DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 067 885 EM 010 376

TITLE A Guide to Satellite Communication. Reports andPapers on Mass Communication Number 66.

INSTITUTION United Nations Educational, Scientific, and CulturalOrganization, Paris (France).

PUB DATE 72NOTE 36p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29DESCRIPTORS Broadcast Industry; Communications; *Communication

Satellites; *Guides; Mass Media; Networks; *SpaceSciences; *Telecommunication; TelephoneCommunications Industry

IDENTIFIERS UNESCO

ABSTRACTBasic information about the characteristics, uses,

and implications of communication satellites is presented.Characteristics covered include the various types of systems--such aspoint-to-point, distribution, and broadcasting satellites--and theflexibility, capacity, geographical coverage, cost and disadvantagesof satellites. The section on uses discusses existing and plannedsatellite communication systems, patterns and purposes of use,categories of services and users, remarks on costs, and alternatives.Implications for information, education, culture, the law, andinstitutional frameworks are noted. A selected bibliography isincluded. (JK)

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This series of Reports and Papers on Mass Communication is issued by the Department of Mass Communication.Unless otherwise stated, the reports may be reproduced in full or in part, provided credit is given to Unesco. Thefollowing reports and papers have so far been issued and are obtainable from National Distributors of UnescoPublications or from the Department of Mass Communication, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7e.

REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION

Number

21 Current Mass Communication Research I - Bibliography ofBooks and Articles on Mass Communication Publishedsince 1 January 1955, December 1956.

22 Periodicals for New Literates: Editorial Methods, June1957.

23 Cultural Radio Broadcasts. Some Experiences, December1956.

24 Periodicrds for New Literates. Seven Case Histories,November 1957 (out-of-print).

25 Adult Education Groups and Audio-Visual Techniques,1958.

26 The Kinescope and Adult Education, 1958 (out of print).27 Visual Aids in Fundamental Education and Community

Development, 1959 (out of print).28 Film Progrdmmes for the Young, 1959 (out of print).29 Film-making on a Low Budget, 1960 (out of print).30 Developing Mass Media in Asia, 1960.31 The Influence of the Cinema on Children and Adolescents.

An Annotated International Bibliography, 1961.32 Film and Television in the Service of Opera and Ballet

and of Museums, 1961 (out of print).33 Ws Media in the Developing Countries. A Unesco Report

to the United Nations, 1961.34 Fan: Production by International Co-operation, 1961.35 World Film Directory. Agencies Concerned with Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Films, 1962.36 Methods of Encouraging the Production and Distribution

of Short Films for Theatrical Use, 1962.37 Developing Information Media in Africa. Press, Radio,

Film, Television, 1962.38 Social Education through Television, 1963.39 The Teaching Film in Primary Education, 1963.40 Study of the Establishment of National Centres for

Cataloguing of Films and Television Programmes, 1963(out of print).

41 Space Communication and the Mass Media, 1964.42 Screen education. Teaching a critical approach to cinema

and television, 1964.43 The Effects of Television on Children and Adolescents,

1964.44 Selected List of Catalogues for Short Films and Filmstrips,

1963 Edition. 1965.45 Professional Training for Mass Communication, 1965.46 Rural Mimeo Newspapers, 1965.47 Books for the Developing Countries: Asia, Africa, 1965.48 Radio Broadcasting serves rural development, 1965.49 Radio and television in the service of education and

development in Asia, 1967.50 Television and the social education of women, 1967.51 An African experiment in radio forums for rural develop-

ment. Ghana, 1964/1965, 1968.52 Book development in Asia. A report on the production

and distribution of books in the region, 1967.

Number

53 Communication satellites for education, science andculture, 1967.

54 8mtn film for adult audiences, 1968.55 Television for higher technical education of the employed.

A first report on a pilot project in Poland, 1969.56 Book development in Africa. Problems and perspectives,

1969.57 Script writing for short films, 1969.58 Removing taxes on knowledge, 1969.59 Mass media in society. The need of research, 1970.60 Broadcasting front space, 1970.61 Principles of cultural co-operation, 1970.62 Radio and television in literacy, 1971.63 The mass media in a violent world, 1971.64 The role of film in development. 1971.65 The practice of Mass Communication: Some lessons from

research by Y.V. Lakshmana (to be published).

A guide to satellitecommunication

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION DRIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN-IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU-CATION POSITION OR POLICY.

Unesco

3

1972 International YearBook

Printed in 1972 in the Workshopsof the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization,Place de Fontenoy, Paris 7e

COM/72.XVII/66.A.Printed in France

Unesco 1972 "'PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY.RIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTEDBY

UNESCOTO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U.S. OFFICEOF EDUCATION. FURTHER, REPRODUCTIONOUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER.-

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FOREWORD

This booklet is intended primarily to provide deci-sion-makers concerned with planning and communi-cation with basic information about the character-istics, uses and implications of communicationsatellites, in order to help them to assess theirpotentialities to contribute to development. Itspublication forms part of Unesco's programme topromote the use of space communication for the freeflow of information, the spread of education andgreater cultural exchange. This programme iscarried out in close co-operation with the UnitedNations and the International TelecommunicationUnion, and the booklet responds to a request fromthe United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Usesof Outer Space, for such a survey, in non-technicalterms, as one of a number of documents reviewingthe potential benefits of practical space applications.

The spectacular growth of space technology inthe last decade has foctiriA attention on the possi-bilities of using satellit- to extend television ser-vices rapidly to comma ties outside the range ofexisting conventional transmitters. The technicalpossibilities certainly exist, but the economics, thecost benefits, the necessary organizational struc-tures and legal arrangements are still under study.

While this survey confirms the expectationsthat space communication has high potential to ex-tend the free flow of news and information, contrib-ute to the renovation and spread of education andpromote greater cultural exchange, it also cautionsthat the technology alone gives no easy answers tothe world's problems of communication, educationand development.

Communication satellites should be seen inperspective - as part of a complex and inter-connected communication structure. The adventof satellites has occurred at a moment in time whencommunication and information technology generallyis subject to far-reaching change. The use of suchinnovations as video-cassettes, cable distribution

and computers, as well as communication satellites,must be blended with more traditional media into acomprehensive and coherent communication policyand plan.

The wide implications of the use of satellitesfor public service and educational broadcastingare also emphasized in the booklet. The satelliteitself is only one component in a system, whichincludes earth stations, receiving sets, power andmaintenance facilities and inter-connexion withterrestrial networks on the one hand, and on theother, the complex of activities relating to pro-gramme preparation, production, utilization andfeedback, as well as organizational, managementand legal aspects. The costs mentioned therefore,can only be indicative and sight should not be lostof the fact that in an operational system, the ex-penditure on "software" tvill be far higher than thaton the "hardware".

Unesco's programme includes provision forassistance to Member States in studying the useof space communication for information, educa-tion, science, culture and development and a num-ber of preliminary surveys have already beenundertaken at the request of individual or regionallygrouped countries. Some of the experience gainedin these studies is incorporated in this booklet,which, it is hoped, will help a sound evaluation tobe made of satellite potentialities.

The co-operation of the International Tele-communication Union is gratefully acknowledgedin this publication, as in other aspects of Unesco'sspace communication programme. The author ofthe booklet is Mr. Edward Ploman, formerlyDirectcir of International Relations, SwedishBroad-casting Corporation, and presently ExecutiveDirector of the InternationalBroadcasting Institute.He has also led a number of missions in spacecommunication. Any opinions expressed are thoseof the author.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITES 7

1. Background 7

2. Development of communication satellite systems 8

A. Short historical summary 8B. Different types of systems 9C. Point-to-point communication satellites 10D. Distribution satellites 10E. Broadcasting satellites 10

3. Characteristics of satellite communication systems 12

A. Flexibility 12B. Capacity 12C. Geographical coverage and cost 12D. Disadvantages 12

II. APPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITES 14

1. Satellite communication systems, existing and planned 14

2. Patterns and purposes of 1.1S9 15

3. Categories of services and users 17

4. Remarks on costs 18

5. Alternatives 20

III. IMPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITES 22

1. General 22

2. Implications for information, education and culture 23

3. Legal implications and applicable international law 25

4. Institutional framework, organization and planning 27

IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS 29

Annex I BIBLIOGRAPHY 31

I. DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITES

1. BACKGROUND

The first telecommunication service to be offeredto the public was the telegraph which was followedby the telephone, by radio-communication, broad-casting and now remote access to electronic infor-mation and data systems. The earliest means oftelecommunication transmission was the overlandtelegraph cable followed by submarine and over-land telephone cables, high-frequency radio-communication transmission, microwave radiorelay links and co-axial cables for overland andundersea use. While each new transmission moderepresented an improvement in terms of quality,reliability, capacity and costs, each was no morethan an extension of a particular type of transmis-sion capability, each with its own specific limita-tions. All of them could be described as single-route, fixed-capacity transmission links, capableof linking together only two points on the earth'ssurface, some directly between two points, somethrough complicated switching equipment.

Thanks to the ability of radio waves to traversespace without physical interconnexion, the introduc-tion of radio communication technology also led to thebroadcasting of messages to many receivers spreadover sizable areas simultaneously. The use ofradio waves, whether for radio communication orbroadcasting, is conditioned by the limited, usableradio frequency spectrum and by the pressure fromold and new communications services competingnationally and internationally for the available fre-quency bands. While sound broadcasting can besatisfactorily performed in a number of ways, thebandwidth required for television broadcastingmakes necessary the use of higher radio frequen-cies whose propagation conditions are severelylimited. Television services would therefore belocal in character unless a chain of televisiontransmitting stations is connected via co-axialcables or microwave, line-of-sight radio relaylinks. Apart from being expensive, this solutionis also limited in application. Microwave relaytowers cannot be used over the oceans and submarine

cpt

cables of sufficient capacity are extremely costly.The early development of telecommunication

services was based on the characteristics of thetransmission facilities. This led to nationalsovereignty in the provision of domestic facilities,bilateral arrangements for international servicesand multilateral agreements for a partial manage-ment, at least, of the radio frequency spectrum,through the allocation and registration of particularoperating frequencies for particular radio services.

A number of these traditional concepts arebeing rendered obsolete through the introduction anddevelopment of satellite communication services.

Satellite communications are the outgrowth ofdevelopments in two main areas: space technologyand communications technology.

The first requirement for any space activityhas however nothing to do with the state of tech-nology since it concerns the ability to compute thevelocity needed to escape earth's gravity and, asa next step, to keep a satellite in orbit. Thisknowledge comes out of a very old branch of sci-ence, celestial mechanics which began when manfirst studied the motions of the stars. So old infact that it has been said "it was a science whichwas almost in mothballs until the new-found rockettechnology returned it to prominence". (1)

The key technology in space flight generallyis propulsion since the problem of launching objectsinto space resolves itself into securing the initialthrust required to escape the gravitational attrac-tion of the earth and to give the space object thevelocity necessary to hold its course by the inertiaof its motion.

The ability to provide transportation servicesfor a wide variety of spacecraft has progressedrapidly. "The early efforts of the late 1950s in-volved modest mission and payload requirementsand were generally concerned with the launching

(1) H. G. Stever and R. G. Schmitt: The technicalprospects in outer space, prospects for manand society, ed. by L.P.Bloomfield, FrederickA. Praeger, New York, 1968.

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of relatively simple space research experiments.The programmes of the early 1960s expanded intosuch areas as lunar and interplanetary probes.Today, a wide variety of spacecraft ... are launchedon a routine basis ... A family of proven launchvehicles exists which can be adapted to specificmission needs. "(1)

Rocket technology is now capable of accelera-ting useful payloads to the very high velocities re-quired to orbit the earth, to escape the earth andgo to the moon and the other planets and also ofproviding a high degree of precision when placingobjects in orbit around the earth.

The cost of boosting a payload to the high speedrequired for its mission, including the developmentof boosters, the establishment and operation ofcomplex launching bases, the manufacture of hard-ware and fuel represents a major share of spaceprogramme expenditure. Even if developmentcosts are huge, in the long run operational costsare the most important - at least as long as thegreatest expenses arise from the fact that thelaunch vehicle is used for only one flight. Despiteconsiderable decreases in costs, present launchcosts are still quoted as being between $12,000 and$15,000 per kg of useful load in synchronous orbit.Therefore, it is likely that one of the main objec-tives of space programmes during the next decadewill be directed towards the development ofmannedspace stations which can be served by reusablevehicles capable of transporting men to and fromearth, and from point to point in space. Thesespace stations will be manned not by astronautsbut by communication engineers engaged in theinstallation, operation and maintenance of com-munication satellites.

