Environment and the Productive Workplace - University of Reading

Environment and the Productive WorkplaceEnvironment and the Productive Workplace

Professor Derek Clements-CroomeSchool of Construction Management and Engineering

The University of Reading

Embodied, Operational Energy and the Opportunity for Productivity Gains in an OfficeEmbodied, Operational Energy and the Opportunity for Productivity Gains in an Office

Lovins A., 2000, Natural Capitalism: The Next Industrial Revolution, March, Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, Colorado.

Embodied Operational

Spend more SaveMuchmore P

roductivity

Ener

gy G

J/m

2

1-2 Design

5 Construction 50 Operation 200 Occupation

Life

time

alte

ratio

ns

Ligh

ts&

sm

all

pow

er

Hea

ting

&

vent

ilatio

n

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Costs of OrganisationsCosts of Organisations

Construction2% Maintenance and operations

6%

Salary costs over buildings life cycle92%

A well designed office can increase productivity by as much as 15% of a

worker’s annual salary

Source: Using Office Design to increase ProductivityBuffalo Organization for Social and Technical Innovation

Michael Brill, President (1987)

The relationship between cost and performance on productivityThe relationship between cost and performance on productivity

PeoplePeopleInvestorInvestor

(high quality)(high quality)

HighlyHighlyproductiveproductive

(added value)(added value)

PoorPoorproductivityproductivity(low value)(low value)

CostCostCutterCutter

(low quality)(low quality)

Perf

orm

ance

High

Low

CostHigh Low

Source: Oseland, Bartlett, 1999

Environmental factors affecting performanceEnvironmental factors affecting performanceSource paperAronoff and Kaplan

Arvey et al

Bakke

Blackler and Williams

Brown

Sundstrom

Factors affecting motivation, job satisfaction and performancePhysical setting, motivation, camaraderie, respect, satisfaction with goals, trade-offs, expectations and equity.Locus of control, neuroticism, affectivity related to job satisfaction, education, age, cognitive ability, socio-economic status, career goals, task identity, autonomy, skill variety, feedback, congruence between personality and work environment.Job specification and requirements, communication system, status, reward, pay, organisational charter, identity, knowing job, initiatives, job security, control, pride and self-respect.Identity, meaning of work, social interaction, responsibility to peer group, goal setting, equity, expectancy, group cohesiveness, peer pressure.Relationship with management, relationship with co-workers, responsibility, pride of craft, selfrespect, status, sense of usefulness and control over work.Responsibility and autonomy, pay, job security, relationship with co-workers, promotion prospects, company policy, supervision, the work itself and physical environment.

Source: CIBSE 1999, Huczynski 1991

Achieving Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the workplaceAchieving Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the workplaceNeedPhysiological

Safety

Social

Esteem

Self-actualisation

Achieved byGood working conditions, attractive salary, subsidised housing, free cateringPrivate health care, pension, safe working conditions, job security.Good relationships, team spirit, company sports, office parties, informal activities, open communication.Regular positive feedback, prestige job titles, write-up in company news sheets, promotion and reward.Challenging job, discretion over work activity, promotion on opportunities, encouraging creativity, autonomy and responsibility

Source: (CIBSE 1999, Huczynski 1991)

Deficiencies in these areas can rapidly fatigue office workersDeficiencies in these areas can rapidly fatigue office workers

Aural/acoustic qualityVisual illumination qualityThermal qualityAir qualityBuilding amenitiesFunctional ergonomics

Source: Public Works Canada Study (1985)

