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Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF REMOTE SENSING
Volume EditorEni G. Njoku is a Senior Research Scientist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA. He hasa B.A. from the University of Cambridge, and S.M. and Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His research focuses on spacebornemicrowave sensing with application to land surface hydrology and the global water cycle. Amongst his awards are the NASA Exceptional ServiceMedal (1985) and Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1995).
Section EditorsMichael J. AbramsJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA 91109USA
Ghassem R. AsrarWorld Climate Research ProgrammeWorld Meteorological Organization1211 GenevaSwitzerland
Frank S. MarzanoDepartment of Information EngineeringSapienza University of Rome00184 Rome, Italyand Centre of Excellence CETEMPSUniversity of L'Aquila67100 L'AquilaItaly
Peter J. MinnettMeteorology and Physical OceanographyRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of MiamiMiami, FL 33149USA
Vincent V. SalomonsonDepartment of GeographyUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, UT 84112USA
Vernon H. SinghroyCanada Centre for Remote SensingOttawaOntario K1A 0Y7Canada
F. Joseph TurkJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA 91109USA
Aims of the SeriesThe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Eachvolume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations andreference lists.These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new workspublished so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, andoceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth SciencesSeries. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ and springerreference.com to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” on-line.
About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past25 years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal ofCoastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of theUniversity of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company ofCanada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; southern Africa;Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.
Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked asa petroleum geologist in theMiddle East, been aWW II intelligence officer in the SWPacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, ArcticScandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institutefor Space Studies.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA ofREMOTE SENSING
edited by
ENI G. NJOKUJet Propulsion Laboratory
California Institute of TechnologyPasadena, California
USA
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013953424
ISBN 978-0-387-36698-2This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-0-387-36699-9 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-0-387-36700-2
Springer New York, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London
Printed on acid-free paper
Cover photo: Cloud formations over the western Aleuthian Islands, taken by Landsat 7, 1 June 2000.Credit: US Geological Survey, Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center.
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproducedfrom other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that dueacknowledgment may be made in subsequent editions.
All rights reserved for the contributionsAerosols;Air Pollution;AtmosphericGeneral CirculationModels;Calibration andValidation;Calibration, Optical/InfraredPassive Sensors;Calibration, Synthetic Aperture Radars;CloudProperties;DataProcessing, SAR Sensors; Earth System Models; Emerging Technologies; Emerging Technologies, Free-Space OpticalCommunications; Emerging Technologies, Radar; Emerging Technologies, Radiometer; Geodesy; Geomorphology;Geophysical Retrieval, Forward Models in Remote Sensing; Geophysical Retrieval, Inverse Problems in Remote Sensing;Geophysical Retrieval, Overview; GPS, Occultation Systems; Ionospheric Effects on the Propagation of ElectromagneticWaves; Irrigation Management; Land Surface Roughness; Land-Atmosphere Interactions, Evapotranspiration; LidarSystems; Limb Sounding, Atmospheric;Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO);Mission Costs of Earth-Observing Satellite;Ocean Surface Topography; Ocean-Atmosphere Water Flux and Evaporation; Precision Agriculture; Reflected SolarRadiation Sensors, Multiangle Imaging; Reflected Solar Radiation Sensors, Polarimetric; Sea Level Rise; Sea SurfaceWind/Stress Vector; Solid Earth Mass Transport; Stratospheric Ozone; Terrestrial Snow; Thermal Radiation Sensors(Emitted); Trace Gases, Stratosphere, andMesosphere;Urban Environments, Beijing Case Study;Volcanism;Water Vapor
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from thePublisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed ona computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
