Estudio Social e Intercultural del Lenguaje, la Personalidad y la Medición del Sistema (Motivacional) A-R-D Humano

8/13/2019 Estudio Social e Intercultural del Lenguaje, la Personalidad y la Medicin del Sistema (Motivacional) A-R-D Humano

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O F F I C E O N A V A L R E S E A R C H t^N00014 -67 -A-387 -0007L A N G U A G E ,P E R S O N A L I T Y ,S O C I A L ,A N D C R O S S - C U L T U R A L S T U D Y A N D M E A S U R E M E N TO F T H E H U M A N A - R - D M O T I V A T I O N A L )S Y S T E M D E P A R T M E N T O F P S Y C H O L O G Y U N I V E R S I T Y O F H A W A I I H O N O L U L U H A W A I I9 6 8 2 2

socialehaviorism,u m a nMotivation,ndheConditioningTherapiesr rthur. Staats

TechnicaleportumberAugust 1969

P R I N C I P A L I N V E S T I G A T O R : A R T H U R W .S T A A T S

Reproducedyho CLEARINGHOUSEfo roderdlcientific echnicalInformationpringfielda 22151

Thi document hot b*n approvvd for public releos and loU; its dtitribution it unlimited Reproduction in whole rnparttpermittedoranypurpott fheUnited tateGovernment L q n


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Socialehaviorism,Motivation,nd theConditioningTherapiesArthur . Staats

Universityfawai i

TechnicaleportumberAugust 1969

SupportedyOfficefava lesearchGrant00014-S7-A-O387-0007

Principalnvestigator:Arthur . StaatsThisocum entaseenpprovedorubliceleasendale; itsistri-butionsunlimited. Reproductionnwholernpartspermittedoran y urposefhenitedtatesovernm ent .


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Socialehaviorism,Motivation,ndheConditioningTherapiesArthur . Staats

TechnicalReportumberAugust969Principalnvestigator:

Arthur . Staats

Thisocument a seenpprovedorpubliceleasendale; itsdistributionisnlimited. Reproductionnwholernpartsermittedorn ypurposeofheUnitedtatesovernm ent.


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C O N T E N T S

I. IntroductionII. Integratedearn ingPrinciples

III. IntegratedearningPrinciplesndu m a nMotivationheoryA.heorm ationndhangef theAttltude-Relnforcer-DlscrlmlnatlveystemB.heReinforcingunctionf the-R-DystemC.heHlerarchlalaturefhe-R-D ystemndtsunction....D .eprivationndatiationn dhe-R-Dystem.ulesfApplicationofRelnforcersndhe-R-DystemF.heControllingGoa l ) Functionfhe-R-DystemG.eficitsnd Inapproprlacles InheA-R-DystemH. InteractionsfheA-R-DystemndnstrumentalBehaviorRepertoiresIV . BehaviorherapyndehaviorModificationnd the-R-Dystem....A.ehaviorherapys rocedure fo r hanginghe-R-Dystem..B.ehaviorModificationsManipulationfRelnforcersInheExistingA-R-DystemC.elationshipofehaviorherapyndehaviorModification

V. LimitationsndnadequaciesnresentearningherapiesA .imitationsinScopeB .imitationsImposedbyLackofSophisticatedTheoretical Analysis...C .he Ahistorical Limitation

VI. ImplicationsandExtensionsVII.onclusion

References


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ABSTRACT

Alearningtheoryofhuman motivationIsconsideredtoInvolve( I )themannerInwhichstimuliofvariouskindscometoelicitemotional(attitudlnal)responsesIntheIndividualthroughtheprinciplesofclassicalconditioning.ThisconcernstheAfunction ofth estimuliIntheindividual'smotivationalsystem.hesecondfunctionofthestimuliinthemotivationalsystem,giventothestimuli asaresultoftheattitudlnalfunction,isthatthestimuli willserveasreinforcingstimuliforth eindividual.hisconcernstheRfunctionofthemotivationalsystem.nadditiontothis,stimulithathavetheA andth eRfunctions willalsohaveathirdfunctionforth eindividual.uc hstimuliwillelicit( o rcontrol)behaviors.hati s ,assoonsssstimuluscomest oelicitapositiveemotionalresponsethroughclassicalconditioningthestimuluswilltherebyacquirethepowerofcon-trollingInstrumentalresponsesinth eindividualthatapproachthestimulus.Th econversei struefornegativeA-R-Dstimuli.

Th eImplicationsofthislearningtheoryareelaboratedInthecontextofpresenting atheoryof human motivation.hetheory ofhumanmotivationi sthenemployedtobetterunderstandanumberofareasofimportancetopersonalitystudy,IncludinganunderstandingofabnormalbehaviorintermsoftheA-R-D(motivational)system an dthepresentandpotentialrolesofbehaviortherapyandbehaviormodificationIndealingwithpersonality problems.


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I. I N T R O D U C T I O N

Inecentimesnterest inearningapplications tolinicalsychologyhasncreasedharply. Inontrastoheppositionenerallyvidentnly5-10yearsgo linicalsychologistsnrowingumbersa veegunpplyinglearningprinciplesndroceduresopecificroblemsfehavior. Thesecontem porarydevelopments,owever,a veneneralonstitutedrimarilypiecemealmpiricalperationswithittleheoreticalontentfn ykind.Itsuggestedhatheajoreasonorhisshatheraditionallearningheoriesequireevisionndevelopm enteforeheyanerveerywellsheoryofumanehaviorpersonality). As onsequencefhe inadequaciesofheasicearningheoriesnd theirssociatedeneralmethodologiesphilosophies), thelinicalpplications,whilenmprovement overtherreatmentsnmanyasesnadditionoeingtheoretical,ave beenircumscribed,a veotxploitedheotentialitiesf learningapproach,nd a vethernadequacieshatwillemore fullydescribed.Invariousreasfhetudyofpersonalityheoryndtslinicalnd socialxtensions, theres theeed forheevelopm entfnm proved learn-ingheory. Thepresentaperwillndicateom eofhe linesoollownfillingheeed. Mostasically, itwilleuggested thathenterrela-tionsflassicalndnstrumentalonditioningmustelaborated,nd therinciplesofearningxtendedhroughhesefbservationsnd conceptsfhelinicswellshosefheocialn dehavioralciences.M oreover,etailedtimulus-responsenalysesustemad efvariousom plexhumanepertoires. Inhiswayheoreticaltructuresorealingwithom plexhumanehaviormayedeveloped. Theresentoncernslsoolaboratemoreully earningpproacho onceptionofumanmotivation,sartof heoryofpersonality,nd tondicateowheonceptualizationa n servesheoreticalram eworkwithinwhichoreatetterom eofhe


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2 techniquesn d findings ofehaviorherapyn d behaviormodification.

First,owever, it islluminatingoonsiderrieflyom efheharac-teristicsfther learningpproaches toersonalityheoryn dlinicalpsychology. Earlynterestnhextensionf learningheoryoclinicalproblemsa shownyOollardndMiller1950) a n dowrer (1950). Whileothendeavors, especiallyhe former,ereeryroductivenderynfluentialnlaterevelopments, theyhared ommondefect. Theullowerf learningconceptionfumanehaviora sotealized; ratherheearningrincipleswereppliedsndjuncto sychoanalytic theoryfumanehavior. Thefullreaka sotmade--thereakwhereheasicersonalityheoryslearningheoryn d thenaturalisticbservationsndonceptsfhelinicaresed toevelopurtherheasicheory, furthermore, conditioningro-ceduresendedot toem ployed Inreatment, instead, traditionalsycho-therapeuticmethodswereuggested. Tthouldeoted,owever, that intheresentiewhesearlyheoreticaleffortswereorrect inrealizingthatheaboratoryrinciplesfearningyhemselvesootonstitutetheoryfersonality (humanehavior).

Evenoreecentlyearningpproachesaveeenpplied toclinicalproblemsnnotherway. Thats, learningrinciplesn donditioningro-ceduresaveeenppliedopecificehavioralroblemsrreatmentnstraightforwardmpiricalanner . Mostnvestigatorsnhisevelopmentavema d ottemptostablish eneral learningheoryofersonalityn dfproblemsfumanehavior. Theoncernaseenwithreatingpecificvertproblemsfumandjustment. Actuallyhistraightforwardmpirical learningapproachasad tw ospects,achfwhichevelopedndependently. On easbeenalledehaviorherapynd thetherehaviormodification.

InvestigatorsnhereafehaviorherapyhaverawnheirrimarylearningheoryoundationromHull (1943). Theartfehaviorherapyo e


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3discussedereinwill involve theseoflassicalonditioningrocedures.Ithouldeoted,owever, thatehaviorherapyasealtwith instrumentalconditioningswell. Perhapsecausef the lackofdistinctionfhe twotypesfonditioningprinciplesnheasicearningheory,ehaviorherapyhasenerallyotistinguishedlassicaln dnitrumentalonditioningroce-dures. Theorizingnhereafbehaviorherapyaseenargelyrestrictedtomanipulatingom efHull s Interveningvariables inerivingrinciplesotreatariouspecificehaviorisorders. Whilempiricalesultsfehaviortherapyaveeenompiled ineveralources (Eysenck, 1960; Franks, 1964;UllmanKrasner, 1965), thereaseennlmostotal lackflucidationofa learningheoryofersonality. Eysenck, forxample, on efh.rigin-roraofodernehaviorherapynd erypositivenfluencenhepreadfthispproachasa d onstitutionalheoryfpersonalityEysenck, 1952,1957, 1960),n daseencriticalfheresentuthor'searningoncep-tionofumanehaviororgnoringbiologicalnterpretationsEysenck,1965).

Similarly, theorkopplynstrumentalonditioningprinciplesn d proceduresoehaviorroblems, intsontemporaryormalledehaviormodification,asemainedlmostntirelynnnsophisticatedmpiricallevel. Theirsttraightforwardpplicationfnstrumentalonditioningprinciplesob n o rm a lehavior (Staats, 1957)ealtwithimpleehaviors.Behaviormodificationtudieswhichollowed thispproachseeAyllonn d Michael, 1959)aveontinued inhisattern--within theontextofnoperantconditioningmethodologyn d klnnerlanhilosophyofsychology. Contempo-raryworkhasemainedestricted tohismold,hent isoongerecessarytoo so,ndsnlyeginningoovegainowardmoredvancedevelopmentsinlearningonceptionofomplexumanehavior. Adoptionfkinner'satheoreticalxperimentalanalysisfehaviorhilosophyasadlieffect


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4ofimitingapplicationsofhevrlous learningonceptsndvariousxperi-men t a lindings. Theunctional-analysis, operantonditioningpproach a salsoedouchmisguidedffortssreating ugek inneroxoresearchwith inglepersonnderotalnvironmentalontrol. Lessdramatic,ut with oredevastating ffecthaseenhem petusoward arrow, specificviewnd isregardfhebservations, concepts,ndindingsvailablefromnaturalisticbservationsn dromnonlaboratoryclinical,ocial,nd

Ibehavioralciences.Inssence, thus, thepresentlypopularperantonditioningpproachnd alsohatfbehaviorherapy,whileontainingprinciplesndrocedures

thatrerucialartsf earningheoryfersonalityndflinicalpsychology,a veeenargelyestricted toealingwith separatenstancesofelativelyimpleehaviors. Learningrinciples loneootonstitutetheoryofumanehavior--normalndbnormal,hildnddult, individualandroup--ofhe typeha tustnderlie om prehensiveumanehaviortheoryndtsreatmentrocedures. Itsuggested thatwhileearningprinciplesmusteasicnheheoretical structure--not econdaryonsi-deration--theymus tem ployed todevelop eneralheoryofumanehavior.Thiseneralpersonalityheoryshetructurentowhichheearningclinicalpsychologymusteitted. Thenhem ethodsndationaleofclinicalreat-men twillederivedromhetructure. Whileheheorymusteased uponaboratoryprinciples,otcceptingotherpersonalityheoriesssuperstructure, theaboratoryrincipleshemselvesootonstitutehe holeheory. The theorymuste umanearningheorynvolvinga)selectionof onsistentetf 'heavyweight* learningrinciples frommongtheonfusionofxperimentalndheoreticalroductsvailable, theelectionofherincipleseing eterm inedyheventsowhichhe theorysoeapplied. Thats, itsnonsideringumanehaviorhatheerspective


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5forheelectionofearningprinciplesnd forlaboratingheirnter-relationshipssained, (b ) Theoreticalffortsustalsoexpended tointegrateherinciples inheasicheoretical set,nd tolaborate theirinterrelationships, using terminologicalonventionhateflectsheinterrelationships (seetaats, 19)6, 1968a,n d followingdiscussions). (c)ItsnecessaryoxtendheetfearningrinciplesoomprehensiveS-Ronsiderationsfvariousreasfom plexumanbehavior. Inhisaskitsheuthor'strategyhathebservationsndonceptsfhebehavioralndocial sciences, Includinghosefhelinic,usteIncorporatedntohepproachseetaats, 1963, 1964a ,968a,b). Althoughnotallofheseaturalisticoncepts ayproveroductiveracceptabley operationalefinition, it isnhesereasftudyhathemos tystematicobservationofumanehavior a sccurred. In thesehreeasksofdevelop-ingndlaboratingheersonalityheory, the traditionalearningtheoriesndheirssociatedhilosophiesfpsychologywillotuffice.