Even if launch costs have been going down andeven if a number of countries, individually or ingroups, are building up a launching capability, itcan be expected that, in the immediate future atleast, only a few countries will have a major launchcapability. Most countries or groups of countrieswishing to establish satellite systems of their ownwould therefore have to negotiate provision oflaunch facilities with those who have already de-veloped this technology. As in most other spaceactivities, international co-operation is a key lector.

The existence of rocket power to place satel-lites in orbit would however be of no practicalvalue in the absence of efficient communicationswith spacecraft. Not only are communications anintegral part of space activities generally but alsoone of the most essential factors in space researchand applied space technology, since without com-munications, no meaningful human activity in spacewould be possible.

Space communications and nnmputer techno-logy all depend on innovations and advances in elec-tronics which started with the transistor inventedin 1948. Since then the trend has been towardsever smaller, more reliable and versatile elec-tronic devices which have become essential devices

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in aviation equipment, computers, space and com-munications industry.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNI-CATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS

A. Short historical summary

While evidently the development of satellite com-munications draws upon centuries of scientific andtechnological advances, there seems to be generalagreement to trace the history of communicationsatellites to a definite moment in time and to adefinite individual: October 1945 when Arthur C.Clarke, a young British radio expert and sciencewriter, published a prophetic article entitled,"Extraterrestrial relays".

In this article Clarke introduced the idea ofcombining rocketry and microwave engineering toprovide artificial satellites in stationary orbitsaround the earth serving as relays for transmis-sions from earth. He noted that "many may con-sider the solution proposed in this discussion toofar-fetched to be taken very seriously. Such anattitude is unreasonable as everything envisagedhere is a logical extension of developments in thelast ten years in particular the perfection of thelong-range rocket of which V-2 was the prototype".(2)

It took some time before Clarke's idea wasrealized and then in a'different way from what hehad imagined. The first attempts at space com-munications were made not with man-made objectsbut with the moon as a reflector for radar andradio communication messages during the lateforties and early fifties. Experiments using arti-ficial satellites could not start until the beginningof the space era in the late 1950s.

Some of these experiments were an outgrowthof the use of the moon as a reflector. The orbitof the moon is anything but ideal for communica-tions between various points on earth but withmetallized balloons launched by rockets to sufficientaltitude and placed in orbit around earth and ade-quate ground installations for tranmission andreception, a passive satellite communication sys-tem became possible. This concept was realizedthrough the highly successful United States projectEcho I, launched in August 1960, used for relayof telephony, facsimile and data.

This so-called passive satellite type had vari-ous disadvantages, above all the inefficient use oftransmission power. Since new, miniaturizedelectronic equipment had made it possible to launch

(1) Joseph B. Mahon: Launch vehicles for spacetelecommunications applications, Telecom-munications Journal, Vol. 38 - V/1971.

(2) Arthur C. Clarke: Extraterrestrial relays,Wireless World, October 1945, reprinted inVoices from the Sky, Harper and Row, NewYork, 1965.

automatic robots, experiments were undertakenwith satellites that carried on board radio-communication equipment for the reception, ampli-fication and retransmission of messages receivedfrom earth. The advantages of such "active" satel-lites have proved so superior to the passive typethat developments have concentrated almost exclu-sively on this kind of satellite.

These early experiments had to determinesuch factors as the optimum selection of space-craft subsystems: repeaters, altitude control andstation keeping, power supply, antenna design,telemetry, command and control for operationaluse in an earth/space environment. They did provethe feasibility of the idea. Already in June 1962,experiments started on a major scale with theTelstar and Relay satellites for intercontinental,wideband communications, including televisiontransmissions. Within a few years, developmenthad progressed from the use of the large balloon-type reflectors to sophisticated active repeaters.And already at this early stage, it became obviousthat satellite systems could provide a capacityandflexibility which would make them a focal point forthe development of international communications.Progress was rapid. Satellite communication maybe said to have passed through an experimentalperiod lasting about five years, followed by aninitial utilization period which now has resulted infull operational status.

B. Different types of systems

A satellite communication system should be under-stood to comprise both the satellite itself with thenecessary control and tracking facilities (spacesegment) and the associated earth stations (groundor earth segment).

Mention has already been made of the differencebetween passive and active satellites; inthe follow-ing only the latter will be dealt with.

Satellite systems can also be defined in termsof the chosen orbit of the satellite. The first ex-perimental active satellites (type Telstar, Relay)were launched into medium-high, random orbitsaround earth. Since the orbit of the satellite wasrelatively low and the period of revolution aroundearth short, the duration of time when the satellitewas "visible" between two given points on earthvaried considerably from one revolution to theother and was often limited to a few minutes only.Apart from the great number of satellites whichwould have been required to provide continuous,uninterrupted communications between points onearth, there was a further disadvantage in that theearth stations had to be provided with very advancedand expensive electronic equipment including com-puters in order to keep the antennas constantlypointed in the direction of the satellites despitetheir movements.

Clarke's original idea of placing satellitesinto orbit at an altitude of about 36,000 km in the

equatorial plane offered much greater possibilitiesfor communication purposes. A satellite in thisorbit will revolve around the earth in about 24hours, i. e. at the same speed as the earth itselfand will therefore always keep the same positionrelative to the earth's surface. Unlike otherheavenly bodies, including satellites in lowerorbits, a satellite in this geosyi,chronous orbitwill seem to have a fixed position in the sky. Anobserver from earth will always see such a sta-tionary satellite inthe same position and the satel-lite can provide constant "visibility" between anypoints in the area which can be reached or coveredby the satellite. The major characteristic and ad-vantage of the geosynchronous satellite lies in itsfixed position and altitude which makes possiblethe coverage of about one-third of the earth withone satellite and of about 90% of the earth's sur-face with three equidistant satellites.

Other operational advantages have been rea-lized over the past years. The fixed location aridorientation of such satellites allow for the use ofhighly directive (focused) antennas capable of pro-ducing more powerful illumination over a selectedarea of the earth's surface. Frequency sharingbetween earth stations and terrestrial radio re:laystations thus became much more feasible.

Another method for coverage of extremelynorthern (or southern) latitudes which cannoteasilybe reached fromthe synchronous, equatorialorbit, consists in launching satellites into orbitsthat are elliptical and very eccentric in the sensethat the highest point of the orbit (apogeum) isabove the area to be covered. These satellitesare of the type used by the USSR to cover, for 10-12 hours continuously, the entire Soviet territoryincluding the northernmost parts.

Another method now in use is the placing ofsatellites in medium-altitude, position-controlledorbits. In this case, it is possible to choose dif-ferent solutions such as equatorial or polar sub-synchronous orbits with periods of revolution insimple relation to earth's period of revolution(i. e. 12, 8 or 6 hours revolution). Such systemsare mainly used for certain scientific and militarycommunications applications.

As mentioned earlier, a satellite system in-cludes the earth stations associated with the sys-tem. In some systems these earth stations areused for transmission and reception, in othersthere are special stations for transmission to thesatellite and others for reception only. In generalterms, there is a direct relation between the powerwhich has to be provided in the satellite and thesensitivity of the receiving equipment: the morepowerful, therefore, heavier and more expensivethe satellite, the simpler, smaller and less ex-'pensive the receiving equipment on earth.

The type and kind of earth station utilized isone of the basic factors in differentiating betweenvarious satellite communication systems, seen interms of patterns of use. From this point of view,

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it has become customary to distinguish betweenthree main types of satellite systems: communi-cation satellite systems for point-to-point communi-cations, distribution satellite systems and broad-casting or direct broadcast satellite systems.

These types of systems can also be said tocorrespond roughly to the development of satellitecommunication technology. The development effortshave been directed towards providing more power-ful, therefore heavier satellites, requiring morepowerful boosters, better power sources in thesatellite, extended life time, stabilized positioncontrol, greater antenna directivity, greater channelcapacity, greater flexibility, possibilities for inte r-satellite relay, etc.

C. Point-to-point communication satellites

As mentioned earlier, a synchronous satellite cancover approximately one-third of the surface of theearth and thus provide communications betweenany two points on earth, regardless of distance,within the area covered. Signals are transmittedvia the satellite between earth stations connectedto the existing. terrestrial telecommunication net-works. However, various technical constraintsstill limit the provision of electric energy onboardthe satellites, consequently the power of the satel-lite transmitter. Furthermore, strict internationalregulation prescribes well defined limitations tosatellite transmissions so as to avoid interferencewith terrestrial and other space services. The re-sult is that the signal arriving on earth is weak sothat the earth station antenna must have high gain,capture a minimum of radioelectric noise and beprecisely pointed in the direction of the satellite.These and certain other factors imply that, des-pite the development of technology and consequentcost reductions, earth stations for this kind ofpoint-to-point communication satellite service in-tended for transmissions over great distances,still remain costly - in the order of $3-4 million.

Such point-to-point systems have been said tofunction as extensions of the terrestrial networksfor the provision of long-distance, widebaa tele-communication services. However, satellite sys-tems have other characteristics, not shared byterrestrial systems. They have the capacity ofserving not a single-route but multiple-routesthrough a single facility and of reallocating channelcapacity among these routes. Also, their greaterchannel capacity compared with submarine cablesha& made it possible to provide new services suchas transoceanic television transmissions.1:,, ti

D. ffistribution satellites

By reducing the area to be covered to less than one-third of the earth surface, it is possible to providea stronger signal to a smaller region of the earththan in the previous case. This, in turn, makes itpossible to avoid certain constraints with regard to

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the earth stations (smaller antennas, no cooling-system, etc. ) and consequently to reduce costsconsiderably. In certain projects for so-calleddistribution satellite systems, the costs of earthstations for both transmission and reception attelecommunications and television programmeshave been evaluated at about $300, 000-$500, 000.Earth stations for reception only could be simpli-fied so that they would cost no more than some$50,000-$75,000.

This would allow for other kinds of uses.Distribution systems would not function primarilyfor long-distance point-to-point transmissions butfor providing connexions to and/or between a num-ber of earth stations in a given area either fortwo-way communications (telephony, teleprinter,etc. ) and/or for distribution of television pro-grammes over a large area. In the latter case,the role of the earth station is to receive the trans-mission from the satellite and transform it for re-broadcast via a normal-type television transmitter.The distribution satellite does therefore replacethe normally used microwave links for the trans-portation of television programmes to the trans-mitters, but in a more flexible and potentiallycheaper way than terrestrial methods.

The range of utilization in the case of distri-bution systems is wide. They can provide servicesover a large country, as is now done in the USSRand foreseen in Canada, or over a region or groupof countries, as discussed for Western Europe.The exact system configuration, type and cost ofsatellite and earth stations, and patterns of usewould depend on the exact purposes the system issupposed to serve.

E. Broadcasting satellites

Quite a different pattern of use will be introducedwith the broadcast satellite system. In this case,television (or sound radio) programmes trans-mitted from an earth station to a powerful satellitewould be broadcast from the satellite for receptionby individual receivers, withotit the need for inter-mediate earth stations.

If individual home-receivers are to be usedwithout any modification, i. e. without the additionof any special equipment, the broadcasts wouldobviously have to be made according to the sameprinciples as those used in terrestrial broadcast-ing (i. e. in amplitude modulation, AM). Suchbroadcasting would require a high on-board satel-lite power (in the order of 10 kilowatts) whichposes certain technical difficulties and the satel-lites would be so heavy as to require powerful, ex-pensive boosters. No plans for present develop-ment of such a satellite are known.

However, it is already technically possible toprovide broadcasts in frequency modulation (FM)which require less power output for a given picturequality. A sufficiently strong signal can be pro-vided over large but still limited areas to permit

reception on simplified and cheap receiving instal-lations. Such receiving installations may, in fact,consist of no more than a small specially designedantenna and simple conversion equipment (FM tovideo) to be attached to normal television receivers.Obviously, there also exists the possibility of manu-facturing special sets mainly intended for receptionof satellite broadcasts: such sets would then needspecial additional equipment for reception of ter-restrial broadcasts.

Reception of satellite broadcasts on speciallyequipped or modified television sets is foreseen intwo different ways: community reception and indi-vidual reception for domestic use. Community re-ception which might take place with more complexequipment than for individual reception and wouldbe intended for viewing by a group of the generalpublic, at one location, or possibly for redistri-bution (i. e. via cable) over a very limited area.The specially equipped sets would in this case beplaced in schools, community centres, villagesquares etc. Such community reception has so farbeen foreseen mainly for use in developing areas.Satellite broadcasting has been studied within boththe United Nations, specifically by the WorkingGroup on Direct Broadcast Satellites set up by theOuter Space Committee and within ITU, as well aswithin Unesco's programme.