Contents
Contributors xi
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgments xxv
Acoustic Radiation 1Alain Weill
Acoustic Tomography, Ocean 4Brian Dushaw
Acoustic Waves, Propagation 11Alain Weill
Acoustic Waves, Scattering 13Alain Weill
Aerosols 16Ralph Kahn
Agricultural Expansion and Abandonment 20Jiaguo Qi
Agriculture and Remote Sensing 22Jerry Hatfield and Susan Moran
Air Pollution 32Annmarie Eldering
Atmospheric General Circulation Models 35Joao Teixeira, Mark Taylor, Anders Perssonand Georgios Matheou
Calibration and Validation 39Andreas Colliander
Calibration, Microwave Radiometers 46Christopher Ruf
Calibration, Optical/Infrared Passive Sensors 47Carol Bruegge
Calibration, Synthetic Aperture Radars 51Anthony Freeman
Calibration, Scatterometers 54David Long
Climate Data Records 58Eric F. Wood
Climate Monitoring and Prediction 58Mathew R. P. Sapiano
Cloud Liquid Water 68Fuzhong Weng
Cloud Properties 70Matthew Lebsock and Steve Cooper
Coastal Ecosystems 73Xiaojun Yang
Commercial Remote Sensing 78William Gail
Cosmic-Ray Hydrometeorology 83Darin Desilets and Marek Zreda
Cost Benefit Assessment 86Molly Macauley
Crop Stress 88Susan Moran
Cryosphere and Polar Region Observing System 91Mark Drinkwater
Cryosphere, Climate Change Effects 98Aixue Hu
Cryosphere, Climate Change Feedbacks 101Peter J. Minnett
Cryosphere, Measurements and Applications 104Roger Barry
Data Access 119Ron Weaver
Data Archival and Distribution 121Mark A. Parsons
Data Archives and Repositories 127Ruth Duerr
Data Assimilation 131Dennis McLaughlin
Data Policies 134Ray Harris
Data Processing, SAR Sensors 136Jakob van Zyl
Decision Fusion, Classificationof Multisource Data 140
Björn Waske and Jón Atli Benediktsson
Earth Radiation Budget, Top-of-AtmosphereRadiation 145
Bing Lin
Earth System Models 146Andrea Donnellan
Electromagnetic Theory and Wave Propagation 150Yang Du
Emerging Applications 159William Gail
Emerging Technologies 162Jason Hyon
Emerging Technologies, Free-Space OpticalCommunications 163
Hamid Hemmati
Emerging Technologies, Lidar 177David M. Tratt
Emerging Technologies, Radar 185Alina Moussessian
Emerging Technologies, Radiometer 186Todd Gaier
Emerging Technologies, Sensor Web 190Mahta Moghaddam, Agnelo Silvaand Mingyan Liu
Environmental Treaties 196Alexander de Sherbinin
Fields and Radiation 201Frank S. Marzano
Fisheries 202Cara Wilson
Forestry 210Dar Roberts
Gamma and X-Radiation 219Enrico Costa and Fabio Muleri
Geodesy 228Calvin Klatt
Geological Mapping Using Earth’sMagnetic Field 232
Vernon H. Singhroy and Mark Pilkington
Geomorphology 237David Pieri
Geophysical Retrieval, Forward Modelsin Remote Sensing 241
Eugene Ustinov
Geophysical Retrieval, Inverse Problemsin Remote Sensing 247
Eugene Ustinov
Geophysical Retrieval, Overview 251Eugene Ustinov
Global Climate Observing System 254Jean-Louis Fellous
Global Earth Observation Systemof Systems (GEOSS) 257
Steffen Fritz
Global Land Observing System 261Johannes A. Dolman
Global Programs, Operational Systems 263Mary Kicza
GPS, Occultation Systems 264Chi O. Ao
vi CONTENTS
Ice Sheets and Ice Volume 269Robert Thomas
Icebergs 281Donald L. Murphy
International Collaboration 284Lisa Robock Shaffer
Ionospheric Effects on the Propagationof Electromagnetic Waves 286
Attila Komjathy
Irrigation Management 291Steven R. Evett, Paul D. Colaizzi, Susan A.O’Shaughnessy, Douglas J. Hunsakerand Robert G. Evans
Land Surface Emissivity 303Alan Gillespie
Land Surface Roughness 311Thomas Farr
Land Surface Temperature 314Alan Gillespie
Land Surface Topography 320G. Bryan Bailey
Land-Atmosphere Interactions, Evapotranspiration 325Joshua B. Fisher
Landslides 328Vernon H. Singhroy
Law of Remote Sensing 332Joanne Irene Gabrynowicz
Lidar Systems 334Robert Menzies
Lightning 339Rachel I. Albrecht, Daniel J. Ceciland Steven J. Goodman
Limb Sounding, Atmospheric 344Nathaniel Livesey
Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) 349Baijun Tian and Duane Waliser
Magnetic Field 358Nils Olsen
Media, Electromagnetic Characteristics 362Yang Du
Microwave Dielectric Properties of Materials 364Martti Hallikainen
Microwave Horn Antennas 375Yahya Rahmat-Samii
Microwave Radiometers 382Niels Skou
Microwave Radiometers, Conventional 386Niels Skou
Microwave Radiometers, Correlation 389Christopher Ruf
Microwave Radiometers, Interferometers 390Manuel Martin-Neira
Microwave Radiometers, Polarimeters 395David Kunkee
Microwave Subsurface Propagation and Scattering 398Alexander Yarovoy
Microwave Surface Scattering and Emission 403David R. Lyzenga
Mission Costs of Earth-Observing Satellites 405Randall Friedl and Stacey Boland
Mission Operations, ScienceApplications/Requirements 407
David L. Glackin
Observational Platforms, Aircraft, and UAVs 409Jeffrey Myers
Observational Systems, Satellite 412David L. Glackin
Ocean Applications of Interferometric SAR 426Roland Romeiser
Ocean Data Telemetry 429Michael R. Prior-Jones
Ocean Internal Waves 433Werner Alpers
