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ELAM

Compiled and Edited by Phil Elam ~ September 2010

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Table of Contents

Ancient Land of Elam............................................................................................................................4

Elam and Mesopotamia.........................................................................................................................5

Elam In The Bible..................................................................................................................................8

The Elam Motto...................................................................................................................................10

The Elamite Kings................................................................................................................................10

The Elamites........................................................................................................................................11

The Elamite’s Land...............................................................................................................12

The Middle Elamite Period....................................................................................................12

The Neo-Elamite Period........................................................................................................13

The Old Elamite Period.........................................................................................................14

Elam: A Brief Overview.......................................................................................................................14

Economy...............................................................................................................................15

Governance..........................................................................................................................15

Religion and Culture.............................................................................................................15

History..................................................................................................................................15

Elamite Writing....................................................................................................................................16

Elam; Elamites....................................................................................................................................17

1. Geographical Position and Names....................................................................................17

2. Surface Configuration.......................................................................................................18

3. Mountain Ranges..............................................................................................................18

4. Rivers...............................................................................................................................18

5. Climate.............................................................................................................................19

6. Vegetation........................................................................................................................19

7. Fauna................................................................................................................................19

8. The Population..................................................................................................................20

9. The Principal Cities...........................................................................................................20

10. Apirti and the "Bandit Nations".......................................................................................20

11. The Languages of Elam..................................................................................................21

12. History............................................................................................................................21

Elam And Susa, The Capital................................................................................................................27

Elam: The Land..................................................................................................................................33

Elam and War......................................................................................................................................36

Why Is Elam So Significant?................................................................................................................36

A. Historical Background Of Elam And Susa (Shush, Shushan).............................................36

B. Biblical History Of Elam....................................................................................................37

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C. Prophecy About Elam.......................................................................................................37

Scottish and English History................................................................................................................40

Scotland: The Boernicians....................................................................................................41

Elam – Name Analysis Study...............................................................................................................42

Elam and the Internet.........................................................................................................................43

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Ancient Land of Elam

Iran’s cultural history dates back to around 6000 BC. Clay figurines from this era have been found in various places on the Iranian plateau and the Louvre in Paris has a good collection. A lot of what we know about the people inhabiting the land comes from Mesopotamian cuneiform texts. Mesopotamia was certainly the center of civilization up to 600 BC. Rich agriculturally but lacking in other resources.

According to Mesopotamian texts, the Eastern part of their land, Elam, was occupied by a people called the Elamites. Indigenous to the country, and speaking an agglutinative non-Semitic language still not well understood to this day. Khuzestan was the center of their loosely organized federation of states which stretched north into Lurestan, south to Fars, and as far as Bushehr on the Gulf. Important Elamite Cities such as Awan or Simash are still to be located. Other important Elamite sites however have been excavated such as Choga Zanbil, Haft Tape and Susa on the Khuzestan plain; and Tape Malyan (Anshan) on the Marv Dasht plain near Persepolis in Fars.

Susa was always the pride and joy of the Elamites and later the Persians, a city that stood for 5000 years until totally sacked and raised to the ground by the Mongols in the 13th C AD, maybe a reason why we have to refer to Mesopotamian texts for the history of Elam.

The Elamites’ mountainous land gave them wood, marble, alabaster, lapis lazuli, metal ores, precious stones all of which were sought by the Mesopotamians who were rich agriculturally but short on raw materials. Susa soon became a trading center with routes stretching as far as Sistan, Balouchestan, Afghanistan and India.

The love hate relationship that existed between the Elamites and their Mesopotamian neighbors-the Assyrians heightened c. 647 BC when Elam then a mighty kingdom fell to Ashurbanipal. Who recorded his devastation of Susa as an act of avenge for the humiliations the Elamites had inflicted on the Mesopotamians over the centuries. “I devastated the land of Elam and on their lands I sowed salt” he said.

Upon the death of the ruthless Ashurbanipal his own royal cities were being sacked by the enemies he had created amongst them the powers now developing in Iran namely the Medes and the Persians. Iran which basically means the land of the Aryans was since 1000 BC being inhabited by Indo-Europeans who had begun migrating entering the plateau from beyond the Caucasus via routes around the Caspian Sea. Those settled in the northern and central areas were called the Medes and those settled in the Fars area were called the Persians. These Indo-European newcomers were soon involved in the conflicts between the Elamites, Babylonians, and Assyrian empires. The Medes were victorious from these conflicts when they defeated the Assyrians in 612 BC destroying Nineveh. In 550 BC Cyrus, challenged the Median Astyages - his wife’s grandfather - and captured the Median Capital Ekbatana ( Hamadan ). Cyrus then made peace with the Medians and consolidated a Persian/ Median Empire by utilizing Median and Persian administrators (satraps). Having consolidated his eastern fronts, he then set to take Babylon, which fell to his hands without a shot being fired. In contrast to Ashurbanipal’s salt sowing statements, this is what Cyrus had to say when he conquered Babylon:

“….When I, well-disposed, entered Babylon, I established the seat of government in the royal palace amidst jubilation and rejoicing. Marduk, the great God, caused the big-hearted inhabitants of Babylon to…me. I sought daily to worship him. My numerous troops moved about undisturbed in the midst of Babylon. I did not allow any to terrorize the land of Sumer and

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Akkad. I kept in view the needs of Babylon and all its sanctuaries to promote their well being. The citizens of Babylon… I lifted their unbecoming yoke. Their dilapidated dwellings I restored. I put an end to their misfortunes….”.

This he inscribed in cuneiform on a clay cylinder which was discovered in 1879 and is now know as his declaration of the “Rights of Nations”, now kept at the British Museum, London.

Elam and Mesopotamia

The development of human organization can be traced through Iranian and Mesopotamian archeology, starting with the society of Paleolithic hunters in the caves of Kurdistan and the Caspian Coast. Society progressed “here in the nursery of modern man” to gathering and Neolithic agriculture, within a radius of few miles at most from the Belt and Hutu caves. With the introduction of irrigation, most probably in the highlands of Kurdistan, the social system changed from loose tribal family groups to complex city societies with forceful leadership.

The cooperation within large societies created wealth, fostered knowledge and highly complex religious practices and fathered accounting and writing.

The Iranian Plateau straddles the crossroads of our world, providing a continuously snow free route between Europe, the Mediterranean and Egypt, India and lands east. The summer road over the Iranian plateau leads to Transoxiana and beyond to China. The winter road crosses South Iran to the Indus. The states along this route profited from the trade, often becoming dependent on it, and their isolation was reduced.

The history of the entire area is one of constant conflict for supremacy. The control of the water upstream is vital for irrigation. The control of the city downstream was important for trade. Looting increased wealth, the enslaving of citizens of neighboring cities, a work force. As the access to the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean became easier, the profits were increased. A pattern of construction, destruction and reformation of empires followed.

At the same time there was everlasting danger from the nomadic Semitic tribes of the Arabian Desert and, Inter, from the people pushing towards Mesopotamia from Central Asia through the mountains of Iran. Whenever there was any weakness in the defense of the Mesopotamian cities and states, nomads took over. Whenever a new wave of immigration arrived the pressure on Mesopotamia was increased. The conquerors created new dynasties, but in so doing accepted the luxuries of city life, bowing to the immutable necessities of settled agricultural society and irrigation farming and were assimilated.

The geography of the area along the lower reaches of Tigris and Euphrates seems to have differed greatly from today (although some geologists dispute this). The Mesopotamian Euphrates and Tigris and the Iranian Karoon and Karkheh each entered separately into the Persian Gulf, the first two close to the city of Ur below modern Baghdad, and the Iranian pair further down the coast. The swamps reached further upstream than today and separated Sumer from Elam. The silting process, especially from the swift flowing Karoon draining from the Zagros Mountains, continued over the centuries - as it still continues - turning shallow gulf water into marshes and marshlands into terra firma until today’s situation arose.

Animal husbandry started in the Iranian highlands with the domestication of the sheep and moved down onto the great alluvial pastures as the herds multiplied. Primitive agriculture began in the lush Caspian belt, irrigation developed from damming in the pleasant highland vales fed

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by easily controlled mountain streams and as population increased and engineering technology improved, moved down to the great rivers.

The Sumerians migrated to the region of Ur most likely from the east, from the drying-up highlands of Iran, or possibly from the Indus Valley, to establish the first large city civilization. The origin of the Elamites of Southwest Iran is completely unclear. The Sumerian language is not related to any language spoken today. Elamite probably also bears no relation to living languages, but not enough of it is known to be certain.

The cultural development or Sumer and Elam ran parallel. A script was in use in Elam (Kerman) simultaneous to the first pictorial writing in Ur (3000 B.C.). Temple structures in both areas had the same ziggurat form, the man-made mountain reminiscent of their highland origins. Many cultic and religious habits were the same throughout Mesopotamia; the snake cult of Elam however was distinct and foreign.

Elam controlled the plain between the Zagros Mountains and the swamps of the two rivers as well as the entire Iranian Plateau to the great salt desert. This gave the Elamites great advantages, as suppliers of gold, timber, stone and other basic raw materials, which had to be imported by the civilizations in the alluvial plain. At times, when the lowlands of Elam were overrun by invaders from Mesopotamia, indigenous Elamite dynasties recovered the loss after weathering the storm by withdrawing to the mountains. While dynasties and population groups in Mesopotamia changed drastically, Elam retained continuity.

Metallurgy and the introduction of the chariot introduced revolutionary changes. Dependence on horses and metals from the mountains of Iran and Eastern Anatolia grew, and control of the source was vital. Larger armies could be formed and greater distances covered. The spoils accrued by successful war became ever more luring.

The basic policy however remained the same and the cruelty displayed in the magnificent relieves of Khorsabad and Nineveh bears mute witness: heaps of bodies floating down river, burning cities, enslaved populations, beasts loaded with loot underscore the terror. The king is glorified for his prowess with the chariot and his skill in killing lions.

