Essay Writing Strategies

academic skills & learning centre

essay writing strategies

www.academicskills.anu.edu.au

the academic skills & learning centreThe Academic Skills and Learning Centre provides free individual consultations, workshops and online materials to all ANU students with the purpose of developing student academic skills and strategies. The ASLC is located on the lower ground floor of the Pauline Griffin Building, adjacent to Melville Hall and across the lawn from the entrance to the Chifley Library. Appointments for individual consultations can be made in person or by telephone (02) 6125 2972. You can enrol in our range of workshops online through our website: http://academicskills.anu.edu.au. Academic Skills Advisers will read your essay and provide feedback to assist you develop your research and writing skills. Essays can be submitted in person or online through our website: http://academicskills.anu.edu.au.

strategies page

1 What do markers want? 2

2 How do you write an essay? 4

3 Analysing the question 7

4 Researching the essay – finding sources 10

5 Researching the essay – reading strategies 11

6 Writing your introduction 14

– Example of essay structure and outline 16

7 Developing argument through paragraphs 18

8 Control of academic language 21

9 Using evidence 24

10 Writing your conclusion 26

11 Acknowledging sources 27

12 Beyond editing and proofreading 29

13 ANU Grading System 32

14 Marking criteria 33

All cartoons created by and used with the permission of Judy Horacek.

© Copyright Judy Horacek. www.horacek.com.au

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introductionThis handbook is designed to take the bewilderment out of essay writing for undergraduates by providing targeted and timely strategies to move through each stage of the essay writing process. You can read it as a whole to gain an appreciation of what is expected of a university essay and how to craft the essay. You can also read it in part when the challenges of constructing an introduction or ordering an argument confront you. This material is grounded in our experience of providing advice for undergraduate students across the range of courses and disciplines at the ANU. A number of past and present colleagues have written books and materials over many years that have also been distilled in this stand-alone handbook. The Academic Skills and Learning Centre (ASLC) provides courses on essay writing for undergraduate students and this handbook provides the core material for our current essay writing workshops.

Over time, the way essay writing courses have been run has changed significantly as student demand has grown and changed. Essays are now set as assessment tasks across all ANU Colleges, in economics, business and accounting; in the sciences, engineering and computer science; in law; in medical science; in actuarial studies; as well as in the arts, humanities and Asian studies courses. There are many reasons for setting the essay as an assessment task, but one common to all areas is that the research and communication skills learnt through writing an essay are at the core of what it means to think critically, that is, to analyse, critique and evaluate a range of often competing academic ideas, work out where you stand on a particular question and explain why. These research and communication skills will be useful for you long after the content of a particular essay has been forgotten.

The ASLC also recognizes that students are more time poor than has been evident in the past because of the diversity of student backgrounds, access modes and financial needs. Therefore both Essay Writing Strategy Workshops (Workshop 1: Researching the Essay, and Workshop 2: Writing the Essay) are offered as two-hour sessions multiple times in each semester. Please check the ASLC website for session times: http://academicskills.anu.edu.au and enrol online.


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1 what do markers want?

No matter what course you are doing, it is designed with two specific goals in mind:

• to provide you with some knowledge of a particular subject.

• to equip you with skills in thinking and communication.

The first point is about the subject matter: if you are studying commerce, you will learn the significance of a debt to equity ratio and how to read a company’s financial statements. The second point is more complicated: these skills in thinking and communication are often not acknowledged explicitly in your courses, but improving these skills is the purpose of this handbook. In developing your knowledge about the subject—whatever subject it is—you will need to:

• develop a questioning and academically critical mind.

• develop reading skills to order, test and evaluate ideas and evidence; assess the relationships of these ideas to other ideas and evidence; formulate questions about these ideas and evidence.

• become an increasingly independent learner.

• develop a nuanced, coherent position which can be substantiated with evidence.

• learn writing and communication skills in order to express your position with clarity and precision.

With this list in mind, markers assess your ability as it is demonstrated in your assignment. This assessment can be considered as four areas of competence: focus; wide and critical reading; argument; and presentation.

1. Focus

In order to demonstrate your questioning and critical mind, it is expected that your essay focuses clearly on the issues of the question you have been given. This involves several tasks:

• understanding the question(s) or task(s) you have been given: what knowledge or skill are you being required to demonstrate?

• identifying relationships between ideas: are these ideas in opposition with each other, in support of each other, or somewhere in between?

• what, in a nutshell, are the most significant elements that you need to explore to answer the question?

2. wide and critical reading

Of all the skills developed at university, reading is perhaps the most important. Reading involves a set of skills discussed in further detail throughout this handbook.

Reading widely—from a variety of sources, authors and points of view—enables you to understand the spectrum of points of view relevant to the topic. Whatever the topic, it is likely that there is a range of views which take different positions, contradict each other, support each other, use alternative evidence, refute the positions of others and so on. As you read widely, your ideas will be tested, your assumptions may be made clearer to you, and this will help you to develop a coherent argument for your essay.

marker commentThis is one of the best essays I’ve read, and I have little in the way of criticism. You skilfully compare your various subjects, while offering some worthwhile insights on urban and rural experience. You usefully integrate additional research material (your bibliography indicates a wide reading, although it is not always clear how this is employed). Your writing style is clear and concise, need I go on? [This was a High Distinction essay.]

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Reading “critically” means reading for strengths and weaknesses to gain a deeper understanding of a point of view rather than necessarily accepting the writer’s position. Ask yourself:

• what is the writer’s argument?• what evidence is used to substantiate the argument?• what are the limitations to the argument?• what are the assumptions used by the writer?• what evidence might refute or question the writer’s argument?• how does this writer’s argument relate to other arguments?

3. argument

The “argument” in this sense is not a dispute. Your argument is a combination of reason, analysis and evidence constructed coherently and logically, intended to persuade the reader to this position. The argument of your essay is your answer to the question and is a demonstration of your academic point of view. A reasoned argument requires:

• coherence: its parts fit logically together; the argument announced in your introduction develops through your paragraphs and is confirmed in your conclusion.

• explanation: background, theories, specialist terminology, evidence and conclusions are clearly identified and framed so that the reader gains a better understanding of the topic.

• evidence: examples, source documents, the arguments of others and results of experiments from your wide and critical reading are explored so that they explain, support and develop your point of view, or refute the point of view of others.

• reason: logical connections are made between actions or phenomena and results or implications, so that the reader better comprehends your argument.

Argument is the key to a successful essay, but it is important to realise that your argument relies on the focus of your essay, the wide and critical reading you demonstrate, and the presentation of your essay.

4. presentation

Presentation takes time and attention to detail. If your argument is not clearly articulated, concise, appropriately referenced, easy to comprehend, and does not follow the formatting requirements of your course, the attention of the marker will be drawn to your presentation and away from your argument.

You will be rewarded by the time you set aside for reading your essay. Ensure your essay uses appropriate academic language, and that your punctuation and spelling are correct; check that your referencing is consistent and accurate. These expectations are not simply an unnecessary burden: the elements of presentation are fundamental to articulating a clear and concise—and therefore more powerful—argument.

marker commentWe are not interested in your opinion but in a well-founded argument based on wide reading. Your bibliography shows that you have consulted only one major source apart from the main text: this is clearly insufficient.

marker commentStylistically and organisationally, this is much too incoherent to pass. Your problems with expression are serious. Too many of your sentences are grammatical fragments, like quickly jotted down notes rather than complete units, and you havent organised your materials effectively. Paragraphs seem to be conglomerations of only vaguely related ideas, not logically unified series of sentences... The raw material for a better essay is apparent. But it is unshaped, and the shaping process (i.e. organisation and expression) is an essential aspect of logical and critical thinking.


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2 how do you write an essay?

Writing an essay is a messy, complex, often frustrating process that, nevertheless, can be ordered and managed in several stages. Remember that it is usually a circular rather than a linear process: your argument will help develop your writing, and the process of writing will develop your argument and your use of evidence.

