European Union / Instrument For Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) … · 2018. 4. 27. · European Union / Ins . European Union / Instrument . For Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) Energy

European Union / Ins

European Union / Instrument For Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA)

Energy Sector Technical Assistance Project Contract N° MENR IPA12/CS04

Final Draft – Horizontal technologies

Annex I of the Energy Efficiency market study

29th July 2016

A project implemented

by a JV led by MWH A project prepared for

Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources

This project is co-funded by the European Union and the Republic of Turkey

European Union / Instrument For Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) Energy Sector Technical Assistance Project Contract Number MENR12/CS04

Summary

Project Title: European Union (EU) / Instrument For Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA), Energy Sector Technical Assistance Project, Consulting Services for the Energy Efficiency

Number: TF 016532 - TR

Service Contract: MENR12/CS04

Commencement Date: 8 October 2015

Completion Date: 18 months

Time for Completion: 18 months

Employer: General Directorate of Foreign Relations and EU of the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources

Observer: EUD (European Union Delegation)

Lead Contractor: MWH (Montgomery Watson Harza)

Address: Asmadalı Sok. No:27 Koşuyolu, Kadıköy / İstanbul

Tel. number: +90 216 545 32 28

Fax number: +90 216 546 04 77

Contact person: Dr. Murat Sarıoğlu

JV: MWH – Exergia – Escon – Expertise FR

Address: Alternatif Plaza, Kızılırmak Mah. 1446. Cad. No:12/20 Çukurambar, Çankaya / Ankara

Tel. number: +90 312 900 18 80

Fax number: +90 312 210 17 76

Contact person: Dr. Murat Sarıoğlu

Date of report: 29th July 2016

Author of report: D. Dilucia La Perna, N. Komioti

European Union / Instrument For Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) Energy Sector Technical Assistance Project Service Contract Number 2009TR16IPR013-02-SER-04 Page - 3 -

Table of contents SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2 LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................................................... - 6 - LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................................ - 7 - ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................................................... - 9 - 1 BOILERS .............................................................................................................................................................. - 10 -

1.1 BOILER TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE IN TURKEY................................................................................................. - 10 - 1.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................... - 11 - 1.3 ENERGY SAVING MEASURES ........................................................................................................................... - 13 -

1.3.1 Operation and maintenance of boilers .................................................................................................... - 13 - 1.3.2 Pre-heating Combustion Air ................................................................................................................... - 14 - 1.3.3 Use of Economisers................................................................................................................................. - 14 - 1.3.4 Variable Speed Drives (VSDs) ................................................................................................................ - 15 - 1.3.5 Automatic Blow-Down Control ............................................................................................................... - 15 - 1.3.6 Minimization of Radiation Losses ........................................................................................................... - 16 - 1.3.7 Increase Condensate Return ................................................................................................................... - 17 - 1.3.8 Use of Condensing Boilers ...................................................................................................................... - 17 - 1.3.9 Excess Air Control .................................................................................................................................. - 17 - 1.3.10 Boiler Replacement ................................................................................................................................. - 18 -

2 FURNACES AND KILNS .................................................................................................................................... - 19 - 2.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................... - 19 - 2.2 ENERGY SAVING MEASURES ........................................................................................................................... - 20 -

2.2.1 Waste Heat Recovery from Flue Gases ................................................................................................... - 20 - 2.2.2 Optimum Capacity Utilisation ................................................................................................................ - 21 - 2.2.3 Reduction of losses from furnace surface and openings ......................................................................... - 22 - 2.2.4 Optimisation of Combustion Air ............................................................................................................. - 22 - 2.2.5 Oxygen Enriched Combustion ................................................................................................................ - 23 - 2.2.6 Automatic Control ................................................................................................................................... - 23 - 2.2.7 Selecting the Right Refractories .............................................................................................................. - 23 -

3 COMBINED HEAT AND POWER (CHP) AND TRIGENERATION ........................................................... - 25 - 3.1 CHP TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE IN TURKEY ..................................................................................................... - 25 - 3.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE CHP SYSTEM ................................................................................................................. - 27 -

3.2.1 Steam Turbines ....................................................................................................................................... - 28 - 3.2.2 Reciprocating Engines ............................................................................................................................ - 29 - 3.2.3 Gas Turbines ........................................................................................................................................... - 30 -

3.3 TRI-GENERATION ............................................................................................................................................. - 30 - 3.3.1 Absorption cooling .................................................................................................................................. - 31 - 3.3.2 Absorption cooling versus vapor compression cooling .......................................................................... - 32 -

3.4 BENEFITS ......................................................................................................................................................... - 33 - 4 STEAM DISTRIBUTION .................................................................................................................................... - 35 -

4.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................... - 35 - 4.2 ENERGY SAVING MEASURES ........................................................................................................................... - 36 -

4.2.1 Avoid Steam Leaks .................................................................................................................................. - 36 - 4.2.2 Insulation of piping and equipment......................................................................................................... - 36 - 4.2.3 Correct operation of Steam Traps .......................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.2.4 Flash Steam recovery .............................................................................................................................. - 38 - 4.2.5 Utilise Steam at Lowest Acceptable Pressure ......................................................................................... - 38 - 4.2.6 Improvement of Condensate Recovery .................................................................................................... - 38 -


4.2.7 Minimise Heat Transfer Barriers ............................................................................................................ - 39 - 5 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM (CAS) ............................................................................................................... - 40 -

5.1 AIR COMPRESSORS’ TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE IN TURKEY .............................................................................. - 40 - 5.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................... - 41 -

5.2.1 Uses of compressed air ........................................................................................................................... - 42 - 5.2.2 Compressor types .................................................................................................................................... - 42 - 5.2.3 Compressor prime movers ...................................................................................................................... - 42 - 5.2.4 Compressed Air System Controls ............................................................................................................ - 42 - 5.2.5 Compressed Air Efficiency ...................................................................................................................... - 43 -

5.3 ENERGY SAVING MEASURES ........................................................................................................................... - 43 - 5.3.1 Designing Air Intake Carefully and Reducing Intake Pressure .............................................................. - 44 - 5.3.2 Choosing the Most Energy Efficient Model ............................................................................................ - 45 - 5.3.3 Use of VSDs ............................................................................................................................................ - 45 - 5.3.4 Waste Heat Recovery .............................................................................................................................. - 46 - 5.3.5 Leak detection and Repair Air Leakages ................................................................................................ - 46 - 5.3.6 Eliminate Compressed Air Users ............................................................................................................ - 46 - 5.3.7 Controls .................................................................................................................................................. - 46 -

6 MOTORS AND DRIVES ..................................................................................................................................... - 48 - 6.1 MOTORS’ TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE IN TURKEY ............................................................................................. - 48 - 6.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................... - 50 - 6.3 ENERGY SAVING MEASURES ........................................................................................................................... - 52 -

6.3.1 Use of High Efficient Motors .................................................................................................................. - 53 - 6.3.2 Optimising Motor Size ............................................................................................................................ - 54 - 6.3.3 Use of VSDs ............................................................................................................................................ - 54 - 6.3.4 Installation of Soft Starters ..................................................................................................................... - 55 - 6.3.5 Installation of Automatic Controls .......................................................................................................... - 55 -

7 PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................. - 56 - 7.1 PUMPS’ TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE IN TURKEY ................................................................................................ - 56 - 7.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................... - 57 - 7.3 ENERGY SAVING MEASURES ........................................................................................................................... - 59 -

7.3.1 Selecting the Right Pump ........................................................................................................................ - 59 - 7.3.2 Controlling Flow – Speed Variation ....................................................................................................... - 60 - 7.3.3 Parallel Pumps for Varying Demand ...................................................................................................... - 60 - 7.3.4 Impeller Trimming .................................................................................................................................. - 61 -

8 INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATION AND COOLING....................................................................................... - 62 - 8.1 CHILLERS’ TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE IN TURKEY ........................................................................................... - 62 - 8.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................... - 65 - 8.3 ENERGY SAVING MEASURES ........................................................................................................................... - 68 -

8.3.1 Refrigeration Load Reduction ................................................................................................................. - 68 - 8.3.2 Condenser Heat Recovery ....................................................................................................................... - 68 - 8.3.3 Improving System Controls ..................................................................................................................... - 69 - 8.3.4 Reducing Refrigeration Leakage ............................................................................................................ - 69 - 8.3.5 Multi Stage Refrigeration........................................................................................................................ - 69 - 8.3.6 Water-cooled chillers in lieu of air-cooled chillers ................................................................................ - 70 - 8.3.7 Free-cooling application ........................................................................................................................ - 71 -

9 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................................... - 72 - 9.1 INSTRUMENTATION .......................................................................................................................................... - 72 - 9.2 MONITORING AND TARGETING (M&T) ........................................................................................................... - 73 - 9.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF M&T ....................................................................................................................... - 74 - 9.4 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (ENMS) ....................................................................................................... - 75 -

10 LIGHTING ........................................................................................................................................................ - 78 -


10.1 LIGTHING SYSTEM AVAILABLE IN TURKEY ...................................................................................................... - 78 - 10.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................... - 86 -

10.2.1 Lamp Types ............................................................................................................................................. - 86 - 10.3 ENERGY SAVING MEASURES ........................................................................................................................... - 92 -

10.3.1 High Efficiency Lamps and Luminaires .................................................................................................. - 92 - 10.3.2 Lighting Management Systems ................................................................................................................ - 93 - 10.3.3 Electronic Ballasts .................................................................................................................................. - 94 -


List of Tables Table 1-1: Energy saving measures in boilers ............................................................................................... - 13 - Table 2-1: Energy saving measures in furnaces and kilns ............................................................................. - 20 - Table 4-1: Energy saving measures in steam distribution .............................................................................. - 36 - Table 5-1: Estimated energy savings measures in CASs ............................................................................... - 44 - Table 8-1: Energy saving measures in industrial refrigeration and cooling .................................................... - 68 - Table 10-1 Production and Consumption of Lighting Fixtures over the period 2007-2012 ............................. - 79 - Table 10-2: Lamp types for industrial applications and their characteristics ................................................... - 90 - Table 10-3: Energy saving measures in lighting ............................................................................................. - 92 - Table 10-4: Typical lighting retrofit solutions for industrial applications .......................................................... - 93 -


List of Figures Figure 1-1: Typical water-tube boiler .............................................................................................................. - 11 - Figure 1-2: Typical fire-tube boiler with three passes ..................................................................................... - 11 - Figure 1-3: Losses allocation from a boiler ..................................................................................................... - 12 - Figure 1-4: Combustion system with an air pre-heater ................................................................................... - 14 - Figure 1-5: Combustion system with an economiser ...................................................................................... - 15 - Figure 1-6: Automatic blow-down control system with TDS monitoring .......................................................... - 16 - Figure 1-7: Condensing Boiler – Cross-Section ............................................................................................. - 17 - Figure 2-1: Furnace layout and incurred losses ............................................................................................. - 20 - Figure 2-2: Steady state counter-current flow recuperative heat exchanger .................................................. - 21 - Figure 2-3: Direct-fired self-regenerative burner in firing mode ...................................................................... - 21 - Figure 2-4: Furnace Efficiency versus Load ................................................................................................... - 22 - Figure 2-5: Oxygen-enriched burner .............................................................................................................. - 23 - Figure 3-1: CHP versus SHP production ........................................................................................................ - 28 - Figure 3-2: Back-Pressure and Extraction-Condensing Turbines .................................................................. - 29 - Figure 3-3: CHP system based on Reciprocating Engine .............................................................................. - 30 - Figure 3-4: CHP with Gas Turbine ................................................................................................................. - 30 - Figure 3-5: Combine Heat, Cooling and Power Production ............................................................................ - 31 - Figure 4-1: Typical Steam Distribution System .............................................................................................. - 36 - Figure 4-2: Economic Thickness of Insulation ................................................................................................ - 37 - Figure 4-3: Condensate Recovery System ..................................................................................................... - 39 - Figure 4-4: Temperature gradient across heat transfer barriers ..................................................................... - 39 - Figure 5-2: Components of a Typical Industrial Compressed Air System ...................................................... - 41 - Figure 5-3: Sankey diagram of the energy balance in an industrial compressed air system .......................... - 43 - Figure 6-2 – Motors’ efficiency classification .................................................................................................. - 49 - Figure 6-3 – Legislative Timeline for Motor Efficiency Class Transition ......................................................... - 49 - Figure 6-4: Share of different motor systems of total electricity use by industrial motor systems in the US ... - 50 - Figure 6-5: Classification of the main types of electric motors ....................................................................... - 51 - Figure 6-6: Efficiency of electric motors with various rated output (efficiency improves in larger motors) ...... - 51 - Figure 6-7: Variable Speed Drives: Stand-alone on left and integrated with the motor right .......................... - 54 - Figure 7-1: Operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump for constant speed ............................................. - 58 - Figure 7-2: Basic components of a pump system, the way their power is calculated and the Affinity Laws ... - 58 - Figure 7-3: System curve and a performance curve for a centrifugal pump. Pump efficiency curve is also included.

Constant motor speed ........................................................................................................................... - 59 - Figure 7-4: Pump performance curve for centrifugal pump ............................................................................ - 59 - Figure 7-5: Curve for parallel pumps .............................................................................................................. - 60 - Figure 8-1: Refrigeration Cycle ...................................................................................................................... - 66 - Figure 8-2: Multi Stage Compression and Refrigeration Cycle ....................................................................... - 70 - Figure 8-3: Power input versus evaporating and condensing temperature .................................................... - 70 - Figure 9-1: Closed-loop control system .......................................................................................................... - 72 - Figure 9-2: The measure-analyse-action cycle .............................................................................................. - 74 - Figure 9-3: Main elements of an EnMS .......................................................................................................... - 76 - Figure 10-1 Light sources used in Turkey, 2008-2012 ................................................................................... - 80 - Figure 10-2 Turkey’s LED lighting market value ............................................................................................. - 81 - Figure 10-3: Breakdown of LED lighting sector volume in Turkey .................................................................. - 82 - Figure 10-4: Estimated LED lighting penetration rates according to the sectors ............................................ - 83 -


Figure 10-5: Incandescent Lamps .................................................................................................................. - 86 - Figure 10-6: Fluorescent Lamps .................................................................................................................... - 87 - Figure 10-7: Discharge Lamps ....................................................................................................................... - 88 - Figure 10-8: Efficacy of common lamp types ................................................................................................. - 89 -


Acronyms AC Alternating Current CAS Compressed Air System

CEMEP European Committee of Manufactures of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics

CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamp CHP Combined Heat and Power CO Carbon Monoxide COP Coefficient of Performance DC Direct Current DCS Distributed Control System EnMS Energy Management System GT Gas Turbine HE High Efficient HID High Intensity Discharge IE International Efficiency LED Light Emitting Diode M&T Monitoring and Targeting MH Metal Halide MV Mercury Vapour PLC Programmable Logic Controller SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition SHP Separate Heat and Power STCS Steam Turbine Cogeneration Systems TDS Total Dissolved Solids VSD Variable Speed Drive


1 Boilers

1.1 Boiler technology available in Turkey

Boilers are products that are specifically designed to heat water/heat transfer organic liquid/generate steam by means of a heat exchanger that transfers the heat from combustion into the water/organic liquid as it passes through the product. The next formula shows the Key Performance Indicator for boilers:

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐈𝐈𝐭𝐭𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐭𝐭 𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 [%]

The major suppliers in the Turkish boiler market are Bosch, Erensan, Alarko, Ferroli, ECA, Selnikel, Buderus and Viessmann, and Wolf, as well as many other local and international producers.

Due to the large number of suppliers, the maturity of the market can be considered very high. There are many types of boilers in the market, namely:

• High/low temperature-high/low pressure, high efficiency hot water boilers;

• Condensing hot water boilers, and;

• Steam boilers.

Since the technology is mature and highly efficient, not considerable progress in the performance of these units has been observed in the recent years. A reference unit has been selected for further analysis: a 25 kW gas fired condensing boiler unit. The price range of the 25 kW natural gas fired condensing boilers is approximately 2,000-4,000 USD.

The next table summarise the key assumptions for boilers. The performance of the best available boilers in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

Space and process heating system – Boiler

Product selected for the study 25 kW natural gas fired condensing hot water boiler

List of suppliers contacted

• Alarko, • Bosch, • Ferroli, • Erensan • Wolf, • Viessmann

Criteria Technological progress

Maturity of market supply

Market penetration rates Technology costs

Results from suppliers 0% 90% 90% 90%


Space and process heating system – Boiler

Top performing equipment available in Turkey

• Gas and/or oil fired (where gas includes biogas and oil includes liquid biofuels) for all categories of boilers

• Solid fuel as burn wood, cereal straw, or solid fuels derived from them; • Net thermal efficiency

- ≥ 95% for Condensing hot water boiler, and; - ≥ 93% for High/low temperature-high/low pressure, high efficiency hot

water boiler and; - ≥ 92% for steam boilers. - ≥ 85% for biomass boiler

References

• EU IPPC Reference Document on Best available Techniques (BAT) for Energy Efficiency,

• Council Directive 92/42/EEC, • Council Directive 93/68/EEC, • Directive 2004/8/EC, • Directive 2005/32/EC, • Directive 2008/28/EC • UK Government's Energy-Saving Enhanced Capital Allowance (ECA)

scheme • Manufacturers

1.2 Description of the system

Boilers convert fossil fuel energy into hot water or steam, which is used for process heating, space heating or to supply sanitary hot water. Around 40% of demand for industrial process and space heating arises in boiler plants for generating steam and hot water1.