Theuthor a sallediseneralpproachocialehaviorismocharacterizehemphasisnonstructinghebasicearningheoryexplicitlytoervesfoundation forhetudyofpersonalityseetaats, 1968, inpress),swellshem phasi snoiningheearningheoryohebser-vationsndonceptsfheocialndehavioral sciencesswellshoseof linicalsychology (Staats, 1963, 1964a , 1968a,b, inpress).

Havingketchedheseeneraloints, theresent aperwillutlineconceptionofumanmotivationhatxemplifies theointsfhepproach.Afterpresentationofheheoreticaltructure, a nreafnvestigationwithinheieldfclinicalsychologyaspectsfehaviorherapyn d behaviormodification)willencorporatedntohenalysiswithmutualenhancem entfhelinicalreasnd theheory, andithmplications forfurtherdevelopment.


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II. I N T E G R A T E DE A R N I N GRINCIPLESAsheuthorhasndicated (Staats, 196S , 1958a) theieldofearning

ha seeneparatistic. Ithaseenom inatedyheoreticalonflictetween theraditionalviewpoints. Thishasedohexpenditurefmajor ffortsindevelopingndmaintainingeparatexperimentalm ethods , separateeneral(philosophical)methodologies,ndeparateerminologies,venwhenheempiricaleferentsnvolved theam erinciples. Theeparationhasxtended evenohempiricalevelwherenvestigatorsa veended toworkitherwithlassicalrnstrumentalonditioning. Hits a seenollowednhehumanevelwhere, forxam ple ,ntilecently,ehaviorherapyndehavior

3modificationwereuiteeparated.Thevariousesults fhelreadym entionedeparationa nno tedealtwithere. However, itselevant tondicatehatheoreticalorientations

prevalentnearning a vepreventedsromealizinghevariousnter-relationshipsetween lassicalnd instrumentalonditioning. T oegin,Hull (1943) d idotifferentiate etweenheasicprinciplesfclassicalandnstrumentalonditioning. PerhapsbecausefhisHllidndicatehe relationshipfonditionedtimulusaluendonditionedeinforcementvalue. Laterpproaches,lthoughdistinguishingherinciplesetter, inotherespectsroducednvenessffectivebasicpproachouman learning. Thus,kinnerlanheoryaominallywo-factor (classical-instrumental) learningpproach. However, he a sverm phasizedheepara-tionfherinciplesndasiven eparateerminologyoherinciples,whereuite separateymbo l sresed forlassicalndperantonditioning.Thisaselpedreventheecognitionofhenterrelationshipsofherin-ciples (Staats,964b, 1966, 1968a). Inhisystemperantonditioning a sbeenyarheocusftudyndaseenivenverridingignificance.


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7 Thus, operantonditioningheory a slmostntirelyneglectedlassicalconditioningnasicesearchswell snxtensionsoom plexuman behavior. Inperation, then, Skinner'spproacha seen ne-factorlearningheory, especiallynheealmofom plexumanbehavior--arucialweakness.

M oreover,kinner'sejectionfhe theoreticalndeavorsofHullnd others,lthoughorrectnartnheontextfhateriod,a sadheeffectfenerallyuppressingheoreticalndeavorsnearning. Thishaspreventedlaborationn theoreticalevelfheasicearningrinci-plesndheirnterrelationships. Skinner'spproacha slsoejecteddetailedtimulus-response theorizing, rucialrawbackwhich,gain,a sretardeddetailed theoreticalnalysisfom plexumanehavior. BecauseSkinner a sota d lear iewofwhatheorys,ishilosophyfscience a sreventedisollowers fromdeveloping longheoreticalines.Theresentrticlea nno tealenerallywithheseopics,owever, theywilleeflected Inhenalysisoollow.

Inbeginningheresentnalysisnd indemonstratinghepproach, itisecessaryoutlineheasicprinciples toemployed , andheirnter-relationships, in otatlonalystemwhicheflectshosenterrelationships.First, it ayeaid thatanytimuliaveothlassicalndnstrumentalfunctions. Thats, forxam ple , therere stimuli thatanunctionsuc Swhenpairedppropriatelywith S. Thesetimuliwillelicitesponseswhichwillbeconditionedtothe. Inaddition,however,th esamestimulus

UCthatfunctionsasa SmayalsofunctionasanunconditionedreinforcingUC-Rstimulus ora S .hati s ,t h esamestimuluspresentedafteraninstru-

mentalresponsewillresultintheresponsebecomingstrongeronfutureoccasions,orremainingstrongi fiti salreadyingoodstrength.

UCThere are manysuchstimuli.oodwillserveasa Sandelicitthe


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salivaryresponse amongotheremotionalresponses.oodwillalsoservea sU Ra andwillstrengthenInstrumentalbehaviorswhenpresentedIn a

response-contingent manner.lthoughthisi sreadilyapparent.ItsImplica-tionshavenotbeenseen perhapsbecauseofourseparatlstictraditional

UCtheoreticalterminologywhichsymbolizesanunconditionedstimulusas S an dD ar im aryeinforcers Furtherm ore, Inextbooksndecturesherin-

ciplesreresentedeparatelyohenterrelationshipsbscured.Thisefectnraditionalearningheories ecom esvenmorem portan t whanheopicfearnedrecondaryconditioned) reinforcementson-sideredaswellsdiscriminativetimulusontrol). Thisopica ynlyb eonsideredwhentsealizedhattimulia yhavemultiple functionsInlassicalndnstrumentalonditioning. Thats, Itwa suggested thatfoods stimulusunctionss Snds einforcingtimulus.Itayalsoeuggestedhat ewtimuluswhenpairedwith sch timulusIn lassicalonditioningrocedureactuallyacquires othunctions.Thats, theewtimuluswillecome onditioned stimulusndelicit (atleastnpart) themotionalesponseshathenconditionedtimuluseli-cits. Inddition,owever, as onsequencefhisonditioningheew

C'Rstimuluswillecome onditionedeinforcingtimulus,r S. Hull (1943)alsouggestedhatheecondaryeinforcingvaluef timuluswa sueothe facthattadom eoelicit onditionedesponse. (Ithoulderealizedhathepairingoperationmayactuallyccurnmanyituations.Inperantiscriminativeraining, forxam ple , food ispairedwith is-criminativetimulus. Thus, thediscriminativetimulus Shouldom es

C * R partfhisrainingoe S. Operantonditioningngeneralm ayesaidonvolvehelassicalonditioningofeinforcementalueincenyUC*R'Rtime or S) isresentedhemotionalesponsestelicitswillb eonditioned ton yther stimuli thatreresent)


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9 It a ybeoted that itwould expectedhathigher-orderonditioning

couldlso e involvednheormationfonditionedeinforce. Thats,C R when conditionedeinforcingtimulus, S, isairedwith ewtimulus,theatterwillalso Decome Sswells S . Thisynoeansom pletesthentegrated learninganalysis. However, itdoesresenteveralonceptsthatarefmportanceoearningheoryfattitudesndumanmotiva-tion. A nadditionallaborationfhenteraction etweenclassicalnd instrumentalonditioningwillemade later. Moreom pleteccountsfheauthor'sntegrated analysisreivenntaats1961, 1963, 1964a, 1966 ,1958a). Recentccountslsoarebeginningodealwithom efhenter-relationships between lassicalndnstrumentalonditioning (seeResectlaSolom on , 1957; Trapold Winokur,967) in annerwhichupportselevantpartsfhe theoretical formulation.

III. I N T E G R A T E DE A R N I N GRINCIPLESN DU M A N O T I V A T I O NH E O R Y Theuthora slreadydescribedartsf earninganalysisofhe

attltudlnalystemStaats, 1963,964a, 1968a,b)hichwillbe systematizeda ndxtendedere. Ithouldeoted thatecausefraditionalategori-zationchem es andhemultiple functionsof "motivationaltimuli,"uchstimulireeferred toyifferentermsuchsmotions,alues, instincts,needs,rives, motives,oals, cathexes,elnforcers,rges,utility(economies), fettshea,valuativeword mean i ng ,nd son, indditionotheermattitudes. Thedistinctions setpydemarcatinguchermsan dreasftudyonstituteartificialarriers toheomprehensivetudyofumanehavior. Thepresentnalysiss thushought toapplyohesevarious term s. Itsuggested thathetudyfattltudes--foriiiation.change, andunction--lnts roadontextshetudyfumanmotivation.

Generally, theaturalisticbservationsndonceptionsofhese


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10variousspectsfumanmotivationtimuli"reotouchednermsfempiricalrinciples thatrereciselytatednd "causative"nheensethatvariablesrendicatedywhichoaffectormanipulate)umanbehavior. Theaboratory-establishedrinciplesf learning,nhetherhand,reelativelyrecise,etailed, and "causative." W h enheworecombined, basedponhempiricalrinciples, the resultstheoryon-cernedwithignificant, functional,umanbehavior, butwithhepotentialformak ingmpiricalredictionsndroducingontrolofsolutionso)uman problems. Theresentectionwillresent onceptionofheumanmotivationalystemwhichwilldescribehe three functionsfmotivationalstimuli: (a ) theattitudermotional (classicalonditioning), (b ) thereinforcing,nd (c) theiscriminativeontrolling functionswhichuchstimulicquire. Theumanmotivationystem a yeeferred tosheatti-tude-reinforcer-discriminativeA-R-D) system, thusam i nghe tripleunc-tions fhetimuli included inheystem. T h e first two functionswillb e treatedtengthnitiallynd thehird later.

A. Theorm ationndhangefheAttitude-Reinforcer-Discriminativeystem

M a n yfheheoriesfhe socialndehavioralcienceshichre basedponnaturalisticvidencea veecognizedhatttitudinaltimuliresubjectovariationwithinnndividualnd between individuals. Thisa sbeenruevenwhenheonceptsf iological sort, suchsreud's;that is, inhisviewnnvestmentfod ynergysadenhebject,givinghebjecttsmotivationalharacteristics. However,whileuchpsychodyna m lcheoriesa ve recognized thatobjectsanhangenheirmotivationalunctionsorperson (insychoanalyticermshenvestmentofnergy (cathexis) ca nhiftrombjectobject, increasendecrease.


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11 andon ) theeansywhichhesehanges (orheffects) occurreotclearlytated Inermsfmpiricalrinciples. Its suggested thatnaturalisticbservationsfong-and-short-termhifts inndividualndro groupmotivationaltimuli,"nd the like,ayeand led inreaterdetailbyhemploymentflearningnalysis. M oreover,swilleescribed inpart,henhe learninganalysis Ism ployedtuggestseansywhichuman behavioraneredicted,measured,ndmodified.