Ocean Measurements and Applications,Ocean Color 437
Samantha Lavender
Ocean Modeling and Data Assimilation 446Detlef Stammer
Ocean Surface Topography 455Lee-Lueng Fu
CONTENTS vii
Ocean Surface Velocity 461Bertrand Chapron, Johnny Johannessenand Fabrice Collard
Ocean, Measurements and Applications 469Ian Robinson
Ocean-Atmosphere Water Flux and Evaporation 480W. Timothy Liu and Xiaosu Xie
Operational Transition 489Richard Anthes
Optical/Infrared, Atmospheric Absorption/Transmission, and Media Spectral Properties 492
Gian Luigi Liberti
Optical/Infrared, Radiative Transfer 495Knut Stamnes
Optical/Infrared, Scattering by Aerosolsand Hydrometeors 498
Gian Luigi Liberti
Pattern Recognition and Classification 503Björn Waske and Jón Atli Benediktsson
Polar Ice Dynamics 509James Maslanik
Polar Ocean Navigation 512Lawson Brigham
Policies and Economics 515Roberta Balstad
Precision Agriculture 515Kelly Thorp
Processing Levels 517Ron Weaver
Public-Private Partnerships 520William Gail
Radar, Altimeters 525Keith Raney
Radar, Scatterometers 532David Long
Radar, Synthetic Aperture 536Keith Raney
Radars 547Keith Raney
Radiation (Natural) Within the Earth’sEnvironment 558
Anthony England
Radiation Sources (Natural) and Characteristics 574Anthony England
Radiation, Electromagnetic 576Frank S. Marzano
Radiation, Galactic, and Cosmic Background 581David M. Le Vine
Radiation, Multiple Scattering 585Frank S. Marzano
Radiation, Polarization, and Coherence 588Yang Du
Radiation, Solar and Lunar 591David M. Le Vine
Radiation, Volume Scattering 595Leung Tsang and Kung-Hau Ding
Radiative Transfer, Solution Techniques 606Rodolfo Guzzi
Radiative Transfer, Theory 624Frank S. Marzano
Radio-Frequency Interference (RFI) in PassiveMicrowave Sensing 634
David Kunkee
Rainfall 640Ralph Ferraro
Rangelands and Grazing 653Hunt E. Raymond, Jr.
Reflected Solar Radiation Sensors,Multiangle Imaging 658
David J. Diner
Reflected Solar Radiation Sensors, Polarimetric 663David J. Diner
Reflector Antennas 668Yahya Rahmat-Samii
Remote Sensing and Geologic Structure 681Vernon H. Singhroy and Paul Lowman
Remote Sensing, Historical Perspective 684Vincent V. Salomonson
viii CONTENTS
Remote Sensing, Physics and Techniques 691David L. Glackin
Resource Exploration 702Fred A. Kruse and Sandra L. Perry
SAR-Based Bathymetry 719Han Wensink and Werner Alpers
Sea Ice Albedo 722Donald Perovich
Sea Ice Concentration and Extent 727Josefino C. Comiso
Sea Level Rise 743Josh Willis
Sea Surface Salinity 747Gary Lagerloef
Sea Surface Temperature 754Peter J. Minnett
Sea Surface Wind/Stress Vector 759W. Timothy Liu and Xiaosu Xie
Severe Storms 767Charles A. III Doswell
Snowfall 780Ralf Bennartz
Soil Moisture 783Yann Kerr
Soil Properties 788Alfredo Huete
Solid Earth Mass Transport 791Erik Ivins
Stratospheric Ozone 796Michelle Santee
Subsidence 800Stuart Marsh and Martin Culshaw
Surface Radiative Fluxes 806Rachel T. Pinker
Surface Truth 815Christopher Ruf
Surface Water 816Michael Durand
Terrestrial Snow 821Son V. Nghiem, Dorothy K. Hall, James L. Fosterand Gregory Neumann
Thermal Radiation Sensors (Emitted) 830Simon Hook
Trace Gases, Stratosphere, and Mesosphere 834Nathaniel Livesey
Trace Gases, Troposphere - Detection from Space 838Pieternel F. Levelt, J. P. Veefkind and K. F. Boersma
Trafficability of Desert Terrains 846Charles Hibbitts
Tropospheric Winds 849Chris Velden
Ultraviolet Remote Sensing 853Arlin Krueger
Ultraviolet Sensors 860Arlin Krueger
Urban Environments, Beijing Case Study 869Son V. Nghiem, Alessandro Sorichetta, ChristopherD. Elvidge, Christopher Small, Deborah Balk,Uwe Deichmann and Gregory Neumann
Urban Heat Island 878Lela Prashad
Vegetation Indices 883Alfredo Huete
Vegetation Phenology 886John Kimball
Volcanism 890Michael J. Abrams
Water and Energy Cycles 895Taikan Oki and Pat J.-F. Yeh
Water Resources 903Taikan Oki and Pat J.-F. Yeh
Water Vapor 909Eric Fetzer
Weather Prediction 912Peter Bauer
Wetlands 921John Melack
Author Index 923
Subject Index 925
CONTENTS ix
Contributors
Michael J. AbramsJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Rachel I. AlbrechtDivisão de Satélites e Sistemas Ambientais(DSA/CPTEC), Instituto Nacional de PesquisasEspaciais (INPE)12630-000 Cachoeira Paulista, [email protected]
Werner AlpersInstitute of OceanographyUniversity of Hamburg20146 [email protected]
Richard AnthesUniversity Corporation for Atmospheric ResearchBoulder, CO [email protected]
Chi O. AoJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
G. Bryan BaileyUSGS Earth Resources Observation and Science CenterSioux Falls, SD [email protected]
Deborah BalkSchool of Public Affairs, Baruch CollegeCity University of New YorkNew York, [email protected]
Roberta BalstadCIESINColumbia UniversityPalisades, NY [email protected]
Roger BarryNational Snow and Ice Data CenterNSIDC 449 UCBUniversity of ColoradoBoulder, CO [email protected]
Peter BauerEuropean Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF)Shinfield ParkReading RG2 [email protected]
