ASLC Essay Writing Strategies for UG_printed2013

8/19/2019 ASLC Essay Writing Strategies for UG_printed2013

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Academic Skills & Learning CentreEssay writing strategies for undergraduates

academicskills.anu.edu.au


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A C A D E M I C S K I L L S A N D L E A R N I N G C E N T R E

The Academic Skills and Learning Centre (ASLC) provides free individual tutorials, workshops and online

materials to all ANU students with the purpose of developing student academic skills and learning strategies.

The ASLC is located on the lower ground oor of the Pauline Grifth Building, adjacent to Melville Hall and

across the lawn from the entrance to Chiey Library. Appointments for individual tutorials can be made in person

or by telephone 02 6125 2972. Learning Advisers will read your essay and provide feedback to assist you

develop your research and writing skills. You can enrol in our range of workshops online through our website:

academicskills.anu.edu.au

All cartoons created by and used with the permission of Judy Horacek.© Copyright Judy Horacek. www.horacek.com.au

S T R A T E G I E S P A G E

Introduction 1

1. What do markers want? 2

2. How do you write an essay? 4

3. Analysing the question 7

4. Researching the essay — nding sources 10

5. Researching the essay — reading strategies 11

6. Writing an introduction 14

Example essay and diagram 16

7. Developing argument through paragraphs 18

8. Control of academic language 21

9. Using evidence 24

10. Writing a conclusion 26

11. Acknowledging sources 27

12. Beyond editing and proofreading 29

13. ANU grading system 32

14. Marking criteria 33 Saraswati , ANU Chancelry


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I N T R O D U C T I O N

Essays are set as assessment tasks

across all ANU Colleges, from business

to medical science, from engineering

to computer science, from law to

languages, and from psychology to

the humanities. The essay-writing task

challenges each student to go beyond

the accumulation of information and

to engage with the questions that are

at the heart of their area of study. This

involves learning to think critically, that

is, to identify issues that allow you to

explore the question (analyse), consider

the question from a range of different

perspectives (critique), and construct

an academically credible argument(evaluate). This handbook is designed

to take the bewilderment out of essay

writing for undergraduate students

by providing targeted and timely

strategies to apply across the different

stages of the essay writing process.

You can read it as a whole to gain an

appreciation of what is expected of a

university essay and how to craft your

essay. You can dip into it to remind

you of strategies that will assist you inwriting an introduction, using sources or

constructing argument, among others.

You can also attend one of our essay writing workshops where you will have an opportunity to practice these

strategies.

We acknowledge the long list of academic skills advisors at the ANU who, over many decades, have contributed

to the development of this Essay Writing Strategies handbook.


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1 . W H A T D O M A R K E R S W A N T ?

No matter what course you are doing, it is designed with two specific goals in mind:

> to provide you with some knowledge of a particular subject.

> to equip you with skills in thinking and communication.

The first point is about the subject matter: if you are studying commerce, you will learn the significance of a debt

to equity ratio and how to read a company’s financial statements. The second point is more complicated: these

skills in thinking and communication are often not acknowledged explicitly in your courses, but improving these

skills is the purpose of this handbook. In developing your knowledge about the subject—whatever subject it is—

you will need to:

> develop a questioning and academically critical mind.

> develop reading skills to order, test and evaluate ideas and evidence; assess the relationships of these ideas

to other ideas and evidence; formulate questions about these ideas and evidence.

> become an increasingly independent learner.

> develop a nuanced, coherent position which can be substantiated with evidence.

> learn writing and communication skills in order to express your position with clarity and precision.

With this list in mind, markers assess your ability as it is demonstrated in your assignment. This assessment can

be considered as four areas of competence: focus; wide and critical reading; argument; and presentation.

1. Focus

In order to demonstrate your questioning and critical mind, it is

expected that your essay focuses clearly on the issues of the

question you have been given. This involves several tasks:

> understanding the question(s) or task(s) you have been given:

what knowledge or skill are you being required to demonstrate?

> identifying relationships between ideas: are these ideas

in opposition with each other, in support of each other, or

somewhere in between?

> what, in a nutshell, are the most significant elements that you

need to explore to answer the question?

2. Wide and Critical Reading

Of all the skills developed at university, reading is perhaps the most important. Reading involves a set of skillsdiscussed in further detail throughout this handbook.

Reading widely—from a variety of sources, authors and points of view—enables you to understand the

spectrum of points of view relevant to the topic. Whatever the topic, it is likely that there is a range of views

which take different positions, contradict each other, support each other, use alternative evidence, refute the

positions of others and so on. As you read widely, your ideas will be tested, your assumptions may be made

clearer to you, and this will help you to develop a coherent argument for your essay.

Marker comment

This is one of the best essays I’ve read,

and I have little in the way of criticism.

You skilfully compare your varioussubjects, while offering some worthwhile

insights on urban and rural experience.

You usefully integrate additional research

material (your bibliography indicates a

wide reading, although it is not always

clear how this is employed). Your writing

style is clear and concise, need I go on?

[This was a High Distinction essay.]


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Reading “critically” means reading for strengths and weaknesses to gain a deeper understanding of a point of

view rather than necessarily accepting the writer’s position. Ask yourself:

> what is the writer’s argument?

> what evidence is used to substantiate the argument?

> what are the limitations to the argument?

> what are the assumptions used by the writer?

> what evidence might refute or question the writer’s argument?

> how does this writer’s argument relate to other arguments?

3. Argument

The “argument” in this sense is not a dispute. Your argument is a combination of reason, analysis and evidence

constructed coherently and logically, intended to persuade the reader to this position. The argument of your

essay is your answer to the question and is a demonstration of your academic point of view. A reasoned

argument requires:

> coherence: its parts fit logically together; the argument announced in your introduction develops through

your paragraphs and is confirmed in your conclusion.

> explanation: background, theories, specialist terminology, evidence and conclusions are clearly identified and

framed so that the reader gains a better understanding of the topic.

> evidence: examples, source documents, the arguments of others and results of experiments from your wide

and critical reading are explored so that they explain, support and develop your point of view, or refute the

point of view of others.

> reason: logical connections are made between actions or phenomena and results or implications, so that the

reader better comprehends your argument.

Argument is the key to a successful essay, but it is important to realise that your argument relies on the focus of

your essay, the wide and critical reading you demonstrate, and the presentation of your essay.

4. Presentation

Presentation takes time and attention to detail. If your

argument is not clearly articulated, concise, appropriately

referenced, easy to comprehend, and does not follow

the formatting requirements of your course, the attention

of the marker is drawn away from your argument to your

presentation.

You will be rewarded by the time you set aside for reading

your essay. Ensure your essay uses appropriate academic

language, and that your punctuation and spelling are correct;

check that your referencing is consistent and accurate.

These expectations are not simply an unnecessary burden:

the elements of presentation are fundamental to articulating

a clear and concise—and therefore more powerful—

argument.

Marker comment

We are not interested in your

opinion but in a well-foundedargument based on wide

reading. Your bibliography

shows that you have consulted

only one major source apart

from the main text: this is

clearly insufficient.

Marker comment

Stylistically and organisationally, this is much

too incoherent to pass. Your problems with

expression are serious. Too many of your

sentences are grammatical fragments, like

quickly jotted down notes rather than complete

units, and you haven’t organised your

materials effectively. Paragraphs seem to be

conglomerations of only vaguely related ideas,

not logically unified series of sentences... The

raw material for a better essay is apparent. But

it is unshaped, and the shaping process (i.e.

organisation and expression) is an essential

aspect of logical and critical thinking.


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2 . H O W D O Y O U W R I T E A N E S S A Y ?