People, environments and matterPeople, environments and matter

Mechanicalradiation

Matter MatterHumanBeing

Gravity Social psychological auras

Matter Matter

ChemicalElectromagneticradiation

Effects of partial climatesEffects of partial climates

Light

Sound

Smell

Heat

Air quality

Electric climate

Partial climate InducesOrganic

Reactions

StimulatesSensorsOrgans

CreateAssociations

DescribesThe

Environment

Holistic Environmental ModelHolistic Environmental ModelSustainability

HolisticEnvironment

BuiltForm &Services

Management

PollutionErgonomics

Well-being

Interiordesign

Mission

workplacework flow

furniture

computer

indoorair quality

aesthetics

lighting spacetextures

colour

sound

electro-magnetic

noisechemical particulate

Ecologicaldesign

energy materials wasterecycling

water

Forminfrastructure

structures

utilities

intralinks

policiesresourcesstrategies

imageBusinesses

systemsprocess

planning

monitoringfinance

Workingculture

integration

creativitysocial

production

innovation

ionisationhumidity Human

Sensestemperature

Hum

an

Management

Lorsch and Abdou (1994b)Lorsch and Abdou (1994b)

Conclude that temperatures which provide optimum comfort may not necessarily give rise to maximum efficiency in terms of work output.

The difficulty here is that this may be true for relatively short periods of time, but if a person is feeling uncomfortable over a long period of time it may lead to a decrement in work performance.

The relationship between temperature and performanceThe relationship between temperature and performance

Cha

nge

in p

rodu

ctiv

ity p

erce

ntag

e

+50

+40

+30

+20

+10

0

-10

-20

-30

-40

-60

Accidents

25201510

Speed and sensitivity

of figure

Manual dexterity

Work rate

Mental performance

Temperature (ºC)

-50

ComfortZone

Source: Wyon 1986, CIBSE, 1999

30

Indoor Environment and ProductivityIndoor Environment and Productivity

Traditionally thermal comfort has been emphasised as being necessary in buildings, but is comfort compatible with health and well-being? The mind and body need to be in a state of health and well-being for work and concentration. This is a prime prerequisite for productivity. High productivity brings a sense of achievement for the individual as well as increased profits for the work organization.

Good IAQ:Occupancy density/ventilation rate:temperature

Theoretical study based on Fanger’s work

Kosenen and Tan (2003)(Finland, Singapore)

fatigueClimate chamberTanabe (2003) (Japan)

Individual control of air gives less fatigue

Climate chamber using typing tasks

Nishihara et al (2003)(Japan)

Low light levels (3 lux)can cause fatigue

Voice patternsNiskikawa et al (2003)(Japan)

good IAQlow pollutants:fresh air:temperature control: effective use of space

review Leyten and Booerstra (2003)(Holland)

Temperatures higher than240C

Self reported productivityKorhonen et al (2003)(Finland)

Wheezingshortness of breath:

high temperature andrelative humidity

Epidemiological longitudinal study using computer test

Chao et al (2003) (Taiwan, USA)

Increased space and daylight: reduce complaints

Self-reported productivityRohr and Brightman (2003) (USA)

Productivityincrease decrease

MethodResearcher

Subjective Well-beingSubjective Well-being

AwarenessSatisfaction with lifeComfort – discomfortGood body – mental health

Architecture and the sensesArchitecture and the senses

Although the five basic senses are often studies as individual systems covering visual, auditory, taste–smell, orientation and the haptic sensations, there is an interplay between the senses.

In Buddhism there are nine levels of consciousness (Allwright, 1998)

In Buddhism there are nine levels of consciousness (Allwright, 1998)

The five senses felt by the eyes, ears, nose mouth and skinThe integration of senses using reason and logicRational thought expressed via self awareness and intuitionThe stores of experience in the long and short term memoriesPure consciousness within the inner self; this also involves emotion.

How do you smell?How do you smell?

The average person has about 400 different types of olfactory reception, but not everyone has the same setThe average person has about 400 different types of olfactory reception, but not everyone has the same set

Atrium fragrance control system for Kajima building in TokyoAtrium fragrance control system for Kajima building in Tokyo

T H

T

TT

H

AirHandlingUnit

Spray Fan

Atrium

EssenceContainer

Thermostat

Humidistat

Regulating Valve

Spray Nozzle

Ambient Air

Heat Exchanger

Control Unit

Atrium fragrance and control scenario for Kajima building in TokyoAtrium fragrance and control scenario for Kajima building in Tokyo

COME LUNCH BREAK

TO OFFICE WORK WORK LEAVE THE OFFICESCHEDULE

FRAGRANCE & IMAGE OVER-TIME WORK

No 1 WOOD

No 2 FLORAL

No 3 CITRUS

SPLAY PATTERN

Health Affects ProductivityHealth Affects Productivity

Productivity can be related to quality and satisfaction of the service or functional performance. Studies have shown that productivity at work bears a close relationship to the work environment. Burge (1987) demonstrates that there is a strong relationship between self-reports of productivity and ill health symptoms related to buildings: productivity decreases as ill health symptoms increase.

