could develop a new avenue for parasocial
interaction research. When entertainment in the home switched from radio to television,
parasocial interaction research became very different because for the first time audiences
were able to see media figures face-to-face. The present study looked at the social media
tool Twitter and found that interactions in Twitter can create stronger parasocial bonds.
Tweets are usually only text-based, though. If Twitter creates stronger parasocial bonds,
just imagine what video microblogging could do much the same way that television
changed the way audiences related to media figures. Users will be able to interact with
media figures face-to-face and, and even more so, reply with their own video microblogs
directly to the media figures. Tout may be as close as audiences can get to celebrities
without video chatting or meeting them in person.
The use of qualitative research methods, such as a content analysis of tweets and
posts in conjunction with statistical analysis techniques, could also be a beneficial
direction to follow with parasocial relationships in social media research. This may also
help reduce the effect of the potential self-selection bias inherent in nonrandom samples.
Overall, social media have become a staple in the modern communication
landscape and by cultivating parasocial relationships media companies can become more
successful in interacting with their audiences and maintaining their audience base.
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Results of this study indicate that there are important new aspects in sports entertainment
marketing created by the widespread diffusion and popularity of social media services
and applications such as microblogging. In order to create effective and ethical social
media marketing campaigns, advertising and marketing professionals should take notice
of the latest social media trends and modern sports entertainment marketing techniques
and capitalize on their vast capabilities.
87
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APPENDIX A
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL
100
APPENDIX B
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
101
APPENDIX C
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Please select the answer that best describes your feelings towards World Wrestling
Entertainment (WWE) and your favorite WWE wrestler.
1. Who is your current favorite WWE wrestler? (Please list only one)
___________________________________
2. “My favorite WWE wrestler reminds me of my friends.”
1- Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Not Sure
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
3. “I would watch my favorite WWE wrestler on another program or movie.”
1- Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Not Sure
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
102
4. “I consider myself a fan of World Wrestling Entertainment”
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Not Sure
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
5. “I would like to meet my favorite WWE wrestler”
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Not Sure
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
6. “I have the same beliefs and attitudes as my favorite WWE wrestler”
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Not Sure
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
103
7. “I wish I could handle problems like my favorite WWE wrestler does.”
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Not Sure
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
8. “I feel as if I am a part of the WWE Universe”
1- Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Not Sure
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
9. “I can imagine myself as my favorite WWE wrestler.”
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Not Sure
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
104
10. “The interactions of my favorite WWE wrestler are similar to mine and my friends”
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Not Sure
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
11. “I hope my favorite WWE wrestler achieves his/her goals.”
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Not Sure
4 - Agree
5 - Strongly Agree
Please select the answer that best describes your use of the social networking tool,
Twitter.
12. Do you follow your favorite WWE wrestler on Twitter?
1 - Yes
0 - No
105
13. How often do you retweet a tweet by your favorite WWE wrestler?
1 - I don't retweet my favorite WWE wrestler's tweets
2 - At least once a week
3 - At least twice a week
4 - Two or more times a week
5 – Everyday
14. How often do you mention (using @ or #) your favorite WWE wrestler in your
tweets?
1 - I don't mention my favorite WWE wrestler in my tweets
2 - At least once a week
3 - At least twice a week
4 - Two or more times a week
5 - Everyday
15. How often do you follow links, videos, or pictures tweeted by your favorite WWE
wrestler?
1 - I don't follow links by my favorite WWE wrestler
2 - At least once a week
3 - At least twice a week
4 - Two or more times a week
5 - Everyday
106
Please select the answer that best describes your purchasing habits of WWE
merchandise.
16. On average, how often do you watch WWE television programming including online
streaming and home video products?
1 - I don't watch WWE programming
2 - At least once a week
3 - At least twice a week
4 - Two or more times a week
5 - Everyday
17. On average, how many pieces of WWE merchandise do you purchase in a given year
(t-shirts, home videos, memorabilia)?
1 - None
2 - One
3 - Two
4 - Three
5 - More than three
107
18. On average, how many WWE Live Events do you attend in a given year (Live
Events, Raw,Smackdown, Pay-Per-Views)?
1 - None
2 - One
3 - Two
4 – Three
5 - More than three
19. On average, how many WWE Pay-Per-Views do you purchase in a given year?
1 - None
2 - One to Three
3- The Big Four (Wrestlemania, Summerslam, Survivor Series, Royal Rumble)
4 - Five to Ten
5 - All of them
Please select the answer that best describes you.
20. What is your age?
1 - 18 to 35
2 - 36 to 55
3 - Over 55
108
21. What is your gender?
1 - Male
2 – Female
22. What is your yearly income?
1 - Under $10,000
2 - $10,000 to $14,999
3 - $15,000 to $24,999
4 - $25,000 to $49,999
5 - $50,000 or Over