Writing an essay is a messy, complex, often frustrating process that, nevertheless, can be ordered and managed

in several stages. Remember that it is usually a circular rather than a linear process: your argument will help

develop your writing, and the process of writing will develop your argument and your use of evidence.

1. Analyse and define the topic or question

> While an essay question will always have a topic, your first

hurdle is to identify and then explore the underlying question/

debate/problem within that topic that is central to your

course. For example, a Political Science question such as:

“What were the causes of the Second World War?” is not

asking for a list of causes that you then describe. It is asking:

in what way or to what extent did various factors contribute

and how were they interrelated? Understanding how the task

is situated within your discipline/ field/courses is crucial to

developing a comprehensive answer.

2. Identify some key ideas

> Remember that any essay question does not stand alone:

its purpose is to assess how well you understand some

key concepts, theories or conflicts in your current course.

Consider these concepts, theories or conflicts while you

are preparing your essay. Look at course outlines,

lecture notes, seminar readings to identify key

themes of the course.

> Use brainstorming or mind-mapping techniques to

identify key ideas.

3. The first literature search

> Initially it is often difficult to find readings: search

library catalogues, abstracts and databases for

material (do a course in the library to learn how).

However, when you find sources the amount of

reading is often overwhelming. Ask yourself: what

is relevant?; what is more central and what is

less important?

> Think strategically: who are the key writers in the

field?; how can you identify these? Do the coursereadings contain useful articles? Start with the key

writers in the field that your lecturer recommends,

and then progress to articles, books and journals

as you narrow your search for more specific or

specialised material.

Marker comment

This appears to be a mish-mash

of facts, assembled for no obvious

purpose... In effect this is not your

work but that of the various authors

you have photocopied. You have

not developed an argument from

the material. In future, organise your

thoughts: think what the whole essaytitle means, and how the relevant

facts fit together and in what order, to

provide an answer to the problem.


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4. Read

> Initially, one of the greatest challenges at university and in essay writing is learning how to read

academically. When you read, read for a specific purpose: what is the writer’s argument (in the research

phase)?; how does this writer refute the position of another writer (later in the research phase)?

> Consciously select and apply a reading strategy (see section 5). Read to obtain an overview of whatpeople are writing on the topic: where are the debates within this topic? What are the key issues of these

debates? Are there any key theorists writing on the topic? What evidence is being used to justify each

position or interpretation of the topic?

> Consciously select and apply a note taking strategy (see section 5).

5. Work towards constructing an argument

> Try to express your argument or position in one clear sentence. Often called the “thesis statement,” this

sentence is your answer to the question; it is the hook on which your argument hangs. See “Writing an

Introduction” for further details.

> Select, from your readings, evidence and ideas that might support your argument.

> Next, consider what things you need to do to persuade the reader of your position. Will you need to

define key terms, compare and contrast, critically evaluate the literature, provide background context,

analyse a case study, and so on? The main issues you identify will be the structure of your argument and

provides a potential outline of the main sections of the essay.

6. Construct your argument around an outline

> Identifying the key issues in your topic represents your view of what is important in these debates: this is

your preliminary analysis. Remember this may change as you write, as you read more, and as your essay

evolves.

> Keeping the required length of the essay in mind, transfer key ideas and supporting ideas from thebrainstorm session to a linear structure (outline). This outline is the ‘bare bones’ of the essay.

> Prepare a more detailed outline with a section and sub-section plan.

> Expand or contract the outline to

suit the length required. Add or

delete main points, supporting

points, the evidence you will

use to explain and support

them, potential responses to

counterarguments or challenges

to your position.

> Remember: you may need to

read more in order to flesh out

your ideas.

7. Write the first draft

> The purpose of this draft is to

work out what you think about the

question, in relation to what you

have read. While what you have

read may support your argument

or refute the argument of others,


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the foundation of your essay will rely on your thinking and your analysis. Follow your outline. Resist the

temptation to just summarise the ideas you have read by excessively quoting. Rather, use these ideas

to answer your question. In the first draft do not be too concerned about the order of paragraphs or the

quality of the writing—these aspects will develop.

> Focus on one section of your essay at a time. You can have a go at writing your introduction but come

back and rewrite it after your first draft.

8. Do some more focused reading

> Identify where you need more information. It is sometimes easy to find a position and just follow that

argument in your essay. Read more critically than this: what are the different positions or the strengths

and weaknesses of each? Identify where you need more information.

> Widen/extend/narrow your literature search for more material. Find examples to support your main points.

9. Take a break

> Put some critical distance and time between yourself and your work. This will help you to return to your

essay with fresh eyes.

10. Revise your first draft; work on a second draft

> As you write your first draft, your ideas and arguments clarify and often the focus of your argument

comes together in the last sections of the essay or in the conclusion. In your second draft make sure your

argument also appears in your introduction and builds consistently throughout the sections of your essay.

> Give this draft to someone else for comments and feedback, for example, a friend, your partner, a fellow

student, or an Learning Adviser. Take note of their comments.

11. Edit

> Use a checklist for editing the final draft which incorporates formatting requirements as well as things you

know you often have problems with e.g. referencing, expression etc.

12. Hand it in and reward yourself!

Marker comment

An integrated essay involves (1) stating what

in your mind the main issues are, i.e. how you

are going to attack the question asked; (2)

developing your main points into paragraphs

– expanding on your most important

arguments with data; (3) tying each section

(and paragraph) together with some linking

statement; and (4) finishing with a conclusion

which brings together the main threads of

your argument with a clear statement of what

you think, based on your previous discussion.


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3 . A N A L Y S I N G T H E Q U E S T I O N

The academic task in writing an essay is to create an argument that answers the question. Developing a line of

reasoning—that is, an essay plan—will help in this process. As your research and writing continues, do not be

afraid to alter your plan. Your essay plan should:

> coherently develop your argument.

> be clearly identifiable by the marker, so s/he can see how it develops your argument.

The diagram in the centre of this handbook is a map of an essay plan. It also shows how each part of the

planning and research becomes part of an essay, and it highlights how developing an argument is based on a

clear understanding of the question.

1. Understanding your task — the discipline/field

The best place to start is the course outline, available on the web, which outlines the important elements,

concepts and theories of your course. You will need to demonstrate an understanding of some or all of these in

your essay, so it is worth reading very closely.

Now spend some time analysing the question and identifying the components of your task. Read the question

several times, very carefully. What is the question asking you to do? How many questions or tasks are involved?

What are the key ideas, themes and theories that this course is designed to cover?

Consider this question from a first year International Relations course:

What is the “world food crisis”? What are the political causes of it and what might be the political responses

to it? (2000 words)

While you are reading the following three paragraphs on subject, angle and process, think about how they apply

to the question above.

2. Subject/Angle/Process

Analysing the question in terms of subject/angle/process helps you identify the task in preparation to developing

a plan.

Step 1: What am I being asked to investigate?

The subject of your essay is the broad field or topic—it is the “what” your topic is about: ask yourself, “What

do I have to demonstrate knowledge about?” The subject corresponds to the “focus” discussed in “What do

markers want?” In the essay question above, the subject of the essay question above is the “world food crisis.”

Note that while the question requires an in depth knowledge of the “world food crisis,” simply describing this

crisis is not sufficient.

Step 2: Why am I being asked to investigate this subject matter?

The angle of your essay is the controversy or debate that is at the heart of the subject—“why” you should

examine this topic. Ask yourself, “What questions do I have to answer?” The angle corresponds to the “wide

and critical reading” discussed in “What do markers want?” In this question, the angle for International Relations

is to identify what the “world food crisis” is, the political causes of it and the possible political responses to it.

