Ethnography: Qualitative Research at its Best

Lorraine Nencel

Department of Social Research Methodology

Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands

Qualitative Research gives the possibility to research and analyze:

– complexity

– sensitive subjects

– subjects in need of exploration

– Discover associations and relations to be able to :

• contexualize• explain• evaluate• generate

?

Ethnography

Research Complex Situations Holistically

Facilitates zooming in into particular aspects, relations or phenomenon in the setting

without losing sight of the whole

Enables the researcher to understand the culture through the interpretations, experiences and

perceptions and meanings given by those living within this specific cultural context.

I can’t find my tent, this is

really a bummer man!

Natural Setting

Research is done in the unpredictable, chaos of the natural setting.

This gives ethnographic research one very special attribute

NAMELY:

The most important research tool is:

Yourself

Creates and Demands the possibility

• To be involved

• To be Reflexive

• To be creative

Hammersley and Atkinson: Hoofdstuk 1: What is ethnography?

 

“Ethnography refers primarily to a particular method or set of methods. In its most characteristic form it involves the ethnographer , participating overtly or covertly, in people’s daily lives for an extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, asking questions – in fact collecting whatever data are available to throw light on the issues that are the focus of research.”

 

R.Emerson (2001)

 

“Ethnography seeks to represent social “things” as they are grasped and shaped through the meaning conferring response of members. To understand the way that group members interpret the flow of events in their lives.”

M.Agar (1986) Speaking of Ethnography

“The social research style that emphasizes encountering alien worlds and making sense of them is called ethnography… Ethnographers set out to show how social action in one world makes sense from the point of view of another. Such work requires an intensive personal involvement, an abandonment of traditional scientific control, an improvisational style to meet situations not of the researcher’s making, and an ability to learn from a long series of mistakes.

 Ethnography no longer claims to describe a reality accessible by anyone using the right methods, independent of the historical cultural context of the act of describing… Ethnography is neither subjective or objective. It is interpretive, mediating two worlds through a third.

 

C.A.Davis (1999) Reflexive Ethnography

Ethnography … a research process based on fieldwork using a variety of (mainly qualitative) research techniques but including engagement in the lives of those being studied over an extended period of time. The eventual written product –an ethnography – draws its data primarily from this fieldwork experience and usually emphasises descriptive detail as a result

What is Reflexivity

 

?

C.A. Davis Reflexive Ethnography (1999: 4)

“Reflexivity, broadly defined, means a turning back on oneself, a process of self reference. In the context of social research, reflexivity at its most immediately obvious level refers to the ways in which the products of research are affected by the personal and process of doing research. These effects are to be found in all the phases of the research process from initial selection of topic to final reporting of results”.

 

FIELD METHODS

We go to the field

Relations

Work related subjects

Organisations

Groeps

Associations and Boards

Members of Associations

Political Organizations

Researchg bagage

Research proposal

Theoretical assumptions

Camera, tape recorder

Field methods

ethics

Which methods do you use?

Depends on your research• The objective of your research• Central question• Time• Type of access (are people willing to work

with you, do you have permission. Do you have a room to conduct interviews, for example?

Pragmatisch Toolkit

• Ritchie en Lewis speak about the pragmatic toolkit

• “They are encouraging greater acceptance of pragmatism in choosing the appropriate method for addressing specific research questions, rather than focusing too much on the underlying philosophical debates… Qualitative and quantitative approaches should not be seen as competing and contradictory , but should instead be viewed as complementary strategies appropriate to different types of research questions or issues” (2003: 15).

Observation

Observation: two types of observation

• Observation used in quantitative oriented reseach (psychology, communicatian sciences- experiments)– Structured observation

• Observation in qualtitative research– Direct observation– Participant observation

Experimental Observation

Experimental Observation

• Origins positivist tradition.

• Observe predefined definitions and variables in a controled environment.

• Minimalizin the influence from the observer

• Deductive observation.

Qualitative Research Observation and Induction

Directe Observation --------Participant observation

Natural environemen t

Inductive

Observation in qualitative research

• Holistic• From a Distance• To become familiar

with the research setting

• Forces you to use your senses and not the power of the word (or the gift of gab)

• Gives insight into interaction between people and in groups.