The United Nations Working Group in 1969reached the following conclusions with regard tothe feasibility of satellite broadcasting: "While itis considered that satellite technology has reachedthe stage at which it is possible to contemplate thefuture development of satellites capable of directbroadcasting to the public at large, direct broad-casting television signals into existing unaugmentedhome receivers on an operational basis is not fore-seen for the period 1970-1985. This reflects thelack of technological means to transmit signals ofsufficient strength from satellites.

Direct broadcast of television into auflmentedhome receivers could become feasible technologi-cally as soon as 1975. However, the cost factorsfor both the earth and space segments of such asystem are inhibiting factors ... Therefore, it ismost unlikely that this type of system will be readyfor deployment on an operational basis until manyyears after the projected date of feasibility.

Direct broadcast into community receiverscould be close athand. Technology currently underdevelopment might allow this in the mid-1970s.Such a system is considered to be less expensiveto launch than one intended for reception directlyinto people's homes ... "(1)

Within the International TelecommunicationUnion (ITU) and its competent bodies (particularlythe International Radio Consultative Committee,CCIR), the technical aspects of satellite broad-casting services have been and still are the subjectof intensive study. In 1970, the CCIR establishedan interim working party on possible broadcastingsatellite systems, on comparisons between different

systems intended either for community or individ-ual reception, and on evaluation of possible usesof each system particularly for new and develop-ing countries.

In 1959 and 1963, radio frequencies had, to alimited extent been allocated to various space ser-vices, including communication satellite systems.In 1971, through the World Administrative RadioConference for Space Telecommunications, furtherallocations were made not only for existing ser-vices but also for satellite broadcasting. This con-ference also adopted special administrative rulesfor the notification and registration of frequenciesused for space systems and recommended that spe-cial agreements and frequency plans be establishedfor the satellite broadcasting service.

It might be noted that even if the estimates ad-vanced by the United Nations and by ITU have beenchallenged as too conservative, in so far as thebasic technology for broadcasts via satellites tocommunity and augmented home receivers wouldbe available today, there seems to be agreementthat the timing for the establishment of such sys-tems will depend on non-technical factors such aseconomic considerations and purposes of use. Asfor direct satellite broadcasting into unaugmented,existing receivers, some experts have advancedthe view that it might never become a reality atall, not for technical or even political reasons butbecause a more cost efficient solution willbe found.In many industrialized countries, already possess-ing television networks, the pressure is often notfor more nation-wide dissemination but for morelocal outlets. In developing areas, the cost of pro-viding a television receiver for each individualhome will be so high that community type receptionwill be the most economic solution for some timeto come.

The three categories of satellite communica-tion systems should however not be used as morethan convenient labels. In many cases, the mostadvantageous solution might in fact be found in acombination of various reception modes. One suchcombined or mixed system concept foresees enoughpower in the satellite to allow for reception on thespecial, low-cost installations for group viewing(or limited arc a redistribution). Since this requiresthe most simplified reception installations, anyother reception mode using larger installationswould evidently be possible, including medium- sizedearth stations connected to normal television trans-mitters. The rebroadcast method might be themost economic and efficient in densely populatedareas since there would be no need to provide in-dividual sets with special equipment. Direct re-ception on community receivers might be best inrural, low-density, isolated or inaccessible areaswhere the installation of rebroadcast facilities isuneconomical or otherwise difficult.

(1) United Nations document A/AC.105/5126 February 1969

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3. CHARACTERISTICS OF SATELLITECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Satellites have frequently been described as radiorelay stations in the sky. While this descriptionmight be correct in certain respects, it is an over-simplification which tends to obscure some of themajor characteristics of satellite systems and themain differences between satellite and terrestrialsystems.

For a preliminary indication, some of the maincharacteristics might be summarized as follows:

A. Flexibility

For transoceanic telecommunication services,satellite systems have already proven more eco-nomical than the undersea cable. The advantagelies in the satellite system's multiple route capa-bility as opposed to the single route capability ofterrestrial systems. Through satellite communi-cation facilities, it is possible to serve multipleroutes through a single facility and of reallocatingchannel capacity among these routes. This cannotbe done with terrestrial links which typic ally inter-connect only two points. Thus, in addition to point-to-point communication between pairs of earth sta-tions, it is possible to provide point-to-multiple-point transmissions from one earth station to anumber of earth stations which can be activatedand deactivated at will without affecting the overallsystem. Satellite circuits need then not be perm-anently assigned to a pair or several earth stationssince the terminal points of a channel can be changedalmost instantaneously and assigned on demand sothat when no longer needed they can be released foruse by others.

The flexibility p?ovided by satellite systemsalso makes possible the use of small, transport-able earth stations for service on an occasional orcontinuous basis to remote locations without physi-cal connexions. Furthermore, mobile terminalson ships, aircraft or space vehicles may be usedfor aero-nautical, maritime-mobile or spaceservices.

B. Capacity

Satellite systems cannot only provide capacity forthe simultaneous use of many channels for suchtraditional services as telephony, telegraphy, tele-printer, facsimile, etc. They can also furnishpreviously impossible broadband services as provenby transoceanic television transmissions whichcould not be handled through terrestrial means. Inprinciple, communication satellites may be usedfor any kind of electronic communication services.Satellite technology therefore shows great promiseof possible future developments in terms both ofcommunication services that can be provided (tra-ditional telecommunications, television, videophone,facsimile, data transmissions etc. ) and of patterns

12

12 44.4

of use for these services (point-to-point communi-cation, distribution, broadcasting and variouscombinations).

C. Geographical coverage and cost

Inherent in satellite communications is the capa-bility to provide interconnexions over very largedistances and to cover wide areas of the surfaceof the earth. This characteristic should howeverbe seen in conjunction with the flexibility pro-vided by the use of highly directive antennas toallow for coverage of only limited areas.

Satellite systems also introduce another rela-tion between distance and cost of use comparedwith terrestrial systems. Since terrestrial sys-tems must follow a specific, physical path alongthe surface of the earth, the cost of their use in-creases with the distance between the points theyconnect. The cost of a link between two earth sta-tions via satellite is largely independent of thedistance separating them, so that, at least in theorythere need be no substantial difference betweenlong-haul and short-haul traffic.

D. Disadvantages

Among the disadvantages of satellite communica-tion systems have been specifically discussed:the further demands on the already heavily com-

mitted frequency spectrum and the risk of inter-ference with terrestrial systems. On these pointsopinions seem to differ since a number of ex-perts maintain that new technical methods (narrowbeams, frequency reusage etc. ) together withproper frequency management and planningwould make it possible to overcome most ofthese problems. Similar arguments have beenapplied to the use of the ge o stationary orbit, whichlike the radio frequency spectrum, must be re-garded as a limited natural resource;

the hitherto limited operational life-time of satel-lites which goes from five to ten years. Satel-lites must therefore be replaced faster than equip-ment in terrestrial systems. In this-respect, itshould however be noted that the acual life -spanof satellites in general has gone beyond thatforeseen and can be expected to increase. Inthe future, the situation would change if possi-bilities of making repairs on satellites in orbitare realized. A weaker point seems to be therisk of launch failure-which implies the need forspare satellites in reserve;

greater vulnerability and sensitivity to interferencethan terrestrial systems. While this in certainrespects is true it should also be pointed out thatStates have accepted much more stringent inter-national rules concerning space systems thanwith regard to terrestrial systems.

In passing it should already be noted here that satel-lite systems cannot be dealt with in a vacuum as it

were. They demand an integrated approach on thetechnical/economic level as well as in terms ofplanned uses involving both space and terrestrialsystems. Furthermore, a decision to establishor

use satellite facilities should be based on studiesof alternative methods with regard to such factorsas purposes of use and costs, general context,time-scale of introduction, etc.

1313

II. APPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITES

1. SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONSYSTEMS, EXISTING AND PLANNED

Existing systems

The two existing satellite communication systemsfor telecommunication traffic are rather dissimilarin terms of technical solutions and objectives.

(a) The so-called Intelsat-system which hasbeen established to provide international, mainlyintercontinental, point -to -point communicationslinks, uses geostationary satellites and large,elaborate earth stations connected to the nationaltelecommunication networks. The system is usedbasically for telecommunications, mainly telephonybut also to a limited degree for intercontinentaltelevision transmissions.

This system is based on a pattern of organiza-tion that presents some novel features in the fieldof international telecommunications. Intelsat (In-ternational Telecommunication Satellite Consortium)is a multinational body at present comprising about80 countries with the United States CommunicationsSatellite Corporation (Comsat) as manager. Ofthese, about 40 have established national earth sta-tions with some further 25 countries having accessthrough terrestrial links to stations in other coun-tries. Each country owns its earth station (or sta-tions) while the space segment is owned in common,through Intelsat. The organization of Intelsat isfairly complicated. Decision-making powers areto a certain extent vested in two assemblies and aboard of governors whose membership and votingprocedures are related to investment quotas, ofwhich the United States of America and a numberof the industrialized countries have contributedthe larger share. While in the United States a spe-cial body - Comsat has been set up for the pur-pose of international communications via satellites,in most other countries this activity is handled bythose bodies traditionally in charge of telecommuni-cations (telecommunication administrations, min-istries of communication, recognized telecommuni-cation carriers, etc. ).

14

(b) The USSR has established a domestic satel-lite system called Orbits which uses larger satel-lites of the Molnya-type in elliptical, highly eccen-tric orbits around the earth, providing coverageof the whole national territory The Orbits sys-tem could best be described as a distribution-typesystem having as a main function the distributionof television programmes from Moscow to a greatnumber of medium-sized earth stations locatedmainly in the Central Asian Republics and Siberia.

Previously, the terrestrial television networkdid not cover more than the European part of theUSSR territory and an extension through terrestrialmeans for the entire country would have requiredsome 7,000 km of microwave links and 120-160 relaystations just for the distance Moscow-Vladivostok.With the Orbits system television can now reachsome 65% of the population and with the installationof further earth stations 82-85% should be reachedby 1975. (1)

The Orbits system is also used for two-waycommunications and for a certain number of otherpurposes.

On the basis of the Orbits system, a furtherinternational system is being established underthe name of Intersputnik. This system is intendedto provide for telecommunication and televisionservices between participating countries. So farnine countries, mainly in Eastern Europe, haveagreed to participate in this system.

Intersputnik shows certain similarities withthe Intelsat arrangements in so far that the spacesegment will be jointly owned by the Member Stateswhile the earth stations are owned by each countryOtherwise, the structure is based on somewhatdifferent principles with regard to organizationalfeatures.

Future planned systems

In a number of industrialized countries, variouskinds of distrImtion type systems are under

(1) See Sputnik", October 1970.

construction, planning or discussion. The first ofthese will be established in Canada, in 1972, fortelecommunication and for distribution of televisionprogrammes. Domestic satellite systems of asimilar and, in certain cases, more advanced kindare being proposed in other countries (United Statesof America, Australia).

On a regional level, discussions have beengoing on for a number of years concerning theestablishment of a satellite system to serve WesternEurope, including Iceland and a number of countriesaround the Mediterranean belonging to the EuropeanBroadcasting Zone. This system would have twomain functions to provide telecommunication facili-ties and to serve as an extension of and a comple-ment to the present terrestrial regional televisionnetwork being used for Eurovision. According topresent plans, each participating country wouldhave an earth station for transmission and recep-tion, connected to the national terrestrial networks.The Franco-German satellite project known asSymphonie would have similar functions, the inten-tion being to serve a number of countries with cul-tural and other affinities.

A number of studies have been undertaken indeveloping countries for the use of satellite com-munication, particularly with regard to educationalprogrammes through television. These studies havemostlybeen based on the concept of providing a na-tional or regional service through broadcast typesatellites with reception by community receiversin rural areas and distribution for rebroadcast inurban areas.

A pilot project on an experimental basis willbe undertaken in India, in 1974 in accordance withan agreement between the concerned United Statesand Indian authorities. This agreement providesfor the use of an experimental American satellite(ATS-1?) for a year with the Indian authorities beingresponsible for all programming and for the groundinstallations. It is foreseen that the experimentwill be carried out in 5,000 villages, 3,000 ofwhichwill be reached through rebroadcasts and 2,000through direct reception on village community re-ceivers. According to the Indian plans, this experi-ment will be followedby an operational system, oneof the ultimate objectives being to provide each ofthe 560,000 villages with a receiving set. The UnitedStates proposes to use the same ATS satellite pos-sibly in 1973, for experimental broadcasts to com-munity receivers in Alaska.

Preliminary studies undertaken in a number ofSpanish-speaking countries in South America haveled to a United Nations Development Programmesupported project for a feasibility planning and pre-investment study of a South American regional sys-tem for education, culture and development, usingadvanced communication technology, including satel-lites. Unesco has been appointed executive agencyfor this study in association with ITU. The countriesparticipating in the study are Argentina, Bolivia,

._

Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru,Uruguay and Venezuela.

