CHAPTER 9The Age of Enlightenment 18th Century Thought

The Enlightenment

Inspired by the Scientific revolution

German Philosopher Immanuel Kant defined it as “man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity”

Human condition could be improved through science, education, philosophy, economic growth, and political reform

Formative Influences

Isaac Newton-Newtonian physics and the idea of mechanical and mathematical rationality in the physical world

John Locke’s Psychology

Political stability and commercial prosperity in England-example of how enlightened reforms benefitted everyone

Emergence of a print culture Books, Journals, newspapers, and

pamphlets Poetry, prose, and novels Tremendous increase in literacy Growing concerns with everyday life Created a new force in society-public

opinion Influenced how governments

functioned-they had to explain and discuss views openly

Continental governments-censorship

The philosophs

Not usually philosophers in normal sense

Sought to apply reason , criticism, and common sense to the most of the major issues of the day

Most of their followers were from commercial and professional urban classes

Provided intellectual ferment and ideas to undermine traditional practices in religion, politics, the economy, and society

Voltaire-epitome of the enlightenment philosoph Born in 1694 as Francois-Marie Arouet Offended French monarch and nobility with plays

and prose Twice imprisoned in Bastille Exiled to London 1733 Letters to English Praised virtues of English Champion of Religious Liberty Served for 3 years in court of FTG Wrote satire against French and European society Candide- satire attacked war, religious intolerance

and showed deep pessimism about human nature

Voltaire

The Enlightenment and Religion Critics of organized, institutional

religion Religion chief impediment to human

improvement and happiness Opposed Roman Catholic and

Protestant doctrine of original sin and total depravity

Churches intolerant and persecuted minorities and censored new ideas

Church leaders deeply enmeshed in Old Regime

Deism

Religious doctrine that elevated reason Newton posited a rational universe created

by rational God and religion must be based on reason

God kind of a divine watchmaker who created the watch, wound it up, and departed

Opposed superstition, mindless tradition, and religious fanaticism

Strongly anti-clerical Believed in God and life after death where

rewards came based on virtuous life

Toleration

1762-RC authorities in the city of Toulouse execute a Hugenot named Jean Calas-accused of murdering his son to prevent his conversion to RC

1763-Voltaire publishes Treatise on Tolerance 1765-decision reversed

1779-German Gotthold Lessing- Nathan the Wise

Plea for religious toleration of all faiths

Radical enlightenment Criticism of Christianity Vicious attack on Christianity Scottish Philosopher David Hume-Of

Miracles –no empirical evidence of divine miracles of Christianity

Voltaire-Philosophical Dictionary –questioned priests and morality of the Bible

Limited rise of atheism and materialism

Most sought the transformation of religion, rather than abolition

The limits of toleration

View of Jews-characterized as a more primitive type of religion

Views of Islam-mostly through books and religious commentaries that were hostile and misleading

Voltaire-Islam represented one more example of religious fanaticism

The Jewish Enlightenment

Jewish thinkers with emphasis on reason and science

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) Moses Mendelsohn (1729-1786)

Baruch Spinoza

Son of a Jewish merchant in Amsterdam Laid groundwork for enlightenment thought Considered one of the great rationalists on

17th century 1656-excommunicated be Sephardic Jews

of which he was a member Championed toleration and condemned

Judaism God or Nature-questioned the nature of

God

Moses Mendelsohn

German known as Jewish Socrates Advocated the entry of Jews into modern life Jews could be loyal to Judaism with

adherence to rational values

Jerusalem (1783) argued for religious toleration and maintaining distinctive religious Jewish community

Judaism as one religious path revealed by God

Denis Diderot

1751-The Encylcopedia 17 volumes of text-sold between 14-16000

editions Effort of more than 100 authors Subjected to censorship Included the most advanced ideas of

religion, government, and philosophy Included articles on manufacturing, ship-

building, agricultural techniques Ignored divine law and focused on humans

Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nations (1776) The Wealth of Nations Economic liberty foundation of natural

economic system Mercantile system stifled individual freedom Allow individuals to pursue individual self-

interest Regarded as founder of laissez-faire

capitalism Smith allowed for some government activity

in economy-schools, army, navy, roads

Smith 4 stage theory

1. Hunting and gathering 2. Pastoral or herding 3. Agricultural 4. Commercial

Stage 4 higher, more progressive, and more civilized. Justified European economic and political domination of the rest of the world

Montesquieu

The Spirit of the Laws (1748) Held the British constitution as

wisest model No single set of political laws could

apply Was a political conservative Champion of division of power in

government Monarchs should be subject to

constitutional limits on their power and a legislative body should set laws

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Transcended the political and values of his time

Condemned society and blamed much of the evil in society on uneven distribution of property

State of nature good, man corrupted by social institutions

Society the source of human evil

The Social Contract (1762) Outlined the kind of political structure

that would overcome evil of society “All men are born free, and everywhere

they are in chains” Society more important than individual

members Each person could achieve personal

freedom while behaving as a loyal member of a community

Freedom is obedience to the law

Law of the General Will

Will of the majority of the voters Democratic participation would bind the

person to the community The general will must always be right Some people must be forced to be free Disagreed with Adam Smith’s wealth of

nations Wanted people to be virtuous and good,

not as individuals, but as loyal members of a community

Greatly influenced FR and 19th and 20th century

Women and the Enlightenment Women organized the salons of Europe Philosophs as a whole not interested in advancing

the cause of women The encyclopedia did not emphasize the condition

of women needed reform Emphasis on the weaknesses of women Rousseau argued that women and men operate in

separate spheres Women for childrearing and bearing Men for world of politics, economics, citizenship Rousseau very popular with women-role of wife

and mother as noble and fulfilling vocation

Mary Wollstonecraft

1792-Vindication of the Rights of Women

Critic of Rousseau The separate sphere was under male

tyranny Women could never achieve moral or

intellectual identity Broadened the enlightenment vision

to include women

Enlightened Absolutism

Philosophs were willing to use existing political structures to achieve reforms

Monarchial governments that embraced liberal reforms were called enlightened despots

Centralized monarchial authority at the expense of aristocracy, the church, or parlements

Last two decades of 18th century, became more conservative and repressive

Frederick the Great of Prussia Embodied enlightened absolutism Supported by military, Lutheran church,

Junker nobles, and the growing bureaucracy Extensive debate of enlightenment values

and religious toleration Policy of enobling only for merit “the first servant of the state” 1770-Prussian Civil Service Commission-merit Supported intellectual life and professors New codification of Prussian laws

Joseph II of Austria

Son of Maria Theresa and a Humorless person Wanted to improve the lot of his people Sought to increase power of Hapsburgs over the

realm Wanted to reduce Hungarian autonomy Practicing catholic who was religious ly tolerant Sought to bring the RC church under Royal control Made priests employees of the state, loyal to the

state Abolished serfdom and advocated land taxation Brought turmoil to countryside

Catherine the Great of Russia Born a German princess , wife of Peter

III, the mad king Proclaimed empress after the murder of

Peter III Wanted to reform Russia, needed

political and social support 1767-legislative commission-advise her Commission had inconclusive debates

but gathered vast amount of data

Catherine the Great –young and old

Catherine the Great

Autocratic reforms 1785-Charter of the Nobility-guaranteed nobles

rights and privileges-made friends with nobles Policy of economic growth Left serfdom intact, faced Peasant rebellion in

1773 Drive for warm-water ports-warfare with Turks Direct access to Black Sea 1783-Partially annexed Crimea First Partition of Poland-Prussia, Russia, and

Austria