• See processes in working – Can you describe your workday

• Gives insight into the physical environment• Indentify things, happenings, actions which you can deeper

in another phase of research (in participant observation or an interview)

Observation according to Spradley

• Grand Tour Observations: Identification of the broader lines– Contains a description of the physical enviroment– Describes the social situation– Mini Tour: researches the smaller aspects and

experiences– Uses information that has already been collected in the

grand tour

• Spradley’s Matrix

Fieldnotes during observation

• Try to write down as much as you can. n.

• Much description so that you can make a verbal photo, so that someone can feel as if they were there even if they weren’t.

• Try to be as explicit as possible.

• Avoid aggregate observations ( Many people came inside)

Thick versus Thin description

• Thin Description A group of students ran down the hall while a few others walked.

• Thick Description: A group of ten students (4 girls and 6 boys) were going to their next class. THe next class began at one o’clock. It was five to one. One of the girls and four of the boys were running. Three girls were had high heels on and walked at a brisk pace, while a young man walked slowly behin him because he was using crutches.

Hawthorne Effect

• It is assumed that the presence of the researcher will influence the people in their environment. Consequently the researcher receives a ‘distorted’ picture of reality.

• But experience learns that after the initial period people go back to what they were doing. The majority of people are too busy to keep taking into consideration that a researcher is present.

If you believe in the Hawthorne effect then…

• You believe that there is an objective, independent reality out there that can be observed without the researcher influencing it.

• Some people think the solution is to make yourself so small as possible– The courthouse

Observation and Subjectivity

“Gaze”is the act of seeing; it is an act of selective perception. Much of what we see is shaped by our experiences, and our “gaze”has a direct bearing on what we think. And what we see and think …has a bearing upon what we say and what and how we write .

Paul Stoller

Participant Observation

Tension between Participation and Observation

• Participation means active and emotional participation…

• Observation means conscious distance so that you can see things clearly.

Covert and Overt Research

Complexity of Inform Consent

• Goes against the nature of qualitative research

• Remnant of posivitist tradition, bio-medical sciences.

• Informed consent assumes that if consent is given at the beginning than it is sufficient. Malone shows it must be an ongoing process.

Covert Research

• Besides the ethical problems, there are other problems

• Impossible to probe analytically without participants finding it suspicious.– Singular access to a social reality– might have to participate in some unlawful

events

Benefits according to Lauder

• Get access into places that you wouldn’t be able to get in normally.

• Research which can contribute to public welfare.– Must be a balance between the potential harm to

the participant and the contribution to society’s wellbeing.

– Get to know the attitudes and beliefs of ordinary members about the everyday world of fringe politics.

Example: Mystery Clients

Ethics in research goes beyond informed consent.

Strategic Hanging around

• You have an agenda. Things you want to get to know.

• Pose questions: Informal interviews • Just being there. • Paricipate in the activitiesL mailings, keeping

company, cooking, in the fields. Get to know the daily routine. This also helps you get to know the person while you are working.

Research Relations and Identity

Insider/Outsider

• There are social, physical, background factors that make someone more of an insider or an outsider

• In this sense it is something that we should take in consideration when reflecting on identity in field research.

• BUT insider/outsider carries with it other assumptions…..

CULTURE

Outsider

CULTURE

Insider

We now know the ins and outs, thus we are no longer an outsider.

What happens to our history, past, experiences in this mode of thinking?

• Don’t throw away the concept entirely. Superficial, visible, experiential factors do make someone more an outsider than another.

• The questions remains: if you minimilize these factors as much as possible, do you then become an insider?

• What is your conceptualization of fieldwork power relations if you think this is an alternative?

What is the alternative?

• Recognition that:– identity as fluid– Identity is constructed in the field– Knowledge is constructed in the field

through relations– Demands that the research relation is also

seen as fluid. (both persons come with their histories and encounter each other in a specific context : research context)

Research Relationship

• A unique relationship which very few people in the world will experience.

• Constructed in a specific context: research context

• Mixes insider, outsider, friendship, professional, etc. all together.

• Assumes that identities meet, individual's experiences mingle with each other, identities are recreated, and recognizes that power is (at least) a two-sided concept.

Being With the Research Subject in the identities that you

possess (M.de Laine 2000)

• Acceptance that a relationship is a means to an end, but how you give content is essential for not making it an exploitative relationship.