Studies by national bodies or made with theassistance of such international organizations asUnesco and ITU concerning the use of satellitesfor education and national development have alsobeen undertaken in Brazil, Indonesia and Pakistan.On a regional level, a similar Unesco assistedstudy has recently been undertaken in a number ofArab countries and a preliminary survey is underway in sub-Sahara Africa. A proposal for inter-linking national television services and providingnational educational television services in SouthEast Asia is also under consideration.

2. PATTERNS ANDPURPOSES OF USE

The probable patterns and purposes of use havebeen discussed in terms of two main, interlockingaspects:should satellite systems be multipurpose or single-

purpose, i. e. should they serve a number ofpurposes at the same time (telecommunications,television broadcasting, meteorology, etc. ) oronly one purpose (viz. educational television);

should satellite systems be organized and operatedaccording to the concept of overall single, globalsystem(s) or should there be multiple systems.

In the present situation, the development of satel-lite communications tends towards not a single,global concept but towards a plurality of systemsintended for different purposes, on different geo-graphical levels, with different communicationpatterns and categories of users.

On the basis of present and planned systemconcepts, it is possible to advance some prelim-inary obse; vations on the overall patterns of use.In a very simplified form, these patterns seem todevelop as follows (see table on p. 16).

Even if this model provides no more than arough idea, there seems to be a certain logic tothese patterns with regard to requirements, ser-vices provided and present communication patterns.

The first application of satellite communica-tion was for transoceanic transmissions throughpoint-to-point facilities and it seems probable thatthis will continue. Even with increased ability tofocus satellite energy in increasingly smaller areas,a number of factors militate against the conceptof large satellites providing both international anddomestic or regional services. In many cases, thelocation of the satellite would not be suitable forall these services. There is little likelihood thata single satellite could provide both the channelcapacity and the reduction in earth station costrequired while the possibility of inter-satelliterelay and interconnexion between systems can pro-vide the extensions required.

15

Kind of system Purposes of use Geographical. coverage

Operationalagencies

Communicationsatellite systems:point-to-point,point-to-multiplepoint

Distribution-typesatellite systems

Satellite broadcastingsystems and mixedsystems

Interconnexion ofnetworks for tele-communications(telephony, teleprinter,facsimile, data, tele-vision transmissions,etc. )

Interconnecting orsupplementing networks,establishment of networksfor telecommunications,television distribution

Establishment of net-works for televisionbroadcasting and possiblytwo-way communications

Intercontinentalintracontinental

Regionalnational

Regionalnational

Multinationalorganizations:Intelsat, Inter-sputnik

Regional bodies(European spaceorganizations)national bodies(Telesat Canada)

Regional andnational bodies

A fair assumption therefore seems to be thatinter-national point-to-point communication satellite sys-tems will increase their importance as one of themain means for the intercontinental traffic. How-ever, the importance of intracontinental trafficshould not be overlooked. For economic and tech-nological reasons, the traditional international com-munication systems mainly connected the princi-pal communication centres (such as London, Paris,Moscow, New York) with various parts of theworld, with little provision for interconnectingeven neighbouring countries in Africa or LatinAmerica for instance. A case in point concernsthe interconnexion between such countries asArgentina and Chile where the Andes acted as analmost insuperable barrier for surface communi-cation using conventional technology.

One of the main advantages of the distributiontype systems is to provide a new method for establish-ing or supplementing national or regional networksintended to cover large areas. In the case of Canada,the following statements are revealing:

The cepacity of the communication satellite forcarrying high -quality telephone, television and data-transfer signals between widely separated points isparticularly relevant to the geography and demog-raphy of Canada, both in supplementing terrestrialconnexions between urban centres and even more im-portantly, by bringing telecommunications servicesto scattered and otherwise inaccessible communities,particularly in the North. "( 1) "A domestic satellitesystem would make television service in both Englishand French available to any point in Canada. Itwould do it sooner and at a lower cost than wouldany other known system of communication. In par-ticular, it would facilitate the extension of tele-vision network service into many areas previously

16

unserved because of the prohibitive cost of a ter-restrial microwave feed."(2)

There are other cases where the establishmentof earth-bound facilities could be too costly andtime-consuming to consider. Indonesia has a land-area fragmented into about 3,000 islands spreadover hundreds of thousands of square miles of thesouth-west Pacific. Only a satellite system canefficiently link these islands. In Brazil, the cov-erage of the Amazon basin with its almost impene-trable forests would, if technically possible, beeconomically ruinous with othermeans than satel-lite facilities.

Whether in such cases, a distribution typesystem, a broadcasting satellite system or a mixedsystem would be the most appropriate can only beascertained after a thorough study of requirements,purposes of use, geographical and demographicconditions in each given country or group of coun-tries. In developing areas, the interest in satellitesystems for domestic purposes bas above all con-cerned the pabsibility of providing nation-widetelevision services for education and national de-velopment. Therefore, the preferred system con-cept should have the capacity to allow for directreception'through village community receivers aswell as rebroadcast facilities in densely populatedareas. In the case of India, the option chosen forthe experiment in 1974 represents such a mixedsystem with broadcast capability, according to thefollowing objectives:

(1)

(2)

16.

Instant World, A report on telecommunica-tions in Canada, Telecommission, Ottawa, 1971.Government White Paper: A Domestic Satel-lite Communication System for Canada,Ottawa, 1968.

technical objectives include a system test of broad-cast satellite television for national development;enhancement of capability in the design, manu-facture, development, installation, operation,movement and maintenance of village televisionreceivers and of broadcast and/or distributionfacilities to the extent that these are used in theexperiment; determination of optimum receiverdensity; distribution and scheduling techniquesof audience attraction; organization and solutionto problems involved in development, preparing,presenting and transmitting television programmematerial;

the primary instructional obje ctive s comprise con-tribution to family planning; improvement ofagricultural practices; contribution to nationalintegration. The secondary objectives are con-tribution to general school and adult education,to teacher training and improvement of healthand hygiene.

Even if such systems are neither planned nor con-templated, there has been considerable speculationas to the consequences of world-wide televisionbroadcasting via satellites. Apart from politicaland economic obstacles, differences in program-ming policies and needs, and programme accept-ability in different areas and countries, there aresome even more immediate, practical reasons whythis concept seems improbable.

At present, twelve different standards formonochrome television and three different methodsfor producing colour television pictures are usedin the world. Even if in the future some simplifi-cation maybe achieved, expensive standard conver-sion equipment would still be necessary betweenthe major standards. Satellite broadcasting overlarge areas will be possible only in zones with thesame standards.

The language problem has been mentioned asanother obstacle. It might partly be alleviatedthrough the use of a mutliple-sound channel sys-tem for different language-sound components withthe same image. More serious seems the timevariation since there is a relatively limited rangeof time in which a given type of programme can beusefully presented. One possible approach to theproblem is to use movable or multiple antennas onthe satellite with the coverage being changed asthe programming is changed.

These and other reasons of a technical, eco-nomic and political nature have led to a situationwhere there are no plans for a world-wide broad-casting satellite service. Planning or studieshave exclusively concerned national use, (e.g.Brazil, India) regional use (e.g. Spanish-speaking countries in South America, Arab States).

Not only compatible time-zones but also cul-tural similarities and common levels of develop-ment argue in favour of the national or regionalapproach. A further reason is the greater oppor-tunities on a regional level for all concerned countriesto participate in the operational and programming

policies of satellite broadcasting services. It issignificant that this concept has retained the atten-tion of the United Nations General Assembly in theresolution on satellite communication adopted inDecember 1970 (resolution 2133 (XXV)).

3. CATEGORIES OF SERVICESAND USERS

The purposes of a satellite system can also be des-cribed in terms of the communication services thesystem is designed to provide.

In principle, satellite communications can beused for any kind of information that may be trans-formed into electronic signals. In the first place,this means that satellite systems can be used forall kinds of telecommunication services, whichin-elude not only the classical categories: telephony,telegraphy, teleprinter, facsimile broadcasting,etc., but also new services now becoming avail-able such as: videophone, data transmissions in-cluding remote access to data centres, closed-circuit television. However, there are furtherpossible uses of satellite communication which tomany may seem still in the realm of science fiction.

The techniques of electronic distribution ofmail, photographs and newspapers have been knownfor some time. Experiments are under way todevelop a viable system for reception of printedor graphic material transmitted in conjunctionwith television broadcasts for reception on a tele-vision set or reproduction, through a facsimilemethod, via a special attachment to the televisionreceiver. This is only one indication that manyforms of information dissemination which now falloutside television as traditionally defined may bechannelled through the television set.

The various uses of satellite communicationhave been conditioned also by the institutions andorganizations that act as users of terrestrial sys-tems. These users should be seen on two levels.The actual operation of satellite communicationfacilities has in most countries come to be entrustedto existing agencies involved not in space but intelecommunication activities, i. e. telecommuni-cation administrations, ministries of communica-tion or post and telegraph or private, authorizedcommunication carriers. II some countriesspecial bodies have been create the most notablebeing Comsat (Communication ',satellite Corpora-tion) in the United States and Telesat Canada.Comsat was created by act of Congress as a pri-vate, commercial company, under governmentsupervision, its shares being divided between tele-communication carriers and the public. Accord-ing to present rules,- Comsat has the mandate toprovide satellite communication facilities for in-ternational communications and to act as the UnitedStates representative (and concurrently manager),in the Intelsat organization. TelesatCanada is in-corporated by statute to provide domestic satellite

17

communications with provisicn for share-ownership between the Federal Gcvernment, theCanadian telecommunication carriers and privateinvestors.

On the other level are the users for whom thesefacilities are operated. They include all the pres-ent institutions using terrestrial communicationfacilities including the broadcasters and other massmedia as well as the general public. These usersrequire different patterns of communication:point-to-point, two-way or conference facilities

basically providing communic ation betwe en usersof the same kind: between individuals, govern-ments, international organizations, businessenterprises, information and data centres, massmedia institutions, universities and re search in-stitutions etc. The services required includecommunication by voice and image, teleprinter,facsimile, data transmission with visual display,closed circuit television etc.; these servicesare provided by communication and certain dis-tribution satellite systems;

one-way or two-way communication between oneuser and other specified multiple users. In thiscategory fall communications between headquar-ters and branch or field offices within interna-tional organizations, foreign ministries, busi-ness enterprises, etc.; communication betweensuch mass media institutions as news agencies,newspapers and broadcasters for both collectionand in certain cases distribution of news, instruc-tional television, intended only for schools etc.Such services are provided by communicationand distribution type satellite systems;

one-way service from one point to an indefinitenumber of other points which function for recep-tion only; this corresponds to the broadcastingpattern in which one user transmits messages tothe general public; at present broadcasting is inall countries entrusted only to authorized insti-tutions functioning on the national level.

There are indications that these traditional cate-gories and institutional patterns might change inthe future. Certain trends point to difficulties inmaintaining the strict distinction between telecom-munications and broadcasting which now is basicallyintended for the public at large, but which may de-velop in the direction of providing more transmis-sions to specialized groups in society. The distinc-tion between printed media and electronic mediamight be narrowed with widespread electronic dis-tribution of printed or graphic material. A moregeneralized use of on-demand, two-way facilitiesto request educational, information and entertain-ment material would not fit any existing category.Furthermore, television programme material doesnot have to be broadcast at all but canbe distributedvia cable or through cassettes to the public. Itwould seem, therefore, that our present categoriesand attendant organizational structures may needmodification.

18

k7." IS

4. REMARKS ON COSTS

The question of how much a satellite system wouldcost is often put in such a way that a straightfor-ward, simple answer is impossible in the absenceof an exact technical definition of a specific systemconfiguration. Furthermore, in order to comparevarious alternatives and evaluations it would benecessary to agree on which costs should be inclu-ded, whether only the costs for satellites, launchingfacilities, control stations and earth stations andreceivers or also costs for research and develop-ment, various overhead costs in terms of the tech-nical, programming and administrative organiza-tion needed.

In this context, it would be impossible to con-sider these latter aspects and the following remarkswill therefore concentrate on some salient factsand figures referring to the actual, out-of-pocketcosts for a satellite system, as far as they can beascertained. It should be emphasized, however,that the "hardware" component of a satellite sys-tem for education cannot be considered in isolation,and the "software" costs for programme produc-tion and utilization would represent the major partof the operational expenses of the system.

The main factor with regard to launching costsis - apart from the orbit which here is taken tomean the synchronous stationary orbit the weightof the satellite which in turn depends on such factorsas technical configuration, power requirements,type of frequency and modulation used, channelcapacity, etc.