Burge (1987)Burge (1987)

Conducted a study of building sicknessamong 4373 office workers in 42 UK office buildings having 47 different ventilation conditions. The data was further analysed by Raw (1990). The principal conclusions were that as individuals reported more than two symptoms, the subjects reported a decrease in productivity.

Buildings by health category(Dorgan, 1994)Buildings by health category(Dorgan, 1994)

Perc

enta

ge o

f tot

al b

uild

ing

Problem unknown

Problem known

50

40

30

20

10

01. Healthy 2. Generally

Healthy3. Unhealthy 4. Unhealthy 5. SBS & BRI

Estimated potential gains from improvements in indoor environments (Fisk, 1999)

Estimated potential gains from improvements in indoor environments (Fisk, 1999)

Source ofProductivity Gain

Reduced respiratorydisease

Reduced allergies and asthma

Reduced sick buildingsyndrome symptoms

Improved worker performance from changes in thermal environment and lighting

Potential AnnualHealth Benefits

16 to 37 million avoidedcases of common cold or influenza

10% to 30% decrease in symptoms within 53million allergy sufferersand 16 million asthmatics

20% to 50% reductionin SBS health symptoms experienced frequentlyat work by approximately15 million workers

Not applicable

Potential U.S. Annual Savings or Productivity Gain (1996 $U.S.)

$6 - $14 billion

$2 - $4 billion

$15 - $38 billion

$20 - $200 billion

Relationship between self-reports of productivity and levels of control over temperature, ventilation, lighting and overall control

Relationship between self-reports of productivity and levels of control over temperature, ventilation, lighting and overall control

Temperature

Ventilation

LightingOverall Control

Degree of Control (low = 1, high = 7)7410

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2

Mor

e or

less

pro

duct

ive

than

ave

rage

Assessment of Productivity (Ilgen, 1991)Assessment of Productivity (Ilgen, 1991)

states that the methods of performance measurement can be classified into three categories:

PhysiologicalObjectiveSubjective

Indicators of increased productivityIndicators of increased productivity

• Performing tasks more accurately• Performing faster without loss of accuracy• Capability to perform longer without tiring• Learning more effectively• Being more creative• Sustaining stress more effectively• Working together more harmoniously• Being more able to cope with unforeseen circumstances• Feeling healthier and so spending more time at work• Accepting more responsibility• Responding more positively to requests

Source: NEMA, 1989

Average downtime attributedto a range of factorsAverage downtime attributedto a range of factors

Repeating work due to glare

Walking to pick up consumables

Repeating work due to poor IT

Waiting for archive material

Extra work due to software incompatibility

Repeating due to feeling too warm

Walking to pick up documents

Searching for paperwork

Walking/waiting at fax

Repeating work due to interruptions

0 .5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Mean downtime (percentage of work time)

Source: Oseland, Bartlett, 1998

Productivity MeasuresProductivity MeasuresAt an ASHRAE Workshop on Indoor Quality held in Baltimore in September 1992 the following productivity measures were recommended as being significant.

Absence from work, or work station.Health costs including sick leave, accidents and injuries.Interruptions to work.Controlled independent judgements of work quality.Self assessments of productivity.Speed and accuracy of work.Output from pre-existing work groups.Cost for the product or service.Exchanging output in response to graded reward.Volunteer overtime.Cycle time from initiation to completion of process.Multiple measures at all organisational levels.Visual measures of performance, health and well-being at work.Development of measures and patterns of change over time.