Jón Atli BenediktssonFaculty of Electrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of Iceland107 [email protected]
Ralf BennartzAtmospheric and Oceanic Sciences DepartmentUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI [email protected]
K. F. BoersmaKoninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut (KNMI)3732 GK, De BiltThe NetherlandsandTechnical University Eindhoven (TUE)5612 AZ, EindhovenThe [email protected]
Stacey BolandJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA 91109USA
Lawson BrighamUniversity of AlaskaFairbanks, AK [email protected]
Carol BrueggeJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Daniel J. CecilMarshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), NationalAeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)Huntsville, AL [email protected]
Bertrand ChapronSatellite Oceanography Laboratory, IFREMERPlouzané [email protected]
Paul D. ColaizziUSDA-ARS Conservation and Production ResearchLaboratoryBushland, TX [email protected]
Fabrice CollardCLS, Division RadarPlouzané [email protected]
Andreas CollianderJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Josefino C. ComisoCryospheric Sciences Laboratory, Code 615Earth Sciences Division, NASA Goddard SpaceFlight CenterGreenbelt, MD [email protected]
Steve CooperJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA 91109USA
Enrico CostaIstituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, INAF00133 [email protected]
Martin CulshawHonorary Research Associate, British Geological Survey,KeyworthNottingham NG12 1AEUKandHonorary Visiting Professor, School of Civil Engineering,University of Birmingham, EdgbastonBirmingham B15 2TTUK
Alexander de SherbininCenter for International Earth Science InformationNetwork (CIESIN)Columbia UniversityPalisades, NY [email protected]
xii CONTRIBUTORS
Uwe DeichmannDevelopment Research Group, The World BankWashington, [email protected]
Darin DesiletsHydroinnova LLCAlbuquerque, NM [email protected]
David J. DinerJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Kung-Hau DingAir Force Research LaboratoryWright-Patterson AFBDayton, OH 45433USA
Johannes A. DolmanDepartment of Earth SciencesVU University Amsterdam1081 AmsterdamThe [email protected]
Andrea DonnellanScience DivisionJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Charles A. III DoswellDoswell Scientific ConsultingNorman, OK [email protected]
Mark DrinkwaterMission Science DivisionEuropean Space Agency, ESA/ESTEC2201 AZ Noordwijk ZHThe [email protected]
Yang DuZhejiang University310027 HangzhouPeople’s Republic of [email protected]
Ruth DuerrNational Snow and Ice Data Center, CIRES 449 UCB,University of ColoradoBoulder, CO [email protected]
Michael DurandSchool of Earth SciencesThe Ohio State University275 Mendenhall LaboratoryColumbus, OH [email protected]
Brian DushawApplied Physics LaboratoryUniversity of WashingtonSeattle, WA [email protected]
Annmarie ElderingJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Christopher D. ElvidgeEarth Observation Group, NOAA-NESDIS NationalGeophysical Data Center E/GC2Boulder, [email protected]
Anthony EnglandCollege of EngineeringUniversity of MichiganAnn Arbor, MI [email protected]
Robert G. EvansUSDA-ARSSidney, MT [email protected]
Steven R. EvettUSDA-ARS Conservation and Production ResearchLaboratoryBushland, TX [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xiii
Thomas FarrJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Jean-Louis FellousCommittee on Space Research (COSPAR) Secretariatc/o CNES-2, place Maurice Quentin75039 [email protected]
Ralph FerraroNOAA/NESDIS, ESSIC/CICSCollege Park, MD [email protected]
Eric FetzerJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Joshua B. FisherJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
James L. FosterHydrological Sciences Laboratory, Code 617National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationGoddard Space Flight CenterGreenbelt, [email protected]
Anthony FreemanJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Randall FriedlJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Steffen FritzInternational Institute for Applied Systems Analysis2361 [email protected]
Lee-Lueng FuJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Joanne Irene GabrynowiczNational Center for Remote Sensing, Air, and Space LawThe University of Mississippi School of LawMissisippi, MS [email protected]
Todd GaierJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
William GailGlobal Weather CorporationBoulder, CO [email protected]
Alan GillespieDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesUniversity of WashingtonSeattle, WA [email protected]
David L. GlackinLos Angeles, CAUSA
Steven J. GoodmanNational Environmental Satellite, Data, and InformationService (NESDIS), National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA)Silver Spring, MD [email protected]
Rodolfo GuzziAgenzia Spaziale Italiana ASI00133 [email protected]
xiv CONTRIBUTORS