Two important changes occurred after 1000 B.C. The rivers pushed the land further out into the Persian Gulf and fused to form the Arvand Rood. The swamps receded down river. This changed and weakened the strategic position of Elam.

By 850 additional small tribal groups of Aryan stock, including Persians and Medes, infiltrated the mountains of Kurdistan and Fars, ringing Elam. The pattern of their nomadic life centered around herding of animals from the warm winter pastures on the fringes of the plain to the rich green meadows of the mountains in summer, thus avoiding the parched land and heat of the lowlands of Mesopotamia and Elam in summer.

Internecine strife between small tribal bands over migration routes, water holes and better pastures prevented any large-scale concerted action. However, groups banded together to raid the trade caravans bringing goods to the plains. Occasionally small settlements were robbed. The association with established cultures of Urartu, Elam, Babylonia and Assyria affected tribal life but little. Tribal manpower however was used as levies in the armies and the naturally truculent tribesmen learned the finer arts of warfare.

The supply of horses and metals from the mountains was so crucial that the superpower of the day (800-600 B.C.), Assyria, was forced to take steps to protect its trade routes. Attempts were made to control the entire axis of the Mediterranean harbors and the mouth of the Persian Gulf.

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Great successes were achieved by Assyria under great leadership. It is known from the clay-tablet records, with details often filled in by archaeological excavations that the Babylonians and Elamites formed a defensive union and prolonged war started. Assyria, after successfully attacking Egypt, launched a large-scale amphibian invasion with a substantial fleet through the headwaters of the Persian Gulf on the shores of Elam. This invasion was repelled (698), but a new attack was mounted two generations later, when there was serious internal strife and conflict over the royal succession in Elam. The Elamites army with its Persian tribal levies was decisively defeated in the battle of the Ulai River (652). Shortly thereafter Babylon was invested, Elam completely destroyed (639) and the Chaldeans of Ur were pushed into the swamps.

This did not overcome Assyria’s problem with the Iranian mountain tribes, the roving Sumerians and Scythes and Medes, nor with the urbanized Urartians. The trade routes through Asia Minor remained insecure. Assyrian armies assaulted the mountains, roaming far and wide, through Kurdistan, Armenia, to Mount Ararat. They destroyed the cities of the established highland civilizations, weakening especially Urartu.

The tribes eluded them completely, fading into the mountains on the news of the arrival of any large army. Tribal life however was markedly changed. A tribal leader was elected, the migration routes controlled, internecine strife quelled. The destruction of the controlling forces of urban-agricultural Urartu and Elam liberated the tribal Persians and the Medes from many restrictions and the nomadic population and power grew by leaps and bounds. Great areas, which were until that time under intense cultivation, are still today nomadic grazing grounds, and the political problem created by the decline of Elamites power is still being felt. The tribal leaders now accepted the title of Kings. (It is important to note that the king always had to be of royal family. The fate of the tribe, however, is so important that it cannot be handed to just any member of the family. The best possible man is selected by consensus from several royal candidates. This explains the rather startling shifts in family relationship amongst the early Achaemenian kings).

Achaemenes had become king of the Persians just prior to the showdown between the Assyrians and Elamites (700). The Assyrian commander who destroyed Elam (639) met with Cyrus I in the area of today’s city of Behbahan and accepted his son as hostage. The Persians were biding their time. Their enlarged kingdom was temporarily divided between two grandsons of Achaemenes - Cyrus I and Ariaramnes - as kings, respectively, of Parsumash and Parsa.

Assyria had extended its power to the limits. The Chaldean kings of Sumer revitalized Babylon. A Babylonian and Medic coalition attacked Nineveh and Khorsabad and destroyed the royal Assyrian cities and Assyrian power (612). Neobabylonia expanded, opened the sea route through the Mediterranean, fruitlessly attacked Egypt but did not attempt to force the mountains where Cambyses, son of Cyrus I, had inherited the crowns of Parsumash and Parsa and reigned as King of Anzan (600-559).

Elam In The Bible

The name ELAM appears in the Bible many times.  Below are the verses where it can be found.

Genesis 10:22The sons of Shem: Elam, Asshur, Arphaxad, Lud and Aram.

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Genesis 14:1At this time Amraphel king of Shinar, {[1] That is, Babylonia; also in verse 9} Arioch king of Ellasar, Kedorlaomer king of Elam and Tidal king of Goiim

Genesis 14:9against Kedorlaomer king of Elam, Tidal king of Goiim, Amraphel king of Shinar and Arioch king of Ellasar–four kings against five.

1 Chronicles 1:17The sons of Shem: Elam, Asshur, Arphaxad, Lud and Aram. The sons of Aram {[17] One Hebrew manuscript and some Septuagint manuscripts (see also Gen. 10:23); most Hebrew manuscripts do not have this line.}: Uz, Hul, Gether and Meshech.

1 Chronicles 8:24Hananiah, Elam, Anthothijah,

1 Chronicles 26:3Elam the fifth, Jehohanan the sixth and Eliehoenai the seventh.

Ezra 2:7of Elam 1,254

Ezra 2:31of the other Elam 1,254

Ezra 8:7of the descendants of Elam, Jeshaiah son of Athaliah, and with him 70 men;

Ezra 10:2Then Shecaniah son of Jehiel, one of the descendants of Elam, said to Ezra, “We have been unfaithful to our God by marrying foreign women from the peoples around us. But in spite of this, there is still hope for Israel.

Ezra 10:26From the descendants of Elam: Mattaniah, Zechariah, Jehiel, Abdi, Jeremoth and Elijah.

Nehemiah 7:12of Elam 1,254

Nehemiah 7:34of the other Elam 1,254

Nehemiah 10:14The leaders of the people: Parosh, Pahath-Moab, Elam, Zattu, Bani,

Nehemiah 12:42and also Maaseiah, Shemaiah, Eleazar, Uzzi, Jehohanan, Malkijah, Elam and Ezer. The choirs sang under the direction of Jezrahiah.

Isaiah 11:11In that day the Lord will reach out his hand a second time to reclaim the remnant that is left of his people from Assyria, from Lower Egypt, from Upper Egypt, {[11] Hebrew } from Cush, {[11] That is, the upper Nile region} from Elam, from Babylonia, {[11] Hebrew } from Hamath and from the islands of the sea.

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Isaiah 21:2A dire vision has been shown to me: The traitor betrays, the looter takes loot. Elam, attack! Media, lay siege! I will bring to an end all the groaning she caused.

Isaiah 22:6Elam takes up the quiver, with her charioteers and horses; Kir uncovers the shield.

Jeremiah 25:25all the kings of Zimri, Elam and Media;

Jeremiah 49:34This is the word of the LORD that came to Jeremiah the prophet concerning Elam, early in the reign of Zedekiah king of Judah:

Jeremiah 49:35This is what the LORD Almighty says: “See, I will break the bow of Elam, the mainstay of their might.

Jeremiah 49:36I will bring against Elam the four winds from the four quarters of the heavens; I will scatter them to the four winds, and there will not be a nation where Elam’s exiles do not go.

Jeremiah 49:37I will shatter Elam before their foes, before those who seek their lives; I will bring disaster upon them, even my fierce anger,” declares the LORD. “I will pursue them with the sword until I have made an end of them.

Jeremiah 49:38I will set my throne in Elam and destroy her king and officials,” declares the LORD.

Jeremiah 49:39“Yet I will restore the fortunes of Elam in days to come,” declares the LORD.

Ezekiel 32:24“Elam is there, with all her hordes around her grave. All of them are slain, fallen by the sword. All who had spread terror in the land of the living went down uncircumcised to the earth below. They bear their shame with those who go down to the pit.

Daniel 8:2In my vision I saw myself in the citadel of Susa in the province of Elam; in the vision I was beside the Ulai Canal.

The Elamites, the followers or people from Elam, are also mentioned in the Bible as follows:

Ezra 4:9Rehum the commanding officer and Shimshai the secretary, together with the rest of their associates–the judges and officials over the men from Tripolis, Persia, {[9] Or } Erech and Babylon, the Elamites of Susa,

Acts 2:9Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia,

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The Elam Motto

Nec sperno nec timeo

Translated as -- “I neither despise nor fear”

The Elamite Kings

Avan Dynasty (precise dates unknown)Peli (fl. c. 2500 BC)Tata (precise dates unknown)Ukku-Takhesh (precise dates unknown)Khishur (precise dates unknown)Shushun-Tarana (precise dates unknown)Napil-Khush (precise dates unknown)Kikku-Sive-Temti (precise dates unknown)Lukh-Ishshan (fl. c. 2350 BC)Khelu (fl. c. 2300 BC)Khita (fl. c. 2275 BC)Kutik-Inshushinnak (fl. c. 2240 BC)

Simash Dynasty (precise dates unknown)Gir-Namme (fl. c. 2030 BC)Enpi-Luhhan (fl. c. 2010 BC)Khutran-Temtt (precise dates unknown)Kindattu (precise dates unknown)Indattu-Inshushinnak I (precise dates unknown)Tan-Rukhurater (precise dates unknown)Indattu-Inshushinnak II (precise dates unknown)Indattu-Napir (precise dates unknown)Indattu-Tempt (precise dates unknown)

Elam Dynasty (precise dates unknown) Eparti I (precise dates unknown)Eparti II (precise dates unknown)Eparti III (fl. c. 1850 BC)Shilkhakha (precise dates unknown)Attakhushu (fl. c. 1830 BC)Sirukdukh (fl. c. 1792 BC)Shimut-Wartash (c. 1772-c. 1770 BC)