1. analyse and define the topic or question• While an essay question will always have

a topic, your first hurdle is to identify and then explore the underlying question/debate/problem within that topic that is central to your course. For example, a Political Science question such as: “What were the causes of the Second World War?” is not asking for a list of causes that you then describe. It is asking: in what way or to what extent did various factors contribute and how were they interrelated? Understanding how the task is situated within your discipline/ field/courses is crucial to developing a comprehensive answer.

2. identify some key ideas• Remember that any essay question does not

stand alone: its purpose is to assess how well you understand some key concepts, theories or conflicts in your current course. Consider these concepts, theories or conflicts while you are preparing your essay. Look at course outlines, lecture notes, seminar readings to identify key themes of the course.

• Use brainstorming or mind-mapping techniques to identify key ideas.

3. the first literature search• Initially it is often difficult to find readings:

search library catalogues, abstracts and databases for material (do a course in the library to learn how). However, when you find sources the amount of reading is often overwhelming. Ask yourself: what is relevant?; what is more central and what is less important?

marker commentThis appears to be a mish-mash of facts, assembled for no obvious purpose... In effect this is not your work but that of the various authors you have photocopied. You have not developed an argument from the material. In future, organise your thoughts: think what the whole essay title means, and how the relevant facts fit together and in what order, to provide an answer to the problem.

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• Think strategically: who are the key writers in the field?; how can you identify these? Do the course readings contain useful articles? Start with the key writers in the field that your lecturer recommends, and then progress to articles, books and journals as you narrow your search for more specific or specialised material.

4. read• Initially, one of the greatest challenges at university and in essay writing is learning how to read

academically. When you read, read for a specific purpose: what is the writer’s argument (in the research phase)?; how does this writer refute the position of another writer (later in the research phase)?; are the elements of grammar correct in my essay (in the later stages of editing)?

• Consciously select and apply a reading strategy (see section 5). Read to obtain an overview of what people are writing on the topic: where are the debates within this topic? What are the key issues of these debates? Are there any key theorists writing on the topic? What evidence is being used to justify each position or interpretation of the topic?

• Consciously select and apply a note taking strategy (see section 5).

5. work towards constructing an argument• Try to express your argument or position in one clear sentence. Often called the “thesis statement”

this sentence is your answer to the question; it is the hook on which your argument hangs. See “Writing an Introduction” for further details.

• Select, from your readings, evidence and ideas that might support your argument.

• Next, consider what things you need to do to persuade the reader of your position. Will you need to define key terms, compare and contrast, critically evaluate the literature, provide background context, analyse a case study, and so on? Once you have thought of the things you will do, this is called the structure of your argument and it provides a potential outline of the main sections of the essay.

6. construct your argument around an outline• The first division of your topic into parts represents your view of what is important in these debates:

this is your preliminary analysis. Remember this may change as you write, as you read more, and as your essay evolves.

• Keeping the required length of the essay in mind, transfer key ideas and supporting ideas from the brainstorm session to a linear structure (outline). This outline is the bare bones of the essay.

• Prepare a more detailed outline with a section and sub-section plan.

• Expand or contract the outline to suit the length required. Add or delete main points, supporting points, the evidence you will use to explain and support them, potential responses to counterarguments or challenges to your position.

• Remember: you may need to read more in order to flesh out your ideas.

7. write the first draft• The purpose of this draft is to work out what you think about the question, in relation to what you

have read. While what you have read may support your argument or refute the argument of others, the foundation of your essay will rely on your thinking and your analysis. Follow your outline. Resist the temptation to just summarise the ideas you have read by excessively quoting. Rather, use these ideas to answer your question. In the first draft do not be too concerned about the order of paragraphs or the quality of the writing—these aspects will develop.


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• Focus on one section of your essay at a time. You can have a go at writing your Introduction but come back and rewrite it after your first draft.

8. do some more focused reading• Identify where you need more

information. It is easy sometimes to find a position and just follow that argument in your essay. Read more critically than this: what are the different positions or the strengths and weaknesses of each? Identify where you need more information.

• Widen/extend/narrow your literature search for more material. Find examples to support your main points.

9. take a break• Put some critical distance and time between yourself and your work. This will help you to return to

your essay with fresh eyes.

10. revise your first draft; work on a second draft• As you write your first draft, your ideas and arguments clarify and often the focus of your argument

comes together in the last sections of the essay or in the conclusion. In your second draft make sure your argument also appears in your introduction and builds consistently throughout the sections of your essay.

• Give this draft to someone else for comments and feedback, for example, a friend, your partner, a fellow student, or an ASLC adviser. Take note of their comments.

11. edit• Use a checklist for editing the final draft which

incorporates formatting requirements as well as things you know you often have problems with e.g. referencing, expression etc.

12. hand it in and reward yourself!

marker commentAn integrated essay involves (1) stating what in your mind the main issues are, i.e. how you are going to attack the question asked; (2) developing your main points into paragraphs – expanding on your most important arguments with data; (3) tying each section (and paragraph) together with some linking statement; and (4) finishing with a conclusion which brings together the main threads of your argument with a clear statement of what you think, based on your previous discussion.

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3 analysing the question

The academic task in writing an essay is to create an argument that answers the question. Developing a line of reasoning—that is, an essay plan—will help in this process. As your research and writing continues, do not be afraid to alter your plan. Your essay plan should:

• coherently develop your argument.

• be clearly identifiable by the marker, so s/he can see how it develops your argument.

The diagram in the centre of this handbook is a map of an essay plan. It also shows how each part of the planning and research becomes part of an essay, and it highlights how developing an argument is based on a clear understanding of the question.

1. understanding your task— the discipline/field

The best place to start is the course outline, available on the web, which outlines the important elements, concepts and theories of your course. You will need to demonstrate an understanding of some or all of these in your essay, so it is worth reading very closely.

Now spend some time analysing the question and identifying the components of your task. Read the question several times, very carefully. What is the question asking you to do? How many questions or tasks are involved? What are the key ideas, themes and theories that this course is designed to cover?

Consider this question from a first year International Relations course:

What is the “world food crisis”? What are the political causes of it and what might be the political responses to it? (2000 words)

While you are reading the following three paragraphs on subject, angle and process, think about how they apply to the question above.

2. subject/angle/process

Analysing the question in terms of subject/angle/process helps you identify the task in preparation to developing a plan.

Step 1: What am I being asked to investigate?

The subject of your essay is the broad field or topic—it is the “what” your topic is about: ask yourself, “What do I have to demonstrate knowledge about?” The subject corresponds to the “focus” discussed in “What do markers want?” In the essay question above, the subject of the essay question above is the “world food crisis.” Note that while the question requires an in depth knowledge of the “world food crisis,” simply describing this crisis is not sufficient.

Step 2: Why am I being asked to investigate this subject matter?

The angle of your essay is the controversy or debate that is at the heart of the subject—“why” you should examine this topic: ask yourself, “What questions do I have to answer?” The angle corresponds to the “wide and critical reading” discussed in “What do markers want?” In this question, the angle for International

marker commentThe second major fault in the essay is that far too much of it is not immediately relevant to the topic you chose. The task before you was quite specific and clear. Instead of tackling the task directly and without delay, you discuss at large around the topic for page after page. Even your discussion of Y is not made relevant to the central question of X. Why not go directly to your evidence, especially the evidence of the texts (of which you make very limited use), asking yourself: “What does this tell me in answer to the question before me?”


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Relations is to identify what the “world food crisis” is, the political causes of it and the possible political responses to it.

Step 3: How should I approach the topic?

The process is the “how” your essay is going to proceed in answering the “what” and the “why”: ask yourself, “How should I answer?” The process corresponds to the “argument” discussed in “What do markers want?” The process is the way in which you demonstrate your academic point of view, using evidence to develop your answer to the question. The process involves explaining the politics of trade and the inequalities of wealth, and some suggestion of how these might be overcome. Now you are in a position (though this will evolve) to develop an argument: ask yourself, “What do I want to persuade (with evidence) the reader to think?”

