Enlightenment• Era in which people adopted views and

methods of scientists and scientific philosophers… as Immanuel Kant said, “Dare to Know”• Cast off ideas of past and use reason to

probe for answers on the nature of Mankind: Applied to politics, economics, and human behavior

• Enlightened thinkers not organized like the scientists• Met in Salons (informal discussion

groups organized mainly by women)• Typically called philosophes

(popularized the Enlightenment)• Ideas printed in pamphlets and

distributed–Called the Republic of Letters in France

Central Themes• Progress: Humanity improves via:– Knowledge of the natural world & Technology– Overcoming ignorance bred through superstition– Overcoming cruelty & violence through social

improvements & government action

• Reason: Logic over tradition/superstition• Education: Education! Academies• Empiricism: You don’t know until you experience!

Enlightened People…• Believed in absolutes• Universe is a closed system• Supernatural NOT involved in human

life

• This is a sharp contrast to earlier thought: Open universe where God, Satan, etc interact with humans

Various ‘Schools’Rationalists: Advocated perfectibility of

society: Deductive ReasoningDeductive reasoning, or deduction, starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis,

and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. If something is true of a class of things in general, it is also true for all members of that class. For example, "All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal."

• Descartes…• Spinoza (1632-1677)–Equated God and nature–Mechanical universe (Deism)

Empiricists: Emphasized observation as basis for epistemology: Inductive

ReasoningInductive reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific observations. Even if all

of the premises are true in a statement, inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false. Here’s an example: "Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald.

Therefore, all grandfathers are bald."

• Francis Bacon…• John Locke…

• Baron Paul d’Holbach–Humans are machines governed by

outside forces–Freewill, God, immortality of soul

are foolish

• Leibnez–Optimism theory

• Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)–Spirit of Laws: theorized

separation of powers and checks and balances–Basis for American governmental

structure

Greatest of the Philosophes• Francois-Marie Arouet AKA Voltaire

(1694-1778)–Hated Catholic Church and “narrowness

and bigotry that was the heart of all religious traditions”–He was a deist–Spent 11 months in Bastille for his

sharp tongue

• Voltaire cont.

–Felt man needed to be free from religion “Écrasez l’infame!” (Crush the horrible thing!)–He LOVED the English•Relative religious tolerance•Freedom to express oneself in print•Honor English showed to Newton at his funeral

• Voltaire cont.

–Published Candide•Pessimistic work•Attacked Optimism reflected in Enlightened ideas

Various Wise Guys

•Marquis di Beccaria:–Try to humanize criminal law

•Mary Wollstonecraft (gender theory)–Men are the problem…

Economic: Physiocrats: Opposed mercantilism

• Quesnay–Reform agrarian order

• Adam Smith–Wealth of Nations–‘Bible’ of capitalism–Laissez-faire

Enlightened Despots

• Catherine the Great of Russia (r 1762-1796)• Joseph II of Austria (r 1765-

1790)• Frederick II of Prussia (r

1740-1786)

Critics of the Enlightenment• Some reacted against the mechanical

universe typical of the Enlightenment• Some rejected the methodology, or

premise• Some divided the universe into parts• Some rejected the whole thing and

reinstituted the open system and supernatural universe

• Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)“All men are born free, but everywhere they

are in chains”–Most radical of Philosophes–Theory of direct democracy• General Will• Noble Savage

–Rationalism & Civilization are destroying the individual–Influenced the later Romantic movement

David Hume (Scottish)

• Emphasized limitations of human reasoning• Mind is a bundle of impressions• Became a dogmatic skeptic: undermined

the Enlightenment• Live with “total suspension of judgment”

Immanuel Kant• Two ‘realities’–Physics: Phenomena–Metaphysics: Noumena

• Science describes natural world but does not help with morals• Source of knowledge…

• Categorical Imperative–Morals/ethics based on internal

rationale–Self-serving action is not virtuous–Action that obeys the rational law of

morality is virtuous•Rational law of morality = duty, service to the whole, self-sacrifice…

• Act as if the maxim (premise) from which you act were to become ‘universal’ through your will

Other Movements• German Pietism• Methodism & John Wesley• Great Awakening in English Colonies &

Jonathan Edwards• Roman Catholic Jansenism• Jewish Hasidism• Romantic Movement (late 18th – Early 19th

centuries)

Rembrant Anatomy

Lesson1632

Vemeer

Woman

Weighing

Gold1657

Rubens Country Fair 1635

Velázquez Spinners1599-1660