Babylonian Dynasty (c. 1770-c. 1500 BC)Siwe-Palar-Khuppak (c. 1770-c. 1745 BC)Kuduzulush I (c. 1745-c. 1730 BC)Kutir-Nahhunte I (c. 1730-c. 1700 BC)Lila-Ir-Tash (c. 1700-c. 1698 BC)Temti-Agun I (c. 1698-c. 1690 BC)Tan-Uli (c. 1690-c. 1655 BC)Temti-Khalki (c. 1655-c. 1650 BC)Kuk-Nashur II (c. 1650-c. 1635 BC)Kutir-Shilkhakha I (c. 1635-c. 1625 BC)

Temti-Raptash (c. 1625-c. 1605 BC)Kuduzulush II (c. 1605-c. 1600 BC)

Tata (c. 1600-c. 1580 BC)Atta-Merra-Khalki (c. 1580-c. 1570 BC)Pala-Ishshan (c. 1570-c. 1545 BC)Kuk-Kirwash (c. 1545-c. 1520 BC)Kuk-Nahhunte (c. 1520-c. 1505 BC)Kutir-Nahhunte II (c. 1505- ???? BC)

Igehalkid Dynasty (c. 1350-c. 1200 BC)Ige-Halki (c. 1350-c. 1330 BC)Pakhir-Ishshan (c. 1330-c. 1310 BC)Attar-Kittakh (c. 1310-c. 1300 BC)Khuman-Numena (c. 1300-c. 1275 BC)Untash-Naprisha (c. 1275-c. 1240 BC)Unpatar-Naprisha (c. 1240-c. 1235 BC)Kiddin-Khutran (c. 1235-c. 1210 BC)Interregnum period (c. 1210-c. 1200 BC)

Shutrukid Dynasty (c. 1205-c. 1100 BC)Khallutush-In-Shushinak (c. 1205-c. 1185 BC)Shutruk-Nahhunte (c. 1185-c. 1155 BC)Kutir-Nahhunte III (c. 1155-c. 1150 BC)Shilkhak-In-Shushinak (c. 1150-c. 1120 BC)Khutelutush-In-Shushinak (c. 1120-c. 1110 BC)Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar (c. 1110- ???? BC)

Late Elam Dynasty (743-644 BC) Khumbanigash I (743-717 BC)Shuttir-Nakhkhunte (717-699 BC)Khallushu (699-693 BC)Kutir-Nakhkhunte (693-692 BC)Khumma-Menanu (692-689 BC)Khumma-Khaldash I (689-681 BC)Khumma-Khaldash II (681-680 BC)Khumma-Khaldash II & Shilhak-In-Shushinak (680-676 BC)Shilhak-In-Shushinak & Urtaku (676-664 BC)Shilhak-In-Shushinak & Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak (664-653 BC)Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Khumbanigash II (653-651 BC)Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Tammaritu (651-649 BC)Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Indabigash (649-648 BC)Indabigash (648-647 BC)Khumma-Khaldash III (647-644 BC)

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The Elamites

Whereas the Iranian Plateau did not experience the rise of urban, literate civilization in the late 4th and early 3rd millennia on the Mesopotamian pattern, lowland Khuzestan did. There was centered Elamite civilization.

Geographically, Elam included more than Khuzestan; it was a combination of the lowlands and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold these various areas together under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of the natural resources unique to each region. Traditionally this was done through a federated governmental structure.

Closely related to that form of government was the Elamite system of inheritance and power distribution. The normal pattern of government was that of an overlord ruling over vassal princes. In earliest times the overlord lived in Susa, which functioned as a federal capital. With him ruled his brother closest in age, the viceroy, who usually had his seat of government in the native city of the currently ruling dynasty. This viceroy was heir presumptive to the overlord. Yet, a third official, the regent or prince of Susa (the district), shared power with the overlord and the viceroy. He was usually the overlord’s son or, if no son was available, his nephew. On the death of the overlord, the viceroy became overlord.

The prince of Susa remained in office, and the brother of the old viceroy nearest to him in age became the new viceroy. Only if all brothers were dead was the prince of Susa promoted to viceroy, thus enabling the overlord to name his own son (or nephew) as the new prince of Susa. Such a complicated system of governmental checks, balances, and power inheritance often broke down despite bilateral descent and levirate marriage (i.e., the compulsory marriage of a widow to her deceased husband’s brother). What is remarkable is how often the system did work; it was only in the Middle and Neo-Elamite periods that sons more often succeeded fathers to power.

Elamite history can be divided into three main phases: the Old, Middle, and Late, or Neo-Elamite, periods. In all periods Elam was closely involved with Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria, sometimes through peaceful trade, more often through war. In like manner, Elam was often a participant in events on the Iranian Plateau. Both involvements were related to the combined need of all the lowland civilizations to control the warlike peoples to the east and to exploit the economic resources of the plateau.

The Elamite’s Land

Elamite Haltami, Akkadian Elamtu, also called SUSIANA, ancient country in southwestern Iran approximately equivalent to the modern region of Khuzestan. Four prominent geographic names within Elam are mentioned in ancient sources: Awan, Anshan, Simash, and Susa. Susa was Elam’s capital, and in classical sources the name of the country is sometimes Susiana.

Throughout the late prehistoric periods, Elam was closely tied culturally to Mesopotamia. Later, perhaps because of domination by the Akkadian dynasty (c. 2334-c. 2154 BC), Elamites adopted the Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform script. Eventually Elam came under the control first of the Guti, a mountain people of the area, and then of the 3rd dynasty of Ur. As the power of Ur in turn declined, the Elamites reasserted their independence.

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In that turbulent period Elam’s unique system of matrilinear succession emerged; sovereignty was hereditary through women, in that a new ruler was always “son of a sister” of some member of an older sovereign’s family.

About 1600 BC new invaders of Mesopotamia, the Kassites, may have caused the fall of both Babylonia and Elam. Thereafter almost nothing is known of Elam until the latter part of the 13th century BC, when it began reemerging as a substantial international power. The Elamite kings Shutruk-Nahhunte and Kutir-Nahhunte invaded Mesopotamia and succeeded in securing a large number of ancient monuments (such as the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin and the stele bearing the law code of Hammurabi).

Shilkhak-In-Shushinak campaigned vigorously, and for at least a short period his domain included most of Mesopotamia east of the Tigris River and reached eastward almost to Persepolis. This greatest period of Elamite conquest ended when Nebuchadrezzar I of Babylon (reigned c. 1124-c. 1103 BC) captured Susa. For almost 300 years thereafter nothing is known of Elamite history. In 640 BC, however, the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal invaded Elam, sacked Susa, and deported some of the leading citizens to Samaria in Palestine. Later Elam formed a satrapy of the Achaemenian Empire, and Susa became one of the three most important cities of the Persian realm.

Elam’s cultural accomplishments do not appear to have been extensive. Written business and governmental documents are limited in scope; still less is known of Elamite religious beliefs because no epic or religious materials in the Elamite language have been discovered. The language itself is not clearly understood and had no known ancient relatives and no modern descendants. Elam’s art and architecture clearly derived much of its inspiration from Babylonia.

The Middle Elamite Period

After two centuries for which sources reveal nothing, the Middle Elamite period opened with the rise to power of the Anzanite dynasty, whose homeland probably lay in the mountains northeast of Khuzestan. Political expansion under Khumbannumena (c. 1285-c. 1266 BC), the fourth king of this line, proceeded apace, and his successes were commemorated by his assumption of the title “Expander of the Empire.” He was succeeded by his son, Untash-Gal (Untash (d) Gal, or Untash-Huban), a contemporary of Shalmaneser I of Assyria (c. 1274-c. 1245 BC) and the founder of the city of Dur Untash (modern Chogha Zanbil). In the years immediately following Untash-Gal, Elam increasingly found itself in real or potential conflict with the rising power of Assyria. Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria (c. 1244-c. 1208 BC) campaigned in the mountains north of Elam. The Elamites under Kidin-Khutran, second king after Untash-Gal, countered with a successful and devastating raid on Babylonia. In the end, however, Assyrian power seems to have been too great. Tukulti-Ninurta managed to expand, for a brief time, Assyrian control well to the south in Mesopotamia, Kidin-Khutran faded into obscurity, and the Anzanite dynasty came to an end.

After a short period of dynastic troubles, the second half of the Middle Elamite period opened with the reign of Shutruk-Nahhunte (c. 1160 BC). Two equally powerful and two rather less impressive kings followed this founder of a new dynasty, whose home was probably Susa, and in this period Elam became one of the great military powers of the Middle East. Tukulti-Ninurta died about 1208 BC, and Assyria fell into a period of internal weakness and dynastic conflict. Elam was quick to take advantage of this situation by campaigning extensively in the Diyala River area and into the very heart of Mesopotamia. Shutruk-Nahhunte captured Babylon and carried off to Susa the stela on which was inscribed the famous law code of Hammurabi.

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Shilkhak-In-Shushinak, brother and successor of Shutruk-Nahhunte’s eldest son, Kutir-Nahhunte, still anxious to take advantage of Assyrian weakness, campaigned as far north as the area of modern Kirkuk. In Babylonia, however, the 2nd dynasty of Isin led a native revolt against such control as the Elamites had been able to exercise there, and Elamite power in central Mesopotamia was eventually broken. The Elamite military empire began to shrink rapidly. Nebuchadrezzar I of Babylon (c. 1124-c. 1103 BC) attacked Elam and was just barely beaten off. A second Babylonian attack succeeded, however, and the whole of Elam was apparently overrun, ending the Middle Elamite period.

It is noteworthy that during the Middle Elamite period the old system of succession to, and distribution of, power appears to have broken down. Increasingly, son succeeded father, and less is heard of divided authority within a federated system. This probably reflects an effort to increase the central authority at Susa in order to conduct effective military campaigns abroad and to hold Elamite foreign conquests. The old system of regionalism balanced with federalism must have suffered, and the fraternal, sectional strife that so weakened Elam in the Neo-Elamite period may have had its roots in the centrifugal developments of the 13th and 12th centuries.