3. make a plan

What is the “world food crisis”? What are the political causes of it and what might be the political responses to it? (2000 words)

(This is not the answer to this essay question: this is an example of how your thinking might develop into an answer).There are two questions, but answering the second question requires answering the first i.e. in identifying the causes and responses to the “world food crisis,” you will need to explain what the “world food crisis is. However, the second question really has two parts which the course convenor has identified for you as being important to explain in your answer: “political causes” and “political responses.” From the lectures, tutorials and reading in your course so far, think first about the political causes of the “world food crisis”:

• trade, barriers and tariffs (power relations between countries)

• over-population (the politics of migration policies)

• environmental degradation

• purchasing powers of rich v poor countries

• food distribution and the price of transportation

Now think about possible political responses:

• trade, barriers and tariffs—power relations in free trade agreements

• over-population—increasing standards of living, power relations of health technology

• bio-fuels, environmental degradation—Kyoto Protocol?

• purchasing powers of rich v poor countries—IMF, structural adjustment procedures

• food distribution and the price of transportation—greater commitment from food surplus countries

You now have a better idea of what to look for in your research.

4. refine your plan

After some preliminary research, you then decide that two of your causes—trade issues and relative purchasing powers—are really both problems to do with the inequities of power between countries, so these can be addressed together. You also decide, given the limited word length, to combine over-population and environmental degradation into a section on the politics of resources. Finally, your reading uncovers an issue you knew nothing about: the influence of food aid on domestic markets.

With these changes, you now have the core of your essay plan. It is a 2000 word essay—this means about 14-18 paragraphs—so your plan might now look like this:

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Introduction (one paragraph) [see the section “Writing an Introduction” for further details]

There is an increasingly uneven distribution of food around the globe. While some theorists see the crisis in terms of resource allocation, others prioritise the economics of supply and demand. The food crisis is caused by unequal power relations between rich and poor countries, population pressures in poorer countries, the influence of “food aid” on domestic economies of poorer countries and other distribution factors. Potential solutions include free and fair trade, sustainable farming practices, the protection of domestic markets in poorer countries and reduction of protection practices in richer countries.

(1-2 paragraphs) political cause 1: the power relations of trade, barriers and tariffs

• How rich countries exercise their power, on the one hand demanding entry to foreign markets while protecting their domestic markets; influence of foreign debt on poorer countries.

(1-2 paragraphs) potential political response: free trade agreements, greater access of less-developed nations into “first world” markets

• Explain the difference between “free trade” and “fair trade” and how this influences access to food in poor countries.

(1-2 paragraphs) political cause 2: limited resources for population

• How population growth is related to mortality rates and political stability; how these factors lead to diminished resources in poorer countries; influence of foreign debt on poorer countries.

(1-2 paragraphs) potential political response: sustainable farming, increasing standards of living, decreasing child mortality

• Forgiveness of debt and sustainable farming practices and new technologies lead to stronger economies better able to resist food shortages.

(1-2 paragraphs) political cause 3: food aid flooding domestic economy

• How richer countries engage in “food dumping” to support their own domestic markets; how “free food” undercuts local producers and leads to further poverty.

(1-2 paragraphs) potential political response: food aid supplied via domestic market suppliers

• How food growers and food markets can be supported and strengthened using imported and local produce.

(1-2 paragraphs) political cause 4: food distribution and the price of transportation

• How domestic and global transport systems affect the distribution of food; how richer countries benefit from control of supply routes and transportation corridors, and how border controls and “customs” restrict access of poorer countries into richer countries’ markets

(1-2 paragraphs): potential political response: greater commitment from food surplus countries

Conclusion (one paragraph) [see the section on “Writing a Conclusion” for further details]

Genuine commitments from richer countries are required to overcome the “world food crisis.” Such commitments will require long term changes in the power relations between the rich and poor countries.

Market, distribution and trade combine to create a power imbalance between rich and poor countries which has caused a “world food crisis.” This power imbalance makes it difficult for poorer countries to respond effectively. Solutions to the crisis involve richer and poorer countries working together to resolve the power imbalances.

You now have four clearly identified issues to research thoroughly, to test your ideas, gain evidence, and respond to different views. How you might go about this research is covered in the next section.


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4 researching the essay—Finding sourcesResearching your question involves gathering relevant sources and extracting relevant ideas from those sources to answer the question by providing a strong and persuasive academic argument, that explores the central issues raised in the literature, and is supported by evidence from quality sources.

1. using course materialsEssay questions challenge you to select and apply some of the key ideas, concepts, and theories in your course. For example, the second year Anthropology course “Indigenous Australian and Australian Society” has as one of its essay questions:

Explain the role of the liberal welfare state in Indigenous Australian affairs and evaluate the effects on Indigenous life worlds.

Your first search for understanding is within your course: the lectures on the topic, relevant readings or recommended readings, even your course outline will provide an overview of the key ideas of the course. While it is unusual to use lecture notes or course outlines as sources in your essay, they are great places to gather a general understanding of your topic. It is acceptable to use articles that may have been copied explicitly (in full or in part) for your course, but reference the original source not the course material.

2. resourcesIt is rarely acceptable to limit your sources to just those provided by the lecturer. It is expected that you will read more widely to identify a range of different positions, theoretical approaches or ways of gathering evidence relevant to the question. It is not sufficient to search the general Internet, or just “Google” it. Wikipedia is neither reliable nor academically credible, but you may use as a starting point to gain some background.

3. search enginesUse a discipline-specific database search engine that searches scholarly journals for relevant articles. The ANU Library runs courses on how to search databases. Your lecturer and tutor can also assist by advising you on useful search engines for your discipline. While Google is not an academically reliable search engine, Google Scholar is, as it searches peer-reviewed journals.

4. Journal articlesArticles from academic journals—that is, the journals that one might find in a university library—provide access to the most recent publications in an area. Relevant Anthropology journals for the essay used above might include Aboriginal History, Anthropological Forum or Australian Aboriginal Studies. However government reports, statistical sources such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics, reports from non-government organisations, consultants and others are also useful as long as their limitations are appreciated, they all have an agenda and select information to promote that agenda.

5. selecting your sourcesSelect your sources carefully. Beware of being overwhelmed by too much information and too many readings—a simple search for “globalisation” on Google Scholar, for instance, returns nearly one million hits. You only need sufficient sources to construct a strong argument within the word limit given: too many other people’s ideas will fill your essay and overwhelm your argument; too few and you will not identify all the central issues or perspectives.

marker commentWhat you say is all very well, but it is only one view. It happens to be the one I share, but there is little evidence in this essay that you are aware of the objections some writers have raised to it, or of some of the problems it raises.

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5 researching the essay—reading strategies

1. reading strategies

(a) The rule of twoThere is a rule of thumb we recommend—the rule of two. If your essay is 2000 words long, divide the first two digits by two and that is the minimum number of sources acceptable in constructing an essay, that is, for 2000 words find 10 sources, for 1500 find seven or eight, for 3000 find 15. However to identify ten relevant and useful sources for a 2000 word essay, you may need to find 20 or 25 possible sources in your search. There are ways to limit the time spent on reading these sources.

(b) Reading with purposeAlways read with purpose. Never read anything without knowing the purpose for which you are reading. Your analysis of the essay question generates questions and your reading is directed by these questions. For the Anthropology essay example some questions to bring to the text might be: What are the elements of a “liberal welfare state”? Are there different positions on its effects on indigenous people? In what ways might these positions differ? And so on.

(c) ScanningUnless you are reading for a literature course, avoid reading from the first word to the last. Look at the table of contents and search the index for relevant sections (use keywords such as “indigenous,” “welfare state,” “life worlds” and so on). For journal articles, start by reading the abstract—an abstract is the 150—250 words that precede a journal article, succinctly telling the reader the purpose, the approach, the findings and the contribution of the article. With your key questions or concepts in mind, you can scan many sources quickly.