Measures of ProductivityMeasures of Productivity

Absolute Methods

Direct

Indirect

Comparative Methods

Objective measurese.g. work output quality and speed

Physiological measurese.g. brain rhythms

Rating scales, questionnaires,semi structured interviews

Measurement of ProductivityMeasurement of Productivity

Simulated work where the subject performs a realistic but artificial taskDiagnostic test where the subject performs a test procedure unlike any real taskEmbedded tasks where the outcome metric is derived from part of an existing taskExisting measures where the existing outcome metrics are made availableAbsenteeism the records of sick leave are used, this may also be extended to include medical records.

Physiological MeasuresPhysiological Measures

Brain waves

Muscle tension

Eye pupil dilation

Speech patterns

Cerebral blood oxygenation

QuestionnaireQuestionnaire

Background information about the organisation and the workplaceHow much the environment and the job causes dissatisfactionThe feelings of the subject about their current work situationThe principal causal factors influencing health symptoms of occupantsWhich factors influence job satisfaction and productivity

The Analytic Hierarchy ProcessThe Analytic Hierarchy Process

Main Factors WhichInfluence ProductivityMain Factors Which

Influence ProductivityLevel 1

Well-BeingWell-Being MotivationMotivation JobSatisfaction

JobSatisfaction

TechnicalCompetence

TechnicalCompetence

Ability toPerform

Ability toPerform

Level 2 -Human Factorsof the Individual

Level 3 -Systems FactorsandPersonalCircum-stanceswhichinfluenceHuman Factors

Level 4

Level 5

OccupationOccupationOrganisationOrganisation PersonalCircumstances

PersonalCircumstances

Facilities &Services

Facilities &Services

OutdoorEnvironment

OutdoorEnvironment

Environmental factors which influenceSystem Factors Temperature and Humidity,

Ventilation, Lighting, Crowding

IndoorEnvironment

IndoorEnvironment

Health factors which influence System FactorsRespiratory, Skin, Nervous,Nasal and Related Problems

Self-assessed productivitySelf-assessed productivity

SAP = 6.8510 - 0.3625 * En - 0.1542 * JD - 0.1329 * CS

(r = 0.5083, F = 14.86 > Fα = 0.01 [3,132] = 3.94

The principal factors which affect self-assessedproductivity (SAP) in the offices surveyed were an

overall unsatisfactory environment (En),crowded workspace (CS) and job dissatisfaction (JD).

PRODUCTIVITY

Social Organisation

Personal Environment

Managerial roleOrganisational structureRelationship with others

Conceptual basis for impact of environment on productivityConceptual basis for impact of environment on productivity

Indoor climateWorkplaceIAQ

Career AchievementHome/Work interfaceIntrinsic to job

Measures for workplace evaluationMeasures for workplace evaluation

Expression and identity issuesSustainability and corporate social responsibilityEfficiency and effectiveness

EFFICIENCY

EFFECTIVENESS

EXPESSION

1980s 1990s 2000+

DEGW 2004

Patterns of Space and TimePatterns of Space and Time

Building envelope modifies light, air, sound and energyScale and texture of spaceDynamic arrangement of space24 Hour society

Temporal patterns of concentration

Nature and patterns of working

Examples of human intelligence and building properties (Lehto, 2002)

Examples of human intelligence and building properties (Lehto, 2002)

own space(concentration peace)

Intelligence

Logical-mathematical

cabling integratedcontrol

buildingautomationsilence

Inter-personal

silence

buildingautomation

userinterface

backgroundmusic

Musical

interiordesign

ergonomicsBodily-kinaesthetic

empty space

Tradition:Energy centres

Inter-personal

signs

sensoring

speechrecognition Linguistic

beauty

measures forspatial instinct

Visual-spatial

Functionalcentres

IB intervention stagesIB intervention stagesOrganisational and technology change

High

Change the technology

Change the occupants

Change the technology

Change the occupants

HighLow

Organisational demand on the building

Technology level

DEGW 2004

IB Technologies scoring matrixIB Technologies scoring matrix

Showcase IB

Advanced technologies not linked to organisational requirements

Business Value IB(low tech)