The Neo-Elamite Period

A long period of darkness separates the Middle and Neo-Elamite periods. In 742 BC a certain Huban-nugash is mentioned as king in Elam. The land appears to have been divided into separate principalities, with the central power fairly weak. The next  100 years witnessed the constant attempts of the Elamites to interfere in Mesopotamian affairs, usually in alliance with Babylon, against the constant pressure of Neo-Assyrian expansion. At times they were successful with this policy, both militarily and diplomatically, but on the whole they were forced to give way to increasing Assyrian power. Local Elamite dynastic troubles were from time to time compounded by both Assyrian and Babylonian interference. Meanwhile, the Assyrian army whittled away at Elamite power and influence in Luristan. In time these internal and external pressures resulted in the near total collapse of any meaningful central authority in Elam. In a series of campaigns between 692 and 639 BC, in an effort to clean up a political and diplomatic mess that had become a chronic headache for the Assyrians, Ashurbanipal’s armies utterly destroyed Susa, pulling down buildings, looting, and sowing the land of Elam with salt.

The Old Elamite Period

The earliest kings in the Old Elamite period may date to approximately 2700 BC. Already conflict with Mesopotamia, in this case apparently with the city of Ur, was characteristic of Elamite history. These early rulers were succeeded by the Awan (Shustar) dynasty. The 11th king of this line entered into treaty relations with the great Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2254-c. 2218 BC). Yet there soon appeared a new ruling house, the Simash dynasty (Simash may have been in the mountains of southern Luristan). The outstanding event of this period was the virtual conquest of Elam by Shulgi of the 3rd dynasty of Ur (c. 2094-c. 2047 BC). Eventually the Elamites rose in rebellion and overthrew the 3rd Ur dynasty, an event long remembered in Mesopotamian dirges and omen texts.

About the middle of the 19th century BC, power in Elam passed to a new dynasty, that of Eparti. The third king of this line, Shirukdukh, was active in various military coalitions against the rising power of Babylon, but Hammurabi (c. 1792-c. 1750 BC) was not to be denied, and Elam was crushed in 1764 BC. The Old Babylon kingdom, however, fell into rapid decline following the death of Hammurabi, and it was not long before the Elamites were able to gain revenge. Kutir-Nahhunte I attacked Samsuiluna (c. 1749-c. 1712 BC), Hammurabi’s son, and dealt so serious a defeat to the Babylonians that the event was remembered more than 1,000

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years later in an inscription of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. It may be assumed that with this stroke Elam once again gained independence. The end of the Eparti dynasty, which may have come in the late 16th century BC, is buried in silence.

Elam: A Brief Overview

Elamite: haltamtu Persian: huwaja Greek: elymais Hebrew: Elam

Names that sound like Elam include the English Elman, the English Elmen, the English and Italian Elmo, the English Elmon, the English Elmy, the English Elwin, the English Elwyn, the Irish Ailin, the Irish Ailín, the English Ailwyn, the Arabic Alem, the Welsh Alun, the English Aylwin, the English Elm, and the Scottish Ailean.

Ancient kingdom in today's southwestern Iran, east of the Tigris river and north of the Persian Gulf, influential first time ca. 2000-1600 BCE, second time briefly 1160-1120 BCE.To Elam belonged four prominent cities: Awan, Anshan, Simash and especially, Susa, the capital.

Economy

Elam was largely a society based upon agriculture.

Governance

Elam is known for its matrilineal system of succession. A newly appointed ruler was always referred to as 'son of a sister' -- Through large parts of Elam's history we hear nothing about

its situation and status.

Religion and Culture

Culturally, Elam achieved less in several fields than its neighboring countries, and much was imported from them. Writing came from the Sumerians and large elements of the architecture came from Babylonia. There is relatively little literature from Elam, and of religion almost nothing is known.

History

6th millennium BCE: First traces of civilization — the area of Elam is one of the oldest civilized areas in world history.

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22nd century: Elam is under the control of Ur.

Around 2000: Elam is a strong power, able to conquer and destroy Ur.

Around 1600: It is believed that the Kassites, who captured Babylonia, also destroyed Elam.

Around 1160: Under King Shutruk-Nahhunte Elam once again rises to power, strong enough to drive the Kassites out of Babylonia. From this came the first (and short-lived) Elamite Empire.

Around 1120: Susa and Elam is sacked by the Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar 1. This lead to the end of the Elamite Empire.

Around 750: A new Elamite kingdom rises, but it is not the great power of former times, and it is often threatened by the Assyrians.

645: Elam is conquered by the Assyrians, and annexed to their kingdom. Elam would never again rise to be a great power. It was later conquered and sacked by Media as well as Persia.

Elamite Writing

Before the great Achaemenid Persian Empire of the 5th century BCE, the Elamites were the most influential people to hold dominion over the regions east of Mesopotamia, in what is now southwestern Iran.

The development of writing in Elam paralleled that in Sumer. From as early as the 8th millennium BCE, clay tokens of different shapes were used to represent commodities such as grain, livestock, alcohol, and manufactured goods for economic record-keeping and transactions. And like the rest of Mesopotamia, by the late 4th millennium BCE clay tokens were being stored inside bullae, oblong or spherical clay envelopes stamped with seal impressions, which most likely indicated the owners or contents of the tokens inside the envelopes. Quickly thereafter, marks were impressed into the surface of the bullae to count number of tokens inside, thus marking the appearance of a numerical system. Soon clay tokens were completely left out of the bullae, and so completing the transition to a purely abstract representation of quantities.

At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BCE, the written tradition in Sumer diverged from that of its contemporaries in Mesopotamia. Along with changes in the script, the archaeological record also indicates changes in material culture, as reflected in new architectural style and ceramic technology that bore closer resemblance to cultures of the Iranian plateau rather than Mesopotamian traditions. It is possible that a new people migrated into this area, although one cannot completely discount the whole-hearted adoption of a new culture.

Whatever the reason, a new script tradition appeared in Elam at approximately 2900 BCE. Called proto-Elamite, this script represented the earliest native writing system in Elam. Visually, proto-Elamite is quite unlike the cuneiform script prevalent in other parts of Mesopotamia, and instead is composed of lines and circles. All proto-Elamite texts can be demonstrated to be accounting records, as numbers are preceded by one or more non-

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numerical signs, which were logograms and maybe even syllabograms. However, this is about all we know about proto-Elamite, as the script remains undeciphered due to lack of a sizeable corpus and any bilingual text.

The following is an example of a proto-Elamite accounting tablet. The direction of reading is right-to-left, then downward when the end of line is reached.

By the latter half of the 3rd millennium BCE, the proto-Elamite script had evolved into the Linear Elamite script. The discovery of a bilingual text, with one version in Linear Elamite and the other in Old Akkadian, in 1905 at the Elamite capital of Susa made it possible to partially decipher Linear Elamite. The system is discovered to frequently make use of syllabograms, with logograms sprinkled in. The following is the Elamite portion of the bilingual tablet, which is attributed to the Elamite king Puzur-Inshushinak around the 22th century BCE.

Like cuneiform scripts at roughly the same time, the set of syllabograms contains both signs to represent consonant-vowel syllables and signs for vowel-consonant syllables. However, not all readings presented are certain. The same sign is used to end a CVC syllable where the vowel can be either /a/ or /u/, so it is hard to tell the exact vowel for this sign. The most problematic of the readings on this table is the phrase "son of Shimpishhuk". From the Old Akkadian version, scholars know that this phrase is in the text, but there is disagreement on how the signs should be read. Another school of thought states that only the first seven signs form this phrase, leaving the last three out, and the sequence should instead be read as "shi-in-pish-hu-uk shak-ik".

Problems of this kind persist in Linear Elamite epigraphy, and there is no remedy in the forseeable future. A basic requirement for deciphering a writing system is a large corpus of texts, but only few examples of Linear Elamite texts have been found so far. Another problem is the poor understanding of the Elamite language, which is unrelated to any other language in the world, and also suffers from being less studied than other Mesopotamian languages like Sumerian and Akkadian.

The native Elamite writing system would not endure, as no other examples of Linear Elamite date past the 22th century BCE. And due to the tremendous prestige of Mesopotamian languages and scripts, almost all texts from Elam for the next thousand years were either Sumerian or Babylonian. For 900 years, the Elamite literary tradition remained silent. Only starting from the 13th century BCE onward did the Elamite language reappear in the archaeological record, but at this point in time the Elamite had borrowed and adapted the cuneiform script to write their language. Unlike their Mesopotamian neighbors which had more than 700 signs, the Elamite cuneiform only contained 145 signs, where 113 were syllabograms, twenty five were logograms, and seven were determinatives.

The most famous Elamite cuneiform inscription comes from the rock inscriptions at Behistun, carved by the order of the Persian king Darius I of the Achaemenid dynasty, around the 5th century BCE. At this time, Elamite, Old Persian, and Aramaic, were the "official" languages used in the Persian court and bureaucracy, while older Mesopotamian languages such as Babylonian and Sumerian continued to be used in literary, religious, and scientific circles. As such, Elamite appeared along side with Babylonian and Old Persian on the Behistun inscriptions. The following is an excerpt of the Elamite text.

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While important during the early history of the Persian empire, Elamite gradually faded from history after the 5th century BCE as Aramaic became increasingly important as the "international" language of the Persian empire. As such, Elamite has remained an enigma even today.

Elam; Elamites

1. Geographical Position and Names

A well-known tract, partly mountainous, whose western boundary, starting on the Northeast side of the Persian Gulf, practically followed the course of the lower Tigris. It was bounded on the North by Media, on the East by Persia and on the West by Babylonia. The Assyro-Babylonians called the tract Elamtu, expressed ideographically by the Sumerian characters for Nimma or Numma, which seems to have been its name in that language. As Numma or Elam apparently means "height," or the like, these names were probably applied to it on account of its mountainous nature. Another name by which it was known in early times was Ashshan, for Anshan or Anzan (Anzhan), one of its ancient cities. The great capital of the tract, however, was Susa (Shushan), whence its Greek name of Susiana, interchanging with Elymais, from the Semitic Elam.