(d) Using sub-headingsNarrow your reading still further by checking out how many sections/sub-headings the source is broken into—this will tell you how many main ideas the text contains. Read the topic sentence (generally the first sentence) in each paragraph—this will give you a sense of the line of argument/reasoning in the text and assist in narrowing the sections you choose to read in depth. Also read the introduction and conclusion in-depth—see the Section Six on “Writing your introduction” to learn why.

marker commentThis is a thoughtfully argued essay based on

wide reading and imaginative research, giving an

independent response.


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(e) Take control of your argumentThe purpose of these strategies is to give you control over your sources. Your purpose is to write an essay that answers your question(s), not to reproduce what another author, or authors, say about their question/problem/issue.

2. note taking strategies

(a) Keep it relevantOnly take notes on ideas that are relevant to your question. When reading and taking notes, always keep your argument/question in mind. The strategy is to transform ideas from your sources into a form that you can use to construct your argument and answer your question.

(b) Use your own wordsCreate a distance between you and the page of text you are reading. Avoid highlighting or underlining. This may create a colourful page and speed up the reading process, but it is false economy. Highlighting key definitions, for example, does little to assist you in deciding how that definition is relevant to your question. It is better to take notes by deciding on the key ideas of the passage and putting these down in your own words.

(c) Use specialist dictionariesUse specialist dictionaries for discipline specific definitions; transform definitions into issues around which you develop your argument. Extract from the definition the key concepts or ideas and put these in your own words (still reference the dictionary and put in quotation marks any key words retained from the dictionary). Your arguments around these key issues will help form the structure of your overall argument.

(d) Vary your resourcesUse a range of resources to achieve a much greater depth of analysis.

It is often helpful to develop a note taking matrix or proforma (see below) to assist in identifying the ideas, similarities and differences between your sources. There are at least two levels of note taking: transforming relevant ideas from one source, and comparing and contrasting ideas from multiple sources.

(e) Reference your sourceswarning: write down the full reference as you take notes. This saves a great deal of time at the end when you are completing your references list.

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note-takingTwo basic reasons why you need to take careful notes of your readings are:

• for full bibliographic details

• for the author’s argument and how it is developed throughout

The two can be combined as part of your ‘argument notetaking sheet’. Here, it is important to remember that the bibliographic details need to be FULL details, including author’s name (exactly as listed), the title of the text, name of journal or book where text is found, place and date of publication, etc. Each category has a vital role to play in academic writing.

In time you will probably evolve your own system of note-taking to suit your particular needs and habits of study. Here we offer you one system of note-taking specifically designed to help you deal with issues of argument and debate as they relate to your chosen topic.

Full bibliographic details, including year of publication

pp.

pp.

pp.

pp.

Argument:

Evidence:

Examples:

Definition of key terms:

My response: both positive and negative aspects

If you like the model, have several copies of the sheet available when you begin a research project, because you will need ONE for EVERY source you research. This collection of ‘argument note-taking sheets’ will, when you finish researching, hold the kernel of the DEBATE on your topic. Say you have researched four sources, then this collection will provide you with a good summary of four ‘voices’ or positions in the debate, as well as a sense of how each relates to the other.

make sure you put each page number in, in case the full text cannot be located later.

particular eventparticular quotespecial cases

case studiesstatisticsphotographsinterviewsballadsspecial inquiries ...

sometimes the way an author defines a key term might constitute the argument or basis of the argument

here you summarise,preferably in dot points.


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6 writing an introduction

A well-reasoned essay sits like an iceberg in the water, showing us a tip which indicates a deep mass of knowledge. If you have done the research—the reading and thinking that is the ice beneath the surface—it will be abundantly clear to your marker in your introduction.

Your introduction concisely:

• demonstrates your understanding of the subject.

• establishes/defines any necessary terms/events/concepts methods etc.

• has a clear and comprehensive statement of your argument in relation to the set topic.

• prepares your reader for what follows, i.e. signposts how you establish your response and the arguments to be presented.

Do not:

• just repeat the question.

• provide too much background—focus on the issues.

• tell the reader you are writing an essay.

• inform the reader of the difficulties of writing this essay or how hard it was to limit the essay to the word count.

Consider the following first year Law assignment:

Is there a place for programs such as the Koori Court in the Australian legal system? Should there be courts for other groups in our society? (1500 words)

There are many ways to answer this question, and many ways to write your introduction. You may find it useful to think about your introduction as a series of moves:

move 1: introduce the field/discipline and topicA brief context for the field of inquiry will orient the reader. Keep the background material to a minimum, and focus this material towards your argument e.g.:

The Koori Court was an initiative established in Victoria to accommodate more culturally appropriate processes and outcomes for Indigenous people.

move 2: indicate previous research/what is currently understoodAs you begin to map the debate and identify the key issues, a good place to start is some background on which there is general agreement e.g.:

Aboriginal people are grossly over-represented in the prison system, and they are more likely to return to prison (Preston, 2001).

move 3: prepare for the present essay by indicating the problem/controversyYour next move identifies the issue raised in the question. This issue will be at the heart of the essay question: how well you have focused on the key issue will indicate to the marker how well you have done your research and applied your mind e.g.:

However, some critics have suggested that, in creating a separate court for one group within Australian society, other groups may also agitate for special pleading, and the country’s universal justice system will be undermined (Hancock, 2005).

15

move 4: introduce your line of argument and outline the structure of your essayThis move is your thesis statement. It answers the question by setting up a line of argument. The marker can clearly identify how you perceive the key issues and how you will proceed e.g.:

While creating a separate court appears culturally divisive, Indigenous culture is unique to Australia; its custodians are not just another group within Australian society. There are also numerous precedents for special courts which refute the argument for special pleading. Furthermore, an analysis of the Court’s proceedings demonstrates how effective it is in providing more equitable justice to Indigenous people. Finally, although the Koori Court has its limitations, its successes provide opportunities for implementation within the broader legal system.

In this answer, the student has clearly answered the two questions: there should be a Koori Court; there is no need for separate courts for other groups in Australia. The introduction signposts how the four key issues on which the essay will proceed: a discussion of Indigenous people’s unique place in Australian society; other courts in Australia which focus on particular groups or issues; how the Koori Court improves justice outcomes for Indigenous people; and how the lessons from the Koori court can improve justice for all.

marker comment

Your essay is altogether

too vague. You have not

analysed the question and

wrestled with it seriously.

This is more of National Geographic writing than

anything else. Much of

the first two pages is not

even vaguely relevant. This

leaves you with very little

room to discuss the second

part of the question. What

you must aim for is a tight

account of a very limited

topic, anchored directly

to the specific pieces of

evidence.


16

reasoned argument in essays

A number of staff have developed and adapted this diagram. This version appears in Rao, Chanock & Krishnan (2007).

subheading

---para ---para

Bkgd

subheading

--- ---

analyse/evaluate

subheadinganalyse/evaluate

subheadinganalyse/evaluate

introduce field/context + topicWhy is this topic interesting/important/significant?

these sections may be reversed depending on your preferences

your grade

discipline

topic

angle question

what debate/issue arises from the topic?link to previous research/definitions/scope etc

signpost structure of argumentHOW you intend to answer the question

section by section

indicate your main argumentWHat case are you making?

paragraphs1 para = 1 main idea =

100/150/200 words

topic sentence

suplementary sentences (evidence, examples)

concluding/linking sentence

Draw together your findings/analysis from each section

of your argument

State your conclusion/evaluationbased on your findings

Consider the implications of your evaluationfor the debate/problem in your topic

BO

DY

INTR

OD

UC

TIO

NC

ON

CLU

SIO

N

lin

e o

F a

rg

um

en

t

17

example: an essay outlineQuestion: Is there a place for programs such as the Koori Court in the Australian legal system? Should there be courts for other groups in our society? (1500 words)

INTR

OD

UC

TIO

N

introduce the field/context:The Koori Court is a Victorian initiative for more appropriate processes and outcomes for Indigenous people.

the debate arising from the topic:Aboriginal people are grossly over-represented in the prison system. However, other groups may also agitate for special pleading, and Australia’s universal justice system will be undermined.

thesis statement and signposting:There is a place for such programs because, while creating a separate court appears culturally divisive, Indigenous culture is unique to Australia, and they are not just another group within Australian society; numerous precedents for special courts which refute the argument for special pleading; although the Koori Court has its limitations, its successes provide a model for the broader legal system.