The figures available for the commerciallyoperated communication satellite system operatedby the Intelsat-organization refer to ahigh-capacitysystem for international communications on aglobal basis with high investment costs both in satel-lites and earth stations (though costs for bothhavebeen going down).

Satellite Year Capacity Weight(approx.)

CostmillionUS$

LaunchcostmillionUSS

Intelsat I 1965 240 voice 42 kg 4 3.74(Early Bird) Or

1 TV channel

Intelsat II 1966-67 240 voice 95 kg 4.4.5 3.74Or

1 TV channel

Intelsat III 1968.69 1,200 voice 160 kg $ 6 $ 5Or

4 TV channels

Intelsat IV 1971.73 3,000.10,000 600 kgaverage

S 13.5 $ 16

6,000 voice or12 TV channels

The trend of costs of the communication, point-to-point satellites used in the Intelsat system canbe seen from the following table which provideseconomic comparisons of the four generations ofcommercial communications satellites:(1)

Satellite Circuits

Designlifetime Circuit years(years) of capacity

Investment percircuit year ofcapacity

Intelsat I 240 1.5 360 $15,300

Intelsat II 240 3 720 8,400

Intelsat III 1,200 5 6,000 1,450

Intelsat IV 6,000 7 42,000 500

Earth stations costs vary with complexity and ca-pacity but for systems such as Intelsat would seemnot be much lower than $3-4 million. This figureshould be compared to the three to four times highercosts for the earlier earth stations.

The figures for distribution type systems varyconsiderably depending on satellite capacity, areato be covered, the number of earth stations andwhether they are to be used for transmission andreception of both telecommunications and televis-ion, for telecommunications only, for television.reception only, etc.

Generally speaking, the minimum costs of asatellite telephone system are reached with a com-paratively high earth station cost. The situation isdifferent in the case of a network containinga largenumber of stations for receiving radio and televis-ion programmes. With an increased number ofstations, it is advisable to use smaller and cheaperinstallations. In a specialized satellite distributionnetwork designed for television reception, the eco-nomic efficiency of the system rises very rapidlyin proportion to the number of stations in the net-work. (2)

In principle, the type of satellite that will beused for the domestic Canadian system with a ca-pacity of 12 repeaters each providing 960 voicechannels or one television channel would cost about$7. 5 million. With this type of system can be usedmain earth stations for about $2. 5 -3 million, whilean earth station for reception only of 12 televisionchannels would be no more than about $130,000. Inthe case of the Canadian system the total costs havebeen estimated at about $90 million for one prototypesatellite, and three flight models, launch facilities,two major earth stations, five regional stations andtwenty-five stations for reception of television pro-grammes and telephony.

Proposals for a domestic satellite system inthe United States range from about $70 million towell over $200 million depending on capacity (insome cases up to 48 television channels or some34, 000 telephone channels), type and number ofearth stations (up to 400 in certain projects).

In a broadcasting satellite system, capital in-vestment and operating costs for the space andthe

earth sector depend on the configuration requiredto meet the objectives of the system, for example,frequency and modulation, sound transmissionmode, size of area to be covered, number of pro-grammes to be broadcast simultaneously, etc.

In general terms, the choice is between apowerful, hence expensive satellite and launch withsimple, inexpensive receiving installations or aless powerful, smaller satellite with more sensi-tive, costly receiving installations. The first so-lution would be more advantageous when receivingpoints are numerous and scattered over wide areas,the second might be more suitable when there is arelatively limited number of receiving points. Itshould be pointed out that these factors are rela-tively more or less important depending on theexisting state of television coverage. Since, inmost cases, satellite broadcasting systems arediscussed primarily for use in developing countriesfor educational purposes, large areas and numer-ous receiving points would be involved so that thegreater part of the cost would fall on the receivinginstallations on the ground.

The total costs quoted for various systemsvary considerably depending on whether or not an-cillary costs are included. Amongst these ancil-lary costs should be mentioned spare satellites,in orbit or on the ground; launch failure insurance;telemetry, tracking and command facilities; civilworks for earth stations and staff training costs.The research and development costs would dependon whether a satellite system should be speciallydesigned for particular purposes or an existingdesign could be used with minor changes. Also,most estimates have been made prior to the WorldAdministrative Radio Conference for Space Tele-communications, held in Geneva in June-July 1971;certain decisions concerning technical constraintsmay affect further costs.

A number of studies have been made concern-ing the costs of broadcasting satellite systems bothwithin such international organizations as the UnitedNations and ITU and by various national bodies andprivate firms. In this context, no more than an indica-tion of the results of some of these studies can be given;further information is to be found in some of thedocuments listed in the bibliography (Annex I).

Various prototypes of the special receivingequipment (antenna, converter, etc. ) have in factbeen developed and tested and costs evaluated withregard to mass production. While some results fallwithin the $150 range as given by the United NationsWorking Group on Direct Broadcast Satellites, other

(1)

(2)

19

W. L. Pritchard: Communications satellites,presented at the Chania International Con-ference on Space Research and Applications,1970.) T. V. Talyzin, L. Y. Kantor and Y. M. Payansky:Optimum power parameters and economic ef-ficiency of a communication satellite system,Telecommunications Journal, Vol. 38-V/1971.

19

results point to lower figures and still others tohigher. Of particular interest are figures providedby Indian authorities to the effect that the additionalreceiving equipment could be fabricated in Indiafor a sum corresponding to about $100. Evidently,if this equipment is manufactured in small quanti-ties the cost will be much higher than some of theestimates made for mass production.

A study made in India(1) concerning four pos-sible alternatives of providing nation-wide televisioncoverage, reached the following summarizedresults:

SystemInitial costmillion US S

Annualmaintenancemillion US $

Conventional broadcast stations withterrestrial microwave inter. connexion(150 TV transmitters and 24,000 kmmicrowave links)

Satellite broadcasting exclusively(one or two transmitting earth stationsdirect reception by 560,000 villagecommunity receivers at a cost of$ 345 each)

Conventional rebroadcast stations withsatellite inter connexion (150 rebroadcast stations with additional receptionfacility)

Hybrid system combining rebroadcastand direct broadcast (five rebroadcaststations)

393.60

225.05

26.28

9.50

them last longer or any investment in the satellitethat would reduce the cost of augmenting the groundreceivers, would make a substantial difference inthe total.

As to the cost of a satellite and launch, thebest available information is the offer made byHughes Aircraft Company for a satellite similarto that being used in the Canadian domestic system(HS 333) capable of transmitting two concurrenttelevision programmes to community receivers.This satellite can be launched by the Thor Deltarocket. Estimated cost of one satellite and launch(with some provision for insurance in case offailure) is about $15 million.

The same company has quoted a price of about$29 million for a space segment consisting of:(a)(b)(c)

Two synchronous television satellites.Booster rockets and launch capability.Reserve satellite (on the ground) or

insurance provisions.Since the use of satellite broadcasting systems isprimarily foreseen for educational purposes, cal-culations have also been made as to what a totalsystem would represent in terms of costs perstudent/year. Naturally these figures vary sub-stantially, depending upon the type of costs in-

325.15 21.78 cluded and the assumptions as to the costs of thevarious elements.

224.04 9.78

A similar study made inBrazil(2) shows the follow-ing comparative figures for a nation-wide communi-cations network for telecommunications and tele-vision:

Cost(million US $1

Maintenanceover five years10% for cable20% for microwave(million US $)

Cable system consisting of 6,000 kmmain cable, 100,000 km connectingcable, 23,000 km feeder cable 400 200

Microwave system of 129,000 kmwith 3,375 relay stations and 1,420terminal stations 170 170

Satellite system including twosatellites, 1,000 communication stations,12 receive/transmit stations and 152,000sets for direct reception 116.1 19.0

These and other estimates show that the major cap-ital item is for the television receivers. In ground-based television the costs of stations are largeitems, while the satellite in a space-link systemis often no more than 10% of capital investment.Therefore, it has been stressed that whatever couldbe done to reduce the cost of receivers or to make

20

5. ALTERNATIVES

Technological advances have made available a num-ber of alternative methods for communicating anddistributing all kinds of electronic messages. Anexample can be given based on present day "tele-vision programme" material. Such material canat present be distributed through:satellites;terrestrial, conventional microwave and trans-

mitter networks with the possibility of addingmore channels in higher frequency ranges (i. e.the 12 GHz band);

cable systems of various kinds;videotapes, video-cassettes, video-discs;combinations of two or more of these methods,

viz. satellites and cable and/or transmittersystems;

(1) B. S. Rao, P. L. Vepa, M. S. Nagarajan,H. Sitaram and B. Y. Nerurkar: SatelliteTelevision: A system proposal for India,Space Exploration and Applications, Paperspresented at the United Nations Conferenceon the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of OuterSpace, Vienna 1968; United Nations, NewYork, 1969.

(2) Comiss90 Nacional de Atividades Espaciais,Sao Jose dos Campos, Brazil, Maio 1968.

20

Even if it is possible to define the technicaladvantages and disadvantages for each of thesealternatives, it is obvious that a decision cannotbe based on technological aspects only. On thecontrary, technical characteristics and economicconsiderations are of prime importance but theymust be put in a wider perspective. The kind of

issues involved range from the need to establishsocial priorities for the use of radio frequenciesto the relative importance which educational tele-vision could or should be accorded in a given con-text. Such issues in turn make necessary consid-eration of the possible implications of satellitetechnology.

2121.

III. IMPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITES

1. GENERAL

Interpretations as to the significance of satellitecommunication will show as many facets as thereare theories about the role, function and effect ofcommunication upon individuals and society. Manytimes it seems that attitudes towards satellite com-munication have crystallized to an unusual degreearound opposite poles in the controversy aboutmedia and messages. Those for whom the mediumis the message, for whom the channels of commu-nication in themselves have a decisive importance,often describe communication satellites as the cli-max of the revolution in communication and infor-mation which is to change our world into a globalvillage. On the contrary, those for whom themedium, the communication channel is secondaryto the content, to what is communicated, seemmore hesitant. Some regard satellite communica-tion as a further step towards still more powerfuland all pervasive mass media whose content bindsindividuals to a technocratic order. Others fore-see, if not a global prison, at least a global massof individuals more or less helplessly reelingunder the impact of constant floods of incoherentinformation.

Without taking sides - except perhaps to seethese views more as complementary than mutuallyexclusive - there are some general, though moremodest, observations that seem relevant in thiscontext.

Changes in communication systems which makeit possible for more people to get access to moreand a greater selection of information, educationor entertainment might in themselves have far-reaching consequences, regardless of the contentat anyone given moment. It is the sheer presenceof television which is expected to break the feelingof isolation inremote communities. The impact ofintroducing a medium such as television will evi-dently be the greater, the less other informationmedia are present in a given environment.

The anxieties and fears that have been ex-pressed with regard to the possibility of unwanted

22 9r.s.2

television broadcasts via satellites, do in fact rec-ognize the importance of both the medium and themessage, whatever the theorectical position taken.Onthe one hand, there is a recognition of the muchgreater impact of television as compared to sucha medium as short-wave radio, on the other hand,there is the concept of certain kinds of content be-ing more acceptable - or unacceptable - than others.

It is often said that one of the main conse -quences of modern communications technology, asspecifically represented by satellite communica-tion, would be instantaneously and universallyavailable information. The problem would thenbe one, not of availability, but of selectivity. Thiswould imply the recognition of the need for newkinds of education so that "people can cope effi-ciently, imaginatively and perceptively with infor-mation overload"(1) or of the important place heldby the mass media, the significance of their goals,principles and practices.

However, these issues cannot be dealt withwithout some indications of trends and possibili-ties and implications of satellite communicationin the light of more clearly defined aspects. Theimplications may be seen from various points ofview. In response to such questions as to whatkind of information can be or need be transmittedover satellites, according to what patterns, bywhom, for whom and for what purpose, in whichcontext.

The introduction of satellite communicationoccurs in widely different socio-economic, politi-cal and cultural contexts. The implications willtherefore vary from country to country and regionto region. One of the basic differences will bebetween those countries already possessing a welldeveloped telecommunication and broadcasting net-work and nations with only limited, inadequatefacilities where geographical, and other factorsadd to the difficulties in establishingnation-widenetworks. These two categories would generally

(1) Michael N. Donald: The Unprepared Society.

but not completely correspond to the industrializedand developing areas of the world.

It has been said that satellitetechnology wouldbe particularly unsuited to developing countries be-cause it is expensive, technologically sophistica-ted and presents new problems when the presentones have not been solved.

While admittedly the cost factor is an essen-tial consideration, the scale of expenditure shouldnot distract from an evaluation in terms of the de-velopment goals that can be served in this wayand in some cases in no other way, it should alsobe realized that financial estimates point to thefact that satellite system costs have fallen lowenough to be possibly within reach of developingcountries and to represent, at least, an optionseriously to be taken into account.