2. Surface Configuration

Elam consisted of a plain occupying a depression in the mountains of Iran or Persia. Of this the smaller part-which, however, was also the most ancient historically-lay between the Pusht-e-Kuh on the West, the Lur mountains on the North, the Bakhtiari heights to the East and Southeast, and the hills of Ahwaz to the South. The larger plain has as its northern boundary these same Ahwaz hills, and reaches to the sea on the South.

3. Mountain Ranges

The Pusht-e-Kuh mountains are a series of very high parallel ranges described as "a veritable wall" between Mesopotamia and the elevated depression of the Kerkha. Its principal peak is in the Kebir-Kuh (2,500 meters = 8,200 ft.)-a difficult range of surprising regularity. The valleys on the Southwest slope belong properly to Babylonia, and could be invaded on that side with ease, but Northeast of the Kebir-Kuh the country is well protected not only against Mesopotamia, on the West, but also against Persia on the East. The nomad Lurs of the present day are practically independent of Persia. The mountain ranges of Luristan increase in height as one approaches the Persian plain, the loftiest summits of the principal range attaining a height of 5,000 meters (= 16,400 ft.).

4. Rivers

From these mountain ranges descend large rivers which flow through Elam to the sea. The Kerkha (Gamas-ab) rises in the Persian plain near Nehavend, and is practically a torrent until it

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reaches Susa, below which it becomes less rapid, and loses itself in the Hawizeh marshes. The Ab-e-Diz, a river with a greater volume of water, is formed by the uniting of two streams above Dizful. It is so violent that it carries down boulders and even tree-trunks from the mountains, and after a winding course joins the Karun at Kut-e-Bende-Kir. The Belad-Rud, between the Ab-e-Diz and the Kerkha, rises in the mountains of Luristan, and varies greatly as to its volume, being sometimes a mere brook, and at others a large river. The Karun, with which a number of small streams unite, rises in the Bakhtiari mountains. After receiving the Ab-e-Diz and the Belad-Rud at Kut-e-Bende-Kir, it becomes an important waterway, navigable as far as Shuster. This is identified with the Biblical Ulai (Assyrian Ulaa, classical Eulaeus). In ancient times emptying itself into the Persian Gulf, which in past centuries extended much farther inland than now, it at present joins the Shattel-Arab at Mohammerah.

5. Climate

The climate is a variable one. Between November 1 and 15 the rains begin, with Southeast and South winds, and the mountains are covered with snow. In January and February there are violent storms, and the night brings 8 degrees or 10 degrees of frost. Spring begins at the end of February, and vegetation advances so rapidly that harvest takes place about the end of April. The wind then turns South and Southwest, bringing with it a heat rising sometimes to 140 degree F., destroying all the verdure of the country. Notwithstanding the rigors of the climate, however, it was in ancient times a well-populated district, and exceedingly fruitful, as now. That the district of Arabistan is poor and barren is due to the carelessness and improvidence of the people, who, like the people of the Turkish province of Bagdad, have neglected the ancient irrigation canals which fertilized the land.

6. Vegetation

The vegetation of Susiana is said not to be very varied. On the river banks are to be found willows, tamarisks and many kinds of acacias. Apparently there are no forests-the sacred groves referred to by Assur-bani-apli are thought by De Morgan to have been artificial plantations. Oranges and lemons, which are at present cultivated there, are late importations. The date palm has been brought from the banks of the Shatt-el-Arab, and the pomegranate and other fruit trees from the Iranian plain. Wheat and barley, sown in October and November, are harvested in April. Sorghum remains in the ground all through the dry season, and is watered artificially until October, and cut in November. Castor beans, indigo, lentils, haricots, etc., are less cultivated.

7. Fauna

The fauna is said at present to be less numerous than formerly. It contains species both of central Asia, Europe, and, to a certain extent, Africa. The elephant, wild ass, wild ox and ostrich are no longer to be found on the Chaldeo-Elamite plain, but a few examples of the lion still exist there. Bears, panthers, wild boars, wolves, wild cats, foxes, jackals, and several species of wild dogs, however, still exist. Numbers of porcupines inhabit the brushwood by the rivers and marshes. Among the birds which do not leave the country are the eagle, vulture, falcon, raven, francolin, martin, sparrow, tomtit, wagtail, etc. The winter birds of passage are the pelican,

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stork, crane, cormorant, sea gull, many species of wild duck, the wild goose, bustard, woodcock, snipe, pigeon, turtledove, and numerous brilliantly colored waders. The water-courses are full of fish, among them being the barbel, silurus, carp (sometimes of great size), and gurnards similar to those of the Nile. Some of the rivers being salt, sea fish are also to be found, and it is not rare to see sharks at Shuster, and eels in the lower Karun.

8. The Population

The population is naturally not homogeneous. Arab tribes, who are in reality Semites, occupy the plains, while Iranians inhabit the cities and dwell at the mountain bases. According to De Morgan, the original population was mainly negritic, and has mingled with the Arab stock to such an extent that mulattoes among them are not rare. He regards this type as being represented among the soldiers as well as among the people conquered by Naram-Sin about 3000 B.C. Nevertheless pure Semites had settled in the country at a very early date, and it is probably on account of this that Elam is called (Genesis 10:22) a son of Shem-indeed, the many Sere inscriptions found by the French explorers at Susa show how strong their influence was. It was to all appearance during the 2nd millennium B.C. that certain Kassites overran West Mesopotamia, and settled in the northern part of Elam, which was thereafter called by the Assyrians mat Kassi, "the land of the Cosseans." As these people seem to have spoken an Aryan language, there was apparently no really new race introduced in consequence of their invasion.

9. The Principal Cities

The two principal cities were Susa or Shushan, called Susun in the native texts, and regarded as the old capital, situated on the Ulai (Karkha); and Anzan (Ashshan, Anshan), more to the Southwest. This latter was the capital of Cyrus the Great and his immediate predecessors, the tract having been conquered apparently by Sispis (Teispes), his ancestor, at the end of the 6th century B.C. Susa, an important commercial center in the 3rd millennium B.C., became again one of the three capitals of the Pets empire during the rule of the Achemenians.

10. Apirti and the "Bandit Nations"

From the inscriptions of Mal-Amir, to the East, we learn that that was the place of another kingdom called Apirti, the land of the Apharsites of Ezra 4:9. In the 2nd (so-called Median or Scythian) version of the late Persian inscriptions this name is given as Hapirti, Halpirti, and Haltupirti, and appears as the equivalent of the Babylonian Elammat (Elamtu) or Elam without the nominative ending. In the Persian version this appears as (H)uwaja or (H)uwazha, whence the modern Huz or Khuzistan. This implies that the kings of Apirti at one time held dominion over Susa, and perhaps the whole of Elam. Strabo (xi.13, 1, 6), quoting Nearchus, speaks of "four bandit nations" who occupied the mountains East of the Euphrates-the Amardians or Mardians on the Persian border, the Uxians, and Elymeans on the borders of Persia and Susa, and the Cosseans (Kassites) by the Medes. The Amardians would seem to have been the Apirti

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(Hapirti), the Uxians were probably from (H)uwaja, while the Elymeans (compare 1 Maccabees 6:1) were the Elamites. Among the tribes who made the history of the country, therefore, were probably the Uxians, who seem not to be mentioned in the early inscriptions.

11. The Languages of Elam

The dialects of Susa, the second Achemenian VSS, and of Apirti, differ but slightly from each other. They are variants of an agglutinative tongue, and are apparently not related to any other known language. The statement in Genesis 10:22, therefore, applies only to the Semitic section of the population, as it is unlikely that the people speaking Apirtian could be described as "sons of Shem."

12. History

(1) The Earliest Period.

Beginning with the semi-mythical period, we have the story of the fight of the Babylonian hero Gilgames with the Elamite tyrant Humbaba, who was defeated by the hero and his helper Enki-du, and beheaded. The earliest really historical reference to the Elamites as the foes of Babylonia, however, is apparently that contained in a letter from the priest Lu-enna to the priest En-e-tarzi announcing that the Elamites had invaded Lagas and carried off considerable booty. The writer, however, had attacked the Elamites, and taken plunder from them in his turn. As there seems to be a reference to division of spoil, this is an excellent parallel to the Elamite expedition, made in alliance with the Babylonians, against the cities of the plain (Genesis 14).

(2) Sargon of Agade and His Successors.

Sargon of Agade, early in his reign, attacked the Elamites, but apparently Elam only fell under the dominion of the Babylonians during the time of Naram-Sin, his son, who is seemingly shown leading his troops in that region on the splendid stele bearing his name that was found at Susa. Elam apparently regained its independence, however, during the time of Uruwus king of Kis, who invaded the country, and brought back considerable spoil. One of the chiefs of Susa about this time was Simbi-ishak. Chaldean domination, however, did not last long, for Dungi, king of Ur of the Chaldees, about 2500 B.C., invaded the country, accompanied by his vassal Gudea, viceroy of Lagas. Dungi has left evidences of his conquests in the buildings which he erected at Susa, but the principal buildings of this period were constructed by Ba-sa-Susinak, son of Simbi-ishak, viceroy of Susa and potentate in Elam. He built a temple to the god Sugu, reservoirs, the gate of Susinak, and dug the Sidur canal. He was evidently one of the great rulers of the land.

(3) The Suzerainty of the Kings of Ur.