Boilers can be grouped into two broad categories: water-tube boilers (Figure 1-1) and fire-tube or shell boilers (Figure 1-2). In the water-tube boilers, tubes containing water are heated by combustion gases that flow outside the tubes, while in the fire-tube boilers hot combustion gases flow inside the tubes and water flows outside. Key design parameters to determine the boiler size and power are the output steam mass flow rate, pressure and temperature2.

Figure 1-1: Typical water-tube boiler Figure 1-2: Typical fire-tube boiler with three passes

Water-tube boilers are used in power station applications that require:

1http://www.dena.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Publikationen/Stromnutzung/Dokumente/Energy_modernisation_of_industrial_heating.pdf 2http://www.iea-etsap.org/web/e-techds/pdf/i01-ind_boilers-gs-ad-gct1.pdf

http://www.dena.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Publikationen/Stromnutzung/Dokumente/Energy_modernisation_of_industrial_heating.pdf

http://www.iea-etsap.org/web/e-techds/pdf/i01-ind_boilers-gs-ad-gct1.pdf


• A high steam output (up to 500 kg/s) • High pressure steam (up to 160 bar) • Superheated steam (up to 550°C).

However, water-tube boilers are also manufactured in sizes to compete with shell boilers. Small water-tube boilers may be manufactured and assembled into a single unit, whereas large units are usually manufactured in sections for assembly on site3.

Boilers can also be categorized based on the fuel type (oil, gas, biomass, waste) and whether they produce hot water or steam.

The operational efficiency of a boiler is measured in terms of the proportion of the fuel input energy that is delivered as useful heat output. The diagram below illustrates typical losses that occur when generating steam. Flue gas losses are the most significant, accounting in some cases up to 20% of the total losses, while other heat losses are due to moisture in the fuel and in the air, as well as radiation and blow-down losses. In total this example shows that about 75% of heat energy created goes to steam (Figure 1-3).

Figure 1-3: Losses allocation from a boiler4

Boiler efficiency tests can help to identify any decline in boiler efficiency and allow corrective action to be taken. Boiler efficiency is usually assessed by analysing the chemical composition of its flue

3http://www.spiraxsarco.com/Resources/Pages/Steam-Engineering-Tutorials/the-boiler-house/water-tube-boilers.aspx 4 Carbon Trust, CTV018

http://www.spiraxsarco.com/Resources/Pages/Steam-Engineering-Tutorials/the-boiler-house/water-tube-boilers.aspx


gases: for example, too much oxygen indicates “excess air” (which means that heat is wasted), while too much CO indicates too little oxygen and incomplete combustion (which means that fuel is wasted).

1.3 Energy Saving Measures

Steam and high temperature hot water boilers offer many energy savings opportunities which can make significant cost savings to industries. The most appropriate option depends on the type of boiler and heating system, the requirements of the process or other heating demands and budget. The table below ranks alternative energy saving measures in terms of their effectiveness in reducing energy consumption.

Table 1-1: Energy saving measures in boilers

Measure Energy Saving Ratio (ESR) Feed water preheating with economizer 4% - 7%, up to 15% for condensing Excess air control Up to 5%, efficiency increase by about

0.5% for every 1% decrease in O2 Increase condensate return Up to 10% VSDs for fans, blowers and pumps Up to 20% of electricity used Boiler replacement Up to 20% Controlling boiler loading - scheduling Up to 15% Radiation and convection heat loss reduction

Up to 15%

Combustion air pre-heating 1% for a 20°C increase in air temperature

Automatic blow down 2% - 4% Reduction of boiler steam pressure up to 2%

1.3.1 Operation and maintenance of boilers Effective maintenance is needed for optimum performance and efficient operation of a boiler. In this respect, sophisticated control systems are used instead of manual controls. The three main areas where maintenance is necessary are:

• Combustion efficiency: It can be determined with simple measurements of steam temperature and pressure, feed-water temperature and pressure, steam flow rate, and fuel consumption rate.

• Heat transfer efficiency: The heat transfer characteristics of the surfaces of the tubes, which contain water or combustion gases, may be lowered when these surfaces become fouled by a build-up of material. To reduce the level of build-up, professional treatment must be applied to the boiler feed-water. Regular checks on the function of water treatment systems must also be carried out to ensure that under- or over treatment is not occurring.

• Boiler heat loss: These heat losses are happening through the flue gas and the surface of the boiler. Regular checks and techniques such as infrared imaging can be used to detect hot spots from the boiler surface.


A manual maintenance is also necessary for the proper operation and maintenance of a boiler. Indicatively, it can include: the maintenance plan, diagrams of the boiler plant and the controls, instructions and settings and emergency shutdown procedures, etc.5,6

1.3.2 Pre-heating Combustion Air Flue gases can be cooled down even more, as the combustion air is often at ambient temperature. A higher air temperature improves combustion resulting in an increase in the overall efficiency of the boiler. The thermal efficiency of a boiler plant can be increased by 1% if the temperature of the combustion air is raised by 20°C. The heat required to pre-heat combustion air can be drawn from a number of sources, including the boiler’s flue gases, air drawn from the top of the boiler house, and air drawn over or through the boiler casing. Rotary wheel type air pre-heaters are the most common type of heat exchangers used for this purpose. Figure 1-4 presents a combustion system with an air pre-heater.

Figure 1-4: Combustion system with an air pre-heater7

1.3.3 Use of Economisers Boiler flue gas contains a great amount of heat that can be recovered and used elsewhere. Flue gas from a boiler is at a higher temperature than that of the steam produced and is typically around 200°C in most modern steam boilers. The recovered heat is used to preheat the cold water entering the boiler, thereby lowering the amount of energy needed to warm the water up to the required level.

The most common flue gas heat recovery systems are the economisers. Economisers (Figure 1-5) are heat exchangers which recover waste heat from boiler flue gases to preheat boiler feed water and hence reduce respective energy demand. An economiser typically reduces energy consumption between 2% and 5% although larger savings may be possible depending on the flue gas temperature and the type of economiser. As an indication of the potential savings, an increase in temperature of feed water from 10°C to 30°C can reduce a boiler’s fuel consumption by 4% - 7%.

5Carbon Trust, Steam and high temperature hot water boilers 6http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/~/media/resources/documents/services%20and%20advice/business/srsb%20em/resources%20and%20tools/srsb%20em%20best%20practice%20guide%20heating%202009.pdf 7 28, Berger, 2005

http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/%7E/media/resources/documents/services%20and%20advice/business/srsb%20em/resources%20and%20tools/srsb%20em%20best%20practice%20guide%20heating%202009.pdf

http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/%7E/media/resources/documents/services%20and%20advice/business/srsb%20em/resources%20and%20tools/srsb%20em%20best%20practice%20guide%20heating%202009.pdf


Figure 1-5: Combustion system with an economiser8

For a modern boiler with a flue gas exit temperature of 140°C, a condensing economiser would reduce the exit temperature to 65°C and increase the boiler’s thermal efficiency by 5%. However, economisers are usually only viable for boilers with a capacity of over 3 MW.

1.3.4 Variable Speed Drives (VSDs) A combustion air dumper regulates the combustion air to the burner. These dampers generally have poor control characteristics at the top and bottom of the boiler’s operating range. In addition, there are very limited variations in fan motor power consumption with boiler load.

This results in higher than-necessary electricity consumption. In general, if the load characteristics of a boiler are variable, it can be cost effective to replace the existing dampers with VSDs. Using a VSD system has been shown to be cost-effective while maintaining good combustion conditions and high boiler efficiency9.

1.3.5 Automatic Blow-Down Control In steam boilers, as water evaporates in the boiler steam drum, solids present in the feed-water are left behind. The suspended solids form sludge or sediments, which degrades heat transfer, in the boiler. Dissolved solids promote foaming and carryover of boiler water into the steam. To reduce the levels of suspended and total dissolved solids (TDS) to acceptable limits, water is periodically discharged or blown down from the boiler.

Heat can be recovered from boiler blow-down by using a heat exchanger, a flash steam recovery vessel, or a flash steam recovery vessel in combination with a heat exchanger to preheat boiler makeup water. Such measures save energy by increasing the temperature of the feed-water to the boiler and reducing the amount of fuel consumed in the boiler. Passing the blow-down water through a flash vessel generates low-pressure steam. Since the pressure is reduced downstream of the boiler

8Carbon Trust, Steam and high temperature hot water boilers 9Carbon Trust, Steam and high temperature hot water boilers


blow-down valve, the steam flashes and it can be collected. Recovering flash steam from continuous blow-down can reduce the energy loss by up to 50% to give an energy saving of 0.5 - 2.5% of the boiler heat input. Using heat exchangers to recover heat from the remaining liquid blow-down can provide a further saving of around 25% to give an overall energy saving of 0.75 - 3.75% of heat input.

The best way to optimize the blow-down rate is to install an automatic blow-down control system. Cost savings occurred from the significant reduction in the consumption, disposal, treatment, and heating of water10, 11, 12. An automatic blow-down control system with TDS monitoring is presented in Figure 1-6.

Figure 1-6: Automatic blow-down control system with TDS monitoring13

1.3.6 Minimization of Radiation Losses Radiation heat losses occur from the external surfaces of an operating boiler through a combination of convection and radiation heat transfer. These losses are increased as boiler output is reduced; therefore, operating the boiler at full load lowers the percentage of the loss. Since the boiler's surface area relates to its bulk, the relative loss is lower for a larger boiler and higher for a smaller one.

In modern and efficient boilers, the radiation loss should be less than 1% of the heat input rating. However, it may be considerably higher on older boilers with poor or damaged insulation and could be more than 2%. Radiation losses depend on boiler temperature. They can be assessed by monitoring the boiler’s fuel consumption under hot stand-by conditions. Improving boiler’s insulation can minimise radiation losses.

All pipe work, valves, flanges and fittings in the boiler house should be adequately insulated and valve mats/covers should be replaced after maintenance work14,15.

10http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/steam10_boiler_blowdown.pdf 11http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/steam9_blowdown.pdf 12http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/steam23_control_system.pdf 13http://www.eurotherm.com/boiler-blowdown-control 14Carbon Trust, Steam and high temperature hot water boilers 15http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/publications/efficiency/industrial/cipec/6691

http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/steam10_boiler_blowdown.pdf

http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/steam9_blowdown.pdf

http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/steam23_control_system.pdf

http://www.eurotherm.com/boiler-blowdown-control

http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/publications/efficiency/industrial/cipec/6691


1.3.7 Increase Condensate Return In steam boilers, a method to improve energy efficiency is to increase the condensate return to the boiler. The heat content of the condensate return can be utilised to heat feed water, meaning that less steam is required to heat up the boiler feed water de-aerator.

As the condensate is already treated pure water, less blow-down is required, further reducing the boiler’s fuel requirements. A simple calculation indicates that energy in the condensate can be more than 10% of the total steam energy content of a typical system. Since any associated flash or live steam is pressurized, this steam can be recovered for reuse in applications such as waste heat steam generators (that involve heat exchange) and cascade systems16, 17.

1.3.8 Use of Condensing Boilers A condensing boiler is a high efficiency modern boiler that incorporates an extra heat exchanger so that the vapour in flue gases is condensed to water and the heat recovered to pre-heat the water entering the boiler system – this can increase a boiler’s efficiency by as much as 10% to 12%.

Thermal efficiency of up to 98% can be achieved compared to 80-85% for a conventional boiler. The efficiency of condensing boilers depends on the return temperature to the boilers and delivery temperature of the water. A condensing boiler cross section is illustrated in Figure 1-7.

Figure 1-7: Condensing Boiler – Cross-Section18

1.3.9 Excess Air Control Excess air is required in all practical cases to ensure complete combustion, to allow for the normal variations in combustion and to ensure satisfactory stack conditions for some fuels.

The optimum excess air level varies with furnace design, type of burner, fuel and process variables. It can be determined by conducting tests with different air fuel ratios. Controlling excess air to an

16http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/steam8_boiler.pdf 17http://www.tlv.com/global/SG/steam-theory/vented-pressurized-condensate-recovery.html 18 Carbon Trust

http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/steam8_boiler.pdf

http://www.tlv.com/global/SG/steam-theory/vented-pressurized-condensate-recovery.html


optimum level always results in reduction in flue gas losses; for every 1% reduction in excess air there is approximately 0.6% rise in efficiency. Efficient gas-fired shell boilers typically require about 15% to 30% “excess air” and the resulting flue gases contain 9% to 10% CO2 and 3% to 5% O2. Digital combustion control systems can produce energy savings of about 5%

1.3.10 Boiler Replacement In general, companies should consider replacing an existing boiler whenever its efficiency falls below 80%. Boiler replacement is financially attractive if the existing boiler is:

• Old and inefficient; • Not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel; • Over or under-sized for present requirements and not designed for ideal loading conditions.


2 Furnaces and kilns


A furnace is a device which is used to process raw materials at high temperatures, such as to melt metals for casting or to heat materials in order to change their shape or properties (heat treatment). There are two broad types of furnace, characterised by the method used to generate heat:

• Combustion furnace (fuel type) • Electric furnace, which uses electricity

Furnaces can also be further classified by the mode of material charged into it (batch, periodic or intermittent furnaces) and the mode of waste heat recovery (recuperative or regenerative furnaces). Furnaces can take many shapes, sizes and forms. It is important the selection of the type of fuel in a furnace, since the product of the flue gases comes directly in contact with the materials19.

For most heating equipment, a large proportion of the heat supplied can be “lost” in the form of exhaust or flue gases – the extent of these losses depend on various factors related to design and operation of the heating equipment. Furnace heat losses include:

• Flue gas losses; • Losses from moisture in fuel; • Losses due to openings in the furnace; • Furnace surface losses; • Other losses.

A layout of a typical furnace and the areas in which losses are incurred are illustrated in Figure 2-1.

19http://www.enggpedia.com/chemical-engineering-encyclopedia/dictionary/thermodynamics/1778-furnace-types-classification-of-furnace

http://www.enggpedia.com/chemical-engineering-encyclopedia/dictionary/thermodynamics/1778-furnace-types-classification-of-furnace

http://www.enggpedia.com/chemical-engineering-encyclopedia/dictionary/thermodynamics/1778-furnace-types-classification-of-furnace


Figure 2-1: Furnace layout and incurred losses20


The table below ranks alternative energy-saving measures in terms of their effectiveness in reducing energy consumption.

Table 2-1: Energy saving measures in furnaces and kilns

Measure Energy Saving Ratio (ESR) Waste heat recovery from flue gases 10% - 30% Selecting the right type of refractory 10% - 20% Reduce losses from furnace surface and openings 2% - 15% Operation at optimum furnace temperature 5% - 10% Optimum capacity utilisation 5% - 10% Optimisation of combustion air About 5% Correct amount of furnace draught Up to 5%

Typical energy efficiency measures which can reduce energy consumption in industrial furnaces include:

2.2.1 Waste Heat Recovery from Flue Gases For most fuel fired furnaces, a large amount of the supplied heat is wasted as exhaust or flue gases. Flue gases carry between 35% and 55% of the heat input to the furnace with them through the chimney. The recovery of this waste heat can result in significant energy savings. The most common 20 Best Practice Programme, A manager’s guide to optimising furnace performance GPG 253, 2001


waste heat recovery method is the use of a gas-to-gas heat exchanger placed at the furnace exit. The heat exchanger can be used to transfer heat from the hot flue gases to the incoming combustion air or to heat water elsewhere in other processes of the industrial plant.

High temperature heat recovery equipment (recuperators and regenerative air heaters) can be used to recover heat from flue gases (Figure 2-2 and Figure 2-3). In recuperators, hot gasses pass inside tubes which are arranged in bundles. The combustion air is directed over the outside of the tubes by means of a series of baffle plates. The regenerative air heater has to separate sets of refractory bricks. These are alternately heated by the hot flue gasses and cooled by the incoming combustion air. At regular intervals, dumpers automatically divert the hot gasses and the cold air from one set of bricks to the other. Therefore, one set of bricks is being heated by the hot gasses while the other set is heating the combustion air. The advantage of the regenerative air heater is that very high temperature gas can be handled without the need for expensive thin wall tubing made from stainless steel or other heat resistant materials. Typical savings in the order of 5%-30% can be achieved21,22.

Figure 2-2: Steady state counter-current flow recuperative heat exchanger23

Figure 2-3: Direct-fired self-regenerative burner in firing mode24

2.2.2 Optimum Capacity Utilisation One of the most important factors affecting furnace efficiency is the load. This includes the amount of material placed in the furnace, its arrangement inside the furnace and the amount of time it spends inside the furnace. The furnace should be loaded to the optimum load at all times (although it is recognized that, in practice, this may not always be possible). Furnace efficiency increases in line with production, up to the design point, above which it declines rapidly. The furnace efficiency versus load is illustrated in Figure 2-4.

21http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/install_waste_heat_process_htgts8.pdf 22Energy Management Series for Industry, Commerce and Institutions, Process Furnaces, Dryers and Kilns, Energy, Mines and Resources, Canada 23http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/92444-improving-energy-efficiency-with-recuperative-and-regenerative-burners 24http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/92444-improving-energy-efficiency-with-recuperative-and-regenerative-burners

http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/install_waste_heat_process_htgts8.pdf

http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/92444-improving-energy-efficiency-with-recuperative-and-regenerative-burners

http://www.industrialheating.com/articles/92444-improving-energy-efficiency-with-recuperative-and-regenerative-burners


Figure 2-4: Furnace Efficiency versus Load25

2.2.3 Reduction of losses from furnace surface and openings The surface heat losses include heat loss by convection heat transfer and radiation heat transfer. Between 30% and 40% of the fuel used in intermittent or continuous furnaces is used to make up for heat lost through the furnace’s surfaces or walls. Heat losses will depend on the wall’s emissivity and thickness, the thermal conductivity of the refractories used. In most cases, heat transfer is a combination of both convection and radiation.