Dorothy K. HallCryospheric Sciences Laboratory, Code 615NASA/Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbelt, MD [email protected]
Martti HallikainenAalto University00076 Aalto [email protected]
Ray HarrisDepartment of GeographyUniversity College LondonLondon WC1E [email protected]
Jerry HatfieldNational Laboratory for Agriculture and the EnvironmentAmes, IA [email protected]
Hamid HemmatiJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Charles HibbittsApplied Physics LaboratoryLaurel, MD [email protected]
Simon HookJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Aixue HuClimate and Global Dynamics DivisionNational Center for Atmospheric ResearchBoulder, CO [email protected]
Alfredo HuetePlant Functional Biology and Climate Change ClusterFaculty of ScienceUniversity of Technology2007 Sydney, [email protected]
Douglas J. HunsakerUSDA-ARSMaricopa, AZ [email protected]
E. Raymond Hunt, Jr.USDA-ARS Hydrology and Remote Sensing LaboratoryBeltsville, MD [email protected]
Jason HyonJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Erik IvinsJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Johnny JohannessenNansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center5006 [email protected]
Ralph KahnNASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbelt, MD [email protected]
Yann KerrCNES/CESBIO31401 [email protected]
Mary KiczaNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA)Washington, DC [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xv
John KimballFlathead Lake Biological StationUniversity of MontanaPolson, MT [email protected]
Calvin KlattGeodetic Survey DivisionNatural Resources CanadaOttawa, ON K1A [email protected]
Attila KomjathyJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Arlin KruegerAtmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory(Code 614)NASA/Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbelt, MD [email protected]
Fred A. KrusePhysics Department and Remote Sensing CenterNaval Postgraduate SchoolMonterey, CA [email protected]
David KunkeeThe Aerospace CorporationLos Angeles, CA [email protected]
Gary LagerloefESRSeattle, WA [email protected]
Samantha LavenderPixalytics LtdPlymouth, Devon PL6 [email protected]
David M. Le VineCode 615, Cryopsheric Sciences BranchNASA/Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbelt, MD [email protected]
Matthew LebsockJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Pieternel F. LeveltKoninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut (KNMI)3730 AE De BiltThe NetherlandsandDelft University of Technology5612 AE EindhovenThe [email protected]
Gian Luigi LibertiCNR/ISAC00133 [email protected]
Bing LinNASA Langley Research Center, MS 420Hampton, VA [email protected]
Mingyan LiuElectrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of MichiganAnn Arbor, MI 48109USA
W. Timothy LiuJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Nathaniel LiveseyJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
xvi CONTRIBUTORS
David LongDepartment of Electrical and Computer EngineeringBYU Center for Remote SensingBrigham Young UniversityProvo, UT [email protected]
Paul LowmanNASA Goddard, Code 698.0Greenbelt, MD [email protected]
David R. LyzengaCollege of Engineering, Naval Architecture and MarineEngineeringUniversity of MichiganAnn Arbor, MI [email protected]
Molly MacauleyResources for the FutureWashington, DC [email protected]
Stuart MarshNottingham Geospatial InstituteThe University of NottinghamNottingham Geospatial Building, Triumph RoadNottingham NG7 [email protected]
Manuel Martin-NeiraEuropean Space Agency (ESA-ESTEC)Keplerlaan 12200 NoordwijkThe [email protected]
Frank S. MarzanoDepartment of Information EngineeringSapienza University of Rome00184 RomeItalyandCentre of Excellence CETEMPSUniversity of L'Aquila67100 L'[email protected]
James MaslanikDepartment of Aerospace Engineering SciencesUniversity of Colorado, CCARBoulder, CO [email protected]
Georgios MatheouJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Dennis McLaughlinDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridge, MA [email protected]
John MelackDepartment of Ecology, Evolution and Marine BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaSanta Barbara, CA [email protected]
Robert MenziesJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Peter J. MinnettRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of MiamiMiami, FL [email protected]
Mahta MoghaddamElectrical Engineering – ElectrophysicsUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos Angeles, CA [email protected]
Susan MoranUSDA ARS Southwest Watershed Research CenterTuscon, AZ [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Alina MoussessianJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Fabio MuleriIstituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, INAF00133 [email protected]
Donald L. MurphyInternational Ice Patrol, US Coast GuardNew London, CT [email protected]