Somewhat later came Idadu I, his son Kal-Ruhuratir, and his grandson Idadu II, who in turn occupied the throne during the time of Bur-Sin, king of Ur. Elam was at this time still under Babylonian suzerainty, which continued under his successor, Gimil-Sin, who also built at Susa, his vassal being Ebarti-kin-Daddu, viceroy of Susa. Gimil-Sin was succeeded by his son Ibi-Sin as

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overlord in Elam, who invaded and devastated the country, probably to suppress a a revolt. There was apparently no ill-will between the two nations, however, for the viceroy of Susa is said to have married a daughter of Ibi-Sin. Another and possibly later viceroy seems to have married Mekubi, daughter of Billama, viceroy of Asnunnak, who, as Elamite princess, erected buildings at Susa.

(4) Elam Becomes Predominant 2280 Years B.C.

It was probably shortly after this that Kudur-Nahhunte threw off the Semitic yoke, and, invading Babylonia, brought back much spoil to Elam. The date indicated for this ruler by the inscriptions of Assurbani-apli is 2280 B.C. The positions of the rulers of Elam and Babylonia were now changed, and the kings of Babylon had to acknowledge Elamite suzerainty. As Elamite and Babylonian sovereign, Kudur-Nahhunte entrusted Susa to a feudatory ruler, and among the viceroys who governed Elam may be mentioned Sirukdu', who constructed at Susa, and Temti-Agun, his sister's son, who built in that city the temple to Isme-karab, "for the health of Kutir-Nahhunte and his family." After passing to other rulers, the government of Susa fell to Ebari, father of Silhaha, during whose reign Simti-Silhak ruled in Babylonia. Nur-Addi and Rim-Anum, kings of Larsa (Elassar), were his vassals.

(5) The Extension of Elamite Authority Westward.

Attapaksu (or Attahusu), Silhaha's sister's son, then became "shepherd of Susa." Among the temples which he built was one dedicated to the goddess Narute, and he erected a bridge near his residence. Kudur-mabuk, son of Simti-Silhak, was at this time adda ("father," probably meaning protector) of Emutbalu and the West-Amurru, the land of the Amorites, whither marched Chedorlaomer and Amraphel, with their allies, in the time of Abraham (Genesis 14). Kudur-mabuk of Larsa was succeeded by his son Eri-Aku (probably the Iri-Agun of Larsa of the Elamite texts), and if he be really, as seems probable, the Arioch of Genesis 14:1, 9, then this is also the period when Chedorlaomer ruled in Elam. The strange thing, however, is, that the name of this last does not occur in any recognizable form, unless it be the Kudurlahgumal of certain half-legendary inscriptions (see CHEDORLAOMER). The Elamite line in Larsa was continued after the death of Eri-Aku by Rim-Sin, his brother, who succeeded him.

(6) Babylonia Again Supreme.

What the history of Elam during this period was remains to be discovered, but Hammurabi, who is identified with the Amraphel of Genesis 14:1, 9, seems to have invaded the country in his 30th year. In his 31st he defeated Rim-Sin of Larsa, following this up, in his 32nd, by overthrowing the army of Asnunnak. All these successes in Elam and its dependencies probably made the kingdom of Babylon supreme in the land. But more details bearing upon this period are needed. It is thought probable that the Elamite king Sadi(?) or Taki (?) came into conflict with, and was defeated by, Ammi-caduga, the 4th in descent from Hammurabi, who reigned about 1890 B.C. Apparently the Elamite ruler had tried to regain his independence, but failed.

(7) Hurbatila's Challenge to Kuri-galzu.

Omitting the names of rulers concerning whom but little or nothing is known, we come to the reign of Untas-Gal, patron of the articles Numerous temples were built by him, and sanctuaries at Susa dedicated. He has left a magnificent bronze statue representing his queen Napir-Asu. He seems to have been overthrown by Untahas-Gal, of a more legitimate line, who was likewise a

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builder of temples. After the apparently short reign of Kidin-Hutran came that of Hurpatila (Hurbatila), who, desiring to throw off the Babylonian yoke, challenged Kuri-galzu, king of Babylon, to battle at Dur-Dungi. The challenge was accepted, with disastrous results, for Hurbatila was captured by the Babylonian king at the place named. This, however, did not put an end to the strife, and in the end Kidin-Hutrudas was victorious over Belnadin-sum, king of Babylon, about 1180 B.C.

(8) Elam Again Supreme.

Later came the military exploits of Sutruk-Nahhunte, who invaded Babylonia, slew the king Zagaga-sum-iddina, and helped by his son Kutir-Nahhunte, destroyed Sippar, and took away the stele of Naram-Sin, the code of Hammurabi, and several other monuments, which were carefully preserved at Susa. He also defeated the king of Asnunnak. It is this collection of spoils which has contributed to make the success of the French excavations at Susa what it is.

(9) Elam Again Defeated, but Recovers.

The war between Babylonia and Elam recorded for the reign of Nebuchadrezzar I (circa 1020 B.C.) probably took place, according to Scheil, during the reign of Silbina-hamru-Laqamar. The Elamite king was defeated on the banks of the Ulai, Elam was ravaged, and much spoil taken. The principality called Namar was detached from Susian territory and reunited to the domain of Babylonia. Apparently the Elamites now turned their attention to regaining their military prestige, the result being that an Elamite king occupied the Babylonian throne from 939 to 934 B.C. The history of this period has still to be discovered, but the Babylonians apparently soon shook off the Elamite yoke. It is about this time, however, that another power-Assyria-appeared on the scene, and took the field-not only against Babylon, but also on the borders of Elam. An Elamite contemporary of Nabonassar of Babylon was Humbanigas, 742 B.C.

(10) The Conflict between Elam and Assyria.

At this time, however, the Assyrians became dominant in Babylonia (see TIGLATH-PILESER and SHALMANESER), but it was probably not until the reign of Sargon of Assyria (see SARGON) that Elam came into conflict with Assyria. Merodach-baladan, a pretender to the throne of Babylon, made common cause with Humbanigas, who fought with the Assyrian army at Der. Naturally the Assyrians claim the victory, but the Babylonians say that they were defeated. After the death of Humbanigas, his successor, Sutur-Nahhundi or Ishtar-hundu (Babylonian), still befriended Merodach-baladan, and advanced to his help. Sargon first attacked the Chaldeans and defeated them at Dur-Athara, and, entering Elam, stormed and captured the cities of the land. The Elamite king took refuge in the mountains, and Merodach-baladan had to resist the Assyrians unaided.

(11) Sennacherib against Chaldea and Elam.

As Sargon had his attention fully occupied elsewhere, he made no attempt to follow up his success, and it seems not to have been until the reign of Sennacherib that any serious invasion of the country on the part of the Assyrians was made. In 697 B.C. that king marched again against Merodach-baladan, who had taken refuge at Nagitu and other places on the Elamite side of then elongated Persian Gulf. Here the Chaldeans, with their Elamite allies, were defeated, and the Elamite cities plundered and destroyed. Hallusu, king of Elam, on the retirement of the Assyrian troops, invaded Babylonia as being part of the territories of the

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Assyrian king, and having captured Assur-nadin-sum, Sennacherib's son, who had ruled in Babylon 6 years, carried him off to Elam, setting Nergal-usezib on the throne of Babylonia. On the arrival of the Assyrian avenging host in Baby1onia, Nergal-usezib fled to Elam, but was captured near Niffer.

The Elamites were evidently very dissatisfied with their king-possibly owing to his policy-and killed him in a revolt after a reign of six years. This action on the part of the Elamites, however, did not save the people from Assyrian vengeance, for Sennacherib invaded and ravaged the country from Ras to Bit-Burnaki. Apparently the Elamites had expected their new ruler, Kudurru (Kudur-Nahhunte), to save them from the reprisals of the Assyrians, but as he had failed to do this, he, in his turn, was deposed and killed after a reign of 10 months. The new king of Elam was Umman-Menanu, who espoused the cause of Musezib-Marduk, the new king of Babylon, and gathering a force of Babylonians and Elamites at Halule, fought a battle there, in which the Babylonians record success for the allies. Sennacherib, however, himself claims the victory, and describes with great wealth of detail the horrors of the fight.

Next year (689 B.C.) Sennacherib marched into Babylonia to complete the work, and Musezib-Marduk, having been captured, was sent prisoner to Assyria. Umman-Menanu died at the end of the year, after a 4 years' reign, and was succeeded by Humba-haldasu I (689-682 B.C.), of whom nothing is known. In 682 B.C. Humba-haldasu II mounted the throne. The death of Sennacherib and the troubles attending the accession of Esarhaddon encouraged Nabuzer-napisti-Itsir, son of Merodach-baladan, again to raise the standard of revolt. Defeat was the result, and he fled to Elam, there to be captured by Humba-haldasu and put to death.

(12) Assyrian Friendship and Elamite Ingratitude.

Friendship with Assyria was a complete reversal of Elamite policy, and to all appearance peace, though probably unpopular, persisted between the two countries for several years. Humba-haldasu's two brothers revolted against him and assassinated him, and Urtaku, one of the murderers, took the Elamite throne. Not daring to be openly hostile to Assyria, however, he sent his brother Te-umman to intrigue in Chaldea in favor of a man named Nabuusallim, but the Chaldean chiefs answered that Na'id-Marduk, their lord, lived, and they were the servants of the king of Assyria. Also, during a famine in Elam, certain Elamite tribes migrated into Assyria to escape the scarcity, and were kindly treated by Assur-bani-apli, who had succeeded his father on the Assyrian throne. Notwithstanding this, however, Urtaku invaded Babylonia as ally of certain Chaldean tribes. Overtaken by the Assyrian army, he fought with them near his own border, but was defeated and fled. He died prematurely (by his own hand) the same year, and was succeeded by his brother Te-umman (Tepti-Humban).

(13) Te-umman and the Elamite See d-royal; Assyria's Triumph.