BO

DY

sub-heading 1: Indigeneityparagraph 1: “Australia’s first people” (150 words).

paragraph 2: Aboriginal people’s unique rights within certain jurisdictions (150 words).

sub-heading 2: Other specialist courtsparagraph 1: Family Court of Australia (jurisdiction on the basis of kin relations) (150 words).

paragraph 2: Industrial Arbitration Commission (jurisdiction on the basis of common interest) (150 words).

sub-heading 3: Koori Court of Victoriaparagraph 1: details of its practices and limitations (150 words).

paragraph 2: how it improves outcomes for Indigenous people (150 words).

sub-heading 4: Improving justice for all Australiansparagraph 1: changing court practices to accommodate marginalised peoples (150 words).

paragraph 2: funding the legal system to increase equity to justice (150 words).

CO

NC

LUS

ION

draw together your findings:There is a place in the Australian legal system for the Koori Court because specialist courts have long been accepted and the Koori Court has been very successful; its practices should be broadened to the wider court system.

evaluate your findings:The Koori Court has created real benefits for Aboriginal people without the necessity for special pleading of all minorities or undermining any legal principles. On the contrary, it has created a greater level of justice.

implications for the field/discipline:It is time for the debate to move away from the “special pleading” argument towards the key issue: what changes to the legal system should be implemented to improve justice outcomes for all people.


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7 deVeloping argument through paragraphs

The paragraph is a unit of ideas, not a unit of length. It consists of:

• a topic sentence which communicates the main idea of the paragraph—an idea that is rarely just descriptive but always contributes to your overall argument.

• sentences that support and develop the main idea in the remainder of the paragraph, where each sentence is connected to the others to allow a flow of ideas. These sentences usually provide supporting evidence such as statistics, quotations, critics’ perspectives, or other documentary evidence.

• coherent development signalled by transitions or linking phrases i.e. words such as “moreover,” “nevertheless,” “for instance,” “in addition” and “consequently.” Transitions show the reader how a sentence is related to the sentence that precedes it. In other words, linking phrases signpost your argument and the direction you wish to take. Do not, however, use transitions at the start of each supporting sentence. Transitions can appear at various points in the sentence or not at all. As Barnet suggests:

The point is not that transitions must be explicit, but that the argument must proceed clearly. The gist of a paragraph might run thus: “Speaking broadly, there were in the Renaissance two comic traditions... The first... The second... The chief difference... But both traditions... ”1

• a logical end. This end may summarise or conclude your argument on that particular evidence; if possible, it logically leads—and gives some presage to—the argument developed in the next paragraph.

1 Sylvan Barnet, A Short Guide to Writing about Literature, 6th edn (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), p. 213.

marker commentThe main problem with this essay is linking the discussion in each section to the main theme. The examples you give are relevant to the points raised by X, however, you cover so many social situations that it is hard to see any consistent thread in each section, and impossible to find one in the essay as a whole. You should try to concentrate on a particular issue to focus your theoretical ideas.

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The following paragraph—outlining relationships between the Australian military in Afghanistan and the media—uses all the building blocks of paragraph construction:

The topic sentence poses a question which has been set up by the previous paragraph; it communicates that the paragraph will discuss the development of the “embargo” on “objective reporting”.

The sentences following the topic sentence use evidence to support and develop this argument, using several linking phrases which signpost Foster’s position. The expression “has long asserted” indicates that this position is not Foster’s. “Despite” and “however” also signpost Foster’s argument and develop it through the paragraph.

How did the Australian military come to embargo objective reporting in Afghanistan and what are the consequences for the public’s understanding of and responses to the conflict there? We can trace the Defence Department’s intolerance for the free-flow of information back to the purported “lessons” of the Vietnam War. The US military has long asserted that the war was not lost in Vietnam but in the living rooms of America, where an “anti-establishment” press, free to report as and where it pleased, fatally undermined public support for the war. The media, the military argued, had “stabbed” the fighting man “in the back.” Despite a number of detailed academic studies revealing that nothing of the sort had happened, the US military chose to take a single, self-reinforcing “truth” from the war—not only was press freedom inimical to success on the battlefield, but there was also an inverse proportionality between the two.i However questionable the validity of this conclusion, militaries around the world paid heed to the US defence establishment’s analysis.ii

This paragraph appears nearly half way into the essay. The article begins by recalling “Eyewitness,” the nom-de-plume2 for Lieutenant Colonel Ernest Swinton in WWI who used this name in his press releases. Following two paragraphs of historical background, the topic sentence in the next paragraph develops the issue and makes it relevant to the present:

This topic sentence introduces an important element of Foster’s argument: that the past and present control of the media are similar.

The following topic sentence in the next paragraph then puts the military’s point of view.

Evidence for this assertion is provided with quotations from ADF guidelines. The paragraph concludes by quoting the guidelines issued to journalists from the the ADF.

I mention Swinton because, more than ninety years later, in Australian media coverage of the war in Afghanistan, we find ourselves back in Eyewitness’ world...

The ADF [Australian Defence Force] argues that its troops in Oruzgan are mostly special forces, engaged in highly classified operations, and so security considerations preclude all but the most controlled and limited coverage of their actions...

This next topic sentence flows from this quotation, and argues against the military’s point of view.

Despite the dry legalese [of the military guidelines to journalists] it is clear that this document is a suicide note for the investigative journalist.

2 This is a French expression—literally “pen name”— sometimes used in English.


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There is another paragraph of evidence supporting his position; the paragraph and the argument are then brought to a (mini) conclusion.

...neither they [journalists] nor their opinions are welcome.

The next topic sentence brings together the evidence and the historical background to establish an important line of argument:

The reincarnation of Eyewitness in a slouch hat demonstrates an important, if dispiriting, truth about contemporary war reporting: namely, that its development has not traced a linear path towards increased liberalisation but a circular arc that has taken us back to the norms and expectations of the past.

Now he is in a position to develop his argument regarding the history of military influence in the media:

This paragraph then develops the argument outlining how the Australian military accepted the conclusions of the US military, and concludes:

How did the Australian military come to embargo objective reporting in Afghanistan and what are the consequences for the public’s understanding of and responses to the conflict there?

However questionable the validity of this conclusion, militaries around the world paid heed to the US defence establishment’s analysis.

This neatly leads into the next paragraph, which develops this argument through a detailed analysis of British military operations:

In Britain, as early as 1970, the Director of Defence Operations ... proposed that next time the UK’s forces went to war, ‘we would have to start saying to ourselves, are we going to let the television cameras loose on the battlefield?’iii

To summarise the development of his argument, Foster introduced some historical background over two paragraphs. He then developed the context for this argument in the next paragraph. Notice how he first put the side of the argument with which he disagreed: having mapped the debate, and he sett up his next paragraph which forcefully rejected this argument, using the military’s own evidence as his own.

Note how these examples resist the temptation to introduce the main idea of the next paragraph but create a logical connection to that idea. As an exercise in exploring how academics write paragraphs and in identifying the flow of an argument, read only the topic sentence of each paragraph in a journal article. Do this in your own writing as well and, if it makes sense, you have a clear line of argument.

