Environmental Theory

The Nature of VictimizationSince 1993 the number of victimizations are decliningNCVS Data

Patterns of victimization are stableVictimization is not randomBecoming a crime victim has a lot to do with personal and ecological factors

How is this useful?Researchers can make judgments about the nature of victimization

Efforts can be made to reduce the victimization rate

Environmental CriminologyExamines the location of a specific crime and the context in which it occurred in order to understand and explain crime patterns.

Where and when did the crime occur?What are the physical and social characteristics of the crime site?

What movements bring offender and target together at the crime site?

Rational Choice PerspectiveClark & CornishRational Choice perspective developed by

Ronald Clarke and Derek Cornish and based on two theoretical approaches

1. Based on utilitarianism, assumes that people make decisions with the goal of maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.

2. Based on traditional economic choice theory, which argues that people will evaluate the options and choose what they believe will satisfy their needs.

Rational choice implies a limited sense of rationality, that is, an offender does not know all the details of a situation; rather he or she relies on cues in the environment or characteristics of targets

Most crime is ordinary and committed by reasoning individuals who decide that the chances of getting caught are low and the possibilities for a relatively good pay off is high.

A variety of factors or characteristics come into play when an offender decides to commit a crime. These factors are called “choice structuring-properties”

Characteristics fall into two distinct sets: those of the offender and those of the offence.

Decisionto commit burglary

Selected(Middle Class Area)

Easily accessiblefew police patrols

low security housinglarger gardens

Rejected(Middle Class Area)Unfamiliar; distant

neighborhood watchno public transport

Burgled Homeno one at home:

Especially affluent,detached, patio doors

bushes and other covercorner site

Not Burgled HomeNosy neighbors,

burglar alarmnor rear access,

visible from streetwindow locks; dog

Routine-Activity ApproachCohen & Felson

A crime can occur only if there is someone who intends to commit a crime (likely offender).

Something or someone to be victimized (a suitable target).

No other person present to prevent or observe the crime (the absence of a capable guardian).

No person to control the activities of the offender (personal handler).

Components of a Criminal Event

Routine patterns of work, play, and leisure time affect the convergence in time and place of motivated offenders who are not handled, suitable targets, and the absence of guardians

If one component is missing, crime is not likely to be committed.

Routine-Activity Approach

Certain technological changes and alterations in the workforce create new crime opportunities

1. Increase in female participation in the labor force

2. Out-of-town travel, automobile usage, and technological advances that account for higher risks of predatory victimization.

Theories of VictimizationLifestyle Theories

Proposition:1. The probability of suffering a personal

victimization is directly related to the amount of time that a person spends in public places.

2. The probability of being in public places varies as a function of lifestyle.

3. Social contacts and interactions occur disproportionately among individuals who share similar lifestyles.

Lifestyle Theories Continued4. An individual’s chances of personal

victimization are dependent upon the extent to which the individual shares demographic characteristics with offenders.

5. The proportion of time that an individual spends among non-family members varies as a function of lifestyle.

6. The probability of personal victimization increases as a function of the proportion of the time that an individual spends among non-family members.

Lifestyle Theories Continued

7. Variations in lifestyle are associated with variations in the ability of individuals to isolate themselves from persons with offender characteristics.

8. Variations in lifestyle are associated with variations in the convenience, the desirability, and visibility of the person as a target for a personal victimization.

Burglars and Burglary Before committing their offenses,

burglars take into account1. Familiarity with the area, 2. Fear of recognition3. Concern over standing out as somebody

who does not belong

Burglars and BurglaryPlanning – professional burglars plan more than do amateurs

Systematic selection of a home - some burglars examine clues such as burglar alarm, watchdog, mail piled up in mailbox, accumulated newspapers. Closed windows with A/C turned off

Situational Cues – some burglars routinely choose a corner property for it offers avenues of escape, fewer adjoining properties low visibility.

Victim-Offender Interaction Marvin Wolfgang

Coined the term victim precipitation to refer to situations where victims initiate the confrontations that lead to their death.

Wolfgang estimated that as many as one quarter to one half of intentional homicides are victim precipitated.

Theories of Victimization ContinuedRepeat victimization

Hotspots of crimeGeography of crime

Repeat victimizationDispel the myth that crime is uniformly distributed. A small number of people and places account for a large amount of the crimes committed.

Risk of repeat burglary are highest immediately after a previous burglary

Offenders choose targets based on the knowledge they gained in the previous victimization about the risks and rewards of a particular offence.

Hot SpotsStudies show that certain types of crime are concentrated in what police refers to as “hot spots”

The researchers surmise that attempts to prevent victimization should be focused not on victims but on the places themselves by making them less vulnerable to crime.

Geography of CrimeResearchers have found that more crime occurs around high schools and blocks with bars, liquor stores, the city center and abandoned buildings.

The Social Ecology of Victimization

Violent crimes are slightly more likely to occur in a public area during daytime or early evening hours

More serious violent crimes typically occur after 6 p.m. to 6 a.m.Rape and aggravated assault

Less serious violent crimes more likely occur in the dayPurse snatching and unarmed robberies

The risk of murder is highest in disorganized inner-city areas

Rural areas have significantly lower victimization rates than urban areas (half as much)

Schools are also the location of many victimizationNumbers are decreasing

The Victim’s HouseholdIn the U.S. certain homes are more vulnerable to crimesLarger homes (family size)African AmericanRenters Western and urban homes

Rural white homes in the Northeast are least likely to contain crime victims

Important Victim CharacteristicsGenderAgeSocial statusMarital statusRace and EthnicityRepeat victimization

GenderMales are more likely to be the victims of violent crimes (robbery/assault) Except for rape or sexual assault

Two thirds of women are victimized by someone they know or live with Half of male victims are attacked by someone they know

With the increase in gender equality, women’s victimization rates are as well

AgeYoung people have a much higher victimization rate

Victim risk rapidly diminishes after age 25

By age 65 chances of being victimized greatly decrease 1% of violent victimizationsWith increases in reports of elder abuse, victimization rates for the elderly will increase

More likely to be victims of crimes such asFrauds and scamsPurse snatching

Social StatusThe poorest Americans are the most likely victims of violent and property crime Regardless of age, gender, and race

The wealthy are more likely the targets of personal theft crimes

Marital StatusNever-married men and women have higher victimization rates than married people

Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization rate

The relationship between marital status and victimization is probably influenced by gender, age, and lifestyle

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

Originated by C. Ray Jeffery CPTED posits that environments can be altered, often at little expense, to decrease victimization.

Defensible Space by Oscar Newman refers to improved architectural designs, particularly of public housing, in order to provide increased security.

Situational Crime PreventionThe phantom crime prevention at Disney World

Situational prevention of auto theftConvenience storesParking facilitiesDisplacement

Top 25 Most Commonly Stolen Vehicles in 2001

1995 Honda Civic1991 Honda Accord1989 Toyota Camry1997 Ford F150 Series1994 Chevrolet C/K 1500 Pickup1994 Acura Integra2004 Dodge Ram Pickup1994 Nissan Sentra1988 Toyota Pickup2007 Toyota Corolla

Source: Intellichoice.com 2008