Participant observation fieldnotes

Fieldnotes

• Everything is written down. The notes from the day before can help you structure the following day.. – What did I see? – What does this mean? – What did I forget?– What did he or she mean when he or she

said….?

Field Notes

• Unlike unstructured observation, you can’t write everything down on the spot. If you do have the time to write everything down then something is wrong with your pariticpant observation.

• You will become very trained in remebereing details, sequence and dialogue.

• “Head notes: things you remember first. You write them down in Scratch notes and work them out in the evening.

Scratch notes

• Scratch notes: are fragmented, key words, frases, little quotes or dialogues.

• Sometimes even scratch notes are not possible:

• Write them up as soon as you leave. – Write them up in a moment that you are

alone. – Write them up as soon as you get home

Fieldnotes

• Theoretical memos?

• Does your personal reflection belong in your diary?

• Should I start coding in the field?

Veldnotities

When I got to the office downstairs, Consuelo was ripping out the first page of a publications, the law of equality, because the first

page had the name of the ex minister, ex vice minister and ex head of department. It was no problem ripping them out, and the book

looked as if it was complete. Elizabeth joined in and said, que panta. I think it is nearly symbolic of how things go in the ministry.

Having few resources, and a great deal of changes you become resourceful. There were a lot more telephone calls today, the boss was sick, and I think I began to realize that this department might be quite marginal in relation to the rest of the departments because it deals with nonmaterial things such as gender equity. OF course

everyone is working hard, but they are really not too much movement.

Blauw= Beschrijving van activiteitRood= Reflectie/Interpretatie Black= Theoretisch “hunch” gebaseerd op observatie

Veldnotities (2)Mariella told me that it was quieter today than normally because the director of the department was out of town. However, the speed was incredible. Mariella took her time had patience and treated everyone kindly. She made some copies We started to dispatch papers and ran into the person responsible for the Patrimony for the whole ministry (furniture,etc We got to the third floor to dispatch some documents to the Managing administrator and these have to go through a man and he was talking on the phone, using a manly whiney voice, talking to a woman like a baby si prechiosa, okay mamita. I ask her if he could be difficult and she said, Put him under pressure he will not move but if you treat he very kindly he will do everything for you. A few days ago I had a document that was dated the day before, I had to talk very sweetly to him and explain what happened so that he would accept. I inquired why wouldn’t he accept a document dated a day earlier she said because otherwise he can be called responsible that it took so long for it to get processed. Telephone. Mariella stops what she is doing. Answers the phone and calls the person to the phone. (There are no extensions)There is a line waiting to talk to Mariella. Assistant of the deputy director is informally coordinating with Mariella. When Mariella registers the incoming mail often she has to write a summary and underline the important parts so the directors can go to it immediately. Stamp papers, sign the paper of a visitor. Took message for the doctor (director). She has a book in which she writes down messages and things she has to do immediately. She makes some copies. Runs to the phone. Time for a toffee, mmm.  

Veldnotities (vervolg)Sonia asks for a rubber band. She stores office supplies in a cardboard box below her desk. Stella finds the document. She returns to the document she was typing. They call from the Ministers office asking about activities. She still hasn't been able to register the first document. She goes back to the computer program and registers some documents . Mariella highlights what has to be read and fills in the summary thinking about each word that she will use. Then it goes to the director and comes back here to be dispatched . If a document is a routine document it can wait a day before it is register, but if it comes and an urgent action is needed it has to be registered the same day. She has to call someone but Stella asks her a question. Senora Celia returns and asks for the stamp. Juan asks her to send an email to the three offices about the monthly report k. An urgent document entered from outside, registered immediately. Fax came with a estimation of the costs for an event. Telephone rings. Internal email "what is the name of the head of logistics" she answers all of these quickly. Deputy director returns. Mariella makes labels out of paper, prints them cuts them and pastes them on the envelop. They do not use prefab labels for anything. She is finishing printing out and organizing the contracts. I can't dispatch them until the deputy director signs them, she is not here. Stella says there is no toner for the printer, Mariella, there is one in the storage room, I will call, she calls and there is . ( all these things have to be sent as an official request). She waits for her boss to leave for lunch and says, she does not go to lunch before her boss leaves because if she would need something and she doesn't know where it is and can't find it “I would be thinking about that the whole time while I was eating” .