Heat losses can be reduced by minimizing the number and size of the openings (where applicable), or by employing methods such as radiation shields or curtains. In some cases where the opening is variable (as in case of a door that is used for charging and discharging the load or charge material), it is possible to reduce the losses by shortening the duration or the time of the door opening26. Such measures can reduce heat losses by between 2% and 15% of a furnace’s fuel consumption27

2.2.4 Optimisation of Combustion Air Optimising combustion air is one of the simplest and most economical means of conserving energy in furnaces. Potential savings are higher when the temperature of the furnace is high. To ensure the complete combustion of fuel with the minimum amount of air, the operator of a furnace needs to control air filtration, maintain the pressure of combustion air, ensure high fuel quality and monitor the amount of “excess air”.

The air-fuel ratio must be controlled to eliminate the creation of excess carbon monoxide (usually defined as a concentration in excess of 30 – 50 ppm) and prevent unburned hydrocarbons occurring. These measures can generate savings of 5% - 25%28.

25 US DoE 26Reduction of Wall Heat Losses through Use of Proper Insulation for Industrial Heating Equipment and Boilers, Southern California Gas Company, May 2012 27 US DoE Office of Industrial Technologies, Roadmap for Process Heating Technology, 2001 28 US DoE Office of Industrial Technologies, Roadmap for Process Heating Technology, 2001


2.2.5 Oxygen Enriched Combustion During air–fuel combustion, the nitrogen in the air dilutes the reactive oxygen and carries away some of the energy in the hot combustion exhaust gas. An increase in oxygen in the combustion air can reduce the energy loss in the exhaust gases and increase efficiency.

Most industrial furnaces, which use oxygen or oxygen-enriched air, use either liquid oxygen to increase the oxygen concentration in the combustion air or vacuum pressure swing adsorption units to remove some of the nitrogen and subsequently increase the oxygen content. Some systems use almost 100% oxygen in the main combustion header; others blend in oxygen to increase the oxygen in the incoming combustion air. Some systems use auxiliary oxy-fuel burners in conjunction with standard burners. Figure 2-5 shows a schematic representation of an oxygen-enriched burner. Oxygen-enhanced combustion is used primarily in the glass-melting industry, but other applications are also found in other industrial sectors such as steel, aluminium, copper, pulp and paper, petroleum and chemical.

Figure 2-5: Oxygen-enriched burner29

2.2.6 Automatic Control Automatic controls prevent the waste heat by unnecessarily high temperatures and excessive air or unburned fuel from poor combustion. They are also important to prevent damage to the heated product from overheating, excessive oxidation, etc. Automatic temperature controllers are actuated by thermocouples in the furnace.

Automatic control of atmosphere for the consistent maintenance of good combustion is performed by properly proportioning the fuel and combustion air as they enter the furnace. Automatic pressure control operates the flue dampers of a furnace to maintain a constant predetermined pressure in the heating chamber, which excludes free oxygen from the surrounding atmosphere30.

2.2.7 Selecting the Right Refractories Refractories should be selected in order to maximise the performance of the furnace or kiln. Furnace manufacturers or users should consider the following points when selecting refractory material:

• Type of furnace • Type of metal charge

29http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/oxygen_enriched_combustion_process_htgts3.pdf 30http://www2.hcmuaf.edu.vn/data/phamducdung/thamkhao/Mark's%20Standard-Handbook/Furnace.pdf

http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/05/f16/oxygen_enriched_combustion_process_htgts3.pdf

http://www2.hcmuaf.edu.vn/data/phamducdung/thamkhao/Mark's%20Standard-Handbook/Furnace.pdf


• Presence of slag • Area of application • Working temperatures • Extent of abrasion and impact • Structural load of the furnace • Stress due to temperature gradient in the structures and temperature fluctuations • Chemical compatibility with the furnace environment • Heat transfer and fuel conservation • Cost


3 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) and trigeneration

3.1 CHP technology available in Turkey

CHP is the sequential or simultaneous generation of multiple forms of useful energy (usually mechanical and thermal) in a single, integrated system. CHP systems consist of a number of individual components—prime mover (heat engine), generator, heat recovery, and electrical interconnection—configured into an integrated whole.

The type of equipment that drives the overall system (i.e., the prime mover) typically identifies the CHP system. There are basically two types of small CHP: gas turbine and reciprocating engine. The next formula shows the Key Performance Indicators for CHP:

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐊𝐊𝐭𝐭𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏 𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 [%] 𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐭𝐭 𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 [%]

The CHP might be fed with biogas. Biogas is a mix of methane and carbon gas that can be used as a fuel source either in properly modified diesel engines or in new biogas engines to generate electricity for on-farm use or for sale to the electricity grid, or for heating or cooling needs. The next formula shows the Key Performance Indicators for biogas CHP:

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐊𝐊𝐭𝐭𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏 𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 [%]

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐁𝐁𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐁𝐁𝐏𝐏𝐁𝐁 𝐩𝐩𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐩𝐩𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 �𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

�

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐌𝐌𝐊𝐊𝐈𝐈𝐭𝐭𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈[%]

Even though small CHP’s use the well-developed and mature internal combustion engine and heat recovery technologies, recent improvements in machine surface working, better combustion controls, and longer working hours have increased the performance of such systems marginally in the recent years.

For the assessment of the development of small CHP’s market, the five suppliers of small CHP (smaller than 500 kWe) that have the largest market share were contacted. These companies are MWM, 2-g, MTU, GE Jenbacher and Viessmann. As, until recently, the small CHP applications were not financially attractive due to low efficiencies and high unit costs in relation to larger units of MW size, this market can be considered as relatively immature due to the small number of such units installed in Turkey so far.

The market can be expected to grow exponentially as the Building Energy Performance Regulation of 2008, encourages installation of small CHP’s in new buildings, and the Regulation of Small Scale (<500 kWe) electricity production enables for building owners to sell the excess electricity produced in these systems to be sold to the grid for 10 years.


Reference unit for the study is 250 kWel reciprocating engine. The reference product can be found in the market approximately in the range of 220,000 to 260,000 USD based on its level of automation and heat recovery options.

In addition to small CHP based on reciprocating engine technology, small gas turbines are becoming available on the market. However, the key international suppliers of small CHP plant active in Turkey do NOT supply small Gas Turbine yet.

The new DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU set up at 75% the minimum annual overall efficiency for both reciprocating engine and small-turbines which have been recently transposed into the national legislation. The next table summarise the key assumptions for small CHP. The performance of the best available reciprocating engines in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries. However, this is not the case for gas turbines for small applications which are not widespread in the market yet.

Energy Supply – Small CHP

Product selected for the study 250 kWel reciprocating engine


• MWM, • 2-g, • MTU, • GE Jenbacher




Results from suppliers 7% <10% 90% 90%


• Reciprocating engine - Use only Natural Gas fuel or biogas (methane content ≥ 55%), and; - Electric efficiency ≥ 35%, and; - Total efficiency ≥ 85%.

• Small Gas turbine - Use only Natural Gas fuel; - Electric efficiency ≥ 25%, and; - Total efficiency ≥ 85%.

References

• COGEN Europe • DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU • Manufacturers, and; • Quality Assurance for Combined Heat and Power (CHPQA).

Combining a cogeneration plant with an absorption refrigeration system allows utilization of seasonal excess heat for cooling. The hot water from the cooling circuit of the cogeneration plant serves as drive energy for the absorption chiller. The hot exhaust gas from the gas engine can also be used as an energy source for steam generation, which can then be utilized as an energy source for a highly efficient, double-effect steam chiller. The absorption chiller market, in particular for the smaller units is very new and highly immature, with only very few brands of Alarko-Carrier, Broad, World Energy and LS active in Turkey.

• Absorption Chillers:


• Single effect absorption chiller Efficiency > 0.6, and;

• Double effect absorption chiller Efficiency > 1.0.

As reference unit a 500 kWfr single stage absorption chiller have been selected. The market penetration rate of the selected efficiency absorption chiller is very high being the COP of most of the single effect absorption chiller higher than 0.6 (typically between 0.65-0.7).

The next table summarise the key assumptions for absorption chillers and include the new suggested criteria for the selected technology.

HVAC&R System – Chiller – Absorption chiller

Product selected for the study 500 kWfr single effect absorption chiller

List of suppliers contacted • Broad, • Alarko • Carrier






• Single effect absorption COP ≥ 0.65, and; • Double effect absorption COP ≥ 1.0.

References • EU IPPC Reference Document on Best available Techniques (BAT) for Energy

Efficiency • Manufacturers.

3.2 Description of the CHP system

CHP is the simultaneous generation of thermal and electrical energy in one process. It may include a range of technologies but it always includes an electricity generator and a heat recovery system. By utilising the heat, a CHP plant can achieve efficiencies of over 90% and can reduce primary energy consumption by as high as 20% - 30% compared with the supply of electricity and heat from conventional power stations and boilers. A CHP plant consists of four basic elements: a prime mover, an electricity generator, a heat recovery system, and a control system. Figure 3-1 illustrates CHP and Separate Heat and Power (SHP) Production and shows the energy inputs each would require to produce the same amount of useful energy.


Figure 3-1: CHP versus SHP production31

3.2.1 Steam Turbines Steam turbine cogeneration systems (STCS) are the most commonly used systems and their operation is based on Rankine’s cycle. They can use every kind of fuel that can be burnt in the boiler. There are two types of steam turbines used in cogeneration: Back-Pressure Turbine and the Extraction-Condensing Turbine.

In Back-Pressure Turbine, the outlet steam exits the turbine with higher pressure than atmosphere and flows directly to the loads where it releases heat and condenses. In the Extraction-Condensing Turbine the high pressure steam enters the turbine and when it has appropriate pressure and temperature it feeds the heating process while the rest of the steam keeps on expanding and is finally condensed.

The Back-Pressure Turbine is simple, efficient, uses little or none cooling water, and is relatively inexpensive. However, the biggest disadvantage of that system is its inflexibility, the electricity generation is related to the production of heat and it is possible to regulate it with independence of thermal generation.

Extraction-Condensing Turbine plants generate more electricity and are more flexible in comparison to the Back-Pressure plants. However they need auxiliary equipment such as cooling towers and condenser, therefore they are more expensive and less efficient. A scheme of Back-Pressure and Extraction-Condensing Turbines is shown in Figure 3-2.

31 US EPA CHP Partnership


Figure 3-2: Back-Pressure and Extraction-Condensing Turbines32

3.2.2 Reciprocating Engines Reciprocating engines are available for power generation applications in sizes ranging from a few kilowatts to over 5 MW. One of the principal advantages of reciprocating engines is that they are more electrically efficiency than other prime movers. A schematic of a reciprocating engine based CHP system is shown in Figure 3-333.

32 UNEP 33 Energy Solutions Center

http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj71eqQ5YDLAhXGOhoKHddiAM4QjRwIBw&url=http://www.i15.p.lodz.pl/strony/EIC/ec/technical-options.html&psig=AFQjCNGc77B4Pnw9N2BQb25aqNR9rtqyow&ust=1455866677022962


Figure 3-3: CHP system based on Reciprocating Engine

3.2.3 Gas Turbines Gas turbines (GT) are usually used for cogeneration where continuous duty is called for and where natural gas is available, where heat is consumed in the form of high pressure steam and where heat demand includes hot gases at 200°C or above.

The main disadvantage of gas turbines when compared to reciprocating engines is the lower efficiency, particularly for smaller sizes. A schematic of GT’s generating power by means of the Brayton cycle is illustrated in Figure 3-4.

Figure 3-4: CHP with Gas Turbine34

3.3 Tri-generation

In countries with a warm climate, heating needs are limited to a few winter months, but they will have significant cooling needs during the summer months. In this case, heat from a cogeneration plant in is used to produce cooling, via absorption cycles. This “expanded” cogeneration process is known as tri-generation or combined heat, cooling and power production.

Combining a cogeneration plant with an absorption refrigeration system allows utilization of seasonal excess heat for cooling. The hot water from the cooling circuit of the cogeneration plant serves as drive energy for the absorption chiller. The hot exhaust gas from the gas engine can also be used as an energy source for steam generation, which can then be utilized as an energy source for a highly efficient, double-effect steam chiller. The principle of a tri-generation system is illustrated in Figure 3-5.

34 CIBSE, CHP Group


Up to 80% of the thermal output of the cogeneration plant is thereby converted to chilled water. In this way, the year-round capacity utilization and the overall efficiency of the cogeneration plant can be increased significantly.

Figure 3-5: Combine Heat, Cooling and Power Production35

3.3.1 Absorption cooling Absorption coolers use heat rather than electricity as their energy source. Because natural gas is the most common heat source for absorption cooling, it is also referred to as gas-fired cooling. Other potential heat sources include propane, solar-heated water, or geothermal-heated water.

Absorption cycles are similar to vapour compression cycles; the main difference being that the compressor is replaced by a chemical cycle taking place between the absorber, pump, and regenerator.

35 TRIGEMED project


Figure 3-6: Basic vapour compression cycle36 Figure 3-7: Basic absorption cooling cycle37

An absorption cooling cycle relies on three basic principles:

• When a liquid is heated it boils (vaporizes) and when a gas is cooled it condenses; • Lowering the pressure above a liquid reduces its boiling point; • Heat flows from warmer to cooler surfaces.

Absorption cooling relies on a thermo-chemical “compressor”. Two different fluids are used: a refrigerant and an absorbent. The fluids have high “affinity” for each other, which means one dissolves easily in the other. The refrigerant - usually water - can change phase easily between liquid and vapor and circulates through the system.

Heat from natural gas combustion or a waste-heat source drives the process. The high affinity of the refrigerant for the absorbent (usually lithium bromide or ammonia) causes the refrigerant to boil at a lower temperature and pressure than it normally would and transfers heat from one place to another.

Two widespread absorption cycles are in use:

• Lithium bromide (LiBr) cycle; • Ammonia-water (NH3H20) cycle.

The LiBr cycle tends to be more common.

Absorption chillers can be classified according to the form of heat input:

• Direct-fired units using natural gas; • Indirect-fired units utilise steam or hot liquid which is supplied from an external source; • Bespoke machines which are fired by exhaust gases or a combination of heat sources.

There are also machines capable of simultaneous cooling and heating available on the market. Absorption chiller/heaters can reduce the need for separate boilers thus reducing the cost and space requirements.

3.3.2 Absorption cooling versus vapor compression cooling An absorption chiller uses heat as driving energy, as compared to vapor compression chillers that use electricity. Vapor compression chillers are the most commonly used chiller type in the world today.

A potential disadvantage with the absorption chillers is the low coefficient of performance (COP), which varies between 0.6 - 0.838. This should be compared to the COP of vapor compression chillers’, which varies between 2 and 5 depending on the temperature lift.

Another disadvantage for the absorption chiller is the need for external cooling to cool the absorber and the condenser. This need is much larger per unit cooling effect in absorption chillers as compared to the need in compression chillers. If there is no natural heat sink close by, such as a lake or a river,

36 CIBSE CHP Group 37 CIBSE CHP Group 38 Alefeld & Radermacher, 1994


the extra cooling tower capacity required for absorption cooling will result in a higher investment cost for this technology.

Despite these disadvantages, absorption cooling has the potential to compete with compression cooling, both economically and environmentally. When using absorption chillers instead of compression chillers the consumption of electricity may be reduced.

If cheap driving heat is available for the absorption chiller, it can become a more economical alternative. Also, if waste heat or heat from a renewable source is used, the CO2 emissions will be lowered by the reduced electricity consumption.

In addition, since water can be used as the refrigerant in absorption chillers, the problem with the environmentally harmful refrigerants used in vapor compression chillers is avoided.

Depending on the technology, cooling capacities of absorption chillers range from 13 kW to 9.1 MW39. Smaller cooling capacities are currently available with adsorption cycles. Larger units will usually be more efficient and will also include an integral vacuum pump. With smaller units, annual vacuum drawing may be necessary. The capital cost of single-effect absorption chillers is roughly 20-50% higher compared to an equivalent electric or engine-driven chiller.

The main benefits of absorption technology are the following:

• Absorption chillers are practically maintenance-free (few mechanical parts); • Life expectancy of absorption chillers is at least 20 years, but can also be significantly higher; • Absorption chillers consume almost no electrical energy; • Using heat instead of electricity as driving energy reduces CO2 emissions; • Absorption chillers use natural refrigerants, which have no global warming potential.

Globally, the use of absorption cooling is widely spread. The worldwide production of large-scale absorption-type heat pumps was about 10,000 units in 1997 with 44 % in Japan and 35 % in China. Recently, medium sized individual absorption type chillers have also been developed in Japan40. In Europe the market for absorption chillers is increasing. In Italy for example, 84% of the total installed cooling effect are absorption chillers placed locally in the energy system41.

3.4 Benefits

The use of CHP technologies can produce substantial benefits compared with conventional sources of electricity and power:

• Significant energy savings: CHP can reduce energy needs by as much as 30%. The EC Directive 2004/8/EC defines high efficiency cogeneration as achieving primary energy savings of more than 10% compared with separate electricity and fuel consumption

• In case CHP installation provides more electricity than is required, the excess electricity can be sold back to the grid, generating an additional revenue stream

• Reduced emissions by a minimum of 10%

39 http://www.bchp.org/owner-equip.html 40 Nishimura, 2002 41 Berger, 2004

http://www.bchp.org/owner-equip.html


• Cost savings: cost can be reduced by between 15% to 40% compared with electricity sourced from the grid and heat generated by on-site boilers

• Enhanced reliability of supply: CHP stations connected to the electric network guarantee uninterrupted operation.