The importantrincipleoriscussingheormationfhendividual'sA-R-Dystems thatfclassicalonditioning,otperantonditioning.Thats, asa seendescribed thereretimulihataturally a veunc-tionssnconditioned stimuli (UCS). Food,water,ir, sexualtimulation,warm th, and son,elicitponresentationpositiveemotional"esponses(whenherganism a seendeprivedfhem ). O nhetheran dntensetactile, auditory,isual,ndhemicaltimuli, elicitegativeem otiona lresponses. Whenhesearioustimulireairedwitheutraltimuli,elicitingheirparticularmotionalesponse, themotionalesponsesclassicallyonditioned toheeutraltimulus. W h en stimulusa som etoelicitnmotionalesponse Itayedefinedsnttitudinaltimulus.Thissnm portan tualityhat sometimulia n a vercquire, thats,the functionoflicitingnmotionalrattitudinalesponse. W h enstimulusascquired thisuality, ita neransferred toewtimuliwithwhicht isaired inherocessfhigher-orderonditioning.

Thus, itsuggestedhathendividual's-R-Dystems foundedpon thetimulihatriginallyelicitmotional (attitudinal) responsesn im onnnlearnedasis, andlaboratedyxtensiveirst-orderndigher-orderlassicalonditioning. Thendividual'sonditioninghistorynhisrespect isnfinitelyom plexndxtendsverhisifelstory--ampleopportunityorfantasticallyargeumberofonditioningrialsndall


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12 C h euniquenessweee Inheumanttltudinal system. Itslsomportanttonotehathe-R-D systemdiffersnotnlyrom ersonoerson,utalso frommallroup tomallroup: b yocial class, b ynation, andy culture. And, finally, l anguageplays entralolenhelassicalondi-tioningormationfndividualndroupifferencesnhe-R-Dystem(see Staats,964b ,968a,b ),asheuthor a sem onstrated in eriesfstudies.

Ithouldeointeduthatnheaturalisticituationheactthat lassicalonditioningrocesssnvolved inhestablishmentfn attltudinalesponseo timulusayebscured. Theresentationof the

UC'Roriginalattitudetimulus, the,ayeontingentponom e instru-men t a lesponse, producingnstrumentalonditioning. Therocessayhusappearimplyasnnstrumentalonditioningituationvenwhenhemoreim portan tesultsoakestimulusresentnheituation ewondl-

(C'Rtlonedtimulusndonsequently ewonditionedeinforcingtimulus),A nxam ple fromverydayifeayeeenwhenhearentpplieseinforcingverbaltimulithatelicitpositivemotionalesponses)ontingentpon C h eooperativeplaybehaviorfwoiblings. Thiswoulda veheffectoftrengtheninghemotoresponse. Inddition,owever, thepositiveattl-tudinalesponselicitedna chbaseyhesocial"pprovalwouldeconditioned toheotheriblingas oc.iltimulus. In othaboratoryandaturalistic (and clinical)ituationshenvestigator ayemisled b y theppearanceofnnstrumentalonditioningrocedurend falloealizethat lassicalonditioningrocesssustsssentiallynvolved.

Itm ayeddedhatherinciplesf lassicalonditioningrempiri-caln drenownngreatdetail. As heoryheym provem arked lyponhe naturalisticonceptsofhe formationndlterationofattitudetimuli.And, aswillehown, b y rawingponhebservationsfhe linicn d


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13 otherocialndehavioralciencestsossible to investhe lassicalconditioninganalysiswithreaterignificance. Moreover, reatdealfinformationboutndividualndroupehaviorsivenwhenheaturefthendividual'srheroup'sattitudinalystemsnown. TherinciplesInvolvednhisaserehosefnstrumentalonditioning,nd theccountthuseginsodealwithhe functionofattitudetimuli.

B. TheReinforcingunction fhe-R-D System Traditionally, thetudyfattitudesa soncentratedponattitude

formationndhangen dheeasurem entfattitudes. Therinciplesinvolvednhe functionofttitudes aveeenssumed,rasedpon naturalisticxpectationsatherha nxperimentallyderivedrinciples. Itis suggested,owever, that systematictudymusteadefhenstrumentalfunctionofattitude-elicitingtimuli.Inoutlininghispproach, hortescriptionfhemannernwhichthettitudinalystemdeterminesne's instrumentalehaviorswillirstegiven, beginningwithnxam pleromhen im a laboratory. Letsayhatweavewoatsfheam eiology.nefhem, rat,eubjectotrainingnwhich buzzersresentedanyimes, eachim eairedwithfood, inwhatonstituteslassicalonditioningrials innnstrumentalsituation (seeimmerman, 1957). Ra t eceivesxperiencewithheuzzer,b utotpairedwithood. Itouldexpected that theuzzerwouldecomeaositivettitudinal stimulus foratA, butot forat. N o wetsindividuallyplacea chnimal intoheam enstrumentalearningituationinvolving leverwhichwhenressedesultsnheriefoundfheuzzer.W ewilleehatatwillennthusiasticearner; hewillom eoressthearactively,utatwillot. Thedifferenceetweennimals,ow -ever,ouldest solelyponheacthatorn erganismhetimulusa s


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14 acquired elnforcerunctionwouldenattltudlnalndhusmotivationalstimulus--whlle forhethertasot.

Usinghe samenalysis,ea neeowdifferentehaviorswill > form ed inhildrenwithdifferent-R-Dystemsnituations importantochilddjustment. Somehildrenreaisednuchmannerhatom etimuliwillelicitattitudeesponsesnhemwhiletherhildrenackheeces-saryonditioningxperience. Ita seenwidelyecognized (see, forxam-ple, Rosen, 1956 ;accoby>Gibb s , 1954) thatifferencesnhevalue fvariousventssaffectedyociallassndamiliarrainingircum -stances. Middle-classhildrenordinarilyreewardedmanyimesorlearningewkillsfvariouskinds. Theroducts (stimuli) resultingrom learningewkills (achievements) should thusom eoelicitositiveattitudesndonsequentlyervesonditionedeinforcers. Itayadded thathroughimilaronditioningxperienceshepprovalfadult"authority"iguresanalsoom eoe trongpositiveelnforcer forom echildren.

Withheseivenstsnotdifficultoeeowhildearning, forexample,lassroomearningnddjustment,ayeffectedyheA-R-D system. Thepproval fheeacherndthertudentsnd theroductfone'swndevelopingkillremonghemostm portan tourcesfeinforce-mentor 'student'ehaviorsnheraditionallassroom. In anneranalogousourwonimals,etsayhatwohildrenwithdifferingA-R-Dystemsrelacednhelassroom. Forn ehild,hild, theteacher'spprovalndhehild'swnchievementsreeinforcing; forheother, child, thesetimulireoteinforcing. Letsayhatheyreceiveheam ereatmentnhelass. Wheneverheya yattentionomaterialsheeacherpresentsndespondnhemannerdirectedheyeceivetheeacher'spproval,ndheirnstrumentalehaviorsproducetimulihat

V


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15evidencetheirskill(achievements).nd ersuchacircumstance,childA 'sattentlonalandworkingbehav iorswillbemaintainedIngoodstrengthandasaresulthewillcontinuetod e velo pnewskills.hildB'sbehavior,ontheotherhand,willnotbemaintained.isattentlonalandworkingbehaviorswillwane,andoth ercompetitivebehaviorsthatarestrengthenedbystimulithatareeffectivereinforcerswillbecomerelativelydominant.

ChildAwillbeseenasInter ested,motivated,hardworking,andbright .Ultimately,hewillalsomeasureas veryableandbrightonclass,achiev e-ment,andintelligencetests.hildBwillbeseenasdisinterestedanddull,andpossibly asabehaviorproblemifproblembehaviorsarereinforced. La-terhewillalsomeasurethiswayan dthise vi d en c emaybeused, t Osupportthecontentionthatthechild'sbehavioralfailurewasduetosomepersonaldefect. Itmaybesuggestedthatmanyproblemsofschooladjustmentwhichareimportantforpsy c hologyinvolveddeficientordefectiveA-R-Dsystems(seeStaats&Butterfield,1965).tmaybestatedgenerallythat'normal'behaviorwillonly emerg efromasituation whichhasafixedsetofstimulisupposedtohaveA-R-Dualitiesonlywhenthosestimuliactuallydohavethosequalities.h e n'normal'behaviordoesnotemergefromthesituationwehavetoscrutinizeth eA-R-DystemoftheindividualandtheA-R-Dsystemineffectinthesituation.

ManyotherexamplesmaybegiventhatinvolvebehaviorsImportanttohumanadjustment.etustaketwoadultmalesoneofwhomhascometofindothermalestobestrongsexreinforcersbecauseofhisconditioning history;thatis,maleseli citpositivesexualattitudesinhim. Forthisindividualfemalesdo nothaveasstrongsexualreinforcingproperties.e tussay,also,thattheotheradultmaleinthisexamplehasanA-R-DsystemthatisJustthereverse. Thesetwoindividuals,placedinth esamelifesituation,willbelikelytod e velo ptwoquiteoppositesetsofsexualbehaviors.


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17necessaryCoobtainthereinforcementthatotherwisewouldbeavailable.

ThisIst h esameprinciplethatI sInvolvedInphobias,Irrationalfears,anxieties,andsoon.hatI s ,whilethepresenceof aphobia(whereastimulusInappropriately elicitsanegativeattltudlnalresponse)maybeofImportanceInandofItselfbecauseoftheunpleasantqualityof negativeemotionalresponses,orbecauseofaneffectuponhealth.I tisimportanttonotethatth eeffectupontheIndividual'sadjustiveInstrumentalbehaviorsmay beofevengreaterImportance.orexample,astrong negativeattitudet obeingoutdoorswillresultinth ebehaviorofstayinginside.henoneisforced(byone'sclassicalconditioninghistory an dinstrumentalbehaviorprinciples)to remainindoorsvarioustypesofsocialinteiactionsareruledout,one'soccupationalsuccessmayberuledout,sexualreinforcement maysuffer,andsoo n .heindividual'spoorlifeadjustmenti n whichlessenedpositivereinforcementandincreasednegativereinforcement occurs,mayresultinfurtherunfortunatedevelopmentoft h eA-R-Dsystemandthusaddi-tionalproblems.

I tshouldalsobeIndicatedthatgroupsofpeoplecan differfromeachotherintheirA-R-Dsystems. FollowingtheaboveanalysisthiswouldresultIn differenttypesofbehaviorcomingt obedominantInth egroup. Thati s ,forexample,if agroup hasareinforcementsysteminwhichsuccessi ncompe-titioni sastrongpositiverelnforcer,thenthiswillservetomakebehaviorsthatculminateinsuchsuccessdominantinthatculture. Ifsuccessi ncompetitionislesspositive,orevennegative,thenfewerexamplesofsuchInstrumentalbehaviorswilldevelop.uchdescriptionInsociologyandanthropologycanbeconsideredintermsofdifferencesintheA-R-Dsystembetweengroups,subgroups,cultures,andsoon.anytimesi tlaImportantt oth etreatmentofsocialproblemst o describetheA-R-Dsystemofsubgroupsinourownsociety.hroughthistypeofdescription,anunderstandingof


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18theausesfndesirableehaviorsm ayeained,ndpossibilitiesfpre-ventionnd treatment ayeuggestedyheanalysis. Thus,any fhe aspectsofroblemehaviorsfhehildrenweowallulturally eprived ariseromocialonditionshatreventhe evelopm entofnA-R-Dystemthatsappropriateorheonditionsowhichheyreubjected. Thishas,ofourse,eenrueorm ericanNegroesnvariousways . Forxam ple ,hen theocialituationreventsheositivettltudinaltimulif 'success*frombeingpairedwithhetimulifa rdork,cquiringkills, Intellec-tualchievement,ducationaltatus, and son , theseattertimuliwillotacquirepositivettltudinal,ndhus, reinforcementvalue. Inddition,when roupwithinheargerroupaseendiscriminatedgainstnvariousaversiveways, thiswilllsoonstituteegativeattltudinalonditioningforhendividualsnvolved. Byverbaleans,nvolvingherinciplesofclassicalonditioningofmean ingndttitudes (seetaats, 19il, 1964b,1968a; Staats taats, 1958), thisonditioninga neassed totherindividuals. Whenhere is onsistentversivexperiencefsubgroup culturepresentedymembersofheargerroup, theeinforcementystemoftheubgroupwillom eoncludetrongnegativettitudesowardembersftheargerroup. Thiswillaffecthextentowhichmembersfheargergroupa nervespositiveocialeinforcersfhebehaviorfmembersoftheubgroup. Forxam ple , thememberfheubgroupwhonteractswithmember fhe largerroupn earningituation, suchsheasewherehe memberofhe largerroups upervisor, therapist,rteacher,willrespond 'atyplcally' ifhememberofheargerroupelicitsegativeattltudinalesponsesn d ,swilleescribed, thusontrolsvoidancend oppositlonalehaviors.Thepplicationsfheearningheoryofumanattitudes toroblem sofumanbehavior,ndo eneralonceptionofumanbehavior, canno te


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1 9 exhausted inhisaper. Therecedingiscussionttemptsnly to indicatesomefhepotentialities,n d ,yhexampleshosen, tondicate thatherealmofattitude studysoncernedwithvariousypesfumanahavlor--fromheoretical toppliedreas even thoughheehaviorsreot tradi-tionallyncluded inhetudyfttitudec Inrderopellut somefthedditional implicationsfheonceptfheA-R-Dystem, the straight-forward learningrinciplesequiredditionallaboration,hichwilletheoncernofheextections.