Step 3: How should I approach the topic?

The process is the “how” your essay is going to proceed in answering the “what” and the “why”: ask yourself,

“How should I answer?” The process corresponds to the “argument” discussed in “What do markers want?”

The process is the way in which you demonstrate your academic point of view, using evidence to develop your

answer to the question. The process involves explaining the politics of trade and the inequalities of wealth, andsome suggestion of how these might be overcome. Now you are in a position (though this will evolve) to develop

an argument: ask yourself, “What do I want to persuade (with evidence) the reader to think?”


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3. Make a plan

What is the “world food crisis”? What are the political causes of it and what might be the political responses

to it? (2000 words)

(This is not the answer to this essay question: this is an example of how your thinking might develop into

an answer).There are two questions, but answering the second question requires answering the first i.e. inidentifying the causes and responses to the “world food crisis,” you will need to explain the “world food crisis”.

However, the second question really has two parts which the course convenor has identified for you as being

important to explain in your answer: “political causes” and “political responses.” From the lectures, tutorials and

reading in your course so far, think first about the political causes of the “world food crisis”:

> trade, barriers and tariffs (power relations between countries)

> over-population (the politics of migration policies)

> environmental degradation

> purchasing powers of rich v poor countries

> food distribution and the price of transportation

Now think about possible political responses:

> trade, barriers and tariffs—power relations in free trade agreements

> over-population—increasing standards of living, power relations of health technology

> bio-fuels, environmental degradation—Kyoto Protocol and other arrangements?

> purchasing powers of rich v poor countries—IMF, structural adjustment procedures

> food distribution and the price of transportation—greater commitment from food surplus countries

You now have a better idea of what to look for in your research.

4. Refine your plan

After some preliminary research, you then decide that two of your causes—trade issues and relative

purchasing powers—are really both problems to do with the inequities of power between countries, so these

can be addressed together. You also decide, given the limited word length, to combine over-population and

environmental degradation into a section on the politics of resources. Finally, your reading uncovers an issue you

knew nothing about: the influence of food aid on domestic markets.

With these changes, you now have the core of your essay plan. It is a 2000-word essay—this means about 14-

18 paragraphs—so your plan might now look l ike this:

Introduction (one paragraph) [see the section “Writing an Introduction” for further details]

There is an increasingly uneven distribution of food around the globe. While some theorists see the crisis

in terms of resource allocation, others prioritise the economics of supply and demand. The food crisis

is caused by unequal power relations between rich and poor countries, population pressures in poorer

countries, the influence of “food aid” on domestic economies of poorer countries and other distribution

factors. Potential solutions include free and fair trade, sustainable farming practices, the protection of

domestic markets in poorer countries and reduction of protection practices in richer countries.


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(1-2 paragraphs) political cause 1: the power relations of trade, barriers and tariffs

> How rich countries exercise their power, on the one hand demanding entry to foreign markets while

protecting their domestic markets; influence of foreign debt on poorer countries.

(1-2 paragraphs) potential political response: free trade agreements, greater access of less-developed

nations into “first world” markets

> Explain the difference between “free trade” and “fair trade” and how this influences access to food in poor

countries.

(1-2 paragraphs) political cause 2: l imited resources for population

> How population growth is related to mortality rates and political stability; how these factors lead to

diminished resources in poorer countries; influence of foreign debt on poorer countries.

(1-2 paragraphs) potential political response: sustainable farming, increasing standards of living,

decreasing child mortality

> Forgiveness of debt and sustainable farming practices and new technologies lead to stronger economies

better able to resist food shortages.

(1-2 paragraphs) political cause 3: food aid flooding domestic economy

> How richer countries engage in “food dumping” to support their own domestic markets; how “free food”

undercuts local producers and leads to further poverty.

(1-2 paragraphs) potential political response: food aid supplied via domestic market suppliers

> How food growers and food markets can be supported and strengthened using imported and local

produce.

(1-2 paragraphs) political cause 4: food distribution and the price of transportation

> How domestic and global transport systems affect the distribution of food; how richer countries benefit

from control of supply routes and transportation corridors, and how border controls and “customs”

restrict access of poorer countries into richer countries’ markets

(1-2 paragraphs): potential political response: greater commitment from food surplus countries

Conclusion (one paragraph) [see the section on “Writing a Conclusion” for further details]

Genuine commitments from richer countries are required to overcome the “world food crisis.” Such

commitments will require long term changes in the power relations between the rich and poor countries.

Market, distribution and trade combine to create a power imbalance between rich and poor countries

which has caused a “world food crisis.” This power imbalance makes it difficult for poorer countries to

respond effectively. Solutions to the crisis involve richer and poorer countries working together to resolve

the power imbalances.

You now have four clearly identified issues to research thoroughly, to test your ideas, gain evidence, and

respond to different views. How you might go about this research is covered in the next section.


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4 . R E S E A R C H I N G T H E E S S A Y

— F I N D I N G S O U R C E S

Researching your question involves gathering relevant sources and extracting relevant ideas from those sources

to answer the question by providing a strong and persuasive academic argument, that explores the central

issues raised in the literature, and is supported by evidence from quality sources.

1. Using course materials

Essay questions challenge you to select and apply some of the key ideas, concepts, and theories in your

course. For example, the second year Anthropology course “Indigenous Australian and Australian Society” has

as one of its essay questions:

Explain the role of the liberal welfare state in Indigenous Australian affairs and evaluate the effects on

Indigenous life worlds.

Your first search for understanding is within your course: the lectures on the topic, relevant readings or

recommended readings, even your course outline will provide an overview of the key ideas of the course. While

it is unusual to use lecture notes or course outlines as sources in your essay, they are great places to gather ageneral understanding of your topic. It is acceptable to use articles that may have been copied explicitly (in full or

in part) for your course, but reference the original source not the course material.

2. Resources

It is rarely acceptable to limit your sources to just those provided by the

lecturer. It is expected that you will read more widely to identify a range of

different positions, theoretical approaches or ways of gathering evidence

relevant to the question. It is not sufficient to search the general Internet,

or just “Google” it. Wikipedia is neither reliable nor academically credible,

but you may use it as a starting point to gain some background.

3. Search engines

Use a discipline-specific database search engine that searches scholarly

journals for relevant articles. The ANU Library runs courses on how to

search databases. Your lecturer and tutor can also assist by advising you

on useful search engines for your discipline. While Google is not an academically reliable search engine, Google

Scholar is, as it searches peer-reviewed journals.

4. Journal articles

Articles from academic journals—that is, the journals that one might find in a university library—provide access

to the most recent publications in an area. Relevant Anthropology journals for the essay used above might

include Aboriginal History, Anthropological Forum or Australian Aboriginal Studies. However government reports,

statistical sources such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics, reports from non-government organisations,

consultants and others are also useful as long as their limitations are appreciated — they all have an agenda and

select information to promote that agenda.

5. Selecting your sources

Select your sources carefully. Beware of being overwhelmed by too much information and too many readings—a

simple search for “globalisation” on Google Scholar, for instance, returns nearly one million hits. You only need

sufficient sources to construct a strong argument within the word limit given: too many other people’s ideas

will fill your essay and overwhelm your argument; too few and you will not identify all the central issues or

perspectives.

Marker comment

What you say is all very well,

but it is only one view. It

happens to be the one I share,

but there is little evidence in this

essay that you are aware of the

objections some writers haveraised to it, or of some of the

problems it raises.