This king, who is described by Assur-bani-apli as being in the likeness of an evil spirit, immediately set to work to secure the death of all the sons of Urtaku and Umman-aldase (Humba-Haldasu II), his brother; and these princes, five in number, with 60 of the royal seed of Elam, fled and sought refuge with the Assyrian king. Te-umman immediately sent two messengers to Assur-bani-apli demanding the surrender of the fugitives. This was refused, and war broke out between the two countries immediately after. The Assyrians came up with the Elamites at Der, but Te-umman feared to join issue there, and retreating, took up a strong position near his capital, Susa, with his front protected by the river Ulai. Defections from his army now so weakened the forces of Te-umman that he endeavored to treat with Assur-bani-apli, who naturally refused to listen to terms, and ordered his troops to attack. The defeat of the

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Elamites was a foregone conclusion, and Te-umman perished, with his son, in the thick of the battle, as is dramatically depicted by the sculptors of Assur-bani-apli in the bas-reliefs which adorned the walls of his palace. An Assyrian general was now sent to Susa with Umman-igas, the prince chosen to succeed Te-umman, and he was proclaimed while the bodies of the fallen Elamites covered the battlefield, and the waters of the Ulai carried others down to the place of its outflow. Tammaritu, the new king's youngest brother, was at the same time made king of Hidalu, in the mountain region. In the triumphal procession at Nineveh which took place on the Assyrian army's return, the head of Te-umman and his son Tamritu figured, the former hanging from the neck of Dunanu, king of Gambulu, and the latter from the neck of Samgunu, Dunanu's brother.

(14) Elamite Ingratitude and Treachery.

For a time there was peace in Elam, but soon the discontent of Samas-sum-ukin, king of Babylon, Assur-bani-apli's brother, sought to break it. Urged by him, Umman-igas forgot the benefits which he had received at the hands of Assur-bani-apli, and sent an army into Babylonia under the command of Undasi, son of Te-umman, telling him to avenge upon Assyria the killing of his father. Notwithstanding the great strength of the allied army, they did not succeed in making headway against the Assyrians. Tammaritu, nephew of Umman-igas, after the defeat of the Elamite forces in Chaldea, revolted against him, and having defeated him, cut off his head, and took the crown.

Samas-sum-ukin immediately turned his attention to the new ruler, and induced him by fresh presents to come likewise to his aid. Tammaritu therefore marched at the head of an army into Babylonia, but in his absence Indabigas, one of his servants, headed a revolt against him, and proclaimed himself king in Susa. In the battle which ensued between the two pretenders, Tammaritu was defeated, and fled to the seacoast with a part of the Elamite royal family. He ultimately embarked in a ship on the Persian Gulf with the intention of escaping, but was wrecked, and gave himself up to an Assyrian officer, who sent him to Assyria.

(15) Elam's Further Changes of Rulers.

Indabigas, the new Elamite king, now sent an embassy to make peace with Assur-bani-apli, who at once demanded the surrender of Nabu-bel-sumati, son of Merodach-baladan, and the Assyrians whom he had enticed and taken with him. Before this demand could reach Indabigas, however, his people had revolted against him and put him to death, and Umman-aldasu, son of Attametu, sat on the throne, after defeating Indabigas on the banks of the Huthut. The same demand was made to Ummanaldasu as had been made to Indabigas, but Nabubel-sumati, not wishing to fall into the hands of the Assyrians, called on his armor-bearer to dispatch him, and the two ran each other through with their swords.

(16) King Tammaritu's Treachery.

Nevertheless Assur-bani-apli decided to replace Tammaritu, the former Elamite king, on the throne, and to this end invaded Elam. The Assyrians were, as usual, successful, and on learning this, Umman-aldas fled to the mountains. Entering Susa, Tammaritu was once more proclaimed king of Elam, he, in return, promising to regard Assur-bani-apli as his lord, and to pay tribute. No sooner had the Assyrian army departed, than the new king of Elam began to plot against the power which had raised him. To all appearance his intentions to revolt were reported to the Assyrian king, who at once sent an army and plundered the country, and Tammaritu again fell into Assur-bani-apli's hands.

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Umman-aldas now returned and resumed the government. Unwilling to regard his former efforts as fruitless, the Assyrian king decided to finally subdue the land, and to this end invaded it, the pretext being that the Elamites refused to deliver up the image of the goddess Nana, which had been carried off from Erech 1,635 years before, in the time of Kudur-Nahhunte (see (4) above). The two armies faced each other on the banks of the Itite, and after an attack in which the Assyrians were at a disadvantage, the Elamites gave way, and Umman-aldas fled to the mountains. According to the Assyrian king's record, an enormous booty was taken, including many sacred and ancient royal statues preserved at Susa. The image of Nana was restored to its shrine at Erech with great rejoicing. In the triumphal celebrations at Nineveh, Tammaritu was one of the captive kings who drew the Assyrian king's chariot to the temple of Ishtar, when he rendered the goddess thanks for his victories.

(17) Dominion Passes from Assyria.

To all appearance Elam now became a province of the Assyrian empire, though not for long, as this collapsed in the year 606 B.C., and the center of government was shifted to Babylon, under Nabopolassar, who became its ruler. Nebuchadnezzar (604), Evil-Merodach (561), Neriglissar (559), and Nabonidus (555-538 B.C.), were successively masters of Elam. The mention of the kings of Elam in Jeremiah 25:25, however, suggests that the old states of the country had practically resumed their independence; though 49:35-39 prophesies the dismemberment of the country, and the destruction of its king and princes. This is thought to refer to the annexation of the country by Teispes, and its passing, through his line-Cyrus, Cambyses, and Cyrus the Great, who were all kings of Anzan-to Darius Hystaspis. In Isaiah 21:2 it is apparently the later Cyrus who is referred to when Elam, with Media, is called upon "to go up" to the siege of Babylon.

(18) The Later State of Elam.

After Cyrus, the history of Elam was that of Persia, of which it henceforth formed a part. In all probability, however, the Elamites were as warlike and as intractable as ever. During the reign of the little-known Kharacenian king, Aspasine, they made incursions into Babylonia, one of the opponents of this king's generals being Pittit, "the enemy, the Elamite"-a phrase of old standing, apparently.

Elam And Susa, The Capital

 

The children of Shem; Elam, and Asshur, and Arphaxad, and Lud, and Aram.—Genesis x. 22.

Recent Study of Origins.—Nothing is more striking in recent archaeological research than the scientific and successful manner in which the origins of civilization have been studied, and nowhere is this more noticeable than in the Near East. Today the three great civilizations of Greece, Egypt, and Babylonia have been traced back, the two former to the Neolithic age and the last named to the primitive race which then occupied the lower plains of the Tigris and Euphrates. Nor is this all; as a fourth civilization of the Hittites, differing in some aspects from the other three, is shown to have existed in Central Asia Minor at least as early as 1500 BC. In the case of Elam, which was closely connected with Babylonia, a Neolithic period has been discovered: and, although no Neolithic remains have, as yet, been found in Babylonia, this is due, in all probability, to the incessant activity of its rivers, which not only make, but destroy, and above all cover up. A Neolithic period can therefore be reasonably assumed,

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notwithstanding the absence of remains. It is impossible to fix even an approximate date for its commencement in this part of Asia; but de Morgan considers that it ended towards the sixth millennium BC, both in Babylonia and in Egypt.

The Meaning of Elam.—It is desirable at this point to refer to the various names of the country with which we are dealing, as much assistance is frequently to be obtained by such means. And first the name Elam, or Elamtu, the classical Elymais, requires explanation. Its signification is “mountains”. The Assyrians came into contact with Elam in its mountain section, and as in ancient times its plains were far less extensive than today and the mountains predominated, this name needs no further comment.

The people of Susa termed their country Anzan-Susunka, and distinguished the various tribes given below. Strabo and the historians of Alexander similarly distinguish Susiana or Susis, the plain country, from the mountains of Cossia, Paraetakine, Mardia, Elymais, and Uxia. The book of Ezra, too, distinguishes between the Susanechians, or inhabitants of the plains round Susa, and the Elamites, or hill people. Under the Persians the province was known as Ouvaja. Finally, in medieval times it was called Khuzistan or “The Country of the Huz or Khuz”, and this name still lingers on the map although the province is now termed Arabistan.

Negrito Aborigines.—Dieulafoy and de Morgan, who both headed expeditions to Elam, and who studied the question most exhaustively on the spot, concur in the opinion that there was a very ancient occupation of the Susian plain by Negritos, and that, so far as is known, these were the original inhabitants. In support of this view Herodotus, who carefully distinguishes the Ethiopians of Asia from the Ethiopians of Africa, writes : “For the eastern Ethiopians have straight hair, while they of Libya are more woolly-haired than any other people in the world”.

Again, there is the fact that in the most ancient bas-reliefs, figures of Negritos appear with frequency. More especially is this the case in the famous stele of Naramsin, referred to in the next chapter, where the monarch, who is of Semitic type, is portrayed as leading Negritos to victory. Some years ago, during the course of my travels, I was puzzled by the extremely dark populations of Bashakird and Sarhad, very remote and mountainous regions bordering on Persian Baluchistan. The solution may be that the whole country was originally peopled by Negritos, who probably stretched along the northern shores of the Persian Gulf to India, and that their descendants have survived in those distant parts, which are scarcely known even by Persians, and where, in some districts, I was the first European traveler.

The Legend of Memnon.—But Elam, in addition to the rich alluvial plain, also included the hill districts to the north and east, and here apparently there is no question of a Negrito race. Consequently there were in effect at least two races inhabiting Elam—the Negritos of the plains, who were very dark, and the white hill-men, who were probably of Turanian extraction. This would appear to have been vaguely recognized by the Greeks. They describe Memnon, who came to the aid of Troy, as the offspring of a white mountain woman Kissia and of black Tithon. He leads an army of Susians and Ethiopians to the assistance of Priam, who is his paternal uncle, and is slain by Achilles. There are brief references to Memnon in Homer, and he is evidently regarded as an important personage; for we read in the Odyssey when Ulysses is speaking to Agamemnon of his son :

To Troy no hero came of nobler line,

Or if of nobler, Memnon it was thine.