4 Steam Distribution


Steam is used to transfer heat energy from one location to another. Its use is popular throughout industry for a broad range of tasks from mechanical power production to space heating and process applications. Reasons for using steam include:

• Steam is efficient and economic to generate • Steam can easily and cost effectively be distributed to the point of use • Steam is easy to control • Energy is easily transferred to the process • The modern steam plant is easy to manage • Steam is flexible

Steam should be available at the point of use:

• In the correct quantity to ensure that a sufficient heat flow is provided for heat transfer • At the correct temperature and pressure, or performance will be affected • Free from air and incondensable gases which act as a barrier to heat transfer • Clean, as scale (e.g. rust or carbonate deposit) or dirt have the effect of increasing the rate of

erosion in pipe bends and the small orifices of steam traps and valves • Dry, as the presence of water droplets in steam reduces the actual enthalpy of evaporation,

and also leads to the formation of scale on the pipe walls and heat transfer surface.

A typical steam distribution system is presented in Figure 4-142.

42 Spirax Sarco


Figure 4-1: Typical Steam Distribution System


The table below ranks alternative energy saving measures in terms of their effectiveness in reducing energy consumption.

Table 4-1: Energy saving measures in steam distribution

Measure Energy Saving Ratio (ESR) Insulation of pipelines and equipment 3% - 13% Correct operation of steam traps 10% - 15% Flash steam recovery About 10% Use of correct steam pressure Up to 10% Condensate recovery About 5% or 1% for 6oC increase in

feed-water Improving housekeeping and maintenance 2% - 10% Minimization of heat transfer barriers Up to 5%

There are many energy efficiency opportunities related with steam distribution systems. The most important ones are:

4.2.1 Avoid Steam Leaks It is estimated that a 3 mm diameter hole on a pipeline carrying 7 kg/cm2 steam would waste about 32,000 litters of fuel per year. To eliminate leaks a company should repair leaks immediately and develop a regular surveillance programme for identifying leaks ay pipelines, valves, flanges and joints.

4.2.2 Insulation of piping and equipment A large amount of heat energy can be lost if there is poor insulation or improperly installed. An important factor in determining if insulation or improved insulation is a good energy efficiency option is the costs. The effectiveness of insulation follows the law of decreasing returns.

This means that insulation results in energy and cost savings, but with increasing thickness of insulation the additional amount of energy and cost saved is going down (Figure 4-2).


Figure 4-2: Economic Thickness of Insulation

The figure shows that the costs of insulation per m2 of surface rises with increasing insulation thickness, the heat savings per m2 of insulated surfaces decreases with increasing insulation thickness. At a certain level, any additional insulation is no longer economically justifiable. The point where the amount of insulation gives the greatest return on investment is called the “economic thickness of insulation”. In general, insulating pipes and equipment can generate energy savings of between 3% and 13%43.

4.2.3 Correct operation of Steam Traps Energy losses can be reduced by using steam traps, provided attention is paid to the following areas:

• Testing if steam traps o Visual: flow and flow variations o Sound: check sound created by flow o Temperature: discharge temperature on outlet

• Routine maintenance depending on the type of trap and its applications • Replacement of internal parts and • Replacement of traps

Savings of 10% - 15% can be achieved from correct operation of steam traps44.

43 Spirax Sarco, Optimising steam system Part I 44 Spirax Sarco, Optimising steam system Part I


4.2.4 Flash Steam recovery Flash steam is released from hot condensate when its pressure is reduced. As an example, when steam is taken from a boiler and the boiler pressure drops, some of the water content of the boiler will flash off to supplement the ‘live’ steam produced by the heat from the boiler fuel.

If flash steam is used, it is helpful to know how much of it will be available. The quantity is readily determined by calculation, or can be read from simple tables or charts. Energy savings of up to 10% can be gained from flash steam recovery.

4.2.5 Utilise Steam at Lowest Acceptable Pressure As a guide, the steam should always be generated and distributed at the highest possible pressure, but utilized at as low a pressure as possible since it then has higher latent heat. There is a limit to the reduction of steam pressure. Depending on the equipment design, the lowest possible steam pressure with which the equipment can work should be selected without sacrificing:

• Production time: it may also be seen from the steam tables that the lower the steam pressure, the lower will be its temperature. Since temperature is the driving force for the transfer of heat at lower steam pressures, the rate of heat transfer will be slower and the processing time greater;

• Steam consumption: In equipment where fixed losses are high (e.g. big drying cylinders), there may even be an increase in steam consumption at lower pressures due to increased processing time.

4.2.6 Improvement of Condensate Recovery Reasons for condensate recovery include:

• Condensate is a valuable resource and even the recovery of small quantities is often economically justifiable. Un-recovered condensate must be replaced in the boiler house by cold make-up water with additional costs of water treatment and fuel to heat up the water.

• Colder boiler feed water will reduce the steaming rate of the boiler. The lower the feed water temperature, the more heat, and thus fuel is needed to heat the water, thereby leaving less heat to raise steam.

• Condensate is distilled water, which contains almost no total dissolved solids and therefore returning more condensate to the feed tank reduces the need for blow-down and thus reduces the energy lost from the boiler

An effective condensate recovery system, can generate savings of 1% in fuel for every 6oC increase in boiler feed water45. Such e systems also tend to have very short payback periods (Figure 4-3).

45 UNEP Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia, 2006


Figure 4-3: Condensate Recovery System46

4.2.7 Minimise Heat Transfer Barriers Heat transfer barrier are shown in the Figure 4-4. The metal wall may not be the only barrier in a heat transfer process. There is likely to be a film of air, condensate and scale on the steam side. On the product side there may also be baked-on product or scale, and a stagnant film of product. An enterprise should act to minimize the development of these barriers.

Figure 4-4: Temperature gradient across heat transfer barriers47

46 Spirax Sarco http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials/condensate-recovery/introduction-to-condensate-recovery.asp 47 Spirax Sarco

http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials/condensate-recovery/introduction-to-condensate-recovery.asp

http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials/condensate-recovery/introduction-to-condensate-recovery.asp


5 Compressed Air System (CAS)

5.1 Air compressors’ technology available in Turkey

Air compressors are products that are specifically designed to increase the pressure of air in industrial operations. There are two basic compressor types:

• Positive-displacement - In the positive-displacement type, a given quantity of air or gas is trapped in a compression chamber and the volume which it occupies is mechanically reduced, causing a corresponding rise in pressure prior to discharge. At constant speed, the air flow remains essentially constant with variations in discharge pressure.

• Dynamic - Dynamic compressors impart velocity energy to continuously flowing air or gas by means of impellers rotating at very high speeds. The velocity energy is changed into pressure energy both by the impellers and the discharge volutes or diffusers.

The next formula shows the Key Performance Indicator for air compressors:

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐁𝐁𝐩𝐩𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏 𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐁𝐁𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐁𝐁𝐩𝐩𝐏𝐏𝐩𝐩𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 �𝐖𝐖𝐭𝐭𝐏𝐏𝑵𝑵

�

Air compressors are based on a mature technology that progresses by incremental improvements in specific components and subcomponents. Most of the improvements in efficiency of compressors are related to improved automation and control systems as well as improvements in electrical motor efficiency and in reduced leakages through better machining and design.

Although there are nearly 40 companies producing and importing air compressors of various types and capacities, a standard data collection form was shared with five major suppliers in the Turkish market namely, Atlas Copco, Dalgakiran, Kaeser, Ekomak and Komsan, estimated to cover 40-50 % of the market.

As reference unit, to conduct the study over air compressors, a 37 kW lubricated screw type compressor was selected as a commonly used unit. Even though the technological progress in the last 10 years has improved the efficiency of the reference unit, similar units have increased by approximately 3% only.

The market prices of the reference units are found in the range of 8,000 USD and 33,500 USD. The next table summarise the key assumptions for the air compressor. The performance of the best available air compressors in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

Compressed air system – air compressors

Product selected for the study 37 kW lubricated screw air compressor


• Atlas Copco, • Kaeser, • Dalgakiran • Ekomak and; • Komsan


Compressed air system – air compressors




Average Results from suppliers 0% 50% 50% 75%


• Specific consumption ≤ 100 Wh/Nm3 • Equipped with VSD • Performance in line with ISO 1217:2009

References • Manufacturers, and; • EU IPPC Reference Document on Best Available Techniques (BAT) for Energy

Efficiency.


Compressed air in industry is widespread and is somehow used in almost all sorts of applications. A typical compressed-air system (Figure 5-1) and consists of a supply side, which includes compressors and air treatment and a demand side, which includes distribution and storage systems and end-use equipment.

A properly managed supply side will result in clean, dry, stable air being delivered at the appropriate pressure in a cost-effective manner. A properly managed demand side minimizes wasted air and uses compressed air for the industry processes and applications.

Figure 5-1: Components of a Typical Industrial Compressed Air System48

Compressed air systems range in size and power horse from several kW to several hundred kW. In comparison to electric motor-driven systems, compressed air systems can often be designed smaller,

48https://www1.eere.energy.gov

https://www1.eere.energy.gov/


lighter and more flexible and these are some of the reasons of their widespread use in the industry. They allow for speed and torque control and show security advantages, because no electricity is used where pneumatic tools are applied. Although CAS are found in all industries, they are less energy efficient than direct motor-driven systems.

5.2.1 Uses of compressed air Uses include powering pneumatic tools, packaging and automation equipment, and conveyors. They also deliver power and are not damaged by overloading. Air-powered tools have the capability for infinitely variable speed and torque control, and can reach a desired speed and torque very quickly. In addition, they are often selected for safety reasons because they do not produce sparks.

Many manufacturing industries use compressed air and gas for combustion and process operations such as oxidation, fractionation, cryogenics, refrigeration, filtration, dehydration, and aeration. Compressed air also plays a vital role in many non-manufacturing sectors, including the transportation, construction, mining, agriculture, recreation, and service industries.

5.2.2 Compressor types There are two basic compressor types:

• Positive-displacement: In the positive-displacement type, a given quantity of air or gas is trapped in a compression chamber and the volume which it occupies is mechanically reduced, causing a corresponding rise in pressure prior to discharge. At constant speed, the air flow remains essentially constant with variations in discharge pressure.

• Dynamic: Dynamic compressors impart kinetic energy to continuously flowing air or gas by means of impellers rotating at very high speeds. The kinetic energy is changed into pressure energy both by the impellers and the discharge volutes or diffusers. In the centrifugal-type dynamic compressors, the shape of the impeller blades determines the relationship between air flow and the pressure generated.

5.2.3 Compressor prime movers The prime mover is the main power source providing energy to drive the compressor. The prime mover must provide enough power to start the compressor, accelerate it to full speed, and keep the unit operating under various design conditions.

This power can be provided by any one of the following sources: electric motors, diesel or natural gas engines, steam turbines and combustion turbines. Electric motors are by far the most common type of prime mover.

5.2.4 Compressed Air System Controls Compressed air system controls serve to match compressor supply with system demand. Proper compressor control is essential to efficient operation and high performance. Because compressor systems are typically sized to meet a system’s maximum demand, a control system is almost always needed to reduce the output of the compressor during times of lower demand.

The type of control system specified for a given system is largely determined by the type of compressor being used and the facility’s demand profile. If a system has a single compressor with a


very steady demand, a simple control system may be appropriate. On the other hand, a complex system with multiple compressors, varying demand, and many types of end users will require a more sophisticated control strategy.

5.2.5 Compressed Air Efficiency The energy balance of a compressed air system is presented in Figure 5-2. Over two thirds of the input energy is lost through waste heat and other losses and through leakages.

Figure 5-2: Sankey diagram of the energy balance in an industrial compressed air system49


Compressed air systems are typically the least energy efficient, with 80% of the input energy lost to the heat of compression assuming no recovery of the resulting low grade heat. In many industrial facilities, air compressors use more electricity than any other type of equipment.

Studies indicate that compressed air systems consume about 10% of industrial electricity consumption in the EU as well as in the USA50,51. A significant portion of the energy is often lost to leaks and inappropriate end uses, resulting in a net system efficiency of 10 – 15%52. Optimization of CAS represents one of the largest non-process, industrial energy efficiency opportunities, with improvements of 20-50% achievable through the introduction of a best practices approach53. The figures of the table were elaborated under the framework of the European SAVE programme.

49 http://www.sankey-diagrams.com/wp-content/gallery/o_gallery_207/meskell_sankey_ireland.jpg 50Radgen, P.; Blaustein, E. (2001): Compressed air systems in the European Union, Stuttgart: LOG_X. 51XEnergy (2001): Assessment of the market for compressed air efficiency services, US Department of Energy 52Compressed Air Challenge and the US Department of Energy (2003), Improving Compressed Air System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry, prepared by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Resource Dynamics Corporation, Washington, D.C., United States, DOE/GO-102003-1822. 53 Energy efficiency improvements in motors and drives, book


Table 5-1: Estimated energy savings measures in CASs54

Energy savings measure

% applicability % gains

% potential contributi

on Comments

Systems installation or renewal Improvement of

drives (high efficiency motors)

25 2 0.5 Most cost effective in small (<10kW) systems

Improvement of drives (speed

control) 25 15 3.8

Applicable to variable load systems. In multi- machine

installations, only one machine should be fitted with a variable

speed drive. The estimated gain is for overall improvement of

systems, be they mono or multi-machine.

Upgrading of Compressor 30 7 2.1

Use of sophisticated control systems 20 12 2.4

Recovering waste heat for use in other

functions 20 20-80 4

the gain is in terms of energy, not of electricity consumption, since electricity is converted to useful

heat Improved cooling, drying and filtering 10 5 0.5

Overall system design, including

multi-pressure systems

50 9 4.5

Reducing frictional pressure losses (for

example by increasing pipe

diameter)

50 3 1.5

Optimising certain end use devices 5 40 2

System operation and maintenance Reducing air leaks 80 20 16 Largest potential gain More frequent filter

replacement 40 2 0.8

5.3.1 Designing Air Intake Carefully and Reducing Intake Pressure Air receivers are used throughout the system to store compressed air to meet peak demand events. Two types, primary and secondary storage, are used to help align the supply with demand by minimizing the adverse effects of high- demand end users on the system. While both have their own advantages and disadvantages the best practice is to provide both. Storage sizing should be based

54 Reference document on best available techniques for energy efficiency, February 2009


on the volume required to meet the demand, as well as on the type of compressors and compressor control.

High-pressure applications require a high system pressure. In many systems, these high-pressure requirements make up only a small percentage of the total compressed air consumption but they determine the operating pressure for the entire system. Also, as the system pressure increases, the effects of air leaks increase, causing additional artificially created demand and increased energy consumption. Stabilizing system pressure and addressing high-pressure demands enable a reduction in system pressure.

• For every 1 KPa (or 1%) reduction in intake pressure between the atmosphere and the point of entry to the compressor’s inlet valve, a 0.5% increase in power is required to maintain the same level of output.

• Every 4oC reduction in intake temperature reduces the compressor’s energy consumption by 1%

As a result, intake air should be as cool as possible and the compressor’s intake ducts should be as short as possible, have a large cross-sectional area, smooth internal surfaces and large radius bends.

5.3.2 Choosing the Most Energy Efficient Model Different types of compressors have different operational characteristics. Centrifugal and modulating control rotary screw compressors are best suited for use as base-loaded machines because they lose efficiency at partial load. In contrast, other compressors, including multistage reciprocating VSD and variable-displacement compressors, have better partial-load efficiency and can be used to meet the changing demand of the system. Understanding the type, control, size, and number of compressors is important, especially when trying to align supply with demand.

For small compressor systems with stable loads, a simple cascade may work well, but most systems benefit from some type of control system. For multiple compressors of the same type, the on-board controls can be linked together or a simple sequencing control system can be used. The goal is to run all but one compressor at full capacity. For compressed air systems with different types of compressors, it may be useful to use more sophisticated control systems.

As a result, a company can be expected to choose the compressor which best meets its overall needs, even though it not be the most energy efficient model.

5.3.3 Use of VSDs Variable Speed Drivers are used in electro-mechanical drive systems to control AC motor speed and torque by varying motor input voltage and frequency. A compressor’s capacity is usually regulated by throttling, a method which restricts the performance of the compressor while it continues to run at full speed. However, the use of VSD is a more efficient way of regulating a compressor’s output in that power consumption more closely matches output.

The energy savings deriving from the use of a VSD can therefore only be realised when there are variations in motor load. As a result, the appropriateness of using a VSD can only be determined following a detailed study, taking into account the motor’s usual loading factor, its type of operation and its condition.


VSDs can be used in compressors when air requirements vary over time of day and days of week (if fluctuations in demand for air are low, it is unlikely that the electricity savings would justify the cost of the investment)55.

5.3.4 Waste Heat Recovery Around 80% and 93% of the electrical energy consumed by an air compressor is converted into heat which is released to the environment. In many cases, 50% – 90% of this heat can be recovered by properly designing a heat recovery system to take advantage of the available thermal energy and use it to heat air or water. Areas of opportunity for heat recovery include space heating, water heating, drying compressed air, boiler makeup water preheating, etc. A typical 47 lt/s (100 cfm) capacity air compressor consumes about 22 kW at full load, almost 20 kW of which could therefore be recovered as heat.

Depending on the type of compressor, heat can be recovered from the intercoolers, after coolers, oil coolers, and cylinders. Compressors using water-cooled motors offer additional opportunity for heat recovery because the heat produced by the motor can also be recovered. Engine-driven compressors offer even more opportunities for heat recovery, because heat can be recovered from engine jackets and engine exhaust.