(Footnotes)

i The best of these academic studies are Daniel Hallin, “The Media, the War in Vietnam and Political Support: A Critique of the Thesis of an Oppositional Media,” Journal of Politics, vol. 46 no. 1, pp. 2-24, and William Hammond, Reporting Vietnam: Military and Media at War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998). Carlyle Thayer offers a useful survey of the arguments on both sides in his “Vietnam: A Critical Analysis,” in Defence and the Media in Time of Limited War, ed. Peter Young (London: Frank Cass, 1992), pp. 89-115 [this footnote appears in the original text].

ii Kevin Foster, “‘Eyewitness’ in a Slouch Hat,” Overland, no. 193 (Summer 2008), pp. 14-18.

iii Foster, “‘Eyewitness’ in a Slouch Hat,” pp. 14-16.

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8 control oF academic language

Essays are academic documents and, as such, use academic language rather than the more informal language of normal speaking, diaries, emails or even presentations. One of the reasons for this more formal language is the requirement to engage with the ideas of other writers, which not only have to be referenced, but analysed, critiqued and evaluated before arriving at a reasoned argument. While essays will always contain facts and information, the ordering and arrangements of these around key ideas and issues is as important as the information itself. The goal is to be as precise as possible and as concise as possible, that is, to be accurate in your expression with an economy of language. The more you fill up your essay with description, the less space you have to develop your argument—where most of the reward will come your way. Thus the control and use of academic language signals to your marker the depth or level at which you are writing. Think about the terms listed below:

analysis your ability to clearly identify the key issues to be dealt with to answer the question.

critique your ability to engage with those issues in terms of the strengths and weaknesses of the different positions on those issues.

evaluation your ability to reach a conclusion, to derive an argument based on an assessment of those perspectives for each issue.

marker commentWhat you say is reasonable enough but the way in which you say it is simply inadequate. Your essay is full of vague, awkward and misconstructed sentences. I’m afraid you won’t pass this subject until you learn to express yourself more clearly and precisely.


22

Think about how you might communicate at each level of writing. The words listed below are arranged, generally, according to the level of academic writing they imply. Use them in your essays.

analysing critiquing evaluatingstates

reports

describes

claims

elaborates

indicates

makes the point

defines

details

generalises

proposes

presumes

reckons on

observes

notes

points out

posits

postulates

comments

explores

investigates

puts forward

contends

analyses

announces

cites

assumes

compares

considers

contrasts

theorises

speculates

reconciles

suggests

predicts

explains

accedes

in the view of x

concedes

x conjectures

x goes so far as to suggest

in x’s opinion

according to x

x’s approach indicates that

affirms

agrees

concurs

confirms

makes clear

demonstrates

shows

justifies

argues

interprets

recommends

challenges

affirms

confirms

approves

contradicts

refutes

evaluates

advocates

dismisses

words and phrases for developing discussionsIn the paragraph on politics, the military and the media (see “Coherent argument and paragraphing”), there were a number of words and phrases used by the writer to control and order the logic of the paragraph. This changes the paragraph from a summary of other people’s ideas to an analysis of those ideas and a development of the writer’s argument. A list of possible words to use in this way is presented on the next page.

marker commentThis essay is all over the place. You start off talking about “society” as aggregates of human beings, i.e. sociologically, and end up using the word to mean something like “high society” or a collection of aunts in Jane Austen’s drawing-room.

23

To list, or show ‘time’ relationships

First/second/third etc. Last/finally MeanwhilePreviously Afterwards BeforeNow When EarlierAfter that Next Presently or currently

To add information

Furthermore Another reason/ factor/ point is... BesidesIn addition Also As wellMoreover Similarly

To show a logical relationship

So Hence It follows thenSince this is so Due to ForTherefore Thus As a result…Consequently Because of this The ‘if/then’ construction

To draw a ‘conclusion’

In summary In conclusion This implies/suggests/ indicates/ shows/ establishes/ demonstrates

To summarise To sum up UltimatelyIt can be inferred that It can be concluded that

To clarify a previously stated idea

In other words That is Put succinctlyBy this I mean To put this another way In effect (Or simply restate the

idea in a different way)

To introduce a ‘contrasting’ or ‘qualifying’ idea

In contrast Nevertheless AlternativelyConversely Although UnlikeBut Even so YetHowever On the other hand Whereas … (then contrast)

To provide an ‘example’

For example …, including To illustrateFor instance …, such as


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9 using eVidence

The way to a marker’s heart is to have a strong argument; and a strong argument is one which is persuasive and is clearly presented. One of the most important elements of creating a persuasive argument is to use evidence. Generally, you use evidence to:

• map the debate.

• signal where your argument fits into the debate.

Specifically, you can use evidence in a number of ways:

• to distinguish one point of view from another.

• to create a link between a cause and an effect.

• to refute someone else’s argument.

• to substantiate your logic or claim.

• to compare one thing with another, from which your argument can be furthered.

There are several ways to differentiate positions in the debate, including your own. Read the extract below which analyses the interstate rivalry between Victoria and South Australia. Observe how the writer maps the debate and signals how her argument fits within that debate:

Explanations for the longstanding rivalry between Victorians and South Australians have traditionally focused on economic factors, but recent research suggests cultural or artistic factors have played a greater role. The work of Coupe,3 Chugg,4 and Smythe and Brown,5 which compared and contrasted company profitability, employment rates, and rates of investment between the two states, concluded that “economic envy”6 was the basis for the rivalry. This conclusion, however, has been challenged by two studies that focus on cultural differences. Gibbons, for example, argues that the desire to be seen as “the pre-eminent arts community of Australia”7 is the cause for the rivalry, citing the rancorous debates over which state has the better Arts Festival, World Music festival, wines, art galleries and museums. The work of Belle,8 too, notes the importance of this desire for cultural dominance between the two states. More suggestively, she proposes that this desire becomes more pronounced during the football season.

In an analysis of Question Time debates in the South Australian parliament from 1991-2002, Belle demonstrates that all politicians become increasingly parochial about the greatness of the arts in South Australia. Belle argues that:

3 Teddy W. Coupe, “Company Profitability: a tale of two states,” The Economic Development of Australia, ed. Robyn Wagon (Melbourne: Clark Press, 1951), 34-70.

4 Selwyn Chugg, “An Analysis of Employment Rates in Victoria and South Australia, 1901-1950,” Journal of Australian Economic History and Theory 34 (1968): 131-167.

5 Mike Smythe and Jo Brown, “Winning Economic Glory: a Historical and Psychological Study of Interstate Rivalry,” Australian Historical-psychological Studies 55 (1979): 1-29.

6 Chugg, 134.

7 Paul Gibbons, Adelaide: the Arts Capital of Australia, Maybe the World (Sydney: Murdoch Press, 2002), 2.

8 Tallulah Belle, Victorian Bitter? You Bet (Adelaide: Flinders University Press, 2004).

marker commentBibliography and footnotes are excellent. Apart from a few minor slips, you use scholarly apparatus well and it is gratifying to find a student who gives it careful treatment.

25

It is no coincidence that when the Adelaide Crows won two premierships in the late 1990s, funding for the arts in general increased and new arts initiatives were announced. The National Wine Centre and the National Centre for Artistic Values were both launched during this time.9

The writer begins by referring to several authors who all consider economic indicators in their assessments. She then signals that the map of this debate also includes cultural issues. By providing more space for the cultural side of the debate, the writer signals that, in her view, the cultural issues arguments are more persuasive. Notice how the writer uses words such as “however,” “challenged” and “demonstrates” to signal her position. Finally, in focusing on the work of Tallulah Belle, the writer signals her agreement with Belle that “all politicians become increasingly parochial about the greatness of arts in South Australia.”

quotations

As you map the debate, it is essential that you identify your position from the positions in the spectrum of the argument. This is done in several ways:

• the argument of a person is summarised and his/her name is mentioned. There is then a reference recorded so that this person’s position can be verified or considered in greater detail by the reader. In the essay above, this is done with “the work of Chugg,* Coupe* and Smythe and Brown.*”

• a short quotation is used to summarise an argument, as in the case of Gibbons’ “the pre-eminent arts community of Australia.” A short quotation like this must be the exact words of the author and representative of their argument.