It has been recognized in various internationalbodies, primarily in the United Nations, that allefforts should be made to assist developing nationsto benefit from space technology. It has been em-phasized that if the developing countries continueto rely upon traditional, conventional techniqueswithout taking the plunge into new technology, thegap between them and the technologically advancedcountries will not close but continue to widen."Several peaceful applications of outer space canbe applied now in developing countries to providefor them a new stimulus for progress. Above all,it is necessary to ensure that they are not com-pelled to follow through the same steps as weretaken during the past century by those countrieswhich are today technologically advanced. Manytraditional technologies become much more costeffective if combined with space applications. Thepopulation explosion and the rapidly shrinking worlddo not permit delaying the benefits arising fromspace until the older methods have been deployed.The question is not whether developing countriescan afford the peaceful uses of outer space.Rather, it is whether they can afford to ignorethem." (1)

Another great inequality in today's world thatmust be overcome lies in the disparity between theurban centres and the rural areas, which is parti-cularly evident in the case of information and com-munication media. Traditionally, they are firstestablished in the cities from where they slowly,if at all, penetrate the countryside. Terrestrialtelecommunication and television networks almostnever achieve full coverage. Therefore, "until theadvent of space technology, many benefits of amodern society were available only to communi-ties residing in large metropolitan areas or tothose linearly connected to such areas. Throughcommunication satellites, it is now possible toreach isolated communities dispersed over alargeregion without suffering economic penaltyThis aspect of space technology is of particularsignificance to developing countries where agri-culture plays a preponderant role, and substantialsections of the population are non-urban with a low

level of literacy. Education as well as informationinputs which might contribute to motivation formodernization, the use of new techniques in theproduction of food, for improved health and sani-tation, can all be provided much more readily ifa reliable audio-visual communication link can beestablished nation wide. Moreover, many devel-oping countries face an acute problem arising fromsocial forces of disintegration. Their continuedviability is dependant on the integration of manytribal/religious and regional groups which havedistinct cultural and political traditions. A singlesystem of mass communications providing acommon-shared experience to the entire popula-tion can perform an important role in makingcredible the oneness of the territory". (1)

2. IMPLICATIONS FOR INFORMATION,EDUCATION AND CULTURE

One of the more obvious potential benefits of satel-lite communication would be to make availablecheap and reliable connexions for telephone, tele-printer and similar communication services, allover the world. There is however no agreementas to what the consequences might be. Would peo-ple write more or less letters, travel more orless, change their habits in other ways? Nor isthere agreement as to the effects of satellite com-munication in more complex areas such as increasedand changing flows of information or satellite-borne educational television.

Pollution has become a key concept which canusefully be applied to areas other than our physicalenvironment. Communication engineers more andmore speak of radio pollution referring both to anindiscriminate use of radio frequencies and to in-terference and disturbances from an ever-growingnumber of electric and other appliances, both ofwhich might necessitate drastic measures for anyrational use of radio communications.

The results of serious investigations into thefuture of the postal services which have been under -taken in some countrie3 (France, United States)point to a "mail pollution" which might not leaveus any other choice but to use electronic post serv-ices with the satellite as an "orbital post office". (2)

Other areas iththe information field seem sim -ilarly affected. We have already reached a stagewhen the concept of data and publication pollution

(1) From The Application of Space Technologyto Development. Report prepared by VikramSarabhai, P.D. Bhaysar, E. V. Chitnis andP.R. Pisharoty, for United Nations AdvisoryCommittee on the Application of Science andTechnology to Development (United Nationsdocument E/AC. 52/XV/CRP. 1, 9 June 1971).

(2) This expression has been used by Arthur C.Clarke in many articles and speeches.

23

is taken seriously. One field has attracted parti-cular attention: scientific information. Today,some 35, 000 scientific journals publish about2, 000, 000 articles each year, written by some75, 000 scientists in about 50 languages. (1) Thecombination of computers and satellites might of-fer an opportunity to make a real attack on the in-crease in scientific data that is rapidly becomingtoo great for many fields to handle. Libraries arealready becoming information centres for storageand retrieval of data by electronic means. Thesecentres will have to be interconnected so that theycan share resources, many considering the com-munication satellite as the ideal link between in-formation centres. Satellites can handle greatamounts of information, transmit it quickly to pro-cessing centres all over the world and circulatedetails wherever needed.

Another aspect of the information field relatesto the collection, transmission and distribution ofnews in the world. Here again, improved meansof communication such as satellite systems canmake a great difference, particularly with regardto visual news. Not only can they make possible amore reliable and increased flow of news betweenthe main news centres but even more importantly,can contribute to an increase in a two-way flow be-tween these main centres and the developing ar easas well as in and between the developing countriesthemselves.

The following objectives for the use of satel-lite communication for the possible world-wide dis-tribution of information material were regarded asof prime importance, at a Unesco meeting in 1969:

"making the flow of visual news in the world morebalanced, particularly with regard to providingnews coverage to and from, as well as betweendeveloping areas;

ensuring that satellite communication is made avail-able to all countries, with special regard tosmaller and developing countries;

providing broadcasters all over the world with theopportunities and conditions enabling them to usecommunication satellite systems for the coverage,collection, transmission and dissemination ofnews;

providing conditions enabling mass media institu-tions all over the world to co- operate for the ex-change of news and coverage of current events".( 2)

Questions of tariffs, access, technical facili-ties and trained staff must therefore be seen intheperspective of how the world gets or wants to getinformed about itself. The improved facilities fortransmission of news which can now be made avail-able through satellite systems must also be examinedqualitatively as well as quantitatively. The concernmust not only b e with the volume or speed of trans -mission. There is a need to consider the decisionsthat may be necessary to ensure that this flow ischannelled in such a way as to reach the ultimateconsumer - the ordinary newspaper reader, radio

24

listener, television viewer - in a form that willbecomprehensible and give him some sensible under-standing of the significance of all the mass of instantnews that technological advance might bring tohim. (3) The editorial process becomes not lessbut more important with the advance of spacecommunication.

With regard to education, it is generally as-sumed that the chief contribution of satellite tech-nology will be to deliver educational televisiop.This new combination of satellites, television andeducation presents challenging problems - and con-siderable controversy.

The particular contribution of satellite tech-nology for distributing educational television isseenas a key for solving a number of problems ofhuman resources development. "Not only can itovercome terrain and distance, it may also be ableto reform and modernize educational systems morerapidlythan would otherwise be possible, give morepeople access to education and training, place theb est teacher s within reach of large audiences, helpto integrate large sectors of the population intothe social, economic and cultural life of thenation or region, and contribute to internationalunderstanding. "(4)

A second assumption is that television can bean effective instrument of education - if rightlyused. It is becoming clear that the use of televisionchallenges the traditional concepts of education andeducational methodology. "It is not a situation inwhich any educator can be satisfied with routineteaching, undistinguished content, outmoded method.If ever in the history of a school s ystem, a thoroughcurriculum review is called for, this is the time."(5)

Media of mass communication such as television,reachingthe entire population, have certain charac-teristics which explain their importance for educationand national development. They are able to communi-cate regularly withlarge audiences whether informaleducational situations or beyond. They are modern andflexible and thus able to link education with events ofthe day as well as with the emergence of new subject-matters and new methods in education.

See Harrison Brown: Toward an Effective WorldScience Information System. ICSU General As-sembly, Madrid, Spain, 1970.See Broadcasting from Space, Reports andPapers on Mass Communication, No. 60,Unesco, Paris, 1970.See Francis-Williams, Lord. Responsible pres-entation of the news in the space era, Communi-cation in the Space Age,p.44,Paris,Une s c 0,1968.W.Schramm and W.J.Platt: Satellite-distributededucational television for developing countries,Washington D. C. 1968.Wilbur Schramm:Satellites for Education: Les-sons from a Decade of Experience with Educa-tional Television, U.N. Conference on the Ex-ploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,1968.

Moreover, as reported by a number of Unescomissions which have studied, in various countries,the use of satellite communication for educationand national development, the demands that are andwill be made on the educational systems cannot pos -sibly be met through traditional methods. As inthe case of South America, "quantitatively the de-mands due to population growth, national pro-grammes to achieve universal primary educationof up to 5-6 years of schooling, to extend and re-direct secondary education, to increase and re orienthigher education, to expand vocational training inall fields, can only be met by a massive use ofmodern technology as provided particularly by tele-vision. If to these quantitative demands are addedthe qualitative demands in terms of a higher levelof capacity amongst the teachers, the introductionof new methodology and teaching methods, the in-sistance on a massive extension of technical andscientific training, and the initiation of new pro-grammes intended to contribute to the modificationof attitudes, the conclusion seems inevitable thatthe methods to be used must be as massive as thechanges required.

As far as all the aspects of 'adult education'that never have been part of the traditional educa-tional systems are concerned, it is a foregoneconclusion that only modern technology providesthe means of reaching numerous populations dis-persed over vast regions".(1)

Obviously, education as used in the expressioneducational television must be used in the largestpossible sense. And the concept of life-long educa-tion must be linked to the development of informa-tion media. ''This is why, ,recourse to the mostadvanced technologies appears as the only adequatesolution to allow for an organic linkage betweeneducation and information, an integrated co-ordination of the different degre6s and categoriesof education for development purposes, and to openup the school and provide for intercommunicationwith the social and cultural environment. "(2)

These views do not imply that satellite-borneeducational televison will solve all problems."There must be an objective assessment of the limi-tations and capabilities of the new communicationsatellite technology in meeting our expectations...There are many components of any major techno-logical system and usually the least complex ofthese is the technical one. Perhaps most oftenoverlooked is the question of social feasibility, andparticularly of users' needs. Assuming that thesystem can be built, will it be accepted andused as anticipated by the people for whom it isintended? "(3)

The use of satellite -borne educational tele-vision should also be seen in the context of thebalance to be struck between mass distributed edu-cational programmes and the need for educationgeared to local and individual requirements.

One overall conclusion seems warranted. Whendealing with satellite technology, neither analysis

of use nor evaluation of possible impact can be cloneon the basis of traditional watertight compart-mentalization. The need is for an integrated ap-proach to the cluster of activities contained ineducation, information, culture and communication -to which should be added such aspects as accessand transfer of technology in this vital and expand-ing field.

3. LEGAL IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICABLEINTERNATIONAL LAW

As in the case of many other activities made pos-s ible by recent and far-reaching technical develop-ments, satellite communication and in particularsatellite broadcasting presents complex legal prob -lems. International legal and other rules musttake into account various spheres of activity and willtherefore have to be based on a cross-disciplinaryapproach.

Satellite communication in its various aspectsrepresents a new activity combining features fromat least four different areas: applied space tech-nology, radio-communication services, broadcastingand information activity. Hitherto the se four areashave been governed by concepts and rules createdindependently and not necessarily in concordancewith each other. Applicable laws and principlestherefore relate to such areas as general inter-national law; space law; international telecommu-nications law; principles concerning human rightsand freedom of information; legality of transmittedor broadcast programme content with regard tocopyright and neighbouring rights, right of privacy,slander etc.

Of specific interest in this context arc theprinciples of space law and of interns' ional tele-communications law.

Space law

Space law is that body of international legal normswhich has been developed since the beginning ofthe 1960's, primarily under the auspices of theUnited Nations General Assembly and its Committeeon the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Followingvarious basic resolutions (in particular 1972 (XVI)and 1802 (XVII)), the General Assembly, in 1963,

Preparatory Study of the Use of Satellite Com -munication for Education and National Develop-ment in South America, Unesco, Paris,May 1970.Arab States, The Use of Satellite Communica-tion for Education and National Development,Unesco, Paris, March 1971.Delbert D. Smith; Educational Satellite Tele-communication; The Challenge of a New Tech-nology, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,April 1971.

25

adopted a "Declaration of Legal Principles Govern-ing the Activities of States in the Exploration andUse of Outer Space". Most of these principleswere thereafter incorporated in the Outer SpaceTreaty of 1967(1) which is being complemented withspecial instruments on particular subjects (rescueof astronauts, liability etc. ). The principles em-bodied in the Declaration and the Treaty constitutea framework for the international regulation of allspace activities and are therefore valid also forsatellite communications.

The formulation of legislative provisions forspace has been approached intellectually in a fash-ion very different from traditional notions of inter-national law.