5.3.5 Leak detection and Repair Air Leakages Air leaks are usually the largest cause of wasted energy in a compressed air system, often wasting 20–30% of compressed air production. In a well maintained system, fewer than 10% of capacity should be lost due to leaks.

As a rule of thumb, every 10 l/s of compressed air leakage increases energy use by about 7,000 kWh per year – this is equivalent to a single 2.5 mm diameter hole in a 700 kPa system. It is therefore important that production staff not only identify but also label leaks so that they can be easily and quickly repaired. The most common and effective method used is ultrasonic leak detection.

5.3.6 Eliminate Compressed Air Users Good maintenance practices are vital in controlling energy use as compressed air is very inefficient form of energy. User requirements may not be easy to change because they potentially affect production, but the potential improvements are great. One of the greatest potential opportunities is to eliminate the use of compressed air in some applications — especially where it is used to provide shaft work – for example it may be more effective and efficient to use other energy sources than compressed air to clean machinery parts, to cool or to agitate liquids etc.

5.3.7 Controls • Control a compressor’s operating time: Reducing the number of hours the compressor that a

compressor operates will reduce its energy consumption. It is also possible to install air isolation valves to individual production areas with less operating hours, and close these valves when the areas are not being used.

55 IPPC, Reference Document on best Available Techniques for Energy Efficiency, June 2008


• Control pressure: Reducing air pressure of a compressed air system can result in considerable savings in energy consumption. A pressure regulator can be fitted onto the supply pipe to each item of equipment with the pressure set at a level which is as low as possible but which still permits that item of equipment to operate satisfactorily. A reduction in operating pressure from 700 kPa to 600 kPa will save approximately 8% of compressor energy.

• Control velocity: As a rule of thumb, air velocity in distribution mains should not exceed 6m/s, and air velocity in branch lines should not exceed 10m/s. A 50% increase in air velocity will increase energy use by 2%.


6 Motors and Drives

6.1 Motors’ technology available in Turkey

An electric motor is a product specifically designed to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. The next figure shows the different types of electric motors. The most widely adopted electric motors in industry is alternating current induction three-phase motors. The next formula shows the Key Performance Indicator for motors:

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐊𝐊𝐭𝐭𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏 𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 [%]

The efficiency of motors has significantly improved in recent years thanks to the efforts by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) and motor manufacturers.

In 1998, as part of the voluntary agreement between the European sector committee of Manufacturers of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics (CEMEP) and the European Commission, three efficiency classes were defined for the power range of 1.1 kW to 325 kW as it follows:

• EFF3 = Motors with a low efficiency level;

• EFF2 = Motors with an improved efficiency level, and;

• EFF1 = Motors with a high efficiency level.

The new measuring methods in accordance with IEC 60034-2-1:2007 (standard methods for determining losses and efficiency from tests) apply for all motors described by IEC 60034-1. These methods help to generate more exact data regarding stray load loss. The new standard replaces the previous European standard EN 60034-2:1996, which expired on 1 November 2010. Motors that are marked according to the new efficiency class system (IE-code) are required to be measured using the new measurement methods.

The new international efficiency class system (IE-code) has an open numbering system. Compared to the old EFF efficiency classes, it is now easier to add future developments. In addition, there is a new class – IE3 – which did not exist in the old European EFF classification system. The scope has also been extended significantly; the new IE-code applies to a larger power range.


Figure 6-1 – Motors’ efficiency classification

The ecodesign requirements of the EU Commission Regulation (EC) No. 640/2009, Ecodesign Requirements for Electric Motors are in force since June 2011. This regulation imposes mandatory minimum efficiencies for many types of three-phase, low voltage electric induction motors.

In particular, since 1st January 2015 motors with a rated output of 7.5-375 kW shall not be less efficient than the IE3 efficiency level, as defined in Annex I, point 1, or meet the IE2 efficiency level, as defined in Annex I, point 1, and be equipped with a variable speed drive. This is applicable also in Turkey as per national legislation.

Figure 6-2 – Legislative Timeline for Motor Efficiency Class Transition

The regulation allows the end user to choose whether to use an IE3 motor (fixed or variable speed), or an IE2 motor controlled by a variable speed drive. However, an IE2 motor equipped with variable speed drive is not equivalent to an IE3 motor from the energy efficiency point of view.

Electromagnetic sector in Turkey is well developed: as a fact more than 600 producers operate in producing transformer, electric motor and other auxiliary equipment. Electric motors and related auxiliary parts are one of the most exported equipment in Turkey with total value of 6 billion USD.

The key players in the market are Siemens, ABB, GE and Mitsubishi as international suppliers, Gamak, Wat, Intermotor and Elektromak as local producers. Apart from those, there are many small local machinery producers.

A study has been performed to identify the standard technology costs for the representative unit of 25 kWel three phase asynchronous electrical motor. The next table summarise the key assumptions for the motor. The performance of the best available motors in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

Motor System - Motors

Product selected for the study 22 kW three phase 2 pole

List of suppliers contacted • Siemens, Wat





Motor System - Motors

Results from suppliers 1.5% 75% 10% 80%

Top performing equipment available in Turkey • IE3 premium efficiency.

References • IEC 60034-2-1:2007 • European Commission (Joint Research Centre). European Committee of

Manufacturers of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics (CEMEP) • Manufacturers.


Electric motors account for about two-thirds of all electricity used by industry and one half of all electricity used by commercial facilities.

Figure 6-3 shows the share of the various motor systems in the total electricity consumption of all motor systems in the US. Although the figures vary slightly by country, the general pattern is comparable to most countries. Pumping, compressed air and fan systems are some of the most electricity-consuming motor systems.

Figure 6-3: Share of different motor systems of total electricity use by industrial motor systems in the

US56

Direct-current (DC) and Alternating-current (AC) are the main types of electric motors. Figure 6-4 shows the most common electric motors. These are categorized based on the input supply, construction and operation mechanism. Direct-current motors are quite expensive requiring a direct current source or a converting device to convert normal alternating current into direct current. Alternating current motors are the most frequently used motors because electrical power is normally supplied as alternating current.

56IEA 2007


Figure 6-4: Classification of the main types of electric motors57

A motor's nameplate rating is based on useful mechanical output power for continuous operation and with a temperature rise within the specified insulation temperature class.

The efficiency of a motor is defined as “the ratio of a motor’s useful mechanical power output to its total electric power input”, usually expressed as a percentage.

Most electric motors are designed to run at 50% to 100% of the rated load. At this load range their efficiency is relatively high. Their maximum efficiency is usually achieved near 75% of the rated load. Efficiency decreases dramatically in the load range below of some point of the rated load. Poor maintenance and repairs reduce efficiency. The range of good efficiency varies with individual motors and for larger motors tends to extend over a broader range. This trend is presented in Figure 6-5.

Figure 6-5: Efficiency of electric motors with various rated output (efficiency improves in larger motors)58

Electric motor systems account for about 60% to 70% of industrial electricity consumption and about 15% of final energy use in industry worldwide59. The largest proportion of motor electricity consumption is attributable to mid-size motors with output power of 0.75 – 375 kW. Further, the duty, 57Electrical Energy Equipment: Electric Motors, Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia, UNEP 58Premium-Efficiency Motors Natural Resources Canada 59IEA 2007


the load and the running time of a motor are important factors in assessing the value of its efficiency. If a motor operates continuously at full load, it is likely to use its own purchase cost in electricity charges, within a rather short period from its installation. Various energy efficiency standards exist worldwide for induction motors. Those related to Europe are presented next.

Efficiency classes defined by IEC 60034-30:2008

This standard defines three IE (International Efficiency) efficiency classes for single-speed, three phase, cage induction motors.

• IE3 (Premium efficiency) • IE2 (High efficiency) • IE1 (Standard efficiency)

The scope of the standard is wider as covers almost all types of motors (for example standard, hazardous area, marine, brake motors). A fourth class IE4 (Super premium efficiency) was defined in 2010 by IEC 60034-31:2010 Technical Specification.

Regulation 640/2009, amended by Regulation 4/2014

It covers 2-, 4- and 6-pole, single speed, three-phase induction motors rated up to 1,000 V and on the basis of continuous duty operation, defines the timing of coming into force of the requirements related to the efficiency of electric motors, considering the Directive 2005/32/EC “Establishing a framework for setting of eco-design requirements for energy-using products”. These requirements are presented below:

6 June 2011 Stage 1: Motors must meet the IE2 efficiency level

1 January 2015 Stage 2: Motors with a rated output of 7.5 to 375 kW must meet either the IE3 efficiency level or the IE2 level if fitted with a VSD.

1 January 2017 Stage 3: Motors with a rated output of 0.75 to 375 kW must meet either the IE3 efficiency level or the IE2 level if fitted with a VSD.

Efficiency classes defined by IEC/EN 60034-30-1:2014

This standard establishes a set of limit efficiency values based on frequency, number of poles and motor power. The standard covers a wider scope of products. No distinction is made between motor technologies and supply voltage. This makes different motor technologies fully comparable with respect to their energy efficiency potential as long as they are rated for direct on-line operation. The power range has been expanded to cover motors from 120 W to 1000 kW.


The most important methods of improving energy use include:


6.3.1 Use of High Efficient Motors When replacing equipment, businesses are often tempted to opt for that with the lowest capital cost; however, such immediate cost savings can prove to be a false economy. Considering the life cycle cost before investing in equipment can help reduce costs and improve cash flow in the longer term.

Replacement of a standard motor with a High Efficient (HE) motor can be considered in situations where:

• the motor need to be replaced because it is at the end of its life; • a motor has failed and would need to be repaired; • the costs savings create a good business case for replacement

The following recommendations can be considered as a quick guide to actions:

• Motors that run continuously (typically 8,000 or more hours a year) and are considered inefficient should be replaced with efficient motors at the next available opportunity, such as during a scheduled downtime.

• Motors that are properly sized but have standard efficiency should be replaced with energy-efficient models when they fail.

• Motors that are reasonably efficient and are used less than 2,000 hours each year could be rewound or replaced with a similar motor.

The operating costs of an existing standard motor with an appropriately-sized energy efficient replacement motor, require the knowledge of operating hours, efficiency improvement values, and load. Part-load is a term used to describe the actual load served by the motor as compared to the rated full-load capability of the motor. Motor part-loads may be estimated through using input power, amperage, or speed measurements.

Depending on the age and efficiency of the motor in place, the replacement of a less efficient motor with a high efficiency motor can have considerable saving potentials with payback times of a few years only. For applications which have high annual running hours, in particular (mostly in firms with multi-shift operations) replacement can be very profitable60.

Case studies reveal that motors which are older than 20 years are still being used in many companies (in developing as well as in developed countries). Even shorter payback times are achieved if; following the breakdown of a motor, high efficiency motors are chosen rather than standard ones. The price premium of a high efficiency motor, of about 20%, often pays off after several months61.

In case of a motor breakdown, companies often decide to rewind the broken motor and to thus avoid higher investments in a new one. From an efficiency point of view, rewinding can be a bad decision for two reasons. The older less efficient motor will continue to be used for a decade or two and, furthermore, rewinding often comes with a loss of motor efficiency of 1 to 3 percent, which is substantial for electric motors62.

60Energy efficiency in electric motor systems: Technical potentials and policy approaches for developing countries, UNIDO, 2011 61Energy efficiency in electric motor systems: Technical potentials and policy approaches for developing countries, UNIDO, 2011 62Energy efficiency in electric motor systems: Technical potentials and policy approaches for developing countries, UNIDO, 2011


6.3.2 Optimising Motor Size As a result of conservative engineering practices, drive systems are often substantially larger than they need to be. For example, centrifugal pumps are often over-sized because of added safety margins in the various design steps, starting with the process design up to the purchasing specification and the manufacturer’s design to ensure it will meet the guarantees. In addition, process plant operating conditions may have changed, resulting in over-sized systems.

Consequently, the driven equipment and the electric motor both operate far besides their optimal efficiency point. If this is the case consideration should be given to replace the over-sized motor, with a smaller one. The following recommendations can be considered as a quick guide to actions:

• Motors that operate more than 2,000 hours per year and are significantly oversized or under loaded should to be replaced with more efficient, properly sized models at the next opportunity, such as scheduled plant downtime.

• Motors that are moderately oversized or under loaded have to be replaced with more efficient, properly sized models when they fail.

6.3.3 Use of VSDs The flow rate control of fluid flow equipment, such as pumps, fans, and compressors, driven by an electric induction motor, and running at a fixed speed, is often done by a throttling control valves in the discharge side of the equipment, or through a by-pass flow (in this case, part of the produced flow is directly fed back to the suction side, bypassing the end users).

In applications with variable flow demand and relatively little static pressure lift, variable speed drives in combination with AC induction electric motors can be an efficient and costs savings alternative for throttling or by-pass control, or on/off control, because the power requirement varies with the third power of the pump or compressor speed.

They are usually available as stand-alone devices and are connected to the motor’s electrical supply, however on some smaller motor designs, the VSD may be built onto the motor and is available as an integrated motor-drive product (Figure 6-6).

Figure 6-6: Variable Speed Drives: Stand-alone on left and integrated with the motor right


A VSD adjusts a motor’s output on the basis of a programmable setting and (normally) from signals by one or more sensors (temperature, pressure, level, weight, flow, etc.) with significant energy and cost savings. Some examples of use are:

• Pumps: to maintain pre-set pressure levels, discharge flows into the system, etc. • Fans: similar as above in pumps • Boilers: to maintain optimal combustion e.g. by adjusting the quantity of inlet combustion air

(in large boilers an oxygen sensor in the flue gas, regulates the VSD-fan) • Air compressors: to meet varying demand and maintain the required pressure/flow • Conveyors: with speed control, weight control • Refrigeration systems: to maintain the pre-set temperatures, • Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning, to maintain the required in-door conditions at low

energy consumption.

6.3.4 Installation of Soft Starters Motors drawn very high currents when starting – these can generate significant heat, increase energy consumption, increase motor wear and reduced a motor’s life expectancy.

Using soft starters limit the current to a motor during start-up, allowing a smoother start and also allowing a higher maximum number of starts per hours (very useful for motors that are subject to frequent starts and stops).

6.3.5 Installation of Automatic Controls Automatic control can help to reduce energy consumption. For example, a timer can be used to switch motor-powered equipment on or off at specified times during the day. Interlocks can be used to link the operation of one piece of equipment to that of another. Load -sensing devices can also be used to sense when there is no load on the motor, allowing it to be switched off after a suitable period of time, thus saving energy.


7 Pumps and Pumping Systems

7.1 Pumps’ technology available in Turkey

Pumps are products designed to provide cooling and lubrication services, to transfer fluids for processing, and to provide the motive force in hydraulic systems.

Pumps are classified by the way they add energy to a fluid: positive displacement pumps squeeze the fluid directly, while centrifugal pumps speed up the fluid and convert this kinetic energy to pressure. The next formula shows the Key Performance Indicator for fans:

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐁𝐁𝐊𝐊𝐁𝐁𝐈𝐈 𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐩𝐩𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈 [%]

Pumps sector can be counted as a mature sector in Turkey. There are three main players in the market as global companies, Wilo and Grundfos, and as local brand Standart Pompa covers nearly 90% of the market.

Pumps have varying efficiency levels. Centrifugal pumps have an operating point at which their efficiency is highest, commonly known as the best efficiency point (BEP). There are two main categories for circulation pumps:

• Circulator pumps where pump and motor are integrated, and; • Circulator pumps where pump and motor are NOT integrated.

For the first class, since 1st January 2013 all circulation pumps are assigned by their manufacturer an EEI (energy efficiency index). The most energy efficient circulator pumps (class A) have a variable speed drive and a permanent magnet motor. The market penetration rate of circulation pumps included in “A” efficiency class in Turkey has been estimated in approximately 10%. The next table summarise the key assumptions for the pumps. The performance of the best available pumps in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

Motor system - Pumps


• Circulator pumps where pump and motor are integrated (“EEI A efficiency class”) - Energy Efficiency Index (EEI) < 0.27; - Equipped with at least IEC 3 class efficiency motor and; - Equipped with VSD.

• Circulator pumps where pump and motor are NOT integrated - Equipped with IEC 3 class efficiency motor - Equipped with VSD



Pumping systems account for nearly 20% of the world’s electrical energy demand. Furthermore, they range between 25-50% of the energy usage in certain industrial plant operations. The use of pumping systems is widespread. They provide domestic, commercial and agricultural services. In addition, they provide municipal water and wastewater services, and industrial services for food processing, chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and mechanical industries.

Pumps have two main purposes:

• Transfer of liquid from one place to another place (e.g. water from an underground aquifer into a water storage tank)

• Circulate liquid around a system (e.g. cooling water or lubricants through machines and equipment)

Pumps are also classified by the way they add energy to a fluid:

• Centrifugal pumps: speed up the fluid and convert this kinetic energy to pressure • Positive displacement pumps: squeeze the fluid directly.

The operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump for constant speed are shown in Figure 7-1 and are:

• Performance of a pump: It is a graph plotting the pressure generated by the pump, measured in terms of head, (head is a measure of pressure, expressed in meters, indicating the height of a column of system fluid that has an equivalent amount of potential energy) over a range of flow rates. It is identified as “Head (H)” in Figure 7-1, while the flow rate is identified as “Discharge (Q)” in the same figure.

• Efficiency of a pump: The efficiency of a pump is the ratio of a pump’s fluid power to the pump shaft power, which, for direct-coupled pump/motor combinations, is the motor mechanical power.