• when a writer’s position is important or captures an idea particularly well, a long quotation is very effective, especially if it becomes the springboard for further analysis. In the essay above, the writer uses the work of Belle to support her argument. Because the quotation is quite long—over 30 words or so—the writer has indented the quotation i.e. decreased the margins on both sides. For indented quotations, no quotation marks are needed. Again, the wording must be exact. Referencing styles are considered in section 11 ”Acknowledging Sources”.

9 Belle, 244-245.

marker commentI suspect that the main reason why your essay is misdirected is that instead of setting your own objectives and pursuing them by your own examination of relevant evidence, you have allowed your own ideas and objectives to be dictated by the scholars you have read. Since their questions are not identical with yours, by following them you were led away from your proper objectives. You have obviously worked hard at reading your secondary sources. The same amount of work put into an analysis of thoroughly relevant primary sources would have paid better dividends. Try to have confidence to do your own thing in your own way, using secondary sources as critics of your ideas, stimuli to those ideas, and sources of information, rather than as guides to (or even substitutes for) the ideas you should have.


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10 writing a conclusionYour conclusion is your last word on your question/issue/debate/problem, and potentially has great impact (second only to your Introduction in importance) in the way it:

• states your position/argument, in your own words (preferably in one paragraph).

• draws together all the key issues addressed in your essay in an ordered way.

• links your findings on these issues as components of your argument.

• draws out the implications of your finding(s)—for the topic of interest. Do not add anything new to your argument. Instead, use your argument to say something (maybe tentatively) about the consequences of your findings for the issues/debate central to your question. In some disciplines, it may be appropriate to comment on problems /issues in method.

Think of a conclusion, not necessarily in this order, as being constructed in “three moves”:

move 1: restate your argumentIn general terms, what is your position on the question, debate or issue at the heart of the essay question?

move 2: review your line of argumentDraw together each component of your argument in a logical and meaningful way.

move 3: draw out implications/consequencesWhat are the implications or consequences of your conclusion to the field/discipline? How should your reader now be thinking differently about the topic?

In this way your essay conveys to your reader, “You gave me an issue / problem / question to consider... here is my response to that issue / problem / question and my response is significant etc. because...,” although you wouldn’t word it this way!

When you have written your conclusion, go back and read the question or assignment task. Have you addressed the task? Does your conclusion agree with your Introduction?

Example (first year Law assignment):

Is there a place for programs such as the Koori Court in the Australian legal system? Should there be courts for other groups in our society? (1500 words)

State your argument:

The consideration of Indigenous people of Australia as deserving a unique position is widely accepted across social, cultural, legal and political spheres. Specialist courts have long been accepted and have worked well, and the Koori Court in Victoria has been very successful and its practices provide a model for the wider court system.

Draw together your line of argument:

The debate about courts for all minorities is misleading and based upon a misunderstanding of the philosophy underpinning the Koori Court. It has created real benefits for Aboriginal people without the necessity for special pleading of all minorities or undermining any legal principles. On the contrary, it has created a greater level of justice.

Implications for the debate:

It is now time for the debate to move away from the “special pleading” argument towards the key issue: implementing changes to the legal system to improve justice outcomes for all people.

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11 acknowledging sources

Academic work involves the fundamental process of critically engaging with the work of others. For most assessment tasks, you will be required to work with different sources. Aside from searching for sources, the early part of the research process will involve evaluating sources, assessing their relevance, testing their reliability, looking for similarities or differences between sources, making connections, and so on. Following this stage, you will then move into the most important part of the research process—“forging relationships for your own purpose” (Fowler & Aaron 673), that is, developing some new and original understanding based on the connections that you make between diverse sources. Without references, it would be impossible to determine how original your work is.

In 2003, the Australian National University introduced its “Code of Practice for Student Academic Integrity,” [updated 2009] policy to make explicit its commitment to the principles of good scholarship. Students will be expected in the course of their studies to demonstrate “the ability to critically engage their own thinking with that of others” (ANU 5).

1. when to referenceWhen writing an academic essay or a report, you will invariably draw upon the research of others, directly or indirectly, and incorporate it into your own work. For example, you may choose to quote an author, paraphrase a section of an author’s work, or simply use an idea or information from a text. In producing an essay, report, or dissertation, whenever you

• QUOTE directly from another writer,

• PARAPHRASE or SUMMARISE a passage from another writer, or

• USE material (e.g., an idea, facts, statistics) directly based on another writer’s work,

it is your responsibility to “identify and acknowledge your source in a systematic style of referencing” (Clanchy and Ballard 140). By doing this, you’re acknowledging that you are part of the academic community. It is important to do this so that your reader, the person assessing your work, can “trace the source of your material easily and accurately” (Clanchy and Ballard 140). The reader wants to know where your evidence or support for your argument(s) comes from.

Using the work of others, so long as it is acknowledged, is an accepted practice in academia. The failure to appropriately acknowledge source materials could result in an accusation of plagiarism, i.e., “copying, paraphrasing or summarising, without appropriate acknowledgement, the words, ideas, scholarship and intellectual property of another person” (ANU College of Arts and Social Sciences). The charge of plagiarism could in turn lead to failure for the assignment, failure for the whole course, or, in dire cases, suspension or termination of your program or study.

2. referencing systemsIn general, there are two main styles for acknowledging source materials: notes (footnotes, endnotes) and internal citations (commonly known as the Harvard system). Usually, your College, discipline, or school will indicate which referencing system they prefer; often this is stated in the course handout or on the College website.


28

Sometimes you may be required to master both systems, particularly if you are enrolled in different Colleges. “Different departments within the university may favour different styles, so it is essential that you check on the preferred format for each program in which you are studying” (Clanchy and Ballard 140). Students doing both Law and Psychology, for example, would have to use footnotes in Law and internal citations in Psychology. Students doing Political Science can choose to use either system, so long as they choose one and use it consistently and do not combine them. Students doing English and Law would use footnotes, but the footnote system used in English, based on the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, is not entirely similar to the system used in Law.

Quotations come from: Australian National University, “Code of Practice for Student Academic Integrity,” 2009; Australian National University College of Arts and Social Sciences, “Code of Practice for Student Academic Integrity,: Definitions of Breaches,” 2009; John Clanchy and Brigid Ballard, Essay Writing for Students: A Practical Guide, 3rd ed. (Melbourne: Longman, 1997); and H. Ramsey Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, 8th ed. (New York: Longman, 2001).

The ASLC website http://academicskills.anu.edu.au/ contains articles on:

Referencing Basics

Should I use references?

Writing an Annotated Bibliography

Harvard Referencing

Footnoting

the aslc website also contains links to guides for different referencing styles:

Harvard Style

Chicago Manual of Style Online

American Psychological Association

Australian Guide to Legal Citation

Modern Language Association (MLA)

Oxford Style

Turabian Bibliographic Form

Also refer to the ANU academic integrity site.

For further information also see

Crasswell, G. Writing for Success: A Postgraduate Guide (London: Sage, 2005)

Rao, V., Chanock, K. and L. Krishnan. A Visual Guide to Essay Writing (Sydney: Association for Academic Language and Learning, 2007); also available online at https://academicskills.anu.edu.au/

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12 Beyond editing & prooFreading

The purpose of your final draft is to ensure that the words on paper communicate the depth of your understanding of the question and your construction of a persuasive argument. Make a conscious choice to read the words you have written through the eyes of the marker rather than through “your interpretation” of those words from your own perspective. Use the strategies presented through this handbook to ensure that what you write is what you mean.

expectation 1: analytical focus• Have you clearly identified and dealt with what the question is asking?

• Do you spend too much time defining and describing, rather than analysing and critiquing?

expectation 2: wide and critical reading• Does your reference list reflect the different positions on these issues?

• Has your argument dealt with the strengths and weaknesses you have found in the various positions taken on your question?

expectation 3: reasoned argument• Do you have an introduction, a conclusion and logical paragraphs?

• Is your main idea located in your first sentence of each paragraph?