Jeffrey MyersNASA/Ames Research Center, Airborne Science andTechnology LaboratoryUniversity of California, Santa CruzMS244-15Moffett Field, CA [email protected]
Gregory NeumannJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Son V. NghiemJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Taikan OkiInstitute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo153-8505 [email protected]
Nils OlsenDTU SpaceTechnical University of Denmark2800 Kgs. [email protected]
Susan A. O’ShaughnessyUSDA-ARS Conservation and Production ResearchLaboratoryBushland, TX [email protected]
Mark A. ParsonsCenter for a Digital SocietyRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteTroy, NY [email protected]
Donald PerovichUSACE Cold Regions Research and EngineeringLaboratoryHanover, NH [email protected]
Sandra L. PerryPerry Remote Sensing, LLCDenver, CO [email protected]
Anders PerssonUnited Kingdom Meteorological OfficeExeterDevon, EX1 3PBUK
David PieriJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Mark PilkingtonGeological Survey of CanadaOttawa, ON K1A [email protected]
Rachel T. PinkerDepartment of Atmospheric and Oceanic ScienceUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, MD [email protected]
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
Lela PrashadSchool of Earth and Space Exploration, 100 Cities ProjectArizona State UniversityTempe, AZ [email protected]
Michael R. Prior-JonesBritish Antarctic SurveyCambridge CB3 [email protected]
Jiaguo QiDepartment of Geography/CGCEOMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing, MI [email protected]
Yahya Rahmat-SamiiDepartment of Electrical EngineeringUniversity of California at Los AngelesLos Angeles, CA [email protected]
Keith RaneyApplied Physics LaboratoryJohns Hopkins UniversityLaurel, MD [email protected]
Dar RobertsDepartment of GeographyUniversity of CaliforniaSanta Barbara, CA [email protected]
Ian RobinsonOcean and Earth ScienceUniversity of Southampton, at National OceanographyCentreSouthampton SO14 [email protected]
Roland RomeiserRosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric ScienceUniversity of MiamiMiami, FL [email protected]
Christopher RufDepartment of Atmospheric, Oceanic and Space SciencesUniversity of MichiganAnn Arbor, MI [email protected]
Vincent V. SalomonsonDepartment of Geography, University of UtahSouth Jordan, UT [email protected]
Michelle SanteeJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Mathew R. P. SapianoUniversity of Maryland - College ParkCollege Park, MD [email protected]
Lisa Robock ShafferMC 0553 Rady School of ManagementUniversity of California, San DiegoLa Jolla, CA [email protected]
Agnelo SilvaElectrical Engineering – ElectrophysicsUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos Angeles, CA 0089USA
Vernon H. SinghroyApplications Development SectionNatural Resources CanadaCanada Centre for Remote SensingOttawa, ON K1A [email protected]
Niels SkouNational Space InstituteTechnical University of Denmark2800 [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xix
Christopher SmallLamont Doherty Earth ObservatoryMarine Geology and GeophysicsColumbia UniversityPalisades, [email protected]
Alessandro SorichettaDipartimento di Scienze della Terra “A. Desio”Universita' degli Studi di Milano20122 [email protected]
Detlef StammerInstitut für Meereskunde, Zentrum für Marine undAtmosphärische WissenschaftenUniversität Hamburg20146 [email protected]
Knut StamnesStevens Institute of Technology, Castle Point on HudsonHoboken, NJ [email protected]
Mark TaylorSandia National LaboratoryAlbuquerque, New Mexico [email protected]
Joao TeixeiraJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Robert ThomasSigma Space66-400 Gorzow [email protected]
Kelly ThorpUSDA-ARS U.S. Arid-Land Agricultural ResearchCenterMaricopa, AZ [email protected]
Baijun TianJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
David M. TrattThe Aerospace CorporationLos Angeles, CA [email protected]
Leung TsangPaul Allen CenterDepartment of Electrical EngineeringUniversity of WashingtonSeattle, WA [email protected]
Eugene UstinovJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Jakob van ZylJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
J. P. VeefkindKoninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut (KNMI)3732 GK, De BiltThe NetherlandsandEindhoven University of Technology5612 AE EindhovenThe [email protected]
Chris VeldenUniversity of Wisconsin, CIMSSMadison, WI [email protected]
Duane WaliserJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
xx CONTRIBUTORS
Björn WaskeInstitute of Geodesy and GeoinformationUniversity of Bonn53115 [email protected]
Ron WeaverNational Snow and Ice Data Center, Cooperative Institutefor Research in Environmental SciencesUniversity of ColoradoBoulder, CO [email protected]
Alain WeillBur. JussieuLATMOS, Laboratoire Atmosphere MilieuxObservations Spatiales75005 [email protected]
Fuzhong WengCenter for Satellite Applications and Research (STAR)National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationCollege Park, MD [email protected]