C. TheHierarchicalaturefhe-R-0ystemndtsunctionsAdditionalonceptionswithinsychologyndhe therocialnd

behavioralciencesa nem ployed inhe further evelopm entfhe learninghooryfttitudes (humanmotivation). Maslow1954),sn example, ha s

suggested thatne'seeds (ornheresent term sne'sttitudesnd relnforcers)rerdered inerm sftrength. W h enhetrongest 'needs're sstlsfied, thenheext strongestecom esrepotent,nd son . Anotherexam plef ocial sciencerinciplewhich lendstselfo ierarchicalconceptiononcerns the lawofdiminishing (marginalrxtra)utility, from econom ics (Ssmuelson, 1958,.30). Thistateshatthemorehendivi-dua la sfom eivenommodi tyinheresenterm s , elnforcer), theess satisfactionorutility)ewouldbtain fromndditionalnitftUlm er, 1959 , p. 319 .

Theresentonceptfhe-R-Dystemm ayelaboratedyharacterir-In gheystem's 'hierarchical' nature, and b yutliningom eofhe laboratoryprincipleshatouldexpectedoenvolved,gainutilizingaturalis-ticobservationsn donceptions. Tobegin. It ayeuggested thatheA-R-Dystemssystembecausehelementsnheystem aveodesf'interaction,'n efwhichsnvolvednheierarchicalaturefhesystem. Atn ymomentnim ehevarious stimulinhendividual'system


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20

wouldbeexpectedtohaverelativereinforcingIntensity.elative,a*veilasabaolute,strengthwouldhavee nImportanteffectupontheIndividual'srgroup'sbehavior.

Letuasay,fo rexample,thettwoIndividualshaveestimulusInea^hoftheir'relnforcersystems'thathaspr ecisel yth esanereinforcing value,reinfercerA.etusalsosay,however,thetfo roneindividualtherearenostrongerreinforcersinhissystemwhileforth eotherindividualthereisanotherstimulus,relnforcerB,thetIsanevenstrongerrelnforcer. Nowletth eIndiv idualsbeplacedinasituationinwHchbothr einfor cersareevell-eble,butonerelnforcerlapres ent e dcontingentupononeInstrumentalbe -havior,e ndtheotherr elnfor cerispresentedcontingentuponanincompatiblebehavior.nderthesecircumstancesthetwoIndividualswilld ev elopdifferentjeheviors.heindividualwiththerelnforcersystemin whichrelnforcerBisth emost'dominant'relnforcer willdevelopmostdominantlyth ebehaviorthatisfollowedbythatrelnforcer.heotherindividualwiththesysteminwhichrelnforcerAisrelativelystrongerwilldeveloppre-dominantlytheotherbehavior. Itisthussuggestedthatitisnotonlytheabsolutevalueofreinforcersthatd eterminesindividualandgroupdifferencesinbehavior,butalsotherelativevaluesofthevariousreinforcersintheA-R-Dsystem.

Onecorollaryshouldbeeddedhere.teppeersthatthetearesubsystemswithinthemajorsystem.hatis,thereareclassesofreinforcerst h * , tarerelated. Takeae xreinforceraforexample. Itmaybesuggestedthattheree remanydifferentindividualsexreinforcerswhichconstituteaclass,andprobablytherearesubclasseswithinth eclass.ertainly,foodreinforcersconstituteenotherclessoftheA-R-Dsystem(withsubclassesalso).he noneisdeprivedoffood,asanexampl e,itwouldbeexpectedthatthewholeclasswouldbeincreesedinreinforcingvelue.fthestrongestfoodrelnforcerin


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21thehierarchyisno taval l a Me,thenthenextstrongestwouldbethedominantavailablereinforcer.hemodelwouldsuggestthatarelatively weakmemberofaclassofreinforcerscouldberaisedIntoapositionofrelativedominance inthetotalsystemthroughdeprivationofstrongermembersofitsclass.mand epriv edofpotablefluidsmightb emoreaffectedbysomebrackishwaterthanbyausuallystrongerreinforcerinsomeotherclassofreinforcersauchassexualreinforcers,foodreinforcers,socialapprovalreinforcers,andsoon.

Severalotherspecificationsmaybeindicatedhereinelaboratingtheconception. Therelativestrengthsofthereinforcersinthesystem maybechangedbyfirst-orderorhigher-orderclassicalconditioningexperiences.Thisconditioningmaybeoftheusualvariety,oritmayinvolveincompatibleconditioning;thatis,astimulusthathascometoelicitoneattitudinalres-ponsewillnolongerdoso(ornottothesameextent)henanincompatibleemotionalresponseisconditionedtothestimulus.hishasbeencalledcounterconditioning. Inaddition,therelativestrengthsofreinforcersinanIndividualmotivationalsystemmaybechangedbyextinctionprocedures. Thesetwoprocessesmayrequireanumberofconditioning(orextinction)trialsinanycase,andthusmaydevelopslowly.lso,onceastimulushascometoelicitanattitudinalresponsethusbeingareinforcer,itwillremainsounlessfurtherconditioningorextinctionproceduresproduceachange.

D.eprivationandSatiationandtheA-R-DSystemInadditiontotheseenduringandslowlyacquiredprocessesofchangein

therelative(andabsolute)strengthofreinforcersinth emotivatlc lsystem,therearealsooperationsthatcanchangeth esystem morerapidly,ui l l ywithalesspermanenteffect.hatis,deprivationoperationsalsoiacreasethereinforcingstrengthofapositivereinforcingstimulusI nanabsolute


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2 2 sense. Satiation,nhethera n d ,ecreaseshatrengthof einforcingtitnulus. In othasesheparatlonanaxpected tohangealsoha relativeominancefclnfc* ttsnheystem. Whenheonditionofdepri-vationratiationseturnedohetartingpoint,owever theainforcarswillegainheirormerelativeposirion--thehangesroduceddirectlyfollowheeprivation--satiationvariations.

ThamannernwhichroupsndndividualsanvarynbehaviorbecausedifferenttimulireffectivenheirA-R-Dystemshas lready eendis-cussed. Aewxam pleswilleivenherewhereheelativehierarchical)orderingofhe-R-Dystemsffectedydeprivationsatiationvariations,producingvariationsnehavior. Asnxam ple ,dultocialeinforcementm ayccurnmallortionsorhehousewifewitheveralmallhildren. Asaesultofhisdeprivationhislassfocialtimuli ayncreasen reinforcementvalueo farreaterxtentha nsheasewith er us band .He, beingatiatednocialeinforcersecausefhisorkituation, findspendingveningsatom emoreeinforcing;heindsocialventsmore

reinforcing. Asnotherxample,eprivationofexeinforcerswouldeexpectedoncreaseheeinforcingvalueofhislassftimuli,theexpensefthereinforcersnhendividual'system. Forhedolescentunderhisypefdeprivationthereinforcersayeelativelyweaknd thaehaviormaintainedyhoseeinforcers--study,eading,amilyactivi-ties- -mayweaken.

Deprivationsatiationlsoausesttltudlnaldifferencesnocialgroups. Whilexperiencingessdeprivationorexeinforcers, theowereconomiclassesnhetheranduffermuchmoreeprivationofmaterialreinforcersuchsmoney , finelothes,ars,ndon,swellsmoredeprivationofocialeinforcersuchsrestige, socialpproval,ndoon. Juveniledelinquencyn driminality a veeenonsideredyheuthor


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2 3Inerm sf artial statementfhisrinciple (Staats, 1963),ndhisnd otherspectsfheresentpproachecently a veeenm ployednnotheranalysisf r im ina l behavior (BurgessAkers, 19'}6) .

It is im portantondicate thateprivation aylaoffectheA-R-i)system, an d thusehavior, innotherwayhatoesotm erge fromonsldera-tionf laboratoryearningrinciples. Forxam ple ,hen risoneradeprivedfontactwithheppositeex, theenerallassfexelnforcerswillncreasenelativetrength. As onsequence, relnforcersofeaservaluenhelass, butwhichreoreccessible, suchaom osexualontact,willeelativelytrongerndaynstrumentallyonditionehaviorhatwouldenlikelyoccurwithout theeprivation. Ithouldem phasized thatnhiswa ya chnstancef om osexualctonstituteswholeeriesofclassicalonditioningrials since exualctxtendsver onsiderablelengthfime. Theom osexualonditioningxperienceouldexpectedoIncrease theexualttitudlnalvaluefhelassfocialtimulusnvolvcd--membersfheam eex--thus furtheralteringhetructurefhe-R-D systemn oreermanentasis.

E .ulesofApplicationofRelnforcersandth eA-R-DSystemItwassaidi nintroducingth epresentpaperthatth estraightforward

statementoflearningprinciplesdoesnotconstituteatheoryofhumanbehavior,evenwhenth eprincipleshavebeendemonstratedwithsimplehuman behaviors.

Itisnecessaryt oextendth ebasicprinciplesintotherealmsofhumanbehaviorofinteresttoth ebehavioral andsocialsciences. Indoing thisth enaturalisticobservationsan dth econceptstheyhaveyieldedmustexertaprominentinfluenceinth etheoryconstructiontask.ew principlesnotsug-gestedInth elaboratorymaybeexpectedt oemergefrom extendingthelabora-toryprinciplesi ntheanalysisofth ecomplex circumstancesof humanlife.


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24Examplesofthisiiava lre a d ybeenpresentedintheprece ding analyses,butitwillh e lptoelaboratethismethodologicalsuggestionbymorepointede x a m p le softhenaysthatbasicprinciplesaloneareInadequate.aoneillustration,therelationshipbetweenthebasicprinciplesnaynotbeseeninthelaboratorybecauseoneisconcernedaboutisolatingtheprinciplesandstudyingthemindependently.herelationshipoftheprinciples,ontheotherhand,maybeveryImportantwhendealingwithcomplexhumanbehavior.herelationship betweentheattltudinal-reinforcing valueofastimulusanditsdiscriminative stimulusvalue,yettobediscussed,issuchanexample.

Itlaalsothecasethateffectswhicharedifficulttoproduceinthelaboratorybecauseoflimitednumbersofconditioningtrials,andthelike,maytakeplacereadilyandimportantlyinreallifewhereconditioningopportuni-tiesmay beunlimited. Theprincipleofhigher-orderconditioningissuchanexample.urthermore,certainconditionsorprincipl esmaybeanIrrelevantpartoflaboratorymanipulationandyetbeverysignificantwhentheprincipl esor conditionsareextendedonatheoreticalempiricalleveltothestudyofman. Thehierarchicalnatureofthereinforcementsystemandth eprinciplesinvolved,fo rexample,unlikethecaseonthehumanlevel,arenotcrucialintheanimallaboratory. Thepresentsection willbeconcernedwithdescribinganothersuchcaserelevanttothepresenttheory.