• Do you support that idea with evidence and explanation?

• Is your evidence supported by references?

• Is there a logical link between each of your paragraphs?

• Are there clear and signposted sections in the body of your essay?

• Do these sections correspond to the structure of your argument signposted in your introduction?

• Do you have a reasoned line of argument? Read your introduction, each topic sentence and your conclusion. If they do not agree or flow in a logical and sequenced manner then redraft them so that they do.

• Does your introduction do what it is supposed to do? The four moves of an introduction is one way to ensure that you frame your question and develop an argument in response to that question.

• Does your introduction and conclusion match?

• Does your conclusion draw together the main components of your argument contained in the body of your essay, actually draw a conclusion based on these arguments, and consider some implications related to your question (three moves of a conclusion)?

expectation 4: style and presentationMarkers expect competent style and presentation and often give detailed outlines of those expectations. If you do not use the required referencing system, or use it incorrectly, if you have not used the spellchecker to check your spelling, if you have submitted your essay with single line spacing when 1.5 spacing is required, or if you have submitted double sided pages when single is required, then you will lose marks. Remember, your marker may have scores of essays to mark in a brief period of time and lack of care or attention stands out. The more time markers spend noting errors the less time they have to notice the merits of your argument. Do not give them a poor impression when they first read your essay.


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Note: The spellchecker only picks up some misspelt words. It will not , for example, pick up “there” when you meant “their,” or “it’s” when you meant “its.” It is so easy to miss incorrectly used words, even when proofreading, for instance when “minuet” is used for “minute” or “testes” for “tests” (real examples).

Suggestion: Ask someone not doing your course to read your essay and let you know where it does not make sense.

Basic proof-reading tips• Page numbers; 4cm margins (to encourage marker

feedback).

• 12-point font; 1.5 line spacing (double for Law and some other disciplines).

• Spaces between paragraphs (or indented first line of paragraph).

• Headings and subheadings are consistent.

academic writing style and expression• Do not use contractions, e.g. “can’t,” “don’t,”

“won’t” etc.

• Use personal pronouns judiciously e.g. “I,” “my,” “me” etc.

• Avoid use of “we,” “us,” “our,” “you,” “your” because of the ambiguities in using such terms.

• Use varied language (make sure every sentence starts with a different construction).

• “First...; Second,...; Finally,...”: make sure you have told the reader what it is you are listing.

• Use gender-neutral language. That is, avoid “man,” “mankind,” “he” etc. Use instead “humankind,” “he/she,” his/her – but avoid “their.”

• Acronyms: give in full first, acronym in brackets after e.g. “United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).” Use the acronym thereafter.

• 1960s, 1990s etc. usually do not have an apostrophe, thus, ‘in the 1960s...’

• Do not use colloquialisms or slang.

• Numbers 1-10 are written as words. If you begin a sentence with a number, write the number out in full.

• Avoid stating absolutes e.g. “a perfect example,” “a total failure,” “everybody believes,” “always,” “never,” “only.”

• Check problematic pairs of words: affect/effect, practise/practice; use/utilise.

marker commentThis is a very impressive piece of research and a rather indifferent piece of reporting. Your writing is often obscure, clumsy and wordy. I don’t feel sure how I should mark this but on balance I think I should give high marks for what you have discovered and a severe reprimand for your bad language.

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punctuation• Check your use of punctuation marks such

as the comma (,), colon (:), apostrophe (’) and semi-colon (;). Refer to: ‘A basic guide to punctuation’, http://www.academicskills.anu.edu.au.

• Use italics for non-English words.

• Be consistent in your use of quotation marks: double or single? Quotations within quotations? Check your style guide.

• Pay attention to the usual punctuation in your discipline, e.g., cooperate or co-operate?

spelling• Use computer spell-checks, but proofread aloud, reading exactly what you have written

to identify errors.

• Avoid US spelling: “colour” not “color,” “organisation” not “organization.” Most computers have US spelling as default.

• Cross-check the spelling of authors’ names and discipline-specific terms.

referencing• Quotations are not italicised. If you

add italics write “emphasis added” or “emphasis mine.”

• Check whether your marker wants a Bibliography or a List of References

• Use an appropriate style for citations (in-text? footnoting?) and bibliography/references list.

• Indent and single-line space long quotes (no quotation marks).

• Give page numbers for all in-text direct quotes and for specific ideas.

• Put quotation marks around short, direct quotes.

• Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation of direct quotations, exactly as in the original.

• Review quotations for relevance. Are they integrated into your argument and grammar?

• Arrange the bibliography/references list in alphabetical order according to authors’ family/corporate names.

• Give page numbers for articles and chapters in edited volumes in bibliography/references list.

• Check your bibliography/references list for accuracy: spelling, dates, titles.

marker commentFor the future, how about using our referencing style?


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13 anu grading system

The grading system below is adapted from an ANU course guide and provides a general idea of the meaning of the criteria applied and the way they are applied for different grades. Check your course outline for specific information on how your essays will be assessed. Compare the different descriptions of each criteria between grade levels for an understanding of the differences between each grade. Note how these criteria are operationalised in the marking criteria on the next page.

Grade (letter) Interpretation

High Distinction (HD) 80-100%

• work of exceptional quality • showing clear understanding of subject matter • close appreciation of issues • well formulated • arguments sustained by evidence • tables and diagrams where appropriate • relevant sources referenced • marked evidence of creative ability and originality • high level of intellectual work • critical evaluations

Distinction (D) 70-79%

• work of unusual quality • showing strong grasp of subject matter • appreciation of dominant issues, though not necessarily of the finer points • arguments clearly developed • relevant sources cited • evidence of critical evaluation • solid intellectual work

Credit(C) 60-69%

• work of solid quality• showing competent understanding of subject matter• appreciation of main issues, though possibly some lapses and inadequacies • arguments clearly developed and supported by sources, though possibly with

minor loose ends and irrelevancies • some evidence of creative ability and critical evaluation • well prepared and presented

Pass (P) 50-59%

• range from a bare pass to a safe pass.• adequate but lacking breadth and depth• work generally has gaps• probably takes a more factual approach and does not attempt to question or

interpret findings and evidence• may end in a summary and not an argued conclusion

Fail (F) below 50%

• unsatisfactory• work which shows a lack of understanding of the topic• no evidence of analysis • often irrelevant or incomplete

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14 marking criteria

The table below is adapted from various ANU course guides and lists some criteria by which written assignment performance may be marked. Check your course outlines for specific information on how your essays will be assessed. Some aspects are more important than others, so there is no formula connecting each box, or any of the criteria with the final grade for the assignment.

Quality of argument Quality of Evidence

• The argument fully/fails to address the question

• Logically developed argument

• Writing rambles and lacks logical continuity

• Writing well structured through introduction, body and conclusion

• Writing poorly structured, lacking introduction, cohesive paragraphing and/or conclusion

• Material relevant/not relevant to topic

• Topic dealt with in depth/superficially

• Argument well/inadequately supported by evidence and examples

• Accurate presentation of evidence and examples

• Much evidence incomplete or questionable

• Effective use of figures and tables

• Figures and tables little used or not used when needed

• Illustrations effectively/poorly presented and correctly/incorrectly cited

Written expression and presentation Referencing

• Fluent and succinct piece of writing

• Clumsily written, verbose, repetitive

• Grammatical/ungrammatical sentences

• Correct/incorrect punctuation

• Correct/incorrect spelling throughout

• Legible, well set out work

• Untidy and difficult to read

• Over/under length

• Adequate/inadequate number of references

• Adequate/inadequate acknowledgement of sources

• Correct and consistent in-text referencing style

• Incorrect and inconsistent in-text referencing style

• Reference list correctly presented

• Errors and inconsistencies in reference list

You can learn a great deal from the comments made on your essay by your marker, which is why we have included examples of marker comments. Your marker comments allow you to further develop your research and writing skills by applying the strategies outlined in this handbook.


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Essay Writing Strategies