Good match between organisational demand and technology provision

Business Value IB(high tech)

Good match between organisational demand and technology provision

Underachieving IB

BuildingConstraining the organisation

0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%100%

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0

HighNon routine workWide range of settingsGroup work

Low basic systemslimited integration;building management focus

Technology Level

Highadvanced systemsextensive integration;building management focus

DEGW 2004

Organisational Demands on the building

LowRoutine workIndividual workLimited work settings

IB Intervention StagesIB Intervention StagesSite and shell issues

Redevelop of the building

Change the use of the site

Improve the infrastructure

High

Siteaccessibility

Low

Shell adaptability High

DEGW 2004

Building Quality Assessment Category Descriptors (Williams 2000)

Building Quality Assessment Category Descriptors (Williams 2000)

Presentation: Appearance of the building & impression created Space Functionality: Factors that detemline operation of spaces Access & Circulation: Matters Concerned with access's of people & goods Amenities: Facilities or spaces for people Business Services: Electrical services & in formation technology.Working Environment: Working conditions of people in their work spaces Health & Safety: Mandatory & other health or safety requirements Structural Considerations: Building structure, construction & condition Building Operations: Short & long term management of the building

Overall BQA StructureOverall BQA Structure

Scoring PlateauxFactors (137)

Sections

Categories (9)

Scores Weightings

Scores Weightings

Scores Weightings

BQAScore

Benchmarking Quality of Buildings and Educational Achievements – Primary Schools Study in Kent

Benchmarking Quality of Buildings and Educational Achievements – Primary Schools Study in Kent

HighHighB

QA

Sco

reB

QA

Sco

re

LowLow HighHighEducational AchievementEducational Achievement

Clients Views of Their BuildingsClients Views of Their Buildings

Containers built for a cheap price with no respect for the impact of the built environment on performancePrestige Symbols in which the exterior is the key status factor than internal working conditions.Vehicles for Industrial Relations in which a healthy work environment is viewed as important for the workforceInstruments of Efficiency in which work investment expenditure is related to the rate of return of money not staff welfareOperational Force for which the function and the symbolic roles are reflected in the management and design.

Comparison of energy and staff costs for North American officesComparison of energy and staff costs for North American offices

5–4.332-3.752.25Equivalent productivity costs (min/day per person)

1.20.91.00.5-0.90.5Energy as proportion of productivity costs (%)

87118100114-218200Ration of staff to energy costs

1.5221-21.5Energy costs ($/ft2/year)

2.91262-10–HVAC running costs ($/ft2/year)

130237200218300Staff costs ($/ft2/year)

BOMA (1988)

Woods (1989)

EPA (1989)

Abdou & Lorsch (1994)

Rosenfeld (1989)Costs

Relationship between the loss of productivity, PPD and the PMVRelationship between the loss of productivity, PPD and the PMV

-1.5

80

60

40

20

0

Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)

Percentage of dissatisfied (PPD)

Loss

of P

rodu

ctiv

ity (p

erce

ntag

e)

-1 -0.5 10 1.50.5 2-20

Loss of Productivity and PPDas a function of the PMV

Source: Roelofsen, 2001

PPD

25

20

15

10

5

Loss of productivity per employeeStandard Office South FacingLoss of productivity per employeeStandard Office South Facing

9

44

6

59

15

71

10

61

24

79

49

103

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

7.2 4.4 3.7 4.6 3.4 2.8

Cooling (Comfort categories in accordance with NPR-CR 1752)

No Mechanical Cooling

Ventilation Rate [m3/(m3.h)]

Loss

of p

rodu

ctiv

ity[H

ours

/Yea

r]

The relationship of incremental initial cost to potential user time saving (Rosenfeld, 1989)

The relationship of incremental initial cost to potential user time saving (Rosenfeld, 1989)