• Pump’s fluid power: It is identified as “Output power” in Figure 7-1. • Electrical power supplied to the motor: It is identified as “Input power (P)” in Figure 7-1.


Figure 7-1: Operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump for constant speed

Understanding these relationships is essential to designing and operating a centrifugal system. The way that the three distinct power values (pump, shaft, motor) are calculated is presented in the figure below.

Motor power (Electrical) Pi=Ps/nm

nm = motor efficiency

Shaft power (Mechanical) Ps=Ph/nh

nh = pump efficiency

Pump fluid power(kW) Ph= (HxQxd)/367

H = head of fluid (m) Q = flow rate (m3/h) d = density of fluid (tons/m3, water=1)

Affinity Laws: Describe the relationship between the speed (N) and other variables.

Flow: Q1/Q2 = (N1/N2) Head: H1/H2 = (N1/N2)2 Fluid power: P1/P2 = (N1/N2)3

Figure 7-2: Basic components of a pump system, the way their power is calculated and the Affinity Laws

In a pumping system, the objective, in most cases, is either to transfer a liquid from a source to a required destination, e.g., filling a high-level reservoir, or to circulate liquid around a system, e.g., as a means of heat transfer. Pressure is needed to make the liquid flow at the required rate and this must overcome losses in the system. Losses are of two types: static and friction head.

• Static head, in its most simple form, is the difference in height of the supply and destination of the liquid being moved, or the pressure in a vessel into which the pump is discharging, if it is independent of flow rate.

• Friction head (sometimes called dynamic head loss), is the friction loss on the liquid being moved, in pipes, valves, and other equipment in the system. This loss is proportional to the square of the flow rate.

When a pump is installed in a system, the effect can be illustrated graphically by superimposing pump and system curves (Figure 7-3). The operating point is where the two curves intersect.


Figure 7-3: System curve and a performance curve for a centrifugal pump. Pump efficiency curve is

also included. Constant motor speed


7.3.1 Selecting the Right Pump Figure 7-4 shows a typical vendor-supplied pump performance curves for a centrifugal pump where clear water is the pumping liquid.

Figure 7-4: Pump performance curve for centrifugal pump

In selecting the pump, suppliers try to match the system curve supplied by the user with a pump curve that satisfies these needs as closely as possible.

The operating point is where the system curve and pump performance curve intersect. The Best Efficiency Point (BEP) is the pumping capacity at maximum impeller diameter, in other words, at which

Flo

Head

Static head

Pump performance curve

System curve

Pump operating


the efficiency of the pump is highest. All points to the right or left of the BEP have a lower efficiency. The BEP is affected when the selected pumps is oversized. Inefficiencies of oversized pumps can be overcome by for example the installation of VSDs, lower rpm, smaller impeller or trimmed impeller.

7.3.2 Controlling Flow – Speed Variation Controlling the pump speed is the most efficient way to control the flow, because when the pump’s speed is reduced, the power consumption is also reduced. The most commonly used method to reduce pump speed is the use of a VSD. VSDs allow pump speed adjustments over a continuous range, avoiding the need to jump from speed to speed as with multiple-speed pumps

The major advantages of VSD application in addition to energy saving are:

• Improved process control because VSDs can correct small variations in flow more quickly • Improved system reliability because wear of pumps, bearings and seals is reduced. • Reduction of capital & maintenance cost because control valves, by-pass lines, • Conventional starters are no longer needed. • Soft starter capability: VSDs allow the motor the motor to have a lower start up current.

7.3.3 Parallel Pumps for Varying Demand Operating two or more pumps in parallel and turning some off when the demand is lower, can result in significant energy savings. Pumps providing different flow rates can be used. Parallel pumps are an option when the static head is more than fifty percent of the total head. The pump curve for a single pump, two pumps operating in parallel and three pumps operating in parallel is illustrated in Figure 7-5.

Figure 7-5: Curve for parallel pumps

The figure shows that the system curve normally does not change by running pumps in parallel and that flow rate is lower than the sum of the flow rates of the different pumps.


7.3.4 Impeller Trimming Changing the impeller diameter gives a proportional change in the impeller’s peripheral velocity. Changing the impeller diameter is an energy efficient way to control the pump flow rate. However, for this option, the following should be considered:

• This option cannot be used where varying flow patterns exist. • The impeller should not be trimmed more than 25% of the original impeller size, otherwise it

leads to vibration due to cavitation and therefore decrease pump’s efficiency. • The balance of the pump has to been maintained, i.e. the impeller trimming should be the

same on all sides. • Changing the impeller itself is a better option than trimming the impeller, but it is also more

expensive and sometimes the smaller impeller is too small


8 Industrial Refrigeration and Cooling

8.1 Chillers’ technology available in Turkey

Chillers cover products that are specifically designed to cool liquids by means of a refrigeration system that is packaged within a single factory assembled unit.

The majority of refrigeration systems use the vapour compression cycle (electrically driven). Heat is absorbed through a heat exchanger as the refrigerant evaporates dropping down the water/air temperature. Heat is rejected through another heat exchanger as the refrigerant condenses. Electric chillers are classified in three different categories: scroll, screw and centrifugal type.

Depending on the condensation type, the electric chiller can be either air-cooled or water-cooled type. The latter is usually equipped with cooling towers and it is much more efficient than air-cooled type. The next formula shows the Key Performance Indicator for electric chillers:

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐂𝐂𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 (𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐏𝐏) �𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

�

In case the cycle is thermally driven, the chillers are classified as absorption type. There are two types of absorption chillers: single-stage and double-stage. The next formula shows the Key Performance Indicator for absortpion chillers:

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐂𝐂𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 (𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐏𝐏) �𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

�

The major international suppliers of HVAC&R are Carrier, York, Trane, McQuay, Clivet and GEA as well as several Turkish brands. A total of 1,500 companies in Turkey are engaged in HVAC&R sector, 61% of which are located in Istanbul, 10% in Ankara 8 % in Izmir and 22% distributed in other regions of Turkey. The maturity of market supply for HVAC&R system can be considered as high. Electric chiller technology is mature reaching maximum technological limits at a component level.

In the last years, the technological progress has led to improvement of electric chiller performances. The technological advances can be estimated in 10-15% improvement of COP.

As reference unit for the study a 500 kWfr electric screw compressor chiller has been selected. The price range for the reference unit varies between 40,000 to 120,000 USD, based on the brand and efficiency. The next table summarise the key assumptions for electric chillers. The performance of the best available chillers in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

HVAC&R System – Chiller – Package Electric chiller

Product selected for the study • 500 kWfr electric screw compressor chiller (air-cooled type)

List of suppliers contacted • Carrier, • Clivet and


HVAC&R System – Chiller – Package Electric chiller • McQuay






• Package Electric chiller (air-cooled type) Coefficient of Performance (COP) ≥ 3.0 (7°C/12°C - 30°C/35°C)

• Package Electric chiller (water-cooled type) Coefficient of Performance (COP) ≥ 4.0 (7°C/12°C -30°C/35°C)

• HFC refrigerants only

References

• EU IPPC Reference Document on Best available Techniques (BAT) for Energy Efficiency;

• US Department of Energy and; • Manufacturers.

The VRV technology has progressed in the recent years with improvements gained from efficient compressor use, inverters, improved heat exchanger efficiencies, better aerodynamic design and controls.

As reference unit a 100 kWfr VRV unit has been selected. The VRV market is highly mature, with major companies of Arçelik, LG, Daikin, Bosch, Fujitsu, Carrier, Toshiba, Mitsubishi, Midea covering more than 70% of the market.

The price range for the reference unit of 100 kWfr VRV unit varies between 8,000 to 25,000 USD, based on the brand and efficiency.

VRF Units with COP exceeding 3.4 can now be easily found on the market. Some products available on the market even reach 4.25 COP. The next table summarise the key assumptions for VRF system. The performance of the best available VRF systems in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

HVAC&R System – Chiller – VRF system

Product selected for the study 100 kWfr VRV unit

List of suppliers contacted • Arçelik, • Carrier, • Bosch






• Cooling Coefficient of Performance (COP) ≥ 3.4 • Heat pump configuration is also included in this category • HFC refrigerants only

References • EU IPPC Reference Document on Best available Techniques (BAT) for Energy Efficiency;


HVAC&R System – Chiller – VRF system

• Manufacturers.

The split units have considerably progressed in the last years with improvements gained from efficient compressor use, inverters, improved heat exchanger efficiencies, better aerodynamic design and controls. They are mainly adopted for residential and building sectors.

As reference unit a 6.5 kWfr split unit has been selected. The split unit market is highly mature, with major companies of Arçelik, LG, Daikin, Bosch, Fujitsu, Carrier, Toshiba, Mitsubishi, Midea, Vestel, Airfel, Sharp, Beko, General, Panasonic and many other Turkish and international brands.

The price range for the reference unit of 6.5 kWfr split unit varies between 700 to 2,500 USD, based on the brand and efficiency as well as comfort criteria of low noise and aesthetics.

The split systems with COP exceeding 3.4 can now be easily found on the market. Traditional split air conditioning technology can either work at maximum capability or switch off, as the compressor's speed cannot be varied. Inverter air conditioners use a variable-frequency drive to control the speed of the motor and thus the compressor. Eliminating stop-start cycles increases efficiency, extends the life of components, and helps eliminate sharp fluctuations in the load the air-conditioner places on the power supply. The next table summarise the key assumptions for split units. The performance of the best available split units in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

HVAC&R System – Chiller –Split units

Product selected for the study 6.5 kWfr split unit


• Arçelik, • Carrier, • Bosch, • Daikin






• Either Cooling Coefficient of Performance (COP) ≥ 3.4 or A+ efficiency class or SEER > 5.6

• Heat pump configuration is also included in this category • Equipped with VSD • HFC refrigerants only


Efficiency; • Manufacturers.

The absorption chiller market, in particular for the smaller units is very new and highly immature, with only very few brands of Alarko-Carrier, Broad, World Energy and LS active in Turkey.

As reference unit a 500 kWfr single stage absorption chiller have been selected. Although due to the immaturity of market, unit prices are not set, and change based on negotiations between the supplier


and the client, an approximate price range for the reference unit of 500 kWfr single stage unit can estimated to be between 150,000 to 250,000 USD. The next table summarise the key assumptions for absorption chillers. Since the market is not mature yet, the performance of the best available equipment in the Turkish market is lower than OECD countries.

HVAC&R System – Chiller – Absorption chiller

Product selected for the study 500 kWfr single effect absorption chiller

List of suppliers contacted • Broad, • Alarko • Carrier






• Single effect absorption COP ≥ 0.65, and; • Double effect absorption COP ≥ 1.0.


Efficiency • Manufacturers.


Refrigeration systems are widely used in industry and account for a particularly large proportion of electrical energy costs in the food industry, sometimes as much as 50% of total energy costs, for example, in the industrial handling of meat, chicken or fish, or up to 70% in ice-cream production.

Refrigeration plants are not only costly in capital terms but have significant operational costs, primarily due to their own energy consumption. Refrigeration systems typically cost seven to ten times as much to run over their lifetime as they do to buy. The type of refrigerant used will depend on the pressure capabilities of the system and the temperatures that have to be achieved during refrigeration. Commonly used refrigerants belong to the family of chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs also called Freon in the market). The refrigeration cycle (see figure below) is shown in the following figure.


Figure 8-1: Refrigeration Cycle63

There are five basic components of a refrigeration system:

• Evaporator • Compressor • Condenser • Expansion Valve • Refrigerant; to conduct the heat from the product

In order for the refrigeration cycle to operate successfully each component must be present within the refrigeration system.

Evaporators - The purpose of the evaporator is to remove unwanted heat from the product, via the liquid refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant contained within the evaporator is boiling at a low-pressure. The level of this pressure is determined by two factors:

• The rate at which the heat is absorbed from the product to the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator

• The rate at which the low-pressure vapour is removed from the evaporator by the compressor

To enable the transfer of heat, the temperature of the liquid refrigerant must be lower than the temperature of the product being cooled. Once transferred, the liquid refrigerant is drawn from the evaporator by the compressor via the suction line. When leaving the evaporator coil the liquid refrigerant is in vapour form.

63 BERG Chilling System, inc.


Evaporators can also serve as chillers, providing a circuit of chilled liquid (usually water) for circulation to other heat exchangers where cooling is required.

Compressors -The purpose of the compressor is to draw the low-temperature, low-pressure vapour from the evaporator via the suction line. Once drawn, the vapour is compressed. When vapour is compressed it rises in temperature. Therefore, the compressor transforms the vapour from a low-temperature vapour to a high-temperature vapour, in turn increasing the pressure. The vapour is then released from the compressor in to the discharge line. There are two basic compression technologies:

• Positive displacement (or Volumetric): pressure is increased by reducing the volume of the space where the gas is contained

• Dynamic: gas velocity is increased and the velocity energy is then converted in pressure energy

Condensers - The purpose of the condenser is to extract heat from the refrigerant to the outside air. The condenser is usually installed on the reinforced roof of the building, which enables the transfer of heat. Fans mounted above the condenser unit are used to draw air through the condenser coils.

The temperature of the high-pressure vapour determines the temperature at which the condensation begins. As heat has to flow from the condenser to the air, the condensation temperature must be higher than temperature of the air. The high-pressure vapour within the condenser is then cooled to the point where it becomes a liquid refrigerant once more, whilst retaining some heat. The liquid refrigerant then flows from the condenser into the liquid line.

Expansion Valve - Within the refrigeration system, the expansion valve is located at the end of the liquid line, before the evaporator. The high-pressure liquid reaches the expansion valve, having come from the condenser. The valve then reduces the pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through the orifice, which is located inside the valve. On reducing the pressure, the temperature of the refrigerant also decreases to a level below the surrounding air. This low-pressure, low-temperature liquid is then pumped in to the evaporator.

Refrigeration efficiency is determined by the refrigerant used and operating conditions. It is expressed as the Coefficient of Performance (COP), a measure of the ratio between the net cooling achieved, and the total power consumed by the cooling system (including auxiliaries).

Good insulation of pipe work and equipment is essential to operate refrigeration systems reliably and economically. It is particularly important in low evaporating temperature systems, (which have long suction lines running through non-refrigerated areas), as any increase in the gas temperature entering the compressor will reduce its efficiency.




Table 8-1: Energy saving measures in industrial refrigeration and cooling

Measure Energy Saving Ratio (ESR) Heat recovery Up to 30% Use of high efficiency motors Up to 20% Use automatic leak detection systems Up to 15% Load reduction Up to 10% Multi stage refrigeration systems Increase of COP by up to 10% Good housekeeping 5% - 15% depending on the condition of

the plant Improving controls 2% - 5%%

Considerable energy savings can be achieved through improvements to the design, operation and maintenance of refrigeration systems.

8.3.1 Refrigeration Load Reduction The cooling load can be reduced in several ways:

• Cooling or pre-cooling without the need of refrigeration; • Improving the insulation and reducing the ventilation in piping and in the building to be cooled; • Minimising the number of times that cold store doors have to be opened. If this is not possible,

reducing the time that the doors remain open to a minimum. Use automatic controlled doors or heat insulating curtains where possible, or establish an air-lock system at entrances.

• Optimise transportation through cold store; • Using more efficient lighting systems in the cooled rooms

8.3.2 Condenser Heat Recovery The use of heat recovery from a refrigeration system is recommended when there is hot air or water consumption for processes, cleaning or heating close to the refrigeration site and when the heat demand is simultaneous with the working time of the cooling plant. Some options include:

• Direct heating of air in the condenser. This is the most efficient form of energy recovery, but it often cannot be used because of the long distance between the condenser and the point of demand for the heated air. However, heat recovered from the condenser at 25oC-35°C through heating air or water can be used to heat offices, dry air.

• Recovering heat from a ‘de-super-heater’ installed between the compressor and condenser. This heat can be between 60°C and 90°C. The heat exchanger uses the refrigerant on one side and the fluid to be heated on the other side and it de-superheats the refrigerant thus reducing the amount of cooling water or air needed by the condenser. The size of the de-


super-heater is designed to meet hot water demand. If demand varies, a storage vessel can be used.

In larger refrigeration plants that use screw compressors recovering heat from oil coolers can generate water at 35oC – 40oC. However, only 10% to 25% of the heat discharge in the condenser is recovered using this technique.

When fitting heat recovery equipment to an existing refrigeration plant, the amount of energy recovered can be up to 30% of the cooling capacity. However, the installation of such equipment is not viable below a compressor electrical load of 30 kW64.

8.3.3 Improving System Controls By improving control of a system it is possible to increase energy efficiency, for example:

• By not part-loading compressors, especially screw compressors • By increasing temperature levels on the cold side and reducing temperature levels on hot side-

each degree change in temperature can reduce electricity consumption by 2% - 5%

8.3.4 Reducing Refrigeration Leakage Refrigerant leakage may reduce a system’s efficiency and its COP. Leaking systems can therefore contribute twice to climate change; first through the loss of the refrigerant itself, and second through an increase in emissions associated with higher electricity consumption.

However, it is possible to install automated permanent leak detection systems to minimise possible leaks. These are available with single or multi-point sensing devices which cam monitor up to 16 locations. Leak detection systems can save up to 15% of energy costs for refrigeration65

8.3.5 Multi Stage Refrigeration The simple refrigeration cycle is limited by the maximum pressure difference a single compressor can efficiently sustain - a single stage system generally cannot efficiently achieve temperatures of below -26°C. Multi-stage refrigeration systems are widely used when ultra-low temperatures are required. However, they need to maintain very high compression ratios which can:

• Reduce compression efficiency; • Increase the temperature of the refrigerant vapour from the compressor; • Increase energy consumption per unit of refrigeration production.