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5 . R E S E A R C H I N G T H E E S S A Y

— R E A D I N G S T R A T E G I E S

1. Reading strategies

(a) The rule of two

There is a rule of thumb we recommend—the rule of two. If your essay is 2000 words long, divide the first

two digits by two and that is the minimum number of sources acceptable in constructing an essay, that is, for

2000 words find 10 sources, for 1500 find seven or eight, for 3000 find 15. However, to identify ten relevant

and useful sources for a 2000 word essay, you may need to find 20 or 25 possible sources in your search.

There are ways to limit the time spent on reading these sources.

(b) Reading with purpose

Always read with purpose. Never read anything without knowing the purpose for which you are reading.

Your analysis of the essay question generates questions and your reading is directed by these questions. For

the Anthropology essay example some questions to bring to the text might be: What are the elements of a

“liberal welfare state”? Are there different positions on its effects on indigenous people? In what ways mightthese positions differ? And so on.

(c) Scanning

Unless you are reading for a literature course, avoid

reading from the first word to the last. Look at the

table of contents and search the index for relevant

sections (use keywords such as “indigenous,”

“welfare state,” “life worlds” and so on). For journal

articles, start by reading the abstract—an abstract

is the 150—250 words that precede a journal

article, succinctly telling the reader the purpose, the

approach, the findings and the contribution of the

article. With your key questions or concepts in mind,

you can scan many sources quickly.

(d) Using sub-headings

Narrow your reading further by checking out how

many sections/sub-headings the source is broken

into—this will tell you how many main ideas the text

contains. Read the topic sentence (generally the first

sentence) in each paragraph—this will give you a

sense of the line of argument/reasoning in the text

and assist in narrowing the sections you choose

to read in depth. Also read the introduction and

conclusion in-depth—see Section Six on “Writing

your introduction” to learn why.

(e) Take control of your argument

The purpose of these strategies is to give you control

over your sources. Your purpose is to write an essay

that answers your question(s), not to reproduce what another author, or authors, say about their question/

problem/issue.

Marker comment

This is a thoughtfully argued essay based on

wide reading and imaginative research, giving an

independent response.


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2. Note-taking strategies

(a) Keep it relevant

Only take notes on ideas that are relevant to your question. When reading and taking notes, always keep

your argument/question in mind. The strategy is to transform ideas from your sources into a form that you

can use to construct your argument and answer your question.

(b) Use your own words

Create a distance between you and the page of text you are reading. Avoid highlighting or underlining. This

may create a colourful page and speed up the reading process, but it is false economy. Highlighting key

definitions, for example, does little to assist you in deciding how that definition is relevant to your question.

It is better to take notes by deciding on the key ideas of the passage and putting these down in your own

words.

(c) Use specialist dictionaries

Use specialist dictionaries for discipline specific definitions; transform definitions into issues around which

you develop your argument. Extract from the definition the key concepts or ideas and put these in your ownwords (still reference the dictionary and put in quotation marks any key words retained from the dictionary).

Your arguments around these key issues will help form the structure of your overall argument.

(d) Vary your resources

Use a range of resources to achieve a much greater depth of analysis.

It is often helpful to develop a note taking matrix or proforma (see below) to assist in identifying the ideas,

similarities and differences between your sources. There are at least two levels of note taking: transforming

relevant ideas from one source, and comparing and contrasting ideas from multiple sources.

(e) Reference your sources

Warning: write down the full

reference as you take notes. This

saves a great deal of time at the

end when you are completing your

references list.


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Note-taking

Two basic reasons why you need to take careful notes of your readings are:

> for full bibliographic details

> for the author’s argument and how it is developed throughout

The two can be combined as part of your ‘argument note-taking sheet’. Here, it is important to

remember that the bibliographic details need to be FULL details, including author’s name (exactly

as listed), the title of the text, name of journal or book where text is found, place and date of

publication, etc. Each category has a vital role to play in academic writing.

In time you will probably evolve your own system of note-taking to suit your particular needs and

habits of study. Here we offer you one system of note-taking specifically designed to help you deal

with issues of argument and debate as they relate to your chosen topic.

Full bibliographic details, including

year of publication

pp.

pp.

pp.

pp.

Argument:

Evidence:

Examples:

Definition of key terms:

My response: both positive and negative aspects

If you like the model, have several copies of the sheet available when you begin a research project,

because you will need ONE for EVERY source you research. This collection of ‘argument note-

taking sheets’ will, when you finish researching, hold the kernel of the DEBATE on your topic. Say

you have researched four sources, then this collection will provide you with a good summary of four

‘voices’ or positions in the debate, as well as a sense of how each relates to the other.

make sure you put each page

number in, in case the full text

cannot be located later.

particular event

particular quotespecial cases

case studies

statistics

photographs

interviews

ballads special

inquiries ...

sometimes the way an author defines a key

term might constitute the argument or basis

of the argument

here you summarise,

preferably in dot

points.


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6 . W R I T I N G A N I N T R O D U C T I O N

A well-reasoned essay sits like an iceberg in the water, showing us a tip which indicates a deep mass of

knowledge. If you have done the research—the reading and thinking that is the ice beneath the surface—it will

be abundantly clear to your marker in your introduction.

Your introduction concisely:

> demonstrates your understanding of the subject.

> establishes/defines any necessary terms/events/concepts methods etc.

> has a clear and comprehensive statement of your argument in relation to the set topic.

> prepares your reader for what follows, i.e. signposts how you establish your response and the arguments

to be presented.

Do not:

> just repeat the question.

> provide too much background—focus on the issues.

> tell the reader you are writing an essay.

> inform the reader of the difficulties of writing this essay or how hard it was to limit the essay to the word

count.

Consider the following first year Law assignment:

Is there a place for programs such as the Koori Court in the Australian legal system? Should there be courts

for other groups in our society? (1500 words)

There are many ways to answer this question, and many ways to write your introduction. You may find it useful

to think about your introduction as a series of moves:

Move 1: Introduce the field/discipline and topic

A brief context for the field of inquiry will orient the reader. Keep the background material to a minimum, and

focus this material towards your argument e.g.:

The Koori Court was an initiative established in Victoria to accommodate more culturally appropriate

processes and outcomes for Indigenous people.

Move 2: Indicate previous research/what is currently understood

As you begin to map the debate and identify the key issues, a good place to start is some background on which

there is general agreement e.g.:

Aboriginal people are grossly over-represented in the prison system, and they are more likely to return to

prison ( Preston, 2001).


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Move 3: Prepare for the present essay by indicating the problem/controversy

Your next move identifies the issue raised in the question. This issue will be at the heart of the essay question:

how well you have focused on the key issue will indicate to the marker how well you have done your research

and applied your mind e.g.:

However, some critics have suggested that, in creating a separate court for one group within Australian society, other groups may also agitate for special pleading, and the country’s universal justice system

will be undermined (Hancock, 2005).

Move 4: Introduce your line of argument and outline the

structure of your essay

This move is your thesis statement. It answers the question by setting

up a line of argument. The marker can clearly identify how you perceive

the key issues and how you will proceed e.g.:

While creating a separate court appears culturally divisive, Indigenous

culture is unique to Australia; its custodians are not just another group within Australian society. There are also numerous precedents

for special courts which refute the argument for special pleading.

Furthermore, an analysis of the Court’s proceedings demonstrates

how effective it is in providing more equitable justice to Indigenous

people. Finally, although the Koori Court has its limitations, its

successes provide opportunities for implementation within the

broader legal system.

In this answer, the student has clearly answered the two questions:

there should be a Koori Court; there is no need for separate courts for

other groups in Australia. The introduction signposts how the four key

issues on which the essay will proceed: a discussion of Indigenous people’s unique place in Australian society;other courts in Australia which focus on particular groups or issues; how the Koori Court improves justice

outcomes for Indigenous people; and how the lessons from the Koori court can improve justice for all.

