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Chapter 9Qualitative Research Methods
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nV0jY5VgymI
TED ETHNOGRAPHYTED ETHNOGRAPHY
Approach of Qualitative Research
Different assumptions/ approach than quantitative research
Emphasis on seeing the world from eyes of the participants
Make sense of phenomena in terms of meanings people bring to them
Holistic emphasis – studying the person, group, culture in the natural setting
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Contrasted
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Multiple realities Single reality
Reality is socially constructed Reality is objective
Reality is context interrelated Reality is context free
Holistic Reductionistic
Strong philosophical perspective
Strong theoretical base
Reasoning is inductive Reasoning is deductive and inductive
Discovery of meaning is the basis of knowledge
Cause-and-effect relationships are the bases of knowledge
Develops theory Tests theory
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Contrasted (continued)
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Theory developed during study Theory developed a priori
Meaning of concepts Measurement of variables
Process oriented Outcome oriented
Control unimportant Control important
Rich descriptions Precise measurement of variables
Basic element of analysis is words
Basic element of analysis is numbers
Uniqueness Generalization
Trustworthiness of findings Control of error
Steps in Quantitative and Qualitative Studies
Quantitative (Linear)↓ Define a Research Problem/Question↓ Review the Literature↓ Formulate Hypothesis or Refine Question↓ Make Operational Definitions↓ Design or Select Instruments for Data↓ Obtain Ethical Approval↓ Collect Data↓ Analyze Data↓ Interpret Findings – Refer to Literature Again↓ Determine Implications – Draw ConclusionsSource: Based on H.J. Streubert and D.R. Carpenter (1999). Qualitative Research in Nursing: Advancing the Humanistic Imperative.
2nd ed. Philadelphia: J.B.Lippincott.
Core Activities in Qualitative Research
A. Literature reviewB. Explicating researcher’s beliefsC. Role of participants: subject or informant?D. Selection of participantsE. Setting for data collectionF. Approach to data analysisG. Saturation
A. Literature Review
Conducted after data have been collected and analyzed
Rationale for delaying the literature review: To avoid leading the participants in the direction
of what has already been discovered Purpose of literature review:
To show how current findings fit into what is already known
B. Explicating Researcher’s Beliefs
Bracketing – Setting aside one’s biases and personal views on a topic Investigator keeps a diary of personal thoughts
and feelings about the topic
Purpose: Researcher made aware when interpretations of data reflect personal beliefs rather than those of participants
C. Subject or Informant?
People being studied are participants or informants, not “subjects” Active participants in the research Inform researcher about their culture
Researcher seeks to understand the participants’ cultural knowledge Requires learning about the participants’ culture
On-going discussion Involvement with them
D. Selection of Participants
Method: “purposive sampling” Participants have first-hand experience with
research topic (e.g., homelessness, gang involvement, attending medical school)
Be able to talk about it
Researcher establishes clear criteria and rationale for sample selection
Goal is not generalization but rich descriptions
E. Setting for Data Collection
“Informant-driven” rather than “theory-driven” Investigator assumes ignorance of culture Informant teaches the investigator
Data collected in the “field” – the natural world Investigator should:
Be nonintrusive Spend prolonged time in the field
Some researchers used multiple methods
F. Data Analysis
Researcher immerses self in data to bring order and meaning to narrative
Cyclical process – Data collection occurs simultaneously with data analysisAnalysis begins when data collection beginsReading, rereading, analyzing, synthesizing, and reporting on data Theoretical sampling (collect data until saturation is reached)
Generalizations from earlier interviews returned to participants for clarification and elaboration
Look for meaning in data Data with similar meaning are clustered
together (preliminary categories)
Extensive amount of time
F. Data Analysis (cont’d)
Point in data analysis where participants’ descriptions become repetitive Confirm previously collected data Indication that data analysis complete
When data analysis is complete, data collection ends
G. Saturation
Data Collection Methods in Qualitative Studies
Three data collection strategies:1. Participant observation2. In-depth interviews3. Focus group interviews
May combine more than one method
Data Collection Methods:1. Participant Observation
Intensive, usually long term, examination of a social group, an organization, etc.
Researcher becomes a participant Observes behavior and learns meanings
Tied to language
Most closely associated with Ethnography Done in a variety of disciplines
Steps Involved in Participant Observation Research
A. Gaining entry into the group
B. Developing and maintaining rapport
C. Developing a method for taking field notes
D. Integrating data collection and data analysis
Steps in Participant Observation:A. Gaining Entry into the Group
Type of group: Formal organizations require formal entry;
letter writing, permission requests, etc. Informal groups – Access may be through a
gatekeeper (an individual with special status)
Want key informants Most knowledgeable about the group
Steps in Participant Observation: B. Developing/Maintaining Rapport
Researchers work hard to develop and maintain good relationships in the field E.g., Do not become associated with one
faction in a group or organization
Researcher could be blamed for problems that arise in the setting
Steps in Participant Observation: C. Strategies for Taking Field Notes
Field notes – integral to participant observation
Include:Descriptions and interpretationsOf individuals, interactions, and events
Distinguish descriptions from interpretations
Steps in Participant Observation: C. Strategies for Taking Field Notes
Record time and location of observationsKey information:
Weather Events and their significance
Keep theoretical memos –Tentative interpretations emerging through further data collection
6-21
Field Notes (cont’d)
May not be possible or advisable to take notes while in the field Important to do as soon after field
observation as possible
Note-taking is time-consuming
Integral to guiding data collection and continuing the analysis
Steps in Participant Observation: D. Integrating Data Collection and Analysis Organizing field notes into different types of files
facilitates data analysis: Master field file – complete journal of field notes;
number pages and include entry dates
Background, history file – Subfile organizing background material
Key character files – Subfiles on key players in group or organization
Analytic files – Subfiles for different types of observations or relationships
Data Collection Methods: 2. In-depth Interviews
Some studies cannot employ participant observation
In-depth interviews: Participants describe their experiences Meaning of events in their lives Verbatim quotes capture language and
meaning
Interviews are flexible and allow for probing Interview method is diverse, adaptive
2. In-depth Interviews (cont’d)
Ethnographic questions:1. Descriptive questions – Participants
describe their experiences (e.g., ideas, circumstances, viewpoints, dilemmas, etc)
2. Structural questions – Ask participants how they organize their world (e.g., activities)
3. Contrast questions – Ask participants what is meant by specific terminology
Data Collection Methods:3. Focus Group Interviews
Interview format, but in a group setting 6-12 participants with common experience
Dates back to 1940s – used to assess effectiveness of morale-boosting radio shows 1970s onward – used by market researchers 1980s onward – used by academics
Transcript of discussion is the data Plus accompanying notes Use content analysis or grounded theory approach to
analyze the data
3. Focus Group Interviews (cont’d)
Strengths: Open-ended question
Spontaneously deal with issues as they arise Cost-effective method of collecting data Less time-consuming
Weaknesses: One or two participants may dominate Not done in a natural setting, so little
“observation” to help understand the experience of the participants
Advantages and Limitations
Focus on the whole of the human experience and the meanings ascribed to them by participants
They provide the researcher with deep insights that would not be possible using quantitative methods
The major strength of qualitative work is the validity of the data it produces
Participants true reality is likely to be reflected Major limitation is its perceived lack of objectivity and
generalizability Researchers become the research tools and may lack
objectivity