Tobegin,inthelaboratorythereisacertain'rule'inexistencewhentheprincipleofreinforcementisstudied.heruleinvolveswhatbehaviortheinvestigatorelectstoreinforceandinwhatmanner(e.g.,scheduleofrein-forcement).ntherathewillreinforcebarpressingbehavior,orrunningdownarunway,orturninginonedirectioninaTmaze;inthepigeonhewillreinforcepeckingakey,orakey ofacertaincolor,andsoon .hebehaviorlaselectedfo rvariouspracticalreasonsrelevanttolaboratory work: tobespecifiableobjectively,naturallyoccurring,simpleenoughtobetreatedaaaunit,oflimiteddurationenablingrepeatedtrials,andsoon.


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25ThisaspectoftheprincipTeofrelnfcrcement,whichonlyhaspractical

ImportanceInthebasicstudy.InvolvessomeofthemoatsignificantmattersInthestudyofhumanorganisation. Independentlyofwhatattltudlnalstimuliserveasreinforccrsfo raparticulargrouporculture,charecanbedifferencesbetweengroupsinth erulesbywhichth erelnforcersareapplied.hewaysthatgroupsdifferInthisr espect,th ewaysthatthesedifferencesd ev elopandchange,andth eeffsctsthatareproducedonhumanbehav iormaybeseenasprimarytopicsofstudyfo rscientificandprofessionalar easconcernedwithman.fewexamplesindicatingtheImportantoftherulesofapplyingrelnforcerswillbemade.

AsoneIllustration,inoursocietysomeofthestimulithathaveagooddealofreinforcingvaluearetitles,positions,statusroles,socialandper-sonalattention,acclaimandrespect,money,fineclothes,expensivecarsandhouses,andvarioushonorsandawards. Inoursociety,therearealsorules(notnecessarilyformalorexplicit)fortheapplicationofthesestimuli.Thatis ,they(o rtokenswhichcanbeexchangedforthem)aredeliveredcon-tingentuponsomekindsofbehaviorbutnotuponothers. Thus,largeamountsofthesestimuliared eliv er edcontingentuponexceptionallyskilledbaseball,football,acting,dancing,orcomicbehaviors,amongothers.elativelysmallamountsaredeliveredconting entuponth ebehaviorsofskilledmanualwork,studying,unskilledmanualwork,nursing,andmanyothers.

Thesecharacteristicsofourreinforcingsystemanditsrulesofapplica-tion,tocontinuewiththeexample,haveaneffectuponthemannerinwhichbehaviorinoursocietyisshaped.onsider,thus,aboywhohastwoclassesofskilledbehaviors,oneasetofintellectualskillsconsistingofknow-ledgeandwe 11-developedstudyandscholarly workhabits,andtheothercon-sistingofsomeformo ffineathleticprowess.etussaythateitherbehavior


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2Scouldeeveloped to 'championship' caliber. Now, In situation Inhich theocietaluleahatheargermountfeinforcementamade con-tingentponhen eehavior, thlaehaviorwilletrengthened,n damuttb ehease,thexpenaefhe therohextenthatheehaviorsreIncompatible. Inurociety,fourae,anyofhetrongesteinforceraaremoreptoemoreiberallyppliedothleticatherha ncholarlybehavior.

Whenroupsreonsidered, itwouldlsoexpectedhatheeinforcersystemndtsulesfapplicationwilldetermineheypesfbehaviorsthatre ominant . Aocietyhathas differingetfeinforcerand ruleswillvidenceifferentehaviorverheroupsfpeoplexposedothatetfonditions. ociety, forxample,hoseeinforcera remadecontingentponcholarlybehaviorso argerxtentha nnotherocietywillreatetrongerehaviorsofhatype, in reaterumberofeople,thanwillheotherociety. Ingeneral,anyofhedifferentultural,national,lass,nd familialbehaviorshata veeenbservednociology,anthropology,linicalndocialsychology,ndtherehavioralciences,ca neonsideredonvolvehisspectfumanmotivation--the-R-Dystem andtsulesofapplication.

Ithouldendicatedhatom etimesheulepecifies articularbehavior-socialtimulus-reinforcementelationship. Thus, sexualehaviorandexualeinforcementccurnallocieties. However, theulesegulatetheypeofbehaviorndheypefocialtimulus. Thus, inurulture,sexualehaviorwilleeinforcedutnlynertainituationswithertainpeople. Peopleuchsiblings,arents, children,am eexpartners,unwillingpartners,ndonrexcluded. W ealso a vemanyxamplesfculturesndubcultureswithmarked l ydifferentules, forxample, theancientGreek,oman ,awa i i an ,ndEgyptianultures,om osexualroups.


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2 7marital 'switching* clubs, and son .

Itm ayedded that thererelsoulesor thepplicationfegativereinforcersswellsositivendhesea nifferoramilies, subcultures,andultures. Forxample, a family a sulesywhichertainehaviorsarcunished. Arouprsocietyalsodoes. Manyulesoncerninghe application fnegativeeinforcerswhenheehaviorrocialtimulusn-volveds inappropriatereadexplicit inheormofegalreliiousUws. Certainbehavior-socialtimulus-reinforcementelationshipsreela-tivelyikelyoeeavilyontrolledyaws,sccursnhereafex.Theseulesoncerningegativendositiveeinforcers ayalsoealledm oresrvaluesrormsnheocialciences.

Thexperimental, social,rlinicalsychologistwhosnterested inhumanehaviormustooheocialndehavioral sciencesnd theirnaturalisticobservationsf a nornformationoncerninghesemportantmatters. It ayeuggested,owever, thatheonceptsndherinciplesofheasiccienceervesheheorywithinwhicho nders tandnd extend thenaturalisticbservationsndoncepts. Thus, theheoryofuman behaviordoes otm erge fromhebasicaboratoryrincipleshemselves(asom ehilosophiesfsychologywould Imply forxam ple .kinner's"experimentalnalysisfehavior"m ethodoiOgy), n orromheaturalisticobservationshemselves.

F. TheControllingGoal )unctionfhe-R-Dystem Theresnotherspectf earningheoryfttitudesnduman

motivationhatlsonvolves rinciplehatoesotmergeromhelaboratory,utwhichasntecedentsnheaturalisticbservationsnd conceptsflinicalsychologyndtherocialciences, rheuthor a snpartdescribedhisrinciplelsewhere (Staats, 1953, 1964a , 1968a,b). The


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28nalyslirequiresanintegrationofth eprinciplesofclassicalconditioning,conditionedreinforcement,aiddiscriminativesclmulus control.heanalysisprovidesth eprincipleswith whichtotreatth eD(discriminative) aspectofth eA-R-Dsystem.

Thelaboratorystudy ofth eprincipleofreinforcementhasbeenlargelyconcernedwiththereinforcingeffectofreinforcingstimuli.tshouldbenotedthatth e effectof areinforcingstimulusoccurs wheniti s presented

aftersomeresponse,an dtheeffectinvolvesstrengtheningfutureoccurrencesofthatbehavior.hereinforcingfunction ofastimulusIsnotdefinedbyth eabilityof thestimulustocontrol(orbringon)instrumentalbehavior.Thetraditionallearningtheories didnotexplicitlymakethepoint.onse-quently,manyinvestigators havenotunderstoodthisdefinition clearlyo rfolloweditintheirresearchwithhumans.husitisnotuncommont osee astudyinwhichth ereinforcing value of astimulusisIncreasedbytheexperi-mentalmanipulation;butthe effectismeasuredbyth eIncreaseinth einstru-mentalbehaviorth estimuluselicits ,notbyanIncreaseinitsreinforcingfunction.lthoughthestimulushasneverbeen presentedaaareinforcer,contingentuponthebehaviorstudied,th eeffectis erroneously discussedasifitwas duet othereinforcing actionof thestimulus.andura,Rosn,andRoaa,(1963),for example,makethistheoreticalerrorina notherwisevaluable paper.

Thisisaneasy confusion,however,forthere hasnotbeenanappreciationbylaboratoryInvestigatorsofhowconditionedstimulusandreinforcingvalueareInextricablyintertwinedwith discriminativestimulusvalue whenstudyingortreating complex human behavior.linicalandsocialtheories,onth eotherhand,whileattimesrecognizingthe multiplefunctionsofmotivationalstimuli,havenot clearlydefinedthefunctionso rIndicatedtheoperatingprinciples.ewcomb(1950,p .80)andKlineberg(1954,p .76),as examples,


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2 9discussmotivessncludingtatesfdrive,swellsirectinRbehaviortowardom eoal. Normsndvalueslayheam eolenociologyeferringtoontrolfehaviorn doatisfaction, an d theseunctionsrerdinarilynotlearlydistinguished (Johnson, 1960,. 50). Freud,snotherxample,positedhatnnstincta sothnimnd articularehaviororttain-inghebjecthatatisfiesheimndeducesheensionfhenstinct.

Inheaboratory,nheotherhand, theeveralunctionaftimulihaveeenlearlyeen, b utheelationshiphasoteendequatelytipu-lated. (Hulluggestedhatheonceptfmotivationrdriveadothn "energizing"ndguiding"unction,withheonceptfanticipatoryoalresponselsoelevant,utheearningheorywas otdevelopedoervesaasisor heoryfumanmotivation, orumanbehaviorneneral,nd theheoryervesoorlynhisole. Skinnerhas otreated thenteractingfunction ftimuli.)

Actuallyhenalysisfherewarding ndgoal unctionsofeinforc-ingtimulisomplex. It a yeeduced for ummaryccount,owever. Tobegin, theensorytimuliofnobjectrventhatalsohas einforcingqualityreikelyoom eoontrolehaviorshatpproachrvoid thestimuli. Asnxample,hen hildeesfoodtimulus, iferawlso-wardhetimulushisesponsesollowedybtaininghetimulus,hichis einforcement. Thisrocessulfills theequirements formak i ngstimulus discriminativetimulus; thats, atimulusnheresencefwhich esponseseinforcedwillom eoontrolheesponse.

Thisriefanalysisustexpandednumanbehaviorneveraldirections. First, thehildwillearn argelassfstriving"ehaviorsthatwillom enderhediscriminativeontrolfucheinforcingtimuli,forxam ple ,rawlingoward ,walkingoward, runningoward ,limbingverandroundbstacles, reachingndrabbingor, fightingndtrugglingor,


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10asking,begging,andcryingfor,workingfor,wheedlingfor,arguingf o r ,flatteringfor,beingIngratiatingfor,beingrespectfulfor,as wellascom-petingfo rinvariousways.

Inaddition,thechild'sclass ofstriving behaviorswillcomeunderth ediscriminativecontrolof alargenumberof differentreinforcingstimulionthebasisofhisexperiencewiththose,orsimilar,stimuli.hus,int h echild'sconditioninghistoryswidevarietyof stimulusobjectsthatar erein-forcerswillcometocontrolresponsesthatresultinobtainingthoseobjects.

Furthermore,throughvariousmediatedgeneralizationmechanisms,stimulusobjects,with whichth eIndividualhaspreviously hadnodirectconditioningexperience willhavet h egoal(discriminative)valueImmediately.hismaytakeplacethroughlanguage,asoneexample.hati s ,aftertheword foodhacometo beaconditionedreinforcer(throughclassicalconditioning)andalso adiscriminativestimulusforstrivingbehavior,anewstimulusthatislabeledbythe wordfoodwilltherebyimmediatelygaindiscriminativecontrol.Itmayalsobesuggested,althoughthecomplete mediatedgeneralizationanalysiswill notbegivenhere,thatanystimulusthatelicitsapositiveemotionalorattitudlnalreaponse(anyreinforcingstimulus)will slsohavetothatextentdiscriminativestimulusvalue,thefirsttimet h estimulusiscontacted.heprinciplei s againthatofmediatedgeneralization(seeStaats,1968a,for amorecompleteanalysis).