The basic approach as expressed in thePre-amble and Article 1 of the Treaty is the commoninterest of mankind in outer space. This principleis explicitly and implicitly brought to the fore in anumber of its provisions such as, that the explora-tion and use of outer space shall be carried out forthe benefit of all peoples, that astronauts shall beregarded as the envoys of mankind etc. The inter-nationalization of outer space is also expressed inthe general principle that international law, includ-ing the Charter of the United Nations, applies tospace activities. Both in the Declaration and theTreaty this principle is complemented by a numberof provisions which are particular to space law:

the principle of free use of outer space by all States,without discrimination which should be seen inconjunction with the principle that outer space isnot subject to national appropriation in any form;

particular stress is also laid on the principles ofco-operation, mutual assistance and mutualityof interests as applicable to all space activities.

The principle of State sovereignty and equality ofStates is complemented by the notion that Statesbear the international responsibility for space ac-tivities whether they are carried out by the Statesthemselves, by international organizations or bynon-governmental entities. This implies that noouter space activity can be carried out without theconsent of the responsible government.

The subject of space communication has beenspecifically mentioned in a number of resolutionsadopted by the General Assembly. All stress theprinciple of international co-operation, particular-ly with regard to making satellite communicationsavailable on a world-wide and non-discriminatorybasis.

Satellite broadcasting has attracted particularattention. Following the work of the Working Groupon Direct Broadcast Satellites set up in 1969, the25th Cervxal Assembly unanimously adopted a re-solution (2733 (XXV)) on this subject - matter. Apartfrom recognizing the potential benefits of satellite-borne television particularly for developing coun-tries and the importance of large-scale inter-national co-operation, the Assembly recommends"that 1\4ember States, regional and international

26

organizations, including broadcasting as sociations,should promote and encourage international co-operation on regional and other levels in order,inter alia, to allow all participating States to sharein the establishment and operation of regional sat-ellite broadcasting services and/or in programmeplanning and production".

It is obvious that in such a new, constantly evolv-ing field as space law, there would be differencesof opinion as regards the interpretation and appli-cation of the principles adopted, particularlysincethese principles represent a new dimension in in-ternational law.

While there is general agreement on the ap-plicability of the United Nations Charter, the OuterSpace Treaty and relevant provisions of the Inter-national Telecommunication Convention and theRadio Regulations (see below) to satellite commu-nication and broadcasting, opinions differ as towhether and to what extent the content of satellitebroadcasts should be regulated by further legalrules. Some countries favour new sets of generalprinciples or even detailed rules while others con-sider such efforts premature and still others wouldprefer regional and international co-operativearrangements. The difficulties are obvious in viewof the differences in role, status and structure ofbroadcasting in the world and in the interpretationgiven such concepts as freedom of speech, censor-ship and control of media.

International telecommunication law

International telecommunication law as it has de-veloped over the last 100 years has a number ofspecial features and presents a number of specialproblems.

As a starting point, the applicable legal in-struments are the International Telecommunica-tion Convention and the Radio Regulations whichboth have treaty force. These instruments differfrom most other international treaties in +he waythey are prepared and adopted (by the Plenipoten-tiary and Administrative Conferences), in theircontents and in the manner they are applied andadministered.

At the basis of international telecommunica-tion law lies the principle of State sovereigntyex-pressed in terms of a fully recognized sovereignright for each State to regulate its own telecom-munications, including broadcasting. However,international co-operation is necessary to estab-lish telecommunication links between countriesand for the use of radiowaves the behaviour ofwhich varies with frequency and which are propa-gated without regard for man-made frontiers.

(1) The full title is : Treaty on Principles Govern-ing the Activities of States in the Explorationand Use of Outer Space, including the Moon andon Other Celestial Bodies (1967).

The main principles of international telecommuni-cation law concern, inter alia, the internationalallocation of frequencies, government licensing ofall kinds of radio stations, international notifica-tion and registration of frequency use, prohibitionagainst harmful interference and to some degreethe principle of effective national broadcastingcoverage.

As in other contexts, a significant problem onthe international level posed by the transmissionor broadcast of programmes via satellites lies withthe need to strike a balance between two legitimateand sometimes contradictory considerations: on theone hand the desire and need to increase the freeflow and wide dissemination of information, of edu-cational and cultural materials and, on the other,the desire to protect the holders of rights coveredby the various international conventions. In theserespects, the need is for reaching globally accept-able international arrangements taking into accountthe interests of all countries, particularly the needsof developing countries.

Attention has also been drawn to the need fora readily and globally acceptable international in-strument protecting television programmes trans-mitted or broadcast via satellites against unautho-rized use.

These questions are now under study both with-in Unesco and WIPO (World Intellectual PropertyOrganization).

Discussions have also taken place concerningthe cultural and social standards embodied in na-tional legislations affecting such matters as libel,slander, right to privacy as well as the differentrules applying to right of reply and rectification.Since no globally accepted rules exist, it has beensuggested that solutions might be sought throughbilateral and multilateral agreements both on thegovernmental and non-governmental level.

4. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK, ORGANI-ZATION AND PLANNING

As has previously been mentioned on a number ofoccasions, communications via satellites repre-sent an activity that depends on and interlocks withactivities in a great number of areas. The neces-sity for an integrated, multidisciplinary approachis obvious if such seemingly disparate fields asspace technology, telec ommunications, broadcast-ing, information and education, economic and socialdevelopment, sports and art, public and private,national and international law are to be brought to-gether. All these activities have developed inde-pendently, based on concepts and institutions pecu-liar to each which now must form a functional whole.Many traditional concepts and social arrangementsare clearly inadequate to deal with such a new, inter-disciplinary, inter-institutional activity. One ofthe main problems therefore concerns the creationof adequate social structures, on the national andinternational level.

Institutional inertia and resistance to new ap-proaches will require time for this process to takeplace. In the m.3antime, the two key concepts fordealing with satellite communication are co-ordination and co-operation.

Some specific problem areas might be men-tioned as examples. The allocation of radio fre-quencies to different, competing services and themanagement of the radio spectrum represent ahighly specialized, technically and administrative-ly sophisticated activity. The implications go farbeyond the technical aspects. The frequency spec-trum is a limited natural resource tobe managedin the best interests of all countries and thereforerequires a highly developed form of internationalnegotiation. The uses to be made of radio frequen-cies involve not only traditional telecommunicationsbut a number of activities in society among themscience, information and education. The relativepriorities can only be established through high-level policy considerations. Action therefore re-quires international co-operation on the basis ofnationally co-ordinated planning.

This co-ordination however encounters diffi-culties since national institutions more often thannot are badly equipped to deal with new, multi-disciplinary problems. It seems symptomatic thatin such formalized policy statements as nationalplans for economic and social development, educa-tion, information and communication are treatedseparately. National plans and programmes in thefield of education and information are often estab-lished without regard to the new mass communica-tion media or recognition of their potential.

This aspect should also be seen in the pers-pective adopted by the Unesco General Conferencewith regard to a long-term plan for the work ofthe Organization. In this plan it is pointed out that"the accelerated progress of communication tech-niques and the increasing diversification of infor-mation media have opened up new prospectsespecially for education at all levels and for all age-groups". This development necessitates accurateanalysis both of the impact of communication mediaand of the services they can render. Communica-tions planning should be integrated into the generaldevelopment planning. "But, communications plan-ning cannot be approached realistically withoutfirst defining a communications policy. "(1) Thechallenge of defining a communications policy hasbeen well formulated in the following statement:

"If our policies are to fulfil the promise of tech-nology, the promise of a better and more equitabledistribution of information power, public policiesmust look beyond artificial boundaries, vestedinterests and specialized knowledge. If our policiesare to succeed, if they are to correspond to theneeds of the people ... we must have the courage

(1) Long-Term Outline Plan for 1971-1976 pre-sented by the Director-General to the six-teenth session of the General Conference.Unesco document 16 C/4, Paris 1970.

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to accept new facts, and to bring these facts to-gether in a coherent and flexible policy. "(1)

The planning for satellite communication, inparticular with regard to the use of satellite broad-casting for education and national development re-quires, on the national level, the participation ofa great number of institutions, ranging from allthe concerned ministries to groups of the publicfor whom this activity is after all undertaken. Thenecessity for this national co-ordination corres-ponds, on the international level, to the need forco-operationbetween nations and the co-ordinationbetween international agencies.

On the international, intergovernmental level,the organizations most immediately and generallyconcerned are the United Nations and its Commit-tee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space as well asthe United Nations Development Programme, theInternational Telecommunication Union (ITU) andUnesco. Furthermore, such organizations as FAO,WMO, WHO and others have a more specialized in-terest in the use of satellite communication forspecific purposes. Multinational or regional inter-governmental organizations with specific tasks inthe communication satellite field have also beenestablished, i. e. Intelsat, Intersputnik, EuropeanSpace Research Organization etc.

28

28

With respect to the use of satellite communi-cation for information, specifically for broadcast-ing purposes, international co-operation not onlytakes place on the intergovernmental level but iseffective also on the non-governmental, profession-al level between broadcasting organizations andtheir regional and international associations. Bothwithin Unesco and the United Nations it has beenrecognized that "the use of satellite systems fortelevision has already made possible new patternsof co - oper at ion betwe en broadcasting organizationsin widely separated areas of the world and providesopportunities for extending regionally evolved co-operation to a broader international level"; recog-nition has also been given to "the role that broad-casting organizations are playing and can continueto play in the co-ordinated development of broad-casting via satellites". (2)

(1)

(2)

Statement by Mr. Kierans, Minister of Com-munications, Canada, quoted in Instant World,op. cit.See Report of the Second Session of the Work-ing Group on Direct Broadcast Satellites,United Nations document A/AC.105/66 of12 August 1969.

IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Much has been said and written about the potentialsof satellite communication systems, less about thework needed to prepare for their use. It seemsappropriate, as a conclusion, to summarize thoughtson what steps a country would have to take with re-gard to the introduction of satellite communication.The concepts selected here have been formulatedparticularly with the developing countries in mindbut would in many respects be valid also in othercases.

With regard to space technology generally, aplan of action might involve the following stages,according to the earlier mentioned United Nationsstudy on the applications of such technology todevelopment:

(a) a promotional phase which involves expo-sure of the nationals of developing countries to thewide scope of practical applications of outer space;

(b) the articulation of particular needs of in-dividual developing nations by nationals of the coun-tries concerned, with the necessary assistancefrom international survey teams;

(c) the transfer of knowledge and informationthrough training of selected nationals of the countryin those applications which seem of primaryimportance;

(d) trials and demonstrations of the spaceapplication in the local context;

(e) cost benefit evaluation of various alterna-tive technologies that are available;

(f) political decisions on the basis of the dem-onstration and the analysis of various alternatives;this should lead to a commitment for action on anongoing basis;

(g) the planning and execution of an operatingsystem which might require a variety of inputsfrom outside such as international financing, know-how, hardware and training facilities. (1)

In the various studies made on the use of sat-ellite communication for education and nationaldevelopment, the action recommended comprisesa number of basic elements that seem applicablegenerally.

From the outset, there must be a recognition

that, in order to attain the objectives stated orimplied in their development plans, the countriesconcerned require the use of advanced methodsand technology, particularly with regard to thesystems of communication, education, informa-tion and culture, as an integral part of generaldevelopment.

In this perspective, a satellite system foreducs.tion would imply a commitment to televisionas an instrument for achieving the adopted goals.This approach involves the organization and useof television as a national public service availableto the entire population of the country.

In choosing between alternative methods toachieve these objective.-:, careful considerationshould be given to all available technical options,including such advanced options as the use of ap-plied space technology. This choice between con-ventional and advanced technology should be con-sidered in the general context of the transfer oftechnology and know-how as a means of bridgingthe technological gap.

The necessary studies must therefore bedirected towards two main objectives simultaneous -ly: prepare for a decision to use television on amassive scale for education and national develop-ment and prepare for a decision whether to usesatellite communication for this purpose. Such stu-dies would then need to cover definition of require-ments according to development needs: softwareaspects including programme requirements in allrelevant fields, staff recruitment and training, re-orientation of education programmes, organiza-tion and management requirements, costs; hard-ware aspects with regard to the satellite system,space and earth sectors, additional productionfacilities required, costs, technical staff require-ments; organizational aspects with regard to co-ordinated management and operation of system,particularly when several countries are concerned,

(1) The application of space technology todevelopment, op. cit.

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participation in programme planning, co-ordinationand production.

Satellite communication particularly when usedfor education and information, cuts across tradi-tional intellectual and social categories. In allcase studies, the emphasis is on a co-ordinated,integrated, interdisciplinary approach.

This approach must be applied on the highestpolicy level to ensure the co-operation and involve-ment of all ministries and institutions concernedand equally for the training of the different catego-ries of professionals required to participate in

30

programme production who must learn how to workinteams. This same basic approach is needed forthe programming and programme content whichnot only should strike a balance between motivation,intellectual education and training but also take intoaccount the context of the educational situation. Pro -duction, distribution and reception should be so or-ganized that the programmes, the "mediator" in thefield, the receiving groups, the evaluation and follow -up form an interactive whole. Evidently,this approachis a prerequisite for the formulation of action plans,be it on the national or regional or international level.