Average salary dollarsPer sq.m.per year

$2000

$3000

$4000

$5000

$10000

0 10 20 30 40

00

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

HVAC systems incremental initial cost, dollars per sq.m

Per

cent

of w

orki

ng h

ours

Sav

ings

in m

inut

es p

er d

ay p

er e

mpl

oyee

Cost implications of productivity loss at different neutral temperatures (Kosonen and Tan 2003)Cost implications of productivity loss at different neutral temperatures (Kosonen and Tan 2003)

Summary of IB break-even periodsSummary of IB break-even periods

Business Benefit

Standard IB

Advanced IB

Efficiency + 10%Productivity gain




Efficiency only

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

IB Payback period (years)

Source: IB Asia

Sustainability Strategy ModelSustainability Strategy ModelValue of sustainability

The make-up of the work force

Achievement of appropriate competences

Percentage of employees receiving appraisals

Absenteeism of our people

Reportable accidents and incident rate

Grievance raised of an ethical nature (internal and external)

Corporate community investment

Percentage of sustainability targets achieved

Positive/negative media comment on environmental and community

activities

Percentage volume of materials from sustainable sources

Percentage of suppliers with ISO 14001

Customers satisfaction levels

Customer retention

How we willmeasure performance

Key Performanceindicators

The diversity of our people

Satisfaction of our people

Health and safety performance

Human rights

Corporate approach to social responsibility

Energy costs

Costs of waste

Environmental performance

Customer satisfaction

Fairer treatment of people and communities

More fulfilled people and communities

Better environment to live in

More resources for future generations

Increased business

Reduce waste

Social progress

Protection of the environment and prudent use of natural resources

Economic growth and Prosperity

How society will benefitWhat we will manage Sustainability objectives

Sustaining prosperity

Sustainingthe environment

Sustainingcommunities

Sustainability strategy model (adapted from Leiper et al, 2003, Proceedings ICE, 156 ES1, 59-66 (ISSN 147 4637)

Sustainability Strategy ModelSustainability Strategy Model

Sustainability strategy model

(adapted from Leiperet al, 2003,

Proceedings ICE, 156 ES1, 59-66

(ISSN 147 4637)










activities




Customer retention


The competence of our people



Human rights

Energy cost

Cost of waste

Water

Pollution




Easier to attract high quality people

More motivation people

Improved productivity and reduced cost

Reduced risk of litigation

Improve reputation

More contented customers, better margins

and more business

Attract, develop andretain excellent people

Deliver year-on-year growth in earnings per

share

Develop market leading position

Differentiate through consistently exceeding customer expectations

Managing people

Managing cost and risk

Managing reputation

Managing customers

Group objectives What we will manageHow Carillion will benefit

Key Performanceindicators

Value through sustainability

How we willmeasure performance

Sustainability Strategy ModelSustainability Strategy ModelValue through sustainability Value of sustainabilityKey Performance

indicators










activities




Customer retention




Human rights


Energy costs

Costs of waste




The competence of our people



Human rights

Energy cost

Cost of waste

Water

Pollution




Fairer treatment of people and communities

More fulfilled people and communities

Better environment to live in

More resources for future generations

Increased business

Reduce waste

Social progress

Protection of the environment and prudent use of natural resources

Economic growth and Prosperity

Easier to attract high quality people

More motivation people

Improved productivity and reduced cost

Reduced risk of litigation

Improve reputation

More contented customers, better margins and more

business

Attract, develop andretain excellent people

Deliver year-on-year growth in earnings per share

Develop market leading position

Differentiate through consistently exceeding customer expectations

Managing people

Managing cost and risk

Managing reputation

Managing customers

Sustaining prosperity

Sustainingthe environment

Sustainingcommunities

How we willmeasure performanceGroup objectives How Carillion will benefit What we will manage What we will manage How society will benefit Sustainability objectives

Sustainability strategy model (adapted from Leiper et al, 2003, Proceedings ICE, 156 ES1, 59-66 (ISSN 147 4637)

Documents

Environment and the Productive Workplace - University of Reading