(I tshouldbenotedthatalthough astimuluswilltendtocontrol a widenumberofstrivingresponses,whether ornotaresponseoccurs willalsobeafunctionofothercontrollingstimulithatare presentinth esituation.orexample,although areinforcingstimulusmaycontrol'teachingfor and askingfor behavior,thelatterwillbemorelikelyt o occurwhenthereisanotherperaon preaent.s anotherexample,astimulusobjectthati slabeledfoodwillnotcontrolstrivingforbehaviorifitelicitsanegativeemotional


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3 1 responsebecauseftsvisualharacteristics.)Atn yate, Itsuggestedhat thetrengthfhediscriminative stimulusvaluewillary, inpart,sfunctionfmanipulationfheein-forcingvaluefhetimulus. Thus, thediscriminativealuefhetimuluswillncreaserdecreaseccordingo classicalonditioningvariablesa wellsdeprivation--satiationonditions.

Therecedinganalysiswa sadenlyorositiveeinforcingtimuli.However,nnalogousnalysisa n eadeornegativeeinforcingtimuli.Becausefheir ffectsnbehavioregativeeinforcingtimulion eocontrolstrivingwa yrom rstrivingagainst"ehaviors,hichwould Include roadlassfesponsesangingromunn i ngwa yromhroughfighting,voiding,rguingwith, insulting,otingagainst, ratingnegatively,andon.

Ithouldeoted thatnontrastoheaboratoryituation. Itausuallyheiscriminativeontrolof Instrumentalehaviorshatocialn d behavioralciencenvestigatorsse tondexmotivationaltimuli. Thesocialsychologist,linician, sociologist, oranthropologist, forxample,ordinarilyobserveswhateopletrive forverballyrtherwise)when estudiesttitudesrmotivation. This iswhyeasoenerallyntroducedtheonceptfoaldirectedehavior (whileorrectnertainespectsausuallyalsoeleologlcal),nd frequentlyhaslossedverherinciplesfclassicalonditioningndeinforcement. Theocialheorist, orclinicaltheorist,oesoteewhetherheeceiptof timuluselicitsnmotionalresponserwhetherttrengthensutureoccurrencesofnnstrumentalbehavior. Inacttwouldrdinarilyempossibleo oo Inviewofhecomplexityofumanbehaviorstudied orreated, thenfrequencyofheiroccurrence, thenternalaturefhe emotionalesponses,n d son. ItIsrobab lyorhiseasonhatherinciplesofheaboratoryworkern d


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32 thoseofh e socialcientistwerenoteadily roughtnto productiveela-tionshipnhismportantealmftudy. Morewill e saidfheffectsofheiscriminativeunctionsfhe-R-Dystemnpersonalitynd a b n o rm a lbehaviornhe followingections.

G. DeficitsndnappropriacieanheA-R-D ystem Thisectionsntendedodescribeeveraldditionalharacteristics

ofhe-R-Dystemwhichremplied inom e fheprecedingiscussionsut which should b epecifiedndlaborated.

Ita slreadyeenuggestedhereinhathendividual's-R-Dystemisorm ednhebasisofhelassicalonditioningofmotionalesponsesin r im aryn dhigher-orderonditioning. Whileheaboratorynimal'sconditioninghistorym ayunnto ewundredr ewhousandondition-ingtrials,itsm portan tootehatorumanshelassicalondition-inghistorysnfinitelygreater. Inonsideringhisn ehouldememberthatunconditioned stimuliuchsating inner,ngagingnheexset,andonactuallynvolveum erousonditioningrialsvernxtendederiodofine. An yonditionedtimuluspresentedornnstantduringhatxtendedperiodwilleceive onditioningrial. M oreover,nytimuluspresentduringhewholentervalwilleceivemany ,anyonditioningrials. The samehingsruewithespectohigher-orderonditioning. Therereppor-tunitiesornnfiniteumberfclassicalonditioningrialsherewhichwillesultn evelopm entofhendividual'sA-R-Dystem. Thisa n eseenasilynheerbalevel,inceone'sanguagewillontainman y ,anywordshichelicitositiveoregativemotionalesponses. Thesewordsm aythenerveomakethertimulintom otionelicitingtimuliwhenhewordsa repairedwithhesetimuli (seeStaats, 1968a). Evennnea yuchon-ditioningrialsreegion.


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33Theargeumberofonditioningpossibilities,nd thepportunityor

annfinitevariationnne'sersonalondltlolnghistory, Insure thattherewilleopreciseimilarityn-R-Dystemsbetweenndividuals.Theunlversalsweookornumanbehaviormusteniversale inbehaviorprinciples,otunlversalsnhe-R-Dystemrhebehaviorsnfluencedbyhe system.

Onhether a n d , theimilaronditionsprovided forndividualsnd groups inheonditioninghistorieswouldexpectedoesultnimilari-ties, if otdentities. Thus, itwouldexpectedhat familieswould ordinarilyprovideimilaronditioninghistoriesorheirmembersnontrasttoheonditioningxistingbetweenamilies. Onewould thusxpectvariationinA-R-Dystemshatwouldakelaceetweenamilies. Theam ewouldetrueofmanyroups: peerroups, sociallasses, fraternities, socialinstitutionsikeducation,rofessions,lubs,eadersfparticulareriodi-cals,ewspapers,ocks,ndon. Thexperiencesbtainedromontactwithachocialroupinghould resultnonditioningwhichaffectsheformationsofhe-R-Dystem. Thissotoayhatembersf roupingm aynot receivenatypicalttitudeonditioninghistory forhatroup.Thereareanyircumstancesnde rhichhisa nccur.

The theoryofheA-R-Dystemmustepelledutnreaterdetailntheontextfts formation, itseasurem ent . Itsffectsponocialinteraction, itselevanceoradditional topicsfersonality, andon .(Seetaats, 1958b , foradditionalpecificationsndmplicationsnheseareas.) O n efhem portan treasfpecificationmustehatfhea bnorma levelom m entfhe-R-Dystemnd theonsequentffectsponheIndividual'smotionalesponsen dvertnstrumental,ehaviors. Theec-tiono followwillndicateom edditionalrinciplesn thesereas. First,however, it ayerveotressrieflygainhe threeffectshichn


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3 4abnormalA-R-Dsystemwillhave.

First,aconditioning historythati sabnormalwill affectabnormalemotionalresponsestostimuliwithwhichtheindividuali sconfronted. Sec-ond,abnormalconditioning willresultinabnormalitiesinthestimuliwhich willreinforcetheindividual.hird,abnormalconditioningwillresultInabnormalitiesnth estimuliforwhichtheindividualwillstrivef o r o ragalnat.egardlessofth etypeofabnormalityintheA-R-Dsystem,i tshouldberememberedthattheremaybethreeeffects.herewillbeanabnormalpresence orabsenceofemotionalrespondingtostimuli;this willmaketheatimuli abnormalinreinforcingpowerwhichwillaffectt h eindividual'sbehavior,andtheabnormalemotionalvalue ofthestimuliwill abnormallycontrolth eindividual'sstrivingbehavior.

1 .eficitsinth eA-R-DSystemExamplesofabnormalbehaviorhave alreadybeengiveninprevioussec-

tions.hepresentdiscussionismeant onlytoindicatethegeneralwaysinwhich A-R-Dsystemsmaybeabnormal--whichneedsadditionalspecification.Thepresentauthor(Staats,1963)hassuggestedthat manyaspectsofabnormalbehaviorcanbeconsideredintermsofdeficitsinbehavior,orintermsofbehaviorsacquiredwhichareinappropriateforth eindividual.ti simportantto makethegeneralstatementherethattheA-R-Dsystemalso differsinthesetwo dimensl-is. Thati s ,th egeneralprinciples ar ethatabnor-malitiesin conditioninghistory can provideindividualswithanA-R-Dsystemthathasdeficitssuchthatstimuliwhichshouldelicitpositiveornegativeattitudesdo notdos o ;orth eA-R-Dsystemmay beinappropriatesuchthatatimuliwhichshouldno telicitanattituderesponse(eitherpositiveor negative)havecometoelicitsucharesponse.

TheeffectofeitheradeficitorInappropriacyInthe A-R-Dsystemnaybeshowninany one ofthethreefunctionsofA-R-Ds t i i o u l i .hus,for


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35 example, on eouldonsiderdeficitsimplynermsfhe fact thattimulid onotelicitmotionalesponsesnnndividualwhenheyonothers.Thus, anndividualttending ymphonyoncertorwhomhem usicelicitsn oositivemotionalesponsesmissesheleasurefmostoncert-goers.Aersonorwhom ok eelicitsoositivemotionalesponsesnheam esituation. Aersonwhosotorrifiedyom eorribleituationson-sideredallousrrutal.

InheeinforcingvalueharacteristicfheA-R-Dystem, on e a sonlyoeferoheccountsfbnorma lsychologyextbooksobtaina bu n d a n tescriptionsfndividuals (and types)hoseentraldifficultysthattimuliwhichhouldeeinforcingohem, ifheyareoisplaycertainbeheviors,reoteinforcing. Takeheasefheoungneuras-thenicousewife. Sheha sonergy oo erousework. Shesist-less,epressed, andunableopplyherselfoheasksherifeituationpresents. She ayecomeworriedhatom ethingmusterongwith ernd may seekmedicalrpsychologicalelp. Ther im aryroblemsrequentlythat thererenadequate sourcesofeinforcementomaintainhebehaviorsrequisiteor erform ing erewaskss ousewife. A s oungirlhe m ayhavead onditioningistorynwhichocialventsndocialnter-actionofallorts,ttendingchool,tudyingorxams,ecreationalactivities, and son a veom e toeowerfuleinforcers. However, stayinglonen ousendoingousework ay oteeinforcingatall. Theproblemsnothatheounghousewifedoes ota veheequisitem otorskills. Theseoulda veeenwellcquired. However, withoutositivereinforcementorheehaviors, theywillotccur. Itwillebserved,however, thatwhendequateeinforcersrevailable toheoungwoman,the listlessnesswillropout, andctive,nergetic, behaviorwilleexhibited. Thus, avisit fromfriend,socialvent, and son,will


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35 strengthenherbehaviorn dhowtsotmatter f eficitnheInstruments ehaviorshstsnvolved,ut eficit \-R-Dystemor er lifeituation. (Amoreompleteanalysisfuch asewouldequiregreaterpecificstlonofheA-R-Dystemn dtsannerforigin. In addition,hemanne rnwhichhendividualwillvoid socialisapprovalforheeurasthenicehaviorhroughationalizationsndhysicalomplaints,an don ,willlsoemportantnhe completeescriptionfuchdifflcultiea.)

ThebehaviorofchizophrenicsmanyimesnvolveseficitsnheA-R-Dystem. Theescriptionfchizophrenicsasndifferent, lackinginterests,mbition,ndoneferso lacking-R-Dystem. Casesfantisoclslpersonalitym ayalsoeonsidered inerm sfdeficitsnheA-R-Dystem. Forxample,tsrequentlysid thsthepsychopatha n no tanticipatenegativeonsequences,snnotrofitrom warnings,isplaysverbalem orseeeminglyutwithout letsrehsviorbeingffected,n doon. On eofhehingsnvolvederewould seemoedeficits:ihevarbslspectfhendividual'sA-R-Dystem. Thsts,Ssseenen -tioned,nefhe prom inen tspectsfheA-R-Dystemshathe Individualshouldcqulre verysrgeepertoirefwordswhichelicititherositiveornsgativemotionalesponsesn imsee Staats, 1968a) . Wordsuchsdangerousmustom e toelicit egativemotional response,ervesnegativeelnforcer,ndoreovererveoontrolppropristevoidantbehaviorsrhsndividual'sehaviorwillot eroperlyontrolled. Asanotherxam ple,barrent sexualehaviorm aylsosonsiderednermsoftheA-R-Dystem. Thats,sualsxuslehaviorwillnlyakepitcafusualexual stimulia veecom eslnforcing forhendividual.