Han WensinkARGOSS BV8325ZH VollenhoveThe [email protected]
Josh WillisJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Cara WilsonSouthwest Fisheries Science CenterNOAA/NMFS, Environmental Research DivisionPacific Grove, CA [email protected]
Eric F. WoodDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringPrinceton UniversityPrinceton, NJ [email protected]
Xiaosu XieJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA [email protected]
Xiaojun YangDepartment of GeographyFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, FL [email protected]
Alexander YarovoyDelft University of Technology2628 CN DelftThe [email protected]
Pat J.-F. YehDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringNational University of Singapore117576 [email protected]
Marek ZredaDepartment of Hydrology and Water ResourcesUniversity of ArizonaTucson, AZ [email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS xxi
Preface
During the past few decades, the emergence of remotesensing as a discipline – its science, instruments, missions,and applications – has inspired new and comprehensivestudies of the Earth. Detailed observations of Earth’s land,ocean and atmospheric processes, and measurements ofhitherto unexplored geophysical phenomena have beenmade possible by remote sensing instruments on ground-based, airborne, and spaceborne platforms. In particular,the unique vantage point of space provides spatially exten-sive and global perspectives of Earth. Frequent measure-ments, made hourly, daily, or weekly, over extendedperiods of years to decades, depending on the observingsystem and its configuration, have enabled comprehensivestudies of Earth’s global system. Remote sensing has thusprofoundly altered our understanding of the world inwhich we live, and has revolutionized the approaches weuse to study our environment. Each year the growing num-ber of Earth observing satellites, and the increasingly hugeamounts of data and information provided, yield newknowledge and greater appreciation of the changes occur-ring on our planet, with important implications for futuregenerations of Earth inhabitants. This encyclopedia isa comprehensive reference work on Earth remote sensingthat presents the foundations, principles, and state of theart of remote sensing and describes the diverse applica-tions it serves. It covers the concepts, techniques, instru-mentation, data analysis, interpretation, and applicationsof remote sensing. This volume is part of the Encyclopediaof Earth Science series and is organized in the same styleas other volumes in the series. The scientific disciplinescovered by the series have all benefited in one way oranother from the new understanding and discoveriesafforded by remote sensing. It is thus timely for publica-tion of an encyclopedia that can link these disciplinesand the remote sensing techniques relevant to them in anintegrated framework.
The focus of the encyclopedia is on remote sensing ofEarth – its atmosphere, oceans, cryosphere, and land
surface and subsurface. Some of the techniques describedin this volume have their origins in the disciplines of astron-omy and astrophysics, and the study of the stars and planetsfor which, until recently, remote sensing was the onlymeans of obtaining observational scientific data. Whenapplied to Earth, these techniques have blossomed intoa remarkably diverse and increasingly sophisticated set ofscientific, technological, and computational approaches thatall fall under the umbrella of remote sensing. The rapidgrowth of remote sensing as a discipline is evidenced bythe large number of scientific journals now devoted to thisfield, and the number of courses and degree programsoffered at universities around the world. The measurementand interpretation of radiation scattered and emitted byEarth’s atmosphere, surface, and subsurface is what wegenerally mean when we speak of Earth remote sensing.Thesemeasurements are obtained by instruments on remoteplatforms that include satellites, aircraft, balloons, drones,trucks, and stationary towers. Remote sensing instrumentstake many forms and are designed to measure electromag-netic radiation in specific wavelength regions of the broadelectromagnetic spectrum; some instruments use otherforms of radiation such as acoustic radiation.Measurementsfrom the wide array of instruments, operating on the varietyof available platforms available, can be processed and ana-lyzed to extract characteristic information about Earth andits constituent biological, chemical, and physical structures,at resolutions from centimeters to thousands of kilometers.This remotely sensed information can be used on its ownor combined with direct or ‘in situ’measurements and geo-physical models to give a more comprehensive understand-ing of the diversity of Earth science phenomena, some ofwhichwould be very limitedwithout the unique perspectivebrought by remote sensing.