Marker comment

Your essay is altogether too

vague. You have not analysed

the question and wrestled with it

seriously. This is more of National

Geographic writing than anything

else. Much of the first two pages

is not even vaguely relevant. This

leaves you with very little room

to discuss the second part of the

question. What you must aim for

is a tight account of a very limited

topic, anchored directly to the

specific pieces of evidence.


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Example essay and diagram

Reasoned argement in essays

A number of staff have developed and adapted this diagram. This version appears in Rao, Chanock & Krishnan (2007).

subheading

---para

---para

Bkgd

subheading

---

---

Analyse/

evaluate

subheading

Analyse/

evaluate

subheading

Analyse/

evaluate

Introduce field/context + topic

Why is this topic interesting/important/significant?

These sections may be

reversed depending on

your preferences

Your grade

Discipline

Topic

Angle question

What debate/issue arises from the topic?

Link to previous research/definitions/scope etc

Signpost structure of argument

HOW you intend to answer the question

section by section

Indicate your main argument

WHAT case are you making?

PARAGRAPHS

1 para = 1 main idea = 100/150/200

words

Topic sentence

Suplementary sentences

(evidence, examples)

Concluding/linkingsentence

Draw together your findings/

analysis from each section

of your argument

State your conclusion/evaluation

based on your findings

Consider the implications of your evaluation

for the debate/problem on your topic

B O D Y

I N T R O D U C T

I O N

C O N C L U S I O N

L I N E

O F

A R G U M

E N

T


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Example: an essay outline

Question: Is there a place for programs such as the Koori Court in the Australian legal system? Should

there be courts for other groups in our society? (1500 words)

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Introduce the field/context:

The Koori Court is a Victorian initiative for more appropriate processes and outcomes for

Indigenous people.

The debate arising from the topic:

Aboriginal people are grossly over-represented in the prison system. However, other groups may also

agitate for special pleading, and Australia’s universal justice system will be undermined.

Thesis statement and signposting:

There is a place for such programs because, while creating a separate court appears culturally divisive,

Indigenous culture is unique to Australia, and they are not just another group within Australian society;

numerous precedents for special courts which refute the argument for special pleading; although the

Koori Court has its limitations, its successes provide a model for the broader legal system.

B

O D Y

sub-heading 1: Indigeneity

paragraph 1: “Australia’s first people” (150 words).

paragraph 2: Aboriginal people’s unique rights within certain jurisdictions (150 words).

sub-heading 2: Other specialist courts

paragraph 1: Family Court of Australia (jurisdiction on the basis of kin relations) (150 words).

paragraph 2: Industrial Arbitration Commission (jurisdiction on the basis of common interest)

(150 words).

sub-heading 3: Koori Court of Victoriaparagraph 1: details of its practices and limitations (150 words).

paragraph 2: how it improves outcomes for Indigenous people (150 words).

sub-heading 4: Improving justice for all Australians

paragraph 1: changing court practices to accommodate marginalised peoples (150 words).

paragraph 2: funding the legal system to increase equity to justice (150 words).

C O N C L U S I O N

Draw together your findings:

There is a place in the Australian legal system for the Koori Court because specialist courts have long

been accepted and the Koori Court has been very successful; its practices should be broadened to the

wider court system.

Evaluate your findings:

The Koori Court has created real benefits for Aboriginal people without the necessity for special

pleading of all minorities or undermining any legal principles. On the contrary, it has created a greater

level of justice.

Implications for the field/discipline:

It is time for the debate to move away from the “special pleading” argument towards the key issue:

what changes to the legal system should be implemented to improve justice outcomes for all people.


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7 . D E V E L O P I N G A R G U M E N T T H R O U G H

P A R A G R A P H S

The paragraph is a unit of ideas, not a unit of length. It consists of:

> a topic sentence which communicates the main idea of the paragraph—an idea that is rarely just

descriptive but always contributes to your overall argument.

> sentences that support and develop the main idea in the remainder of the paragraph, where each

sentence is connected to the others to allow a flow of ideas. These sentences usually provide supporting

evidence such as statistics, quotations, critics’ perspectives, or other documentary evidence.

> coherent development signalled by transitions or linking phrases i.e. words such as “moreover,”

“nevertheless,” “for instance,” “in addition” and “consequently.” Transitions show the reader how

a sentence is related to the sentence that precedes it. In other words, linking phrases signpost

your argument and the direction you wish to take. Do not, however, use transitions at the start of

each supporting sentence. Transitions can appear at various points in the sentence or not at all. As

Barnet suggests:

The point is not that transitions must be explicit, but that the argument must proceed clearly.

The gist of a paragraph might run thus: “Speaking broadly, there were in the Renaissance two

comic traditions... The rst... The second... The chief difference... But both traditions... ”1

> a logical end. This end may summarise or conclude your argument on that particular evidence; if possible,

it logically leads—and gives some presage to—the argument developed in the next paragraph.

1 Sylvan Barnet, A Short Guide to Writing about Literature, 6th edn (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), p. 213.

Marker comment

The main problem with this essay

is linking the discussion in each

section to the main theme. The

examples you give are relevant to

the points raised by X, however,

you cover so many social

situations that it is hard to see any

consistent thread in each section,

and impossible to find one in the

essay as a whole. You should try

to concentrate on a particular

issue to focus your theoretical

ideas.


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The following paragraph—outlining relationships between the Australian military in Afghanistan and the media—

uses all the building blocks of paragraph construction:

The topic sentence poses a question

which has been set up by the previous

paragraph; it communicates that the

paragraph will discuss the development

of the “embargo” on “objective

reporting”.

The sentences following the topic

sentence use evidence to support and

develop this argument, using several

linking phrases which signpost Foster’s

position. The expression “has long

asserted” indicates that this position is

not Foster’s. “Despite” and “however”

also signpost Foster’s argument and

develop it through the paragraph.

How did the Australian military come to embargo objective

reporting in Afghanistan and what are the consequences for

the public’s understanding of and responses to the conict

there? We can trace the Defence Department’s intolerance for

the free-ow of information back to the purported “lessons” of

the Vietnam War. The US military has long asserted that the

war was not lost in Vietnam but in the living rooms of America,

where an “anti-establishment” press, free to report as and

where it pleased, fatally undermined public support for the war.

The media, the military argued , had “stabbed” the ghting

man “in the back.” Despite a number of detailed academic

studies revealing that nothing of the sort had happened, the

US military chose to take a single, self-reinforcing “truth” from

the war— not only was press freedom inimical to success on

the battleeld, but there was also an inverse proportionality between the two. i However questionable the validity of this

conclusion, militaries around the world paid heed to the US

defence establishment’s analysis. ii

This paragraph appears nearly half way into the essay. The article begins by recalling “Eyewitness,” the nom-de-

plume2 for Lieutenant Colonel Ernest Swinton in WWI who used this name in his press releases. Following two

paragraphs of historical background, the topic sentence in the next paragraph develops the issue and makes it

relevant to the present:

This topic sentence introduces an importantelement of Foster’s argument: that the past and

present control of the media are similar.

The following topic sentence in the next

paragraph then puts the military’s point of view.

Evidence for this assertion is provided with

quotations from ADF guidelines. The paragraph

concludes by quoting the guidelines issued to

journalists from the the ADF.

I mention Swinton because, more than ninety years

later, in Australian media coverage of the war in

Afghanistan, we nd ourselves back in Eyewitness’

world...