Itsnotpossiblehereoharacterizerieflyherinciplehatefi-citsnh sA-R-Dystemwilleadoehsvlorsdescribedsbn orm a l . Thesuthorhasivenadditions xam ples (sestaats, 1963, pp .83-466);


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37 however, ompleteccountfheoleplayedyheA-R-Dystemnb n o rma lbehaviorsecessary. Actuallywhatseeded isnbnormr lsychologytextbooknwhichheescriptionsfbnorma lehaviorrenalyzednterm sofearningprinciples. Thisdiscussion,owever,longwithheauthor'sotheranalyses,oprovide m ethodndxamplesfwhatwouldonstitute

4generalearningonceptionofbnorma lsychology.2. InappropriateAspectsfheA-R-D ystem

Som etimeshewa ynwhichheA-R-Dystemdeviatesrom orma lsnotntseficitsut inheacthattimuli thathouldotelicitatti-tudesoo. Again, thebnorma lehaviorroducedayesidenn yofhethreeunctionsofA-K-Dtimuli. Thus,sa seenuggested, stimulim ayelicitntensemotionalesponsesnhendividualwhichrenjuriousothendividual'sealthrhappiness. Psychosomaticllnesses aynparteconsiderednheseerms.

Inaddition, ithaseenuggestedhatwhen timulusnappropriatelyelicitsnattitudinalesponse,twillervenappropriatelyotrengthenorweakennnstrumentalehaviorhatesultsnbtainingrvoidingthetimulus. Thus, thehobicmotionalesponseoeingutfdoorssim portantecausehendividualearnsovoid thetimulusyheinappropriatebehaviorfema in i ngndoors.

AnotherffectfhenappropriateA-R-Dystems thatnappropriatestrivingorrtrivinggainstehaviorwillelicited. Theanwho findswinningnordinatelypositivemotionallywilltriveorhistateoannordinatedegree,erhapsoheetrimentfhisealthrhisocialadjustment. Theerson for h o mocialtimulielicitnxietyesponsesinappropriatelywilltriveovoidhem, perhapshysically,ryom echemicalmean suchslcohol.


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383. InteractionsfDeficitndnappropriateAspectsfhe-R-Dystem

Itaslready eenndicatedhatherere interactions thatakeplaceInhe-R-Dystems esultofdeprivationircumstances. Thus, itwassuggested thatfhendividualseprivedfhepresencef ovedpersontaikelyhatewilldevelopewndividualswhoom eoelicitmotionalesponsesn imnd thusssum e oreom ina n tole inheA-R-D system. Asnotherxam ple , itwa s suggestedhat risonersoreikelytodevelopom osexualeinforcersnis \-R-Dystemha niewouldensocietywhere ea sccessoeterosexualontactnd isotnderdepri-vation.

Thereslso ypefnteractionhatmayakelaceetweeneficitsInhe-R-Dystemnd inappropriatespects fhe-R-Dystemwheredefectnn em ayeadodefectn thether. Thats, theersonwhos im ply a sot learnedppropriateeterosexualmotionalesponsesslikelyoearnoespondnappropriatelyootherpotential sexeinforc-ers. Conversely, thendividualwhoas lreadyearnednnappropriateemotionalexualesponseoersonsfhe same sexsotikelyoave experienceshatwouldlassicallyonditionimopositivemotionales-ponses toersonsfheppositeex. Actually, them echanismywhichthesenteractions takelacenvolve the ffectsfhe-R-D systempon Instrumentalehavior,ndviceversa, and theprinciplesfheseypesfinteractionhouldedescribed.

H. Interactionsfhe-R-Dystemnd InstrumentalehaviorRepertoiresTher im aryhrustfhisnalysishaseenohowhat thenaturef

thendividual's-R-Dystemwilleavilydetermineheypefnstrumentalbehaviorsewillisplay; thus, the-R-Dystems eterminantfwhatscalledersonality. Ithouldendicated,owever, thathereredditional


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39 interactionsetweenhe-R-Dystemndhendividual'snstrumentalbehaviorsn d ,moreover, theelationshipetweenhewoayoa cknd forth,a chffectinghetherndnurneingurtherffectedyhechangestasroducednheother.Thus, thendividualhohasdeficitsnehaviorm ay ots onse-quenceainositiveeinforcement, theeceiptofwhichnontiguitywithothertimuliwouldroducedditional evelopm entfhis-R-Dystem. For exam ple , thea lewithdeficitsnocialehavioraynotebleonter-actwithorma lomenndherebyxperienceheexualeinforcementneces-saryodevelophisearned 'sexual'-R-Dystem. Asnotherxample,er-taindeficitsnehavior (e.g., theackfntellectualrocialkills)areunishedocially,ndhe unishm entm ayhelproducennappropriate'social'-R-Dystem.

O nhethera n d , thendividualwithnpleasantnaopropr-ateehaviorm ayehunneds esultndherebynotbtainheocialxperiencesnecessaryopreventeficitsnis-R-Dystem.

Ithaslready eenndicated thatdeficitsrnapproprlaciesnhe A-R-Dystema neadodeficitsndnapproprlaciesnhendividual'sinstrumentalehavior. Thus, thererepossibilities forlaborateequen-cesfnteractionsetweenheA-R-Dystemndhendividual'snstrumen-talehaviors.

A nxamplem ayeelpfulere, takenrom reviouslyonductedcasetudyStaatsButterfleld, 1965). Theasenvolved ulturallydepriveduvenileelinquentwhoadevereeficits inuchognitiveskillsseading. Hisaseistoryuggested thathe roblem egann partecausefnnadequateA-R-Dystem. Inaseshereherainingisongerm , suchschool learning,dequateeinforcementmusteavailableomaintainheattentlonalndworkehaviorsnecessary for


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40learning.owever,th erelnforcerspresentInthetraditionalschoolroomareInadequateformanychildrenasoccurredInth epresentcase.heirattentlonalbehaviorsarenotmaintained,an dthey do no tlearnasaconse-quence

Insuchacasetheremay benolearningdisabilityInvolved.owever,after afe wyearsofschoolattendancewheretheconditionsoflearningarenotappropriateforthechild,hewill no thaveacquiredthebehavioralrep-ertoires acquiredbymorefortunate membersofth eclass,whosepreviousexperienceshaveestablishedanadequatemotivationalsystem.hen,lackofskilledbehaviorl alikelytobetreatedaversively.hatI s ,inth epresentcase,thechildwith areading deficit(orotherevidenceofunder-achlevement)i slikelytobegibedatandteasedwhenheisstillyoung andignored,avoided,andlookeddownuponwhenheisolder.lthoughtheindividuals doingthismaynotIntendt o beaverslve,suchactionsconsti-tutethepresentationofaverslvestimuli.urthermore,thispresentationofaverslvestimulibyother successful children,andperhapsbyteachers,wouldbe expectedtoresultInfurtherlearning,butlearningofanundesirablenature.hesechildren,teachers,academicmaterials,an dthetotalschoolsituationcanInthiswaycometoelicitnegativeattitudesinth echildwithth emotivationalandthus behavioraldeficits.

This,inUnawithth epresenttheory,setsth estageforfurtherun -fortunate developments.hatI s ,as has beensuggested,theattltudlnalvalueofstimulicontrolsa wholeclassofstrivingfor oragainstbehaviors,dependinguponwhetherth eattitudei spositiveornegative.hebehaviorsineitherclasswill dependuponthelearninghistory ofth eindividual.Inthepresentcaseth eJuveniledelinquenthadpreviouslylearnedalargeclassof hostile-aggressivebehaviors.hus,whentheschoolandItsoccu-pantsbecamenegativeattitudestimuli,herespondedwithvarious


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41undesirablebehaviors.ebaitedteachers,cursedInschool,scuffledandfoughtwithotherstudents,andso on.ew aspunishedforthis,whichcanbeconalderedfurtherclassicalconditioningthatwouldIntensifyhisnega-tiveettltudeatowardschool.heIntensityofhisconditioning naybeseenItotherundesirablebehaviorsofthischildalso.hatI s ,he was appre-hendedforvandalisingaschool.gain,thiswouldbeexpectedtoleadt ofurtherpunishment,toadditionalnegative attitudeconditioning,andtotheellcltatlonofadditionalundesirablebehavior.

ItcanbeexpectedthatInmanycases viciouscyclesofInteraction canoccurInwhicht h e defectiveA-R-Dsystemleadstoundesirablebehaviorswhichleadt ofurtherdefectivedevelopmentsIntheA-R-Dsystem,whichagainproduceadditionalundesirablebehaviors.hespiralcancontinuet oaggravatetheIndividual'aadjustmentinsociety untilsometypeofincar-cerationlanecessary,oruntilsometherepeuticoccurrencereversesthecycle.heauthor hasdescribedother caseswhich maybe consideredInsuchtermsasparanoidpsychosis(Staats,1963,pp .387-389)andneurasthenia(Staats,1963,p p .485-486).he deteriorationseeninmanycasesofpsy-chosismaybeInpartdescribedintheseterms.tIsthussuggestedthatth econceptsandprinciplesmaybeutilizedInunderstanding additionalcasesofabnormalbehavior.

Itshouldbenotedthatthlamayalsobeextendedtotheconsiderationofexceptionallydesirable personalities.hati s ,achildwhogoes toschoolwith awelldevelopedA-R-Dsystem,forexample,willmorerapidlythanusualacquirecognitiveskills.saconsequenceofbetterthanusualperformancehewillgain positivesocialreinforcementin greaterbundanceThispositive classicalconditioning helps developth echild'ssocialA-R-Dsystemas wellasth echild's A-R-Dsystemrelevanttocognitivelearning in general andtoschoolassociatedstimuli.fter asplraling


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42 cycli, the Individuala ncquire erywell-developed-R-D systemnthesereasserywe11-developedepertoiresfnstrumentalognitiveskills.

Ther im aryuggestionofhisiscussionshatweeed reatealofadditional evelopm entofheonceptfheA-


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43learningpsychotheraples a venot ad oncernwithroadspectsfhumanmotivation,ut aveeenestricted tohepplicationofearningtechniquesopecificndeeminglyunrelatedspectsofumanehavior.Thisectionwillrieflyplaceertainartsofheearningherapieswithinhetructureofheumanmotivationheoryhat a seenoutlined.Bydoingotwillepossibleoeeheontributionsheearningtherapiesanmak eohe evelopm entfersonalityheory, tonders tand betterheeneralignificancefheearningherapies,ndlsooseeom eofhespectsofheaskwhichiesheadnreating etterlearningheoryfumanmotivationan dumanehaviorrersonality)swellsbetterm ethodsfreatingproblemsofumanehavior.

A. BehaviorTherapys rocedure forChanginghe-R-Dystem Beforediscussingbehaviorherapywithinheontextfumanmotiva-

tionthouldendicatedhatom espectsfhisre afnvestigationandreatmentreotelatedoheeveralaspectsfharesentdiscus-sions. Forxample, thererelassicalonditioningreatmentshatre concernedonlywithhewa yhendividualfeels"emotionally)boutcertainventswithhettitudeaspectfhe-R-Dystem,otwithhe reinforcingn discriminativepropertiesfhoseventi. The facthattherereobjectshatelicit earesponsenhenciividualma y , forhisreasononly,e Im portan tohisphysicalealthndohishappiness.Manynappropriatemotionalesponsescquiredrhanged (treated)hroughconditioningm ayefoncernohetudyofpsychosomaticllnessesseeDekker ,elser,Groen, 1956 , fornxample). Thus,ertaintimulusobjectsndventsm ayelicitsthmaticttacksnhendividual,rtherinternalemotional)esponsesuchsrregularrapidhearteat,inappropriateecretionofdigestive (ortherlandular)uices,ndon.

.,- ., ,


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44 Anxietytates,epressions,hobias,ndtherunusualem otiona l es-ponsesay eonsiderednd treatednerm sflassicalonditioningwithouteingoncernedwithheannernwhichnstrumentalehaviorsreaffected. Thesendtherspectsfehaviorherapyrelacednhepresentheoreticalontext. However,inceheyoncernnlyhettltu-dlnalartofheA-R-Dystem, theywillotedealtwithnn ydetailhere.