It is clear that an attempt to fully cover the breadth anddepth of topics in remote sensing is a daunting task. Never-theless, the need for a compendium that can be used asa reference work for this field, as a living document that
can be updated periodically to capture new advances, isa pressing one. It is with this aim in mind that the SpringerEncyclopedia of Remote Sensing was conceived. Both thisprint version of the encyclopedia, which can be updatedwith revisions once every several years, and an onlineversion, which can be updated on a more frequent basisby authors of individual entries, are provided. The onlineversion can accommodate introduction of new entriesas the need for new topics or treatments emerges.The encyclopedia entries cover topics that include broadintroductory surveys as well as more in-depth treatment ofsome subjects. The entries treat topics of the physical prin-ciples of remote sensing in different wavelength regimes,propagation and scattering of radiation, geophysicalmodels, remote sensing instrumentation, retrieval methods,remote sensing platforms and observational configurations.The models and retrieval methods are described withreference to specific applications in atmosphere, ocean,cryosphere, land, and solid earth geophysics. These applica-tions include human impacts of climate change, and theenabling interdisciplinary science, as well as applicationsof direct societal benefit such as human health, foodsecurity, and prediction and mitigation of natural hazards.Earth remote sensing from space has flourished in the pastfew decades, and has become a truly global enterprisethrough development of international collaborations andpartnerships, with investments from an increasing numberof countries in building and operating satellite observationalsystems. Several entries in this volume have been devotedto describing these programs, and associated internationalpolicies and principles.
This encyclopedia is designed to support the needs ofstudents, teachers, and professionals across a broad
spectrum of science, technology, and societal applica-tions related to Earth remote sensing. The intendedaudience includes those with observational interests inthe fields of oceanography, atmospheric sciences, meteo-rology, climate, cryospheric studies, hydrology, geology,solid earth geophysics, ecology, agronomy, forestry,environmental pollution, geography, land use and socialstudies, among others. The target audience also includesthose with interests in remote sensing theory andpractice, electromagnetic propagation, radiative transfermodeling, remote sensing instruments, spacecraftsystems and orbits, environmental policy and decision-making, resource planning, and monitoring and forecast-ing of extreme events and natural hazards. In thecommercial sector, economists, legal and insurancecompanies, and commercial and industrial concerns rely-ing on the production, marketing and availability ofvalue-added remote sensing products will also find theencyclopedia a valuable resource. The entries arepresented in alphabetical order with titles that aredesigned to aid searches for specific topics. Cross-referencing using keywords to related entries is alsoprovided to support efficient searches for information ofinterest to readers. The entries provide bibliographiesfor further in-depth reading. In summary, though itcannot be claimed that this encyclopedia represents anexhaustive treatment or complete coverage of the fieldof Earth remote sensing, it is hoped that the volume willserve as a comprehensive and dynamic introduction,and initial entry point, to inspire further reading andstudy of this exciting and rapidly developing field.
September 2013 Eni G. Njoku
xxiv PREFACE
Acknowledgments
A work the size of this encyclopedia inevitably relies onthe help and cooperation of a large number of people, onlysome of whom can be individually identified and thankedhere. My particular thanks go to the Board ofSection Editors, a group of diverse and highly respectedremote sensing scientists. To Mike Abrams, GhassemAsrar, Frank Marzano, Peter Minnett, Vince Salomonson,Vern Singhroy, and Joe Turk, thank you for keeping thisproject on course by helping to choose the topics that formthe entries, suggesting high-quality authors, reviewing theinitial manuscripts, and finally checking proofs with yourselected groups of authors as well as writing importantcontributions yourselves. I also wish to acknowledge thegreat help of Roberta Balstad, Farouk El-Baz, MoustafaChahine, Jean-Marie Dubois, A.J. Chen, Robert Gurney,Jim Smith, and Guido Visconti who contributed to theearly selection of topics and authors for the encyclopedia.My thanks are due also to Tom Farr who assisted me withthe editorial duties during a critical stage in the project.
This leads to the largest group I wish to acknowledge,the authors of the 170 entries that range in size fromseveral hundred words up to major contributions ofseveral thousand words. Many authors took on more thanone entry within their specialty area. Due to the length oftime required to produce a volume of this type many
authors who submitted entries early had to waita considerable amount of time before their entries werefinally published. To these authors I especially wish toexpress my thanks for their patience and dedication tothe completion of the project, and I hope they find the finalvolume worth the wait.
At the production end of the project has been the staff ofSpringer. Their help, understanding, and cooperation,especially when problems needed to be overcome, issomething that cannot be appreciated enough. Theirpatient discussions and exchanges with the authors andboard members did much to maintain the smooth progressof the project. Special acknowledgment should go to Petravan Steenbergen and Sylvia Blago who provided me withencouragement through many difficult periods, and toSimone Giesler, all of who were involved with theencyclopedia from start to finish. I must also acknowledgethe rewarding environment of my host institution andcolleagues, all of whom provided a rich source of motiva-tion and ideas in the field of remote sensing to inspirea publication of this type. My final appreciation goes tomy wife Mary whose patience and support over the yearshas been a major factor in my ability to undertake this task,and to my son Eni Jr. who reminds me constantly of thepower of positive thinking.