The ADF [Australian Defence Force] argues that its

troops in Oruzgan are mostly special forces, engaged

in highly classied operations, and so security

considerations preclude all but the most controlled

and limited coverage of their actions...

This next topic sentence flows from this

quotation, and argues against the military’s point

of view.

Despite the dry legalese [of the military guidelines to

journalists] it is clear that this document is a suicide

note for the investigative journalist.

There is another paragraph of evidence

supporting his position; the paragraph and the

argument are then brought to a (mini) conclusion.

...neither they [journalists] nor their opinions are

welcome.

2 This is a French expression—literally “pen name”— sometimes used in English.


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The next topic sentence brings together the

evidence and the historical background to

establish an important line of argument:

The reincarnation of Eyewitness in a slouch hat

demonstrates an important, if dispiriting, truth

about contemporary war reporting: namely, that its

development has not traced a linear path towards

increased liberalisation but a circular arc that has

taken us back to the norms and expectations of the past.

Now he is in a position to develop his argument

regarding the history of military influence in the

media:

This paragraph then develops the argument

outlining how the Australian military accepted the

conclusions of the US military, and concludes:

How did the Australian military come to embargo

objective reporting in Afghanistan and what are the

consequences for the public’s understanding of and

responses to the conict there?

However questionable the validity of this conclusion,

militaries around the world paid heed to the US

defence establishment’s analysis.

This neatly leads into the next paragraph, which

develops this argument through a detailed

analysis of British military operations:

In Britain, as early as 1970, the Director of Defence

Operations ... proposed that next time the UK’s

forces went to war, ‘we would have to start saying to

ourselves, are we going to let the television cameras

loose on the battleeld?’ iii

To summarise the development of his argument, Foster introduced some historical background over two

paragraphs. He then developed the context for this argument in the next paragraph. Notice how he first put the

side of the argument with which he disagreed: having mapped the debate, he set up his next paragraph which

forcefully rejected this argument, using the military’s own evidence as his own.

Note how these examples resist the temptation to introduce the main idea of the next paragraph but create a

logical connection to that idea. As an exercise in exploring how academics write paragraphs and in identifying

the flow of an argument, read only the topic sentence of each paragraph in a journal article. Do this in your own

writing as well and, if it makes sense, you have a clear line of argument.

(Footnotes)

i The best of these academic studies are Daniel Hallin, “The Media, the War in Vietnam and Political Support: A Critique of the Thesis of an Oppositional

Media,” Journal of Politics, vol. 46 no. 1, pp. 2-24, and William Hammond, Reporting Vietnam: Military and Media at War (Lawrence: University Press of

Kansas, 1998). Carlyle Thayer offers a useful survey of the arguments on both sides in his “Vietnam: A Critical Analysis,” in Defence and the Media in Time

of Limited War , ed. Peter Young (London: Frank Cass, 1992), pp. 89-115 [this footnote appears in the original text].

ii Kevin Foster, “‘Eyewitness’ in a Slouch Hat,” Overland , no. 193 (Summer 2008), pp. 14-18.

iii Foster, “‘Eyewitness’ in a Slouch Hat,” pp. 14-16.


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8 . C O N T R O L O F A C A D E M I C L A N G U A G E

Essays are academic documents and, as such, use academic language rather than the more informal language

of normal speaking, diaries, emails or even presentations. One of the reasons for this more formal language is

the requirement to engage with the ideas of other writers, which not only have to be referenced, but analysed,

critiqued and evaluated before arriving at a reasoned argument. While essays will always contain facts and

information, the ordering and arrangements of these around key ideas and issues is as important as the

information itself. The goal is to be as precise as possible and as concise as possible, that is, to be accurate in

your expression with an economy of language. The more you fill up your essay with description, the less space

you have to develop your argument—where most of the reward will come your way. Thus the control and use

of academic language signals to your marker the depth or level at which you are writing. Think about the terms

listed below:

Analysis your ability to clearly

identify the key issues to

be dealt with to answer

the question.

Critique your ability to engage

with those issues in

terms of the strengths

and weaknesses of the

different positions on

those issues.

Evaluation your ability to reach a

conclusion, to derive an

argument based on anassessment of those

perspectives for each

issue.

Marker comment

What you say is reasonable enough but the way in which you

say it is simply inadequate. Your essay is full of vague, awkward

and misconstructed sentences. I’m afraid you won’t pass

this subject until you learn to express yourself more clearly

and precisely.


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To list, or show ‘time’ relationships

First/second/third etc. Last/finally Meanwhile

Previously Afterwards Before

Now When Earlier

After that Next Presently or currently

To add information

Furthermore Another reason/ factor/ point is... Besides

In addition Also As well

Moreover Similarly

To show a logical relationship

So Hence It follows then

Since this is so Due to For

Therefore Thus As a result…

Consequently Because of this The ‘if/then’ construction

To draw a ‘conclusion’

In summary In conclusion This implies/suggests/ indicates/

shows/ establishes/ demonstrates

To summarise To sum up Ultimately

It can be inferred that It can be concluded that

To clarify a previously stated idea

In other words That is Put succinctlyBy this I mean To put this another way In effect (Or simply restate the

idea in a different way)

To introduce a ‘contrasting’ or ‘qualifying’ idea

In contrast Nevertheless Alternatively

Conversely Although Unlike

But Even so Yet

However On the other hand Whereas … (then contrast)

To provide an ‘example’

For example …, including To illustrate

For instance …, such as


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9 . U S I N G E V I D E N C E

The way to a marker’s heart is to have a strong argument; and a strong argument is one which is persuasive

and is clearly presented. One of the most important elements of creating a persuasive argument is to use

evidence. Generally, you use evidence to:

> map the debate.

> signal where your argument fits into the debate.

Specifically, you can use evidence in a number of ways:

> to distinguish one point of view from another.

> to create a link between a cause and an effect.

> to refute someone else’s argument.

> to substantiate your logic or claim.

> to compare one thing with another, from which your argument can be

furthered.

There are several ways to differentiate positions in the debate, including your own. Read the extract below whichanalyses the interstate rivalry between Victoria and South Australia. Observe how the writer maps the debate

and signals how her argument fits within that debate:

Explanations for the longstanding rivalry between Victorians and South Australians have traditionally

focused on economic factors, but recent research suggests cultural or artistic factors have played a greater

role. The work of Coupe,3 Chugg,4 and Smythe and Brown,5 which compared and contrasted company

protability, employment rates, and rates of investment between the two states, concluded that “economic

envy”6 was the basis for the rivalry. This conclusion, however, has been challenged by two studies that

focus on cultural differences. Gibbons, for example, argues that the desire to be seen as “the pre-eminent

arts community of Australia”7 is the cause for the rivalry, citing the rancorous debates over which state has

the better Arts Festival, World Music festival, wines, art galleries and museums. The work of Belle,8 too,

notes the importance of this desire for cultural dominance between the two states. More suggestively, she proposes that this desire becomes more pronounced during the football season.

In an analysis of Question Time debates in the South Australian parliament from 1991-2002, Belle

demonstrates that all politicians become increasingly parochial about the greatness of the arts in South

Australia. Belle argues that:

It is no coincidence that when the Adelaide Crows won two premierships in the late

1990s, funding for the arts in general increased and new arts initiatives were announced.

The National Wine Centre and the National Centre for Artistic Values were both launched

during this time.9

3 Teddy W. Coupe, “Company Profitabilit y: a tale of two states,” The Economic Development of Australia, ed. Robyn Wagon

(Melbourne: Clark Press, 1951), 34-70.