There are two types of such systems: cascade and multi-stage. The multistage system uses two or more compressors connected in series in the same refrigeration system (Figure 8-2).

Multi stage systems are generally preferred because they are more efficient and less expensive than cascade systems: mixing the saturated vapour from the flash drum with the effluent from the second compressor is a more efficient way of transporting energy than using a heat exchanger.

64 Carbon Trust, How to implement heat recovery in refrigeration CTL056 65 Carbon Trust, Refrigeration systems, Guide to energy saving opportunities CTG046, 2008

http://www.refrigers.com/content/view/31649/28/


.

Figure 8-2: Multi Stage Compression and Refrigeration Cycle66

8.3.6 Water-cooled chillers in lieu of air-cooled chillers The COP varies depending on the temperature lift of the system – the temperature lift is the difference between the evaporating temperature and condensing temperature. The next figure shows that the lower the temperature lift the lower the power consumption, thus the higher the COP.

Figure 8-3: Power input versus evaporating and condensing temperature67

66 Learn Thermo.com 67 Energy efficient refrigeration technology – the fundamentals, 2000 Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme


Since the condensing temperature depends on the temperature available of the condensation thermal vector adopted, the selection of the type of condenser can strongly affect chiller’s performance. In particular, the water cooled down in the cooling towers result in much lower temperature than ambient air thus resulting in better performance. If water is available and the the weather is not partıcularly humid, water cooled chillers always provide much better performances than air-cooled chillers. As a rule of thumb, a decrease of 1°C in condensing temperature will increase the COP by 2-4%.

8.3.7 Free-cooling application The peculiar local weather conditions as long as the process cooling demand may look to be very favourable for adopting free-cooling solution. The outside temperature, during the winter time, may make it possible to overcome the use of refrigerator (chiller) to remove heat from loads. Free-cooling consists of switching off the chillers in winter time and re-circulate the water coming back from cooling towers through a plate type heat exchanger connected with the chilled water pipeline.

At ST site in Agrate (Italy), a free-cooling system was implemented: the measured Coefficient of Performance (COP) of the Free Cooling was 20, 5 times better than before, therefore, as a result of the 3 months of inactivity, the chillers life time is stretched by a 25%.


9 Process Control Systems Reducing energy use at an industrial site requires a structured approach based on sound, accurate and timely measurement of energy consumption and the ability of energy managers to access and utilise this information. In this section Instrumentation, Energy Management System (EnMS) and Monitoring and Targeting (M&T) are discussed.

9.1 Instrumentation

A closed-loop control system is the basic building block of any design process control. A typical closed-loop control system is illustrated in Figure 9-1.

Figure 9-1: Closed-loop control system68

A closed-loop control system consists of:

• The measurement device – usually a sensor that measures a particular physical property (i.e. temperature, flow rate) and a transmitter that converts the sensor’s output into a standard control signal which is send to the controller

• The controller – This is usually located in a protective place in a central room • The regulator – This controls process throughput

There are various types of process control systems:

68 Carbon Trust, CTV030


• Single-loop controllers: electronic relays and simple on-off controllers. These controllers receive temperature, flow rate, pressure and other types of measurement readings from sensors and send corresponding instructions to control elements such as valves in order to maintain these values within a desired range; each control loop has its own controller.

• Sequence Controllers: such as programmable logic controllers (PLCs). A control method in which the control process is divided into single steps that are processed one after the another according to an initially determined procedure.

• Distributed Control Systems (DCS): DCS control large and complex processes and can sequence process start up and shut down operations. A DCS is commonly used in manufacturing equipment and utilises input and output protocols to control the machine

• Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems: SCADA systems are software packages designed to run on a computer and control a wide range of industrial processes. Some advanced systems also include fault diagnosis and production scheduling systems.

Process control systems are generally very cost-effective; they have an enormous influence on the overall consumption of energy within the site as they control the operation of all processes and utilities. Adopting best practise in process control can result in energy savings of between 5% and 15% depending on the quality of existing process control systems and the nature of the process.

9.2 Monitoring and Targeting (M&T)

Better management of energy and material flows. This management is based on monitoring of relevant flows and on understanding causes of inefficiencies. Two basic groups of tools maybe distinguished that can be utilised for exploration of efficiency improvement potential:

• Auditing approaches such as energy audit which focus on exploration of the potential for efficiency improvements through understanding specific causes of losses. The disadvantage of these approaches is that in order to develop and implement efficiency improvement measures, the approaches provide only a static snapshot of the process within an audit and/or assessment at a given point in time. The dynamic nature of industrial processes creates difficulties in monitoring real benefits of implemented measures.

• Accounting approaches (environmental management), which tracks all environmental costs. Environmental management is a dynamic information system which makes it possible to allocate and quantify the losses linked with non-product output of processes. However, it does not monitor the efficiency of the use of energy and material inputs on its own, as the actual efficiency is a function not only of the use of material and energy flows accounted for, but also of the factors influencing energy and material consumption at a given place.

This problem is overcome within a dynamic accounting approach called M&T. M&T makes it possible to monitor the real efficiency of use of materials and energy inputs, in time, thus enabling assignment of accountability for efficiency to the people who influence it. This seems to be crucial for sustaining efficiency as a continuous approach for ongoing improvements within industrial settings.

M&T was originally developed in the UK, as a tool that helps companies achieve and maintain efficiency improvements through the detailed analysis of their metered energy and/or material


consumption data. Consumption data are analysed against related factors influencing energy and/or material consumption. This enables the identification, implementation and maintenance of cleaner production measures. The approach proved to provide good levels of savings at very low investment cost in a wide range of industrial and commercial environments69.

9.3 General Principles of M&T

M&T generally consists of three particular activities: Monitoring, Targeting and Reporting. These component activities are distinct, yet interrelated.

Monitoring is the regular collection of information on energy use. Its purpose is to establish a basis of management control, to determine when and why energy consumption is deviating from an established pattern, and as a basis for taking management action where necessary. Monitoring is essentially aimed at preserving an established pattern.

Target setting is the identification of levels of energy consumption, which is desirable as a management objective to work toward.

Reporting involves “closing the loop” by putting the management information generated from the monitoring process in a form that enables ongoing control of energy use, the achievement of reduction targets, and the verification of savings.

New optimisation actions typically result, and so the cycle - measure-analyse-action - continues indefinitely, true to the intent of continuous improvement, as shown in the figure below.

Figure 9-2: The measure-analyse-action cycle

Monitoring and target setting have elements in common and they share much of the same information. As a general rule, however, monitoring comes before target setting because without monitoring it is not possible for the energy manager to know precisely where to start from, or decide if a target has

69New tool for promotion of energy management and cleaner production on no- cure no-pay basis, Vladimir Dobes, Knowledge Collaboration & Learning for Sustainable Innovation ERSCP-EMSU conference, Delft, The Netherlands, October 25-29, 2010


been achieved. The reporting phase not only supports management control, but also provides for accountability in the relationship between performance and targets.

The purpose of M&T is to relate energy consumption data to the weather, production performance or other measures by providing a better understanding of how energy is being used. In particular, it will identify if there are signs of avoidable waste or other opportunities to reduce consumption. An M&T scheme will provide essential underpinning for energy management activities, allowing the energy manager to:

• Detect avoidable energy waste that might otherwise remain hidden. This is waste that occurs at random because of poor control, unexpected equipment faults or human error, and which can usually be put right quickly and cheaply (or, indeed, at no cost). Intercepting and rectifying such problems should more than cover the cost of operating the M&T scheme.

• Quantify the savings achieved by any energy projects and campaigns undertaken by the industry in a manner that accounts fully for variations in weather, levels of production activity and other external factors.

• Provide feedback for staff awareness, improve budget setting and undertake benchmarking70.

Within the activity of M&T, data and information are distinct entities. The activity of monitoring a facility, system or process encompasses both measurement and analysis. Data are raw numbers such as the result of a measurement.

Information is the result of some type of analysis upon data. What refines performance data into management information is analysis - the key feature of the monitoring function. Management information provokes questions about performance that would not be evident in the raw data, and can lead to actions for correction of problems or optimisation of performance.

Overall, M&T typically forms a part of an Energy Management system applied to industrial processes.

9.4 Energy Management System (EnMS)

Understanding how energy is used and managed is essential to manage production costs. Changing how energy is managed by implementing an organization-wide energy management program is one of the most successful and cost-effective ways to bring about energy efficiency improvements. Ideally, such a program would include facility, operation, environmental, health, safety and personnel management. A sound energy management program is required to create a foundation for positive change and to provide guidance for managing energy throughout an organization. The advantages of an EnMS are:

• Improve energy performance including EE, use and consumption; • Cost reduction; • Create transparency and facilitate communication on the management of energy resources; • Promote EnM best practices and reinforce good EnM behavior; • Have documented your energy system in a systematic and structural way; • Assist facilities in evaluation and prioritizing the implementation of new EE technologies

70Monitoring and targeting Techniques to help organisations control and manage their energy use, In depth management guide CTG008, Carbon Trust


• Improvement of company’s environmental performance

Energy Management System comprises:

• Setting up an Energy Management Plan • Establishing of energy records • Define and monitor Key Performance Indicators for each equipment • Assessing future energy needs • Developing and implement recommendations • Planning communication strategies between the employees and the energy team • Evaluating performance effectiveness

The main elements of an EnMS are shown in Figure 9-3.

Figure 9-3: Main elements of an EnMS71

EnMS follows the PLAN, DO, CHECK, ACT cycle. It provides a framework for the continuous improvement of processes or systems. It is dynamic model (the results of one cycle form the basis for the next one). Continuous improvements to energy efficiency therefore typically only occur when a strong organizational commitment exists. EnMS help to ensure that energy efficiency improvements do not just happen on a one-time basis, but rather are identified and implemented in an ongoing process of continuous improvement. Without the backing of a sound energy management program, energy efficiency improvements might not reach their full potential due to lack of a systems perspective and/or proper maintenance and follow-up.

Maximum results can be achieved by approaching energy efficiency in a systematic way. An EnMS establishes an ongoing process of identifying, planning and implementing improvements in the way

71 ISO 50001 Standard


an organisation uses energy. An energy management system does not need to be complicated and should be tailored to the size of the business. A large business should consider following the ISO 50001 international standard for energy management systems. For a smaller business this may not be practical, and a simpler version can be applied.


10 Lighting

10.1 Ligthing system available in Turkey

Lighting control system under FMCS

Lighting controls are products that are specifically designed to switch electric lighting on or off, and/or to dim its output.

Lighting controls switch lighting on and off and enable electric lighting levels within specific areas to be adjusted, as and when required by changes in daylight or occupancy, or individual activities.

A wide variety of lighting control products are available, and these range from simple manual switches to fully automatic control systems that adjust electric lighting levels to reflect planned operating hours, occupation levels and the availability of daylight in specific areas.

This subsection includes time controllers, presence detectors, daylight detectors and central control units that provide the facility to manage the overall operation of electric lighting installations.

The sector is in hands of global lighting companies such as Osram, Philips, GE Lighting and Toshiba. Although, technology is well developed, the maturity of the market is not good yet because of the high investment amount. The maturity of the market can be estimated as 20%. The next table summarise the key assumptions for the Lighting control system under FMCS. The performance of the best available lighting control system in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

Lighting system - Lighting control system under FMCS

List of suppliers contacted • Philips





References • Energy Star Requirements. • Manufacturers

Lamps

Lamps units are products that are specifically designed to provide efficient illumination. While fluorescent lighting (linear or compact) is the most common type of general purpose lighting found in commercial settings, a wide range of options are available such as High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps, and Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). The latter is the new frontier of energy efficient lighting. The next formula shows the Key Performance Indicator for lamps:

𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐊𝐊 𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 (𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈): 𝐁𝐁𝐩𝐩𝐊𝐊𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐁𝐁𝐩𝐩𝐏𝐏𝐩𝐩𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 �𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑵𝑵𝒌𝒌𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝒌𝒌𝑾𝑾𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

�


There are many sub-categories for the lamps as given below:

• Linear Florescent Lamps (T5 and T8 florescent lamps);

• Compact Florescent Lamps;

• Induction Lamps;

• Discharge Lamps;

• LED lamps.

The Turkish lighting industry was established at the end of the 60s with investments for the production of incandescent and fluorescent lamps. The oldest manufacturing companies in this field are Fersa, Lamp 83 and Alkan. Following that, investments were implemented for the production of decorative and commercial lighting fixtures at the beginning of the 70s. The companies like Pelsan, Arlight, Veksan started production during 80s. Eventually investments in the industry gained speed at the beginning of the 90s, leading the industry to its current situation.

The industry has shown substantial growth in the past 15 years in terms of production capacity, product quality, design and range. For instance, the production of the lighting fixtures is increased by 3.5% in average over the period 2007-2012. On the other hand, the consumption of the lighting fixtures is increased approximately 5% during this term. The following figure displays the general production and consumption trend of the lighting fixtures.

Table 10-1 Production and Consumption of Lighting Fixtures over the period 2007-2012

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Average Change

Domestic Production (Million $) 610 630 550 610 670 720

~3.5

Domestic Consumption

(Million $) 660 700 550 700 820 840 ~5.0

Fluorescence including compact and linear types is the most wide spread products in Turkey’s lightning market. Although the precise data set is not available, it is estimated that fluorescence slightly increased its percentage in the lighting market and reached to 45% in 2012. On the contrary, incandescence comprising traditional and halogen types is on a decreasing trend, lost 10% of its market share and descended into 30% between 2007 and 2012.

Gas discharge and metal halide light sources showed a bit of increase in the overall market share and reached to 15% in 2012. Among all the other light sources, LEDs has become the most popular and favoured ones during the same period. In a five year span, LED based luminaries increased their share 7% and reached around 10% of market volume.

The general trend for the light sources in the market between 2007 and 2012 is shown in the following figure.


Figure 10-1 Light sources used in Turkey, 2008-2012

Market is nearly 90% in hands of 3 global lighting companies: Philips, Osram and GE. These are the worldwide leaders of the market. The next table summarise the key assumptions for the lamps (not including LEDs). The performance of the best available lamps in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

Lighting system – Lamps

List of suppliers contacted • Philips





Extent to which the performance requirement goes beyond the reference baseline

20% N.A. 20% 25%

35% N.A.

20% 25%

35% N.A. 20% N.A.

New criteria for the reference equipment N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.


• CRI minimum 75%; • Fluorescent lamps type T8 HO or HE; • Fluorescent lamps type T5 HO or HE; • 4 pin non-integrated compact

References • EU Directive 2005/32/EC, and; • Manufacturers

As it is known, LEDs have been used for decorative and back lighting applications in the beginning. Then they were adapted to general and architectural lighting applications.


Thanks to the characteristics of LEDs, they can be used in a variety of application fields. According to sectorial feedbacks, with a conservative approach, it can be said that the current market share of the LED lighting is around 10% of total lighting sector volume. However, this volume mainly consists of decorative and entertainment lighting.

The estimations for future Turkish LED market trend are not different from the global LED market trend. According to major LED suppliers’ expectations, the penetration rates of LEDs into the market will reach no less than 35-40% in 2023. Considering the market growth potential in Turkey, it is projected in the figure below that the overall market value of Turkish LED lighting market will be over US$ 300 Million in 2023.

Figure 10-2 Turkey’s LED lighting market value

Major actors in world’s LED sector have already shifted their production to Far East. However rapid increase in complaints for the quality occurs due to mass production rates of LEDs. This fact increases the chance for Turkey to gain the interest of big players in lighting sector as a production base. The graph below shows the estimated breakdown of LED market volume.


Figure 10-3: Breakdown of LED lighting sector volume in Turkey

As it is given in the figure above, majority of the product sales are for architectural design and decorative lighting. The use of LEDs in the architectural and decorative lighting sector has significantly improved in recent years. By this way, LEDs have taken an important share in this sub section of lighting. Currently, around 50% of the products in the market are for architectural designs, decorative or entertainment purposes.

With the advent of the LED technology, many Turkish companies made investments and started operations only to produce LED equipment for the Turkish lighting market in the last few years. For instance, Baytas and Bestas Elektronik were founded in 2011. Focus Led is one of them and it was established in 2009. Teknoled and PSL Elektronik-Fiberli are both in the same sector which were found in 2008. ACG Electronics is a provider of innovative LED lighting products and services for the private, municipal and governmental sectors. LEDArt is also focused on manufacturing LED products for the residential and commercial sectors. Zetamar is known as another LED producer for the industrial and outdoor lighting. All of the above mentioned companies are specialized in LED technology and each portfolio is 100% based on LED equipment.

In addition to the recently established LED product manufacturing companies, other manufacturers from various segments are entering the LED lighting fixture market in Turkey. Vestel is the most significant example of this case. Although it is the leading company in consumer electronics and household appliances, the company entered the lighting market and started to sell LED retrofit lamps together with complete range of LED based lighting fixtures.

The promising LED lighting market of Turkey draws attention and attracts the foreign investors. For example Optogan which is a leader in LED technologies opened sales hub in Turkey for the


distribution of LED lamps and luminaries through partnership agreement with Ledison Patan Ltd. Likewise, GE Lighting and Philips seeks further energy efficiency project opportunities in Turkey.

The penetration of LED lighting to Turkish market is classified under four sectors. The unofficial LED lighting penetration rates according to sectors are estimated as given below.

Figure 10-4: Estimated LED lighting penetration rates according to the sectors

As it is given above, LED penetration rates for applications other than outdoor lighting (transportation, signalization, street lighting) and commercial buildings are still very low in Turkey. The next table summarise the key assumptions for the LED lamps and LED luminaries. The performance of the best available LEDs in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries even if their market penetration rate is still very low.