ANNEX I

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. General

B. Satellite systems, technology, costs, etc.

C. Educational uses

D. Legal aspects

LI1

A. GENERAL

Dawidziuk, B. M. and Preston, H. F. ComparativeEvaluation of Modern Transmission Media forGlobal Communications. Paper No. 70-444,AIAA 3rd Communications Satellite SystemsConference, Los Angeles, Calif., 1970.

European Broadcasting Union. EBU Review(Geneva) Part B - General and Legal - No.118 B, November, 1969 (Special SatelliteNumber). Also published in French.

International Telecommunication Union. Telecom-communication Journal (Geneva) Vol. 37,No. VII, July 1970. (Special Issue "Telecom-munications and Education"). Also publishedin French.

. Telecommunication Journal (Geneva)Vol. 38, No. V, May 1971. (Special SpaceNumber Supplements: Table of artificialsatellites launched from 1957 to 1970 - Mapof earth stations for telecommunicationservices). Also published in French.

Kuhns, Perry W. Directions and Implications ofCommunication Technology. Ditchley Park,International Broadcast Institute Symposium,1970.

Martin, Charles-No61. Les satellites artificiels.,Paris, Presses Universitaires de France,1965 (Que sais-je? No.813).

Petrov, Boris. "Targets for Soviet Space Research",In: New Scientist (London) May 1971.

Pierce, J. R. The Beginnings of Satellite Communi-cations. San Francisco, San Francisco Press,Inc. , 1968.

Ploman, Edward W. see Rydbeck, Olof.

Preston, H. F. see Dawidziuk, B. M.

Pritchard, W. L. Communications Satellites;Broadcasting from space presented at ChaniaInternational Conference on Space Researchand Exploration, Crete, 1969.

Rostow, Eugene V. , ed. Communications Satel-lite Technology in the early 1970s. AppendixC, A Survey of Telecommunications Policy.Springfield, President's Task Force onCommunications Policy.

. "The Prospects for Educational Televis-ion: A General View". In: Satellite Communi-cations and Educational Television in Less De-veloped Countries. Springfield, President'sTask Force on Communication Policy, 1969.

Rubin, P.A. ETV Satellites for Developing Nations.Paper No. 68 -424, AIAA 2nd CommunicationsSatellite Systems Conference, San Francisco,Calif. , 1968.

Rydbeck, Olof and Ploman, Edward W. "Broad-casting in the Space Age". In: E. B. U. Mono-graph, No. 5, Geneva, 1969. (Legal and Ad-ministrative series).

Salvatore, Giorgio. Comunicaciones por Sat6litetBuenos Aires, Comisidn Nacional de Investi-gaciones Espaciales, 1966.

Sarnoff, Robert W. "Proposal for a Global Com-mon Market of Communications". In: Com-munications News (Weaton, Ill. ), 1970.

Schramm, Wilbur. Communication Satellites forEducation, Science and Culture. Paris,Unesco,1968 (Reports and Papers on MassCommunication No. 53) .

Stanford Research Institute. "Telecommunica-tions". In: Stanford Journal of InternationalStudies, Vol. V, June 1970.

United Nations. International Space Bibliography ,New York, 1966.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization. An Annotated Bibliography ofUnesco Publications and Documents dealingwith Space Communication - 1953/1970. Paris,1971.

. Broadcasting from Space. Paris,1970:(Reports and Papers on Mass CommunicationNo. 60). Also published in French.

. Communication in the Space Age; TheUse of Satellites by the Mass Media. Paris,1968. Also published in French.

. Space Communication and the Mass Media;A Unesco Report on the occasion of the 1963Space Communication Conference (Geneva).Paris,,1963 (Reports and Papers on MassCommunication No.41). Also published inFrench.

Wisconsin University. Edsat, The Educationaland Social Use of Communications Satellites.A Bibliography, Compiled by KatherineShervis. Madison4Edsat Program, 1970.(Edsat Publications Series No.1).

B. SATELLITE SYSTEMS,TECHNOLOGY, COSTS, etc.

Afshar, ILK. The Innovative Consequences ofSpace Technology and the Problems of the

133

Developing Countries. Teheran University,The Institute of Geophysics, 1971.

Alisjahbana, Iskandar. Some Notes on the Influ-ence of Modern Technology on EducationalSystems. Bandung, Research Institute forRadio and Microwave Telecommunication,1970.

Bergin, P.A. A Television Broadcast SatelliteSystem for ETV/ITV. Paper No. 70 -45:;,AIAA 3rd Communications Satellite SyritemsConference, Los Angeles, Calif., 1970.

Blonstein, J. L. see O'Nians, F. A.

Chitnis, E. V. Satellite Instructional TelevisionExperiment (SITE). Ahmedabad, Indian SpaceResearch Organisation, 1970.

Dalfen, Charles M. "The Telesat Canada Domes-tic Communications Satellite System". In:Stanford Journal of International Studies,Vol. V, June 1970.

Electronic Industries Association. Future Com-munications Systems via Satellites UtilizingLow Cost Earth Stations. Appendix J, A Sur-vey of Telecommunicatio-ns Policy. WashingtonD.C. , President's Task Force on Communi-cations Policy, 1968.

Hallak, J. L'analyse coat/performance et laplanification des systemes de transmissionpar satellites. Paris, Institut Internationalde Planification de l'Education, 1971.

Haviland, R. P. Why Space Broadcasting?. PaperNo. 68 -422, AIAA 2nd Communications Satel-lite Systems Conference, San Francisco,Calif. , 1968.

Hesler, J. P. and White, 0. S. Low Cost GroundConverters for High Power CommunicationsSatellites. Paper No. 70-440, AIAA, 3rd Com-munications Satellite Systems Conference,Los Angeles, Calif. , 1970.

Jamison, D. The Economics of Programming forInstructional Broadcast Satellites; Instruc-tional Broadcast Satellites ProgrammingMethods to Reduce Educational Cost of Stu-dents Time Without Adding the TechnologicalCost. Anaheim, Calif., American Instituteof Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1967.

Janky, James M. "Low Cost Receivers and theUse of Direct Broadcast Satellites for Instruc-tional Television". In: Stanford Journal ofInternational Studies, Vol . V, 1970.

34 33

Kaplanov, H. R. Communication Satellite Molniyapresented to the United Nations Outer SpaceConference, Vienna 1968.

Kellock, A. The Feasibility of Domestic SatelliteCommunications for Australia. IEEE Interna-tional Conference on Telecommunications inthe Development of Nations. San Francisco,1970.

Lusignan, Bruce B. Low Cost ETV Satellite Re-ceivers. Paper No. 70 -439, AIAA 3rd Com-munications Satellite Systems Conference,Los Angeles, Calif., 1970.

. Let al./. The Design and Development ofa Low Cost Microwave Adaptor Suitable forTelevision Reception from High Power Com-munications Satellites. Center for Radar As-tronomy, Stanford University for NASA, 1970.

Lutz, S. G. "Economic Factors Influencing theBreak-even Relations between Satellite andTerrestrial Point-to-Point Communication".In: Telecommunication Journal (Geneva),Vol. 36, No. 7, July 1969.

Marsten, Richard B. "Communication SatelliteSystems Technology". In: Progress in Astro-nautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 19. A collec-tion of technical papers drawn mainly fromthe AIAA Communications Satellite SystemsConference, 1966. New York, AmericanInstitute of Aeronautics and Astronautics;London, Academic Press, 1966.

Morgan, Roger P. The New CommunicationsTechnology and its Social Implications. ASymposium at Ditchley Park, Oxfordshire,1970. Rome, International Broadcast Insti-tute, 1971.

O'Nians, F. A. and Blonstein, J. L. "Some As-pects of the Economics of Satellite Communi-cations". In: Telecommunication Journal(Geneva) Vol. 35, No. 12, December 1968.

Rostow, Eugene V. , ed. Domestic Applicationsof Communications Satellite Technology.Staff Paper Force, President's Task Forceon Communication Policy.

Sheppard, E. M. An Instructional CommunicationsSatellite System for the United States. PaperNo. 70-450, AIAA, 3rd Communications Satel-lite System Conference, Los Angeles, Calif.,1970.

Telespazio. Estudio de un sistema de televisidnescolastica para los parses latino-americanos,1969.

\ Vhite , 0. S. see Hesler, J. P.

C. EDUCATIONAL USES

Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales. Les satellitesd'6ducation - Educational Satellites. Colloqueinternational, Nice, 1971. Paris, 1971.

Schramm, Wilbur Let al.7. Satellite DistributedEducational Television for Developing Coun-tries, Vol. I-IV, prepared for Agency for In-ternational Development. Washington D. C. ,1968.

. Satellites for Education: Lessons froma Decade of Experience with EducationalTelevision. United Nations Outer Space Con-ference, Vienna, 1968.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization. An Annotated Bibliography ofUnesco Publications and Documents DealingWith Space Communication - 1953/1970. Paris,1971.

. Unesco Expert Missions, see UnescoBibliography.

. Selected List of Studies, Reports, Articleson Communication Satellite Projects and Sys-tems for Various Countries and Regions through-out the World (in press).

Wisconsin University. Edsat, the Educational andSocial Use of Communications Satellites. ABibliography, Compiled by Katherine Shervis.Madison, Edsat Program, 1970. (Edsat Pub-lications Series No. 1).

D. LEGAL ASPECTS

Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. LesT616communications par satellites; aspectsjuridiques. Paris, Editions Cujas, 1968.

Cocoa, Aldo Armando. Derecho especial para lagran audiencia. Buenos Aires, Asociaci6nArgentina de Ciencian Aeroespaciales, 1970.

Dalfen, C. M. see Gotlieb, A. E.

Evensen, Jens. "Aspects of International Law re-lating to Modern Radio Communications". In:

34

Recueil des Cours, Vol.II. Leyden, Academyof International Law; A. W. Sijthoff, 1965.

Gal. Guyla. Space Law. Leyden, A. W. Sijthoff;Dobbs Ferry, N. Y. , Oceana Publications,Inc. , 1969.

Gotlieb, A. E. and Dalfen, C. M. "Direct SatelliteBroadcasting: A Case Study in the Develop-ment of the Law of Space Communications".In: The Canadian Yearbook of InternationalLaw (Vancouver), 1969.

Haley, Andrew G. Space Law and Government,New York, Appleton-Century-Crafts, 1963.

Jenks, C. Wilfred. Space Laws. London, Stevensand Sons, 1955.

Kolosov, Y. "Television and the Law". In: TheCurrent Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. XXI,No. 50.

Leive, David M. International Telecommunica-tions and International Law, The Regulationof the Radio Spectrum, Leyden, A. W. Sijthoff;Dobbs Ferry, N. Y. , Oceana Publications,Inc., 1969.

McWhinney, Edward, ed. The International Lawof Communications. Leyden, A. W. Sijthoff;Dobbs Ferry, N. Y. , Oceana Publications,1971.

Rybakov, Y. M. "International Legal Co-operationin Space". In: Sovetskoe Gosudarstvo i Pravo(Moskva) No. 2, 1970.

Smith, Delbert D. International Telecommunica-tion Control, International Law and the Order-ing of Satellite and Other Forms of InternationalBroadcasting. Leyden, A. W. Sijthoff, 1969.

Twentieth Century Fund. Communicating by Satel-lite. New York, 1969.

. The Future of Satellite Communications,Resource Management and the Needs of Nation.New York, 1970.

Valter, Erik N. "Perspectives in the EmergingLaw of Satellite Communications". In: Stan-ford Journal of International Studies, Vol. V,June 1970.

35

ArgentinaAustralia

AustriaBelgium

BoliviaBrazil

BulgariaBurma

CameroonCanadaCeylon

ChileColombia

Congo (People'sRepuhlic of)

Costa RicaCuba

CyprusCzechoslovakia

DahomeyDenmark

Arab Republicof EgyptEthiopiaFinlandFrance

French West IndiesGermany (Fed. Rep.)

Ghana

GreeceHong K9ng

Hungary

IcelandIndia

IndonesiaIranIraq

IrelandIsrael

ItalyJamaica

JapanKenya

Khmer RepublicKoren

KuwaitLiberia

LibyaLuxembourg

MalaysiaMalta

MauritiusMexico

MonacoNetherlands

Netherlands AntillesNew Caledonia

Ne.v Zealand

NigerNigeria

Norway

Pakistan

Peru

PhilippinesPoland

PortugalSouthern Rhodesia

RomaniaSenegal

SingaporeSouth Africa

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