4 Selwyn Chugg, “An Analysis of Employment Rates in Victoria and South Australia, 1901-1950,” Journal of Australian Economic

History and Theory 34 (1968): 131-167.

5 Mike Smythe and Jo Brown, “Winning Economic Glory: a historical and psychological study of interstate rivalry,” Australian Historical-

psychological Studies 55 (1979): 1-29

6 Chugg, 134.

7 Paul Gibbons, Adelaide: the arts capital of Australia, maybe the world (Sydney: Murdoch Press, 2002), 2.

8 Tallulah Belle, Victorian Bitter? You Bet (Adelaide: Flinders University Press, 2004).

9 Belle, 244-245.

Marker comment

Bibliography and footnotes

are excellent. Apart from

a few minor slips, you use

scholarly apparatus well

and it is gratifying to find a

student who gives it careful

treatment.


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The writer begins by referring to several authors

who all consider economic indicators in their

assessments. She then signals that the map of this

debate also includes cultural issues. By providing

more space for the cultural side of the debate, the

writer signals that, in her view, the cultural issues

arguments are more persuasive. Notice how the

writer uses words such as “however,” “challenged”

and “demonstrates” to signal her position. Finally,

in focusing on the work of Tallulah Belle, the writer

signals her agreement with Belle that “all politicians

become increasingly parochial about the greatness

of arts in South Australia.”

Quotations

As you map the debate, it is essential that

you identify your position from the positions in

the spectrum of the argument. This is done in

several ways:

> the argument of a person is summarised and

his/her name is mentioned. There is then

a reference recorded so that this person’s

position can be verified or considered in

greater detail by the reader. In the essay

above, this is done with “the work of

Chugg,* Coupe* and Smythe and Brown.*”

> a short quotation is used to summarise an

argument, as in the case of Gibbons’ “thepre-eminent arts community of Australia.” A

short quotation like this must be the exact

words of the author and representative of

their argument.

> when a writer’s position is important or

captures an idea particularly well, a long

quotation is very effective, especially if

it becomes the springboard for further

analysis. In the essay above, the writer uses

the work of Belle to support her argument.

Because the quotation is quite long—over

30 words or so—the writer has indented the

quotation i.e. decreased the margins on both

sides. For indented quotations, no quotation

marks are needed. Again, the wording must be exact. Referencing styles are considered in section 11

”Acknowledging Sources”.

Marker comment

I suspect that the main reason why your essay

is misdirected is that instead of setting your

own objectives and pursuing them by your own

examination of relevant evidence, you have allowedyour own ideas and objectives to be dictated by the

scholars you have read. Since their questions are not

identical with yours, by following them you were led

away from your proper objectives. You have obviously

worked hard at reading your secondary sources.

The same amount of work put into an analysis of

thoroughly relevant primary sources would have paid

better dividends. Try to have confidence to do your

own thing in your own way, using secondary sources

as critics of your ideas, stimuli to those ideas, and

sources of information, rather than as guides to (or

even substitutes for) the ideas you should have.


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1 0 . W R I T I N G A C O N C L U S I O N

Your conclusion is your last word on your question/issue/debate/problem, and potentially has great impact

(second only to your introduction in importance) in the way it:

> states your position/argument in your own words (preferably in one paragraph).

> draws together all the key issues addressed in your essay in an ordered way.

> links your findings on these issues as components of your argument.

> draws out the implications of your finding(s)—for the topic of interest. Do not add anything new to your

argument. Instead, use your argument to say something (maybe tentatively) about the consequences of your

findings for the issues/debate central to your question. In some disciplines, it may be appropriate to comment

on problems/issues in method.

Think of a conclusion, not necessarily in this order, as being constructed in “three moves”:

Move 1: Restate your argument

In general terms, what is your position on the question, debate or issue at the heart of the essay question?

Move 2: Review your line of argument

Draw together each component of your argument in a logical and meaningful way.

Move 3: Draw out implications/consequences

What are the implications or consequences of your conclusion to the field/discipline? How should your reader

now be thinking differently about the topic?

In this way your essay conveys to your reader, “You gave me an issue/problem/question to consider... here is my

response to that issue/problem/question and my response is significant etc. because...,” although you wouldn’t

word it this way!

When you have written your conclusion, go back and read the question or assignment task. Have you

addressed the task? Does your conclusion agree with your introduction?

Example (first year Law assignment):

Is there a place for programs such as the Koori Court in the Australian legal system? Should there be

courts for other groups in our society? (1500 words)

Restate your argument:

The consideration of Indigenous people of Australia as deserving a unique position is widely accepted

across social, cultural, legal and political spheres. Specialist courts have long been accepted and have

worked well, and the Koori Court in Victoria has been very successful and its practices provide a model

for the wider court system.

Draw together your line of argument:

The debate about courts for all minorities is misleading and based upon a misunderstanding of the

philosophy underpinning the Koori Court. It has created real benets for Aboriginal people without the

necessity for special pleading of all minorities or undermining any legal principles. On the contrary, it has

created a greater level of justice.

Implications for the debate:

It is now time for the debate to move away from the “special pleading” argument towards the key issue:

implementing changes to the legal system to improve justice outcomes for all people.


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1 1 . A C K N O W L E D G I N G S O U R C E S

Academic work involves the fundamental process of critically engaging with the work of others. For most

assessment tasks, you will be required to work with different sources. Aside from searching for sources,

the early part of the research process will involve evaluating sources, assessing their relevance, testing their

reliability, looking for similarities or differences between sources, making connections, and so on. Following this

stage, you will then move into the most important part of the research process—“forging relationships for your

own purpose” (Fowler & Aaron 1997: 673), that is, developing some new and original understanding based

on the connections that you make between diverse sources. Without references, it would be impossible to

determine how original your work is.

In 2003, the Australian National University introduced its “Code of Practice for Student Academic Integrity,”

[updated 2012] policy to make explicit its commitment to the principles of good scholarship. Students will be

expected in the course of their studies to demonstrate “the ability to critically engage their own thinking with that

of others” (ANU 5).

1. When to reference

When writing an academic essay or a report, you will invariably draw upon the research of others, directly orindirectly, and incorporate it into your own work. For example, you may choose to quote an author, paraphrase

a section of an author’s work, or simply use an idea or information from a text. In producing an essay, report, or

dissertation, whenever you:

> QUOTE directly from another writer,

> PARAPHRASE or SUMMARISE a passage from another writer, or

> USE material (e.g., an idea, facts, statistics) directly based on another writer’s work,

it is your responsibility to “identify and acknowledge your source in a systematic style of referencing” (Clanchy

and Ballard 1997: 140). By doing this, you’re acknowledging that you are part of the academic community. It is

important to do this so that your reader, the person assessing your work, can “trace the source of your materialeasily and accurately” (Clanchy and Ballard 1997: 140). The reader wants to know where your evidence or

support for your argument(s) comes from.

Using the work of others, so long as it is acknowledged, is an accepted practice in academia. The failure

to appropriately acknowledge source materials could result in an accusation of plagiarism, i.e., “copying,

paraphrasing or summarising, without appropriate acknowledgement, the words, ideas, scholarship and

intellectual property of another person” (ANU College of Arts and Social Sciences). The charge of plagiarism

could in turn lead to failure for the assignment, failure for the whole course, or, in dire cases, suspension or

termination of your program or study.

2. Referencing systems

In general, there are two main styles for acknowledging source materials: notes (footnotes, endnotes) and

internal citations (commonly known as the Harvard system). Usually, your College, discipline, or school

will indicate which referencing system they prefer; often this is stated in the course handout or on the

College website.

Sometimes you may be required to master both systems, particularly if you are enroled in different Colleges.