Lighting system –Lamps

Sub category LED Lamps and LED luminaries Product selected for the study 13 W LED Lamp


• Philips, • Vestel, • Arçelik, • LG, • Niki LED




Results from suppliers 0% 60% to LED market 6% to total lighting

70% to LED market 7% to total lighting 80%

2%3%

15%

30%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Industial Lighting Residential Lighting Commercial Lighting Outdoor Lighting


Lighting system –Lamps


• LED lamps and LED luminaries - PF>0.9 - CRI>70 - CE marking - Have a test report from the accredited labs that proves above values or

having the photogrammetric data for global lighting design software such as Relux or Dialux

• LED lamps - 25,000 hrs minimum economic life according to EN 60598-1 - Mimimum lamp efficiency > 65 lm/W (for the Tc<3000 Kelvin, minimum

efficiency is 60 lm/W) • LED luminaries

- 35,000 hrs minimum economic life according to EN 60598-1 - Mimimum lamp efficiency > 95 lm/W ( for the Tc<3000 Kelvin, minimum

efficiency is 90 lm/W)

References

• EU Directive 2005/32/EC • EN 62560; • EN 61347-2-13; • IEC/PAS 62612 Ed. 1; • EN 60598-1; • EST LED Luminaire Requirements, and; • Manufacturers

Fixtures

Fixtures are specifically designed to host the lamps. However, their design is very important from energy perspective since they can strongly affect the light intensity.

The most typical diffusers are parabolic and prismatic. Parabolic diffusers are much more efficient than prismatic ones because they allow greater light intensity. The only limit to their application is that they are protected only by a grid; hence it should be verified that this is not in violation of plant safety requirements.

The lighting fixture market is well developed in Turkey. In addition to global lighting fixture companies such as Philips and Siteco, there are also very good local producers such as EAE and Cemdağ. The reference unit for the study is 2x54W High Bay lighting fixture. The next table summarise the key assumptions for the Lighting fixtures. The performance of the best available fixtures in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

Lighting system - Lighting Fixtures

Product selected for the study 2x54W High Bay

List of suppliers contacted • EAE




Results from suppliers Not evaluated 80% 60% 60%


Lighting system - Lighting Fixtures


• photogrammetric data that is measured in accredited labs in accordance with EN 13032-1&2

• electronic control gears (ECG) and lamps • CE marking

References • EU Directive 2005/32/EC, COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 245/2009 • Manufacturers

Ballasts

Ballasts are specifically designed to limit the amount of current in the electric circuit of the lighting system. Ballasts are fundamental to avoid flickering lighting. There are basically two types of ballasts: electronic and magnetic.

Electronic ballasts are ultimately expected to displace magnetic ballasts for the greater part of fluorescent lighting applications. Electronic ballasts waste less power internally than magnetic ones, reducing losses by about 10%.

The market of ballast has three big players: Philips, Osram and Tridonic. Apart from these International manufacturers, there are also several local producers. However the local producers mostly produce low-efficient products.

The European Standard EN 50294 and Directive 2000/55/EC defines “Energy Efficiency Index” system set-up seven different classes based on their losses: A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C and D. B, C and D classes are for magnetic ballasts; A class is for electronic ballasts. C and D classes are already phased out from the market by laws.

The penetration of A1 and A2 class ballasts in the market is around 40%. All new construction and purchases have electronic control gears. However, there are still significant number of old magnetic ballast which need to be changed.

The prices of A1 and A2 class ballasts has a wide range from 20 USD to 120 USD according to their capacities. A1 (Dimmable) and A2 type ballasts are the most efficient ballast types in the market and still have NOT a good penetration rate. The next table summarise the key assumptions for the ballasts. The performance of the best available ballasts in the Turkish market is comparable with OECD countries.

Lighting system - Ballasts

List of suppliers contacted • Osram





Extent to which the performance requirement goes beyond the reference baseline

20% N.A. 20% 25%

35% N.A.

20% 25%

35% N.A. 20% N.A.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_network


Lighting system - Ballasts Top performing equipment available in Turkey

• Electronic type, and; • A1 and A2 class.

References • EU Directive 2005/32/EC, COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 245/2009 • Manufacturers


Good lighting is needed in working places to facilitate accurate work and provide a safe and pleasant working environment. The term lighting is defined to include both natural daylight and artificial light sources (lamps). The lighting system provides many opportunities for cost-effective energy savings with little or no inconvenience. In many cases, lighting can be improved and operation costs can be reduced at the same time. More specifically:

• Lighting improvement is an excellent investment in most commercial buildings because lighting accounts for a large part of the energy bill, ranging from 20 to 45% of the total energy cost.

• Energy used in lighting represents only 3 to 10% of the total energy used by an industrial facility, but it is usually cost-effective means of improving energy efficiency as lighting improvements are often one of the easiest changes to make.

10.2.1 Lamp Types Incandescent lamps: (tungsten-filament and tungsten halogen) are generally the least efficient means of lighting a space and the least appropriate choice in industrial lighting. Most countries have banned traditional incandescent lamps, including the EU, which has not been using them since 2012.

Figure 10-5: Incandescent Lamps

Halogen lamps are more efficient than standard incandescent light lamps; however, the EU has set a target of 2016 to phase out halogen bulbs, with any bulb available for purchase after the 2016 date requiring at least a “B” energy rating. This phase-out has been postponed until 2018.


Fluorescent lamps: contain mercury vapour and other gases and are four to five times more efficient than incandescent lamps. Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) can be installed directly into an incandescent socket when they are configured with an adaptor module that has a screw base and contains electronic ballast.

Figure 10-6: Fluorescent Lamps

The warm up to full brightness is quick; usually less than one minute. It is an efficient source, with typical efficacy around 80 lumens per watt and fluorescents have good colour rendering ability. The lifetime varies over quite a broad range, with compact fluorescents typically from around 6,000 hours while the tubular versions start at around 12,000 hours, although there are long life tubular versions rated at 70,000 hours.

High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps: Lamp family includes high and low-pressure sodium, metal halide mercury vapour lamps. Some HID lamps may have two levels of light output. HID lights operate at higher temperatures than fluorescent lamps, which can create uncomfortable working conditions in many warehouses and factories.


Figure 10-7: Discharge Lamps

Generally, regular cleaning of HID lamps is necessary to maintain output brightness. Metal halide lamps are up to two times more efficient than mercury vapour (MV) lamps; however their life range is 6,000 to 20,000 hours, which is relatively short compared to MV.

Metal halide (MH): Typical lamp for the industry-standard, high efficiency option. It is the most commonly used in spaces where distinguishing colors is important. There are several types of MH lamps available in the market. Best options include pulse-start metal halide lamps, which have significant advantages over standard metal halide. Also, ceramic MH is an excellent option where high colour rendering is required, outperforming fluorescent lamps in non-switched, high colour rendering index (CRI) applications.

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs): these lamps have been in common use for over 40 years, most traditionally as the indicator on televisions when they are in standby mode. They are a very small, point source that can appear to be very bright. The light output of these devices has developed rapidly over the past few decades, making their use in commercial lighting viable. They have a very long life, typically 50,000 hours and their efficacy is increasing all the time. Unlike other lamps, LEDs are often integrated into the light fixture so there is no lamp replacement.

The efficacy (in lumens per watt) of the different types of lamps is presented in a histogram in Figure 10-8.


Figure 10-8: Efficacy of common lamp types72

Table 10-2 sets out the key characteristics of different types of lighting.

72 Focus on Energy, Industrial Lighting best practices, Randy Johnson, US Lamp, Inc.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Lamp Type

Lum

ens p

er W

att

Incadescent Halogen Fluorescent T12Fluorescent T8 High Pressure Sodium Mercury VapourMetal Halide Pulse Start Metal Halide LED


Table 10-2: Lamp types for industrial applications and their characteristics73

LAMP TYPE LED, new fixtures LED replacement lamps T8 high-

performance fluorescent with

electronic ballasts

T5 with electronic ballasts

T5HO with electronic ballasts

High Intensity Discharge

Lumens per watt

60 to 100+ 50 to 100+ 86 to 96+ 86 to 96+ 86 to 96+ 90

Rated life (hours)

50,000 to 100,000+ 25,000 to 50,000+ 24,000 to 42,000+ 30,000 to 40,000 30,000 to 40,000 18,000 to 24,000

Color Rendering Index (CRI)74

80 to 90+ 80 to 90+ 80 to 85 80 to 85 80 to 85 22 to 90

Color temperature in K75

2,700 to 6,000+ 2,700 to 6,000+ 3,000 to 6,500 3,000 to 5,000 2,700 to 5,000 2,100 to 4,000

Typical applications

• Ambient, task and accent lighting

• Track lighting • Recessed can or

downlights • Floodlights, outdoor

applications, landscape lighting, parking lots, sports arenas

• Fixtures that are on for long periods

• High-bay • Cold environments

• Ambient, task and accent lighting

• Track lighting • Recessed can or

downlights • Decorative fixtures • Fixtures that are on for

long periods • Fixtures that are

frequently switched on and off

• General ambient lighting of all kinds with low-to-medium ceiling height: offices, classrooms, storerooms, retail

• Excellent replacement for T12s

• Low-bay and certain high-bay applications

• General ambient lighting of all kinds with low-to-medium ceiling height: offices, classrooms, storerooms, retail

• Excellent option for indirect, direct/indirect combination and suspended or pendant fixtures

• Low-bay and certain high-bay applications

• High-bay applications

• Large spaces, high-ceilinged areas (>15 ft)

• Warehouses, gymnasiums, service shops

• Outdoor and parking lot lighting

• High-bay applications

• Some low-bay applications

• Sports arenas

73Energy Trust of Oregon, Guide to new energy-efficient lighting technologies for your business 74 CRI: How accurately a light source makes an object appear compared to natural light 75The higher the color temperature, the cooler or bluer the light. The “right” color temperature varies with the application.


LAMP TYPE LED, new fixtures LED replacement lamps T8 high-

performance fluorescent with

electronic ballasts

T5 with electronic ballasts

T5HO with electronic ballasts

High Intensity Discharge

• Fixtures that are frequently switched on and off

Features • Can be either highly directional or omni-directional

• Extremely long life, big maintenance savings

• Energy efficient • Achieve full brightness

instantly • Most are dimmable • Dim-to-warm options

create ambiance • Very little heat; no

ultraviolet light • Most fixtures are

highly controllable • Many have become

very cost competitive

• Can be either highly directional or omni-directional

• Durable, don’t “break” like bulbs, shock resistant

• Extremely long life, big maintenance savings

• Energy efficient • Achieve full brightness

instantly • Most are dimmable • Dim-to-warm options

create ambiance • Very little heat; no

ultraviolet light • Very cost competitive • Excellent replacement

for halogen lighting, saving up to 75 percent in energy costs

• Excellent lumen maintenance

• Many wattages • Low initial cost • Requires

hazardous disposal

• Smaller lamp size offers better optical control

• Excellent lumen maintenance

• Requires hazardous disposal

• Improved lighting uniformity over older HID

• Can use occupancy sensors and other lighting controls

• Instant-on • Requires hazardous

disposal

• Provides intense point-source of light when needed in space

• Has start-up delay

• Requires hazardous disposal

European Union / Instrument For Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) Energy Sector Technical Assistance Project Contract Number MENR12/CS04 Page - 92 -


The greatest opportunity for reducing energy and cutting costs in many industrial facilities is through a lighting refurbishment. As a first step, the lighting designer must carry out an assessment – not just of the existing lighting, but of the requirements of the space, with particular attention to the light levels. When considering an upgrade of out-dated or inefficient lighting, it is often tempting to go for a “quick win”. Whilst this is possible, consideration should be given to the potential increased benefits of a deeper renovation. Quick wins are only a short-term fix. If the lighting is very inefficient then the benefits of a larger capital investment to an enhanced upgrade will be heightened and the savings on energy will quickly repay the investment.

When planning a lighting refurbishment designers must look ideally at a combination of light sources and luminaires which they might want to include as part of the solution but certainly the solution has to fit the ceiling type, layout and other features such as pillars. As a rule, it is most practical to establish a lighting budget after an audit reveals the cost and value of retrofit in comparison to redesign. It is not uncommon, however, to devise some project goals -- to transition to best-in-class lighting solutions that optimize energy efficiency and light output while providing the lowest overall cost of light -- before budget requirements are fully known.


Table 10-3: Energy saving measures in lighting

Measure Energy Saving Ratio (ESR) Use of high efficiency lamps and luminaires Up to 80%, e.g. from T12 to T8 by around 30% Implement modern lighting management systems Up to 30% e.g. for occupancy sensors 10% - 20% Use electronic ballasts 10% - 30% Improve housekeeping and maintenance Up to 5%

10.3.1 High Efficiency Lamps and Luminaires Plant lighting upgrades from dated technologies such as standard metal halide lamps and HID electromagnetic ballasts to contemporary technology are going in two distinct directions. For some plants, the switch involves new HID technology such as pulse-start or ceramic metal halide lamps (250, 300, 320, 350 and 400 watts) and HID electronic ballasts. Other plants are moving to high-output, linear fluorescent T5 lamps, mainly 54-watt high-output with electronic ballasts.

Today’s newer HID lamp and ballast technologies are exceptionally efficient. When opting for an HID electronic ballast system instead of older technologies in retrofits, you can reach or exceed mean light levels with lower-wattage lamps. For example, you could replace MVR400/U lamps with 320-watt high-output metal halide lamps to save as much as 113 watts per fixture, attain 24% more mean light and extend re-lamping schedules.

Plants choosing high-output linear fluorescent technologies as replacements for standard metal halide technologies will attain dramatic improvements in energy efficiency, color rendering and lumen


maintenance. The latest linear fluorescent solutions also enable new levels of flexibility with more color choices and operation on occupancy or motion sensors.

For example, a GE plant in Mebane, North Carolina, invested $390,000 on a new high-bay fluorescent system. The standard 400-watt metal halide lamps and electromagnetic HID ballasts were replaced by T8 and T5 linear fluorescent lamps paired with electronic ballasts. About 65% of the new lighting scheme uses 4-ft. F32T8/SPX50/HL lamps. In some instances, where it makes sense in terms of light output and efficiency, the plant uses 5,000º Kelvin T5 lamps.

Plant officials expect to save as much as 1.8 million kWh of electricity, reduce CO2 emissions by 1 million kilograms and cut operating costs by about $132,000 per year. The payback period for the new system is forecasted at 2.8 years76.

Substantial electricity savings (more than 80%) are achievable by replacing incandescent lamps with LED lamps. Recent advances in the technology have led to a new generation of LEDs which offer better colour properties than previous models. The lifetime of LED lamps can be as high as 50,000 hours.

Typical lighting retrofit solutions commonly used in the industrial sector are shown in Table 10-4.

Table 10-4: Typical lighting retrofit solutions for industrial applications

Existing equipment Retrofit solution HID 400 W High bay 6T8 or 4T5HO HID 400 W High bay T8 or T5 with sensor controls HID 400 W Pulse start MH 320W with electronic ballast

2 lamp T12 HO or 2 lamp T12 VHO 4 lamp HPT8 components

10.3.2 Lighting Management Systems The most efficient lamps and fixtures still waste energy and money if they are left on when not needed; making controls an essential part of your lighting system. Today’s options make it easy. Automatic controls can switch or dim lighting based on time, occupancy, vacancy, light levels, daylight availability or a combination. Most now are available in wireless options and many come pre-installed in new fixtures and retrofit kits.

Lighting controls are the key to managing the use of light and to ensure that the right light is provided in the right place and at the right time. Artificial lighting can be switched off or dimmed, both when there is sufficient daylight and when there is no-one there to benefit from its use. The light level may also be varied according to the needs of a task or activity. Properly applied lighting controls facilitate this and ensure that there is no unnecessary use of electricity.

Automatic lighting controls generally react to three main stimuli:

• Movement sensor – occupancy control • Time clock – timed schedule • Light sensor – daylight linking

76 Source: http://www.plantservices.com/


Lighting management systems are more cost-effective when fitted to anew or completely refurbish lighting installation – they can reduce energy consumption by between 20% and 30%.

10.3.3 Electronic Ballasts In high frequency fluorescent lighting an electronic ballast converts the 50 Hz power supply to 28-30,000 Hz, reducing both lamp and ballast requirements and increasing lamp and ballast life. Single ballast can drive several lamps.

There are no stroboscopic effects. The ballast starts lamps instantly and cuts out automatically if a lamp fails, eliminating flickering. High frequency lighting has a higher power factor, lower sensitivity to voltage variations, and less light level depreciation with age than systems using standard ballasts. With a daylight control system dimmable ballasts can dim down to 10% full power with slim line tubes reducing artificial lighting levels and saving energy.

Therefore electronic high frequency ballasts are recommended when buying new fluorescent light tube systems with more than 5,000 operating hours per year. The total (ballast and lamp) savings achieved by using high frequency fitting instead of:

• Fitting with standard ballast and 38 mm lamps around 30%. • Fitting with standard ballast and 26 mm lamps around 25%.

Good housekeeping activities that can improve energy efficiency include:

• Improving the use of natural light; • Regular cleaning and wiping of the lighting appliances; • Regular cleaning and wiping of the glass cover; • Switching off the sources of artificial light in the daytime when there is enough natural light

“The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of MWH Consortium and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union”

Documents

European Union / Instrument For Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) … · 2018. 4. 27. · European Union / Ins . European Union / Instrument . For Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) Energy