Theres,owever,notherypefreatmentnheieldfehaviortherapywhich,whilemploying lassicalonditioningprocedures,a sotbeenprimarilyoncernedwithmotionalesponsesutatherwithnstru-mentalesponses. This typefehaviorherapy,whichhaseenofImportantoncern,ayeunderstoodnreaterdetailym ploy inghetheoreticaltructurelreadyutlined. Thats,thaseenuggestedhata nndividual'sA-R-Dystemsdeterminantofhisnstrumentalehavior.Itm ayetated inunmaryormhatwhen ecessaryeinforcersnotinhendividual'systemherewille eficitnheelevantspectofhendividual'sdjustlvenstrumentalepertoire. O nhethera n d ,whenheres timulusnhe-R-Dystemhathouldotaveeinforc-ingvalue,rwhich a snnappropriatemountofeinforcingvaluethatla, laoohighnheeinforcerhierarchy), thennappropriatenstrumentalbehaviorswillccurnhea yshat aveetndescribed. Thenappropriatereinforcer,itherpositiveregative,ayrom otehebsencefppro-priateehaviorsswellsheurplusppearancefnappropriatebehaviors.Itsnlighteningoonsiderartfbehaviorherapy shang ingheIndividual'sA-R-Dystemndhroughhisnducinghangesnhisnstru-mentalehaviorepertoire.

Behaviorherapyechniques a veeenm ployed inwhichheuncondi-tioned atlmulus (whichsoth CSndUCRS) isositivendelicits


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45positiveemotionalresponsesaswellaswhereth eunconditionedstimulusisnegativeandelicitsnegativeemotionalresponses.suallyth eprocedurescanbeseen asclear cutcasesofclassicalconditioning. Theunconditionedstimulusispaired withth estimuluswhichi sintendedtocometo elicitth enewemotionalresponse,ordinarilycalledcounterconditloning.ti simportanttonotethatbothfirst-orderandhigher-orderclassicalconditioningpro-ceduresareusedbutthisimportantdistinctioni snotmade--partofth egenerallackofanalysis.

Severalcasestudies may beusedt oprovideillustrationofthe presentanalysis.orexample,inonecasestudy(Lazarus,I960),achild wouldnotentera vehicle( acaseofphobiaforautomotive vehicles).hesuccessfultreatmentconsistedofpairing vehicular stimuliwithpositiveuncondi-tionedreinforcingstimuli(e.g.,candy),asaconsequencetheinstrumentalbehaviorofavoiding vehiclesaslessened.hismay beseenasacasewhereth eclassofstimuli,vehicles,hadpreviouslycomet oelicitanegativeemotionalresponse.hisgavenegativereinforcingvaluetoth estimuli,andhence,thestimulihaddiscriminativestimulusvaluecontrollingstrivingawayfromresponses.hen,throughclassicalconditioning,positiveemo-tionalresponseswereconditionedtothestimulithediscriminativestimulusvaluewaschangedinapositivedirectionandth echildnolongers ovigorouslymovedawayfromthevehicles. I tshouldb enotedthatinthiscase(asinth eothercasest obecited)th ediscriminativestimulus valuewaschangedpriort ogettingthechildt oapproach acar.hus,instrumentalconditioning(responsecontingentreinforcement)wa snotinvolvedinth eprocess described.nstrumentalconditioningcouldonlybeconductedaftertheresponseofapproachingthecarhadbeenmade.

Anothercaseofbehaviortherapy(Raymond,1960)maybeanalyzedinth esameterms. Inthiscasestudytheaberrantbehaviorofanadultmale


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46involvedontactingwomen ' sursesndab yarriagesn annerhatwasundesirable. Thisnstrumentalehavioradesulted Inepeatedrrests.Treatm entonsistedfpairinghefetishtimuli"withnaverslvencon-ditionedeinforcingtimulusn lassicalonditioningprocedure. The resultwa shathenstrumentalbehavioroongerccurred. Itseces-sarygainoccountorhehangenhenstrumentalehaviorhrough theam eanalysis. Itsuggestedhatheetishtimuliadom eoelicitemotionalesponsesnhe individualndhusoa veexualeinforcingvaluewhichdiscrlminatlvelyontrolledheundesirablenstrumentalbehavior. Themotionalonditioninghangedheeinforcingvalueofhefetishtimuli (Inhisasen egativedirection),ndhence, thediscriminativetimulusvalueontrollinghendesirablepproachnstru-mentalbehaviors.

Behaviorherapyreatmentf lcoholismnvolvesheam eanalysis.Throughreatmentheightndmellfhelcoholiceverageecom esheconditionedtimuluswhichelicits egativemotionalesponse, ratherhanaositivemotionalesponse. Thetimulusofheeverageherebyomestocts iscriminativetimuluswhichontrolsscapendvoidanceinstrumentalesponses.

Desensltizatlonherapymayalsoeonsiderednheam eerms. TharIs, thepatient ayeskedoistnrderofntensityhevariousstimulusituationswhichelicitnxietynegativemotionalesponses).Thenhepatientsresentedwithheseituations,rskedomag i n ethem ,whileelaxing,eginningwithhetimulusituationhatelicitstheeastntenseesponse. Sincehehobictimulireonditionedstimulihat a veom eoelicitnegativemotionalesponseshroughheindividual'sarticularonditioninghistory, itouldexpectedhatcontinuedresentationofheoffendingtimuliwouldesultnxtinction


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47ofhe inappropriatemotional responses. (Ifhisypefherapyshoughtofsounterccnditioning,sasavison (inpress), thenhenstructions

U C toelax ayeonsideredslearned S,nd therocessshus a n eofhigher-orderonditioning. Ithouldeoted,lsohatesensitizationtherapyequiresurtheranalysisincemage sre involved inmanyases,notprimarytimulusituations).

Toontinue,owever theuccessofdesensitizationherapyiesnthextentowhichheiscriminativetimulusontrolfhetimulichanges. Thus,singnxam p leofngoraphobia,henhendividual'sA-R-Dystemshangedohat "out-of-door"timulioongerelicitnegativemotionalesponse, thetimuliwilloongerhavediscriminativestimulusvalueontrollingscapeehaviorswhichdrivehendividualinside.

Ineneral, thus,whilehesebehaviorherapyproceduresmanipulatechangesnheA-R-Dystemhroughheusefclassicalonditioningprinciplesndrocedures, itshehangenhediscriminativeontrolofinstrumentalbehaviorshatndicatesheuccessofheherapy. Itsemphasizedhatnstrumentalbehavioranehangedysing lassicalconditioningproceduresohangespectsfheA-R-Dystem. Itshisanalysisha tha snoteen learlyetorthndwhichwhenxtendedogeneraloncernwithhe-R-Dystem a s eneralignificanceorunder-standingndreatingumanbehavior.I. ThenstrumentalConditioningEffectfehaviorherapy

Thenstrumentalehaviorshatreordinarilydealtwithnuchherapyasescribedboverectuallylreadywellearned. Theyrepproachravoidanceehaviorshatreveryommon. Inasesherehenstrumentalbehaviorsothendividual'sepertoire,owever simplehangenthendividual'seinforcerystemwouldotexpected toesultnmme-diatem provem ent. Theatientwouldtillequire rainingrogram


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48(formalorinformal)whereCheInstrumentalbehaviorhastobelearned.T h i or an example,makingsamese xstimulusobjects(men orwomen)coneto elicitnegativeemotionalresponseswouldnotcurethehomosexual'sproblem ofbehaviorIfhe didno thavetheappropriateheterosexualinstru-mentalbehaviorsalreadyinhisrepertoire.ewouldstillhavet oacquirethevery complexcourting behaviors ofvarioussocial,emotional,andcognitivekinds.sanotherexample,changingth eextentcowhichth egeneralschoolsituation elicitsafearresponseinthechildwillnotsuc-cessfullytreathisschoolphobiaifthefearresponse hasarisenbecauseofthereceiptofnegativereinforcingstimulifrom hisclassmatesbecausehiscognitiverepertoireis poor,becausehei smaladroitathletically,becausehe hasan oddappearance,an dsoon.lthoughinsomecasestheschoolphobiaissimplyaproblemofanInappropriateA-R-Dsystemmanyothertimesthisi scomplicatedbyInadequatesocial,cognitive,andsensory-motorInstrumentalrepertoiresofgreatcomplexity.

Th eextentt owhich onecouldrelyonInstrumentallearningofcomplexbehaviorssimplythroughth echange ofthe A-R-Dsystemshouldbe ofconcernInthediagnosisandtreatmentofany clinicalproblem.uc hanalyseswould > doubtInvolvethecomplexityofth eskillto beacquired,thedura-tionofth etreatmentInducedchangeintherelnforcersystem,whichisofImportanceifth etrainingist o belong-term,andsoon.omosexualproblemsandalcoholism,asexamples,do notseemt obesuccessfullytreatedbychangingth eA-R-Dsystemthroughconditioning.hilethisIsnottheplaceforafulldiscussion,itwouldseemthatthecomplexityofth eInstrumental(andother)behaviorst obelearnedinthesecasesprobablyrequires morethananephemeralchangeinrestricted aspectsoftheA-R-Dsystem.nsucheases,aswillbefurther dlscusRed,behaviortherapytreatmentscouldwellbe calledsymptomatic.


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49Inadditionohetraightforwardonditioningofmotionalesponses,

and theprocessustdescribedfhangingnstrumentalehaviorsychangingmotionalesponses.otherreatmentsfvariousindsa veeen labeledehaviorherapywithoutheoreticalistinctionseeysenck, I960).Inom eases, th ereatmenta snvolved indirectnstrumentalonditioning,forxam ple, theasefdermatitisausedycratchingm ain t a inedyocialreinforcement,seportedyWaltonI960). Thesespectsofbehaviortherapywillotefoncernhere,xceptsnxam plefheackoftheoreticallarificationnheield.

Inoncludinghisection, it ayeaidhatheieldfbehaviortherapynvolvinghangingspectsfheA-R-Dystem a stherlimitations,whichwir.eiscussed furthern . It ayeuggested,owever,thatheindingslreadymadendicatehat easiblemannerorhechangeofnstrumentalehaviorshroughhehangefaspectsfheIndividual's-R-Dystem. Thisa seenhownn umberoftudiesnd constitutes eryignificantdevelopment.

B. BehaviorModificationsManipulationofRelnforcersInheExistingA-R-Dystem

Again,snherecedingdiscussion,ottemptwillemadeoum -marizeheworknwhatasom eoealledehaviormodification. Rathertheurposewilleoithisypefworkntoheeneralheoreticalfram eworkoelatetbetteroehaviorherapyn dondicatevenuesforurther evelopm entnearningherapies.

Inontrastobehaviorherapy, behaviormodificationtudiesa ve beenelf-conclouslyoncernedwithnstrumentalehaviorsndirectInstrumentalonditioningrocedures. Asnheasefbehsvlorherapy,theelnforcerystemsentrallyoncerned. Moreover, itsctively


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51th esocialreinforcementthathadbeencontingentupon hoardingandbysatia-tionoperations.hatl a ,t h e wardwasfloodedwithmagazines.

Morerecently,therehavebeen anumberofextensions ofth es e i n eprinciplest ochildbehavior(forexample, Staats,Staats,Schulte,&Wolf,1962;Wolf,Risely,& Mees,1954;Allen,Hart,Buell,Harris,&Wolf,1964).taatseta l .showedthatsinglesubjectscouldbesubjectedtoexperimental(reinforcement)treatmentan dthenusingeachsubjectaahisow ncontroltheconditionscouldbereversedtoreliablydemonstratetheeffectofth ereinforcement.olf,Risely,andMees(1954)showed,amongotherthings,thattempertantrumsi nanautisticchildcouldbetreatedbymaking am i l e *punishingcircumstancecontingentupont h ebehavior andbywithdrawingsocia

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Estudio Social e Intercultural del Lenguaje, la Personalidad y la Medición del Sistema (Motivacional) A-R-D Humano