“Different departments within the university may favour different styles, so it is essential that you check on the

preferred format for each program in which you are studying” (Clanchy and Ballard 1997: 140). Students doing

both Law and Psychology, for example, would have to use footnotes in Law and internal citations in Psychology.

Students doing Political Science can choose to use either system, so long as they choose one and use it

consistently and do not combine them. Students doing English and Law would use footnotes, but the footnote

system used in English, based on the Modern Language Association (MLA) Handbook for Writers of Research

Papers, is not entirely similar to the system used in Law.


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Note: The spellchecker only picks up some misspelt words. It will not,

for example, pick up “there” when you meant “their,” or “it’s” when you

meant “its.” It is so easy to miss incorrectly used words, even when

proofreading, for instance when “minuet” is used for “minute” or “testes”

for “tests” (real examples).

Suggestion: Ask someone not doing your course to read your essay and

let you know where it does not make sense.

Basic formatting tips

> Page numbers; 4cm margins (to encourage marker feedback).

> 12-point font; 1.5 line spacing (double for Law and some other

disciplines).

> Spaces between paragraphs (or indented first line of paragraph).

> Headings and subheadings are consistent.

Academic writing style and expression

> Do not use contractions, e.g. “can’t,” “don’t,”

“won’t” etc.

> Use personal pronouns judiciously e.g. “I,” “my,” “me” etc.

> Avoid use of “we,” “us,” “our,” “you,” “your” because of the ambiguities in using such terms.

> Use varied language (make sure every sentence starts with a different construction).

> “First...; Second,...; Finally,...”: make sure you have told the reader what it is you are listing.

> Use gender-neutral language. That is, avoid “man,” “mankind,” “he” etc. Use instead “humankind,” “he/ she,” his/her – but avoid “their.”

> Acronyms: give in full first, acronym in brackets after e.g. “United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).”

Use the acronym thereafter.

> 1960s, 1990s etc. usually do not have

an apostrophe, thus, ‘in the 1960s...’

> Do not use colloquialisms or slang.

> Numbers 1-10 are written as words. If

you begin a sentence with a number,

write the number out in full.

> Avoid stating absolutes e.g. “a perfect

example,” “a total failure,” “everybody

believes,” “always,” “never,” “only.”

> Check problematic pairs of words: affect/

effect, practise/practice; use/utilise.

Marker comment

This is a very impressive piece of

research and a rather indifferent

piece of reporting. Your writing

is often obscure, clumsy andwordy. I don’t feel sure how I

should mark this but on balance

I think I should give high marks

for what you have discovered

and a severe reprimand for your

bad language.


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Punctuation

Check your use of punctuation marks such as the comma (,), colon (:), apostrophe (’) and semi-colon (;). Refer

to: ‘A basic guide to punctuation’, academicskills.anu.edu.au

> Use italics for non-English words.

> Be consistent in your use of quotation marks: double or single? Quotations within quotations? Check

your style guide.

> Pay attention to the usual punctuation in your discipline, e.g., cooperate or co-operate?

Spelling

> Use computer spell-checks, but proofread aloud, reading exactly what you have written

to identify errors.

> Avoid US spelling: “colour” not “color,” “organisation” not “organization.” Most computers

have US spelling as default.

> Cross-check the spelling of authors’ names and discipline-specific terms.Referencing

> Quotations are not italicised. If you add italics write “emphasis added” or

“emphasis mine.”

> Check whether your marker wants a Bibliography or a List of References

> Use an appropriate style for citations (in-text? footnoting?) and bibliography/references list.

> Indent and single-line space long quotes (no quotation marks).

> Give page numbers for all in-text direct quotes and for specific ideas.

> Put quotation marks around short, direct quotes.

> Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation of direct quotations, exactly as in the original.

> Review quotations for relevance. Are they integrated into your argument and grammar?

> Arrange the bibliography/references list in alphabetical order according to authors’ family/

corporate names.

> Give page numbers for articles

and chapters in edited volumes in

bibliography/references list.

> Check your bibliography/referenceslist for accuracy: spelling, dates,

titles.

Marker comment

For the future, how about

using our referencing style?


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1 3 . A N U G R A D I N G S Y S T E M

The grading system below is adapted from an ANU course guide and provides a general idea of the meaning

of the criteria applied and the way they are applied for different grades. Check your course outline for specific

information on how your essays will be assessed. Compare the different descriptions of each criteria between

grade levels for an understanding of the differences between each grade. Note how these criteria are

operationalised in the marking criteria on the next page.

G RA DE ( L E TT ER ) I NT ER PR ETAT IO N

High Distinction

(HD)

80–100%

> work of exceptional quality

> showing clear understanding of subject matter

> close appreciation of issues

> well formulated

> arguments sustained by evidence

> tables and diagrams where appropriate

> relevant sources referenced

> marked evidence of creative ability and originality

> high level of intellectual work

> critical evaluations

Distinction

(D)

70–79%

> work of unusual quality

> showing strong grasp of subject matter

> appreciation of dominant issues, though not necessarily of the finer points

> arguments clearly developed

> relevant sources cited

> evidence of critical evaluation

> solid intellectual work

Credit

(C)

60–69%

> work of solid quality

> showing competent understanding of subject matter

> appreciation of main issues, though possibly some lapses and inadequacies

> arguments clearly developed and supported by sources, though possibly with

minor loose ends and irrelevancies

> some evidence of creative ability and critical evaluation

> well prepared and presented

Pass

(P)

50–59%

> range from a bare pass to a safe pass.

> adequate but lacking breadth and depth

> work generally has gaps

> probably takes a more factual approach and does not attempt to question or

interpret findings and evidence

> may end in a summary and not an argued conclusion

Fail

(F)

below 50%

> unsatisfactory

> work which shows a lack of understanding of the topic

> no evidence of analysis

> often irrelevant or incomplete


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1 4 . M A R K I N G C R I T E R I A

The table below is adapted from various ANU course guides and lists some criteria by which written assignment

performance may be marked. Check your course outlines for specific information on how your essays will be

assessed. Some aspects are more important than others, so there is no formula connecting each box, or any of

the criteria with the final grade for the assignment.

Q U A L I T Y O F A R G U M E N T Q U A L I T Y O F E V I D E N C E

The argument fully/fails to address the question

Logically developed argument

Writing rambles and lacks logical continuity

Writing well structured through introduction,

body and conclusion

Writing poorly structured, lacking introduction,

cohesive paragraphing and/or conclusion

Material relevant/not relevant to topic

Topic dealt with in depth/superficially

Argument well/inadequately supported by

evidence and examples

Accurate presentation of evidence and

examples

Much evidence incomplete or questionable

Effective use of figures and tables

Figures and tables little used or not used when

needed

Illustrations effectively/poorly presented and

correctly/incorrectly cited

W R I T T E N E X P R E S S I O N A N D P R E S E N TAT I O N R E F E R E N C I N G

Fluent and succinct piece of writing

Clumsily written, verbose, repetitive

Grammatical/ungrammatical sentences

Correct/incorrect punctuation

Correct/incorrect spelling throughout

Legible, well set out work

Untidy and difficult to read

Over/under length

Adequate/inadequate number of references

Adequate/inadequate acknowledgement of

sources

Correct and consistent in-text referencing style

Incorrect and inconsistent in-text referencing

style

Reference list correctly presented

Errors and inconsistencies in reference list

You can learn a great deal from the comments made on your essay by your marker, which is why we have

included examples of marker comments. Your marker comments allow you to further develop your research and

writing skills by applying the strategies outlined in thi

Documents

ASLC Essay Writing Strategies for UG_printed2013