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 In another passage he is given the epithet of swarthy. It is of interest to note that there is no mention of Babylon or Nineveh in these early legends preserved by the Greek writers, which, although probably having no historical foundation, are yet of some value from the ethnological point of view.

At a rather later period there was a considerable Semitic influx, which in time, as in Babylonia, dominated and absorbed the earlier inhabitants of the country. As far as Babylonia is concerned, this Semitic invasion was mainly peaceful and perhaps should be described rather as a penetration : but in the case of Elam, probably owing to the mountain fastnesses, no permanent conquest was effected until the establishment of the Sumerian Empire.

The Various Tribes of Elam.—Apart from the general ethnological divisions given above, Elam was composed of several tribes among whom were the Hussi or Uxians, and the Hapartip; the Umliyash, who inhabited the district between the Kerkha and the Tigris; and the people of Yamutbal and of Yatbur, whose districts lay between the Tigris marshes and the mountains.

The Hussi or Kussi are the Uxians of the Greeks who demanded toll from Alexander the Great for his passage from Susa to Persepolis, and in return were surprised and subdued, as mentioned in Chapter XX. Their name survives in Khuzistan. The Hapartip or Hapirtip appear on the rock sculptures of Mai Amir, and are perhaps the Amardians or Mardians of the Greeks, whom Herodotus mentions as nomadic Persian tribes ranged with the Dahae, Dropini, and Sagartii under the banners of Cyrus.

Anzan or Anshan.—Among the most important districts was Anzan or Anshan, the exact locality of which is unknown, but which was probably part of the plain to the south or southwest of Susa. It is certain that the extent of country covered by the name varied much during different periods, but its later expansion started from a comparatively small area on the western boundary of Elam. It was among the first districts in Elam to be referred to in history, and is especially celebrated as being the principality of Cyrus the Great.

The Ancient Language.—A few words are necessary concerning the ancient language of Elam. Like Babylonia, Elam furnishes us with Sumerian inscriptions containing Semitic words, and also with Semitic inscriptions containing Sumerian words. But in Elam there are found in the earliest period proper names which are neither Sumerian nor Semitic; but which belong to a language somewhat vaguely termed Turanian, and known among scholars as Anzanite, Susian, or simply Elamite. This language, which was subordinate during many centuries of foreign rule, suddenly reappeared towards 1500 BC at the time when Elam became an independent nation. Consequently in Elam there were several languages, of which Anzanite was the oldest, but of this only traces were left. Thanks to the devoted labors of Father Schiel, who was attached to the de Morgan mission, we know that the Elamite monosyllabic roots were agglutinous, and that the simple inflexions associated with derived words are due to the influence of a higher language.

One of the most striking proofs of the independent lines on which Elam developed is furnished by the socalled “proto-Elamite” system of writing, which was discovered during the course of the excavations at Susa. This consists, so far as we know it, of either signs or ideographs for various objects impressed on rough clay tablets. These tablets have not been fully deciphered, but enough is known to prove that the system is quite independent, and evolved by the Elamites. A very few of the signs, as for example those used for “tablet” and “total”, resemble the corresponding Babylonian characters; but, beyond this, there is no connection, and it is noteworthy that, although the signs for "total" are the same as in the Babylonian script, the

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Elamite figures are different, being based on a decimal system, whereas the Babylonian numeration is sexagesimal.

Basha-Shushinak, who probably ruled before the dynasty of Ur, dedicated a stone statuette seated on a throne. On each side of the figure is an inscription, that on the left being in Semitic and that on the right in proto-Elamite characters. This proves that at that period the two scripts were employed together. Finally Susa, forced to use the Semitic script during the many centuries of her existence as a vassal state, forgot her ancient script, and, when her independence was recovered, used the Semitic signs in writing her own language. According to de Morgan, Anzanite died out some three thousand years before our era.

The Religion.—Very little is known about the religion of Elam. As in the case of Sumer, there was a world full of vague forms and spirits. The chief deity, whose name was sacred and secret, and who was referred to as Shushinak or the “Susian”, dwelt in a forest sanctuary which was sacred, and to which only the priests and the King were admitted. Associated with Shushinak were six other deities of the first rank, grouped in two triads. Of these, Amman Kasibar may possibly be the Memnon of the Greeks. The names of a considerable number of other deities have been recovered from inscriptions, but beyond their names little is known of most of them.

We have few data for determining their characters and attributes. We read that on certain solemn days or in celebration of victories, the statues were brought out to receive the devout homage of the people, and from various facts in their history we know how strongly they cherished their deities. As in Babylonia, the priesthood was both powerful and wealthy, and, although we have as yet but little information as to the details of Elamite cult and ritual, it is clear that in many features they bore a general resemblance to the Babylonian rites. The votive and dedicatory inscriptions that have been deciphered do not suggest a completely independent system or organization, and the readiness of the Elamite priesthood to borrow from Babylonia is well illustrated by the bronze votive plaque of Shilhak-in-Shushinak, representing a rite of purification performed at sunrise, which, as its name implies, was directly taken over from the Semitic Babylonians.

The disturbed condition of the mounds at Susa has prevented the recovery of trustworthy archaeological and architectural evidence on the religious side; but this defect may at any moment be remedied by the finding of native Elamite religious texts. These might throw as much light on the religion and ritual of Elam as the purely votive and building inscriptions have already thrown upon the succession of her kings.

Susa, the Ancient Capital.—We owe practically all our knowledge of the ancient history of Elam to excavations conducted at Susa. It is therefore desirable to give some account of the famous capital of Elam and of the important secrets it has yielded.

The mounds of Shush or Susa are situated some thirty miles from the hills, and are, to judge from their position, of great antiquity. Indeed, Susa may claim to be the oldest known site in the world. It has already been shown that in the days of Sennacherib the coast-line was not more than sixty miles from it. Consequently, the possible sites for an ancient city are limited to a comparatively narrow fringe of plain lying at the foot of the great mountains; for land recently formed would not have been suitable for occupation by a large population.

Excavations by Loftus.—These ruins of Susa were first visited by Loftus and Churchill in 1850. The reception of the travelers was unfriendly, and after Churchill had made the first plan of the sites, they withdrew and reported to General Williams, who was the chief British representative on the Turko-Persian Frontier Commission, at that time assembled at Mohamera. The next winter

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General Williams visited the ruins in person, and as the result of excavations carried out under his instructions a great Achaemenian palace was discovered. Loftus returned later, and with the wholly inadequate sum of £500, which had been placed at his disposal, continued the excavations.

The Dieulafoy and de Morgan Missions.—Englishmen were thus the pioneers in this truly magnificent task, and the name of Loftus will ever be honored in connection with Susa; but it is to the talented sons of France, supported generously by their Government, that the chief credit belongs of drawing back the veil from a totally forgotten past of glorious history, and of adding yet another to the list of Great Oriental Monarchies.

The French Government dispatched two expeditions, the first of which, under Dieulafoy, who was accompanied by his gifted wife, took up, in 1884, the work of Loftus, and discovered that the palace of Darius had been destroyed by fire and that, more than a century later, Artaxerxes Mnemon had raised on its ruins a still more splendid edifice. Dieulafoy merely continued the excavations of Loftus, and it was reserved for another Frenchman to complete the achievements of his fellow-countrymen by discovering Elam and its history in the lower strata of the same mound.

The Four Quarters of Susa.—To the traveler crossing the level plains, the mounds of Susa appear to rise to a great height, and it is not difficult to imagine how imposing they must have been crowned with splendid edifices and probably set in palm-groves amid a sea of waving corn, the whole picture being backed by range after range of grim mountains rising in somber majesty to snow-capped peaks.

Today the city is represented by desolate mounds covering a considerable area on both banks of the Kerkha. This river flowed past the citadel, and the space now existing between the Shaur and the Kerkha was covered with buildings, which have been partly demolished by the wayward river.

De Morgan divides the ruins into four chief quarters, corresponding with the most important mounds :

(1) The Citadel, which was the fort in Achaemenian times.

(2) The Royal City with the palaces of the successors of Darius.

(3) The Commercial quarter.

(4) The quarter on the right bank of the present course of the River Kerkha. This formerly included the whole of the area now existing between the Shaur and the Kerkha.

The so-called Citadel is the smallest in area, but the most important owing to its altitude. It rises 38 meters above the plain and measures 450 meters by 250. It dominates the plain more than its mere height would suggest, owing partly to its steep sides, which are difficult to ascend. The citadel would appear to have been inhabited without interruption from prehistoric times down to the Graeco-Persian period.

The Royal City, which stretches from southeast to northeast of the Citadel for 1500 metres, is separated from it by a large depression known locally as the Bazaar, and was never joined to it. The Apadana or throne-room of the Achaemenian Palace at the north-east is a square of some 350 metres. Although extensive, the ruins of Susa are small compared with those of Babylon or

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Nineveh, which were the capitals of world-wide empires. Elam, although an independent and mighty kingdom, never seriously aspired to the empire of the known world, as did her rivals.

The Prehistoric Period.—We now come to the earliest periods into which de Morgan divides the history of Elam. First of all there is the prehistoric period, subdivided into two, in neither of which have metals been discovered : though, of course, this negative information is not conclusive. Pottery of a good class was dug up in the lowest stratum 20 meters below the surface, whereas the pottery found in the stratum above is of a coarse and less artistic type.

Bricks were also found resembling the segment of a ring, badly baked and equally badly shaped. De Morgan compares the pottery of the prehistoric strata with similar ware found in Egypt, which he dates back to 8000 BC; and he holds that the fragments found at Susa are certainly as old. It is, however, pointed out by King that the absence in the intervening countries of any pottery similar to that of Egypt, makes this method of reckoning unsafe.

The latter in an appendix to his Sumer and Akkad deals with the excavations made near Askabad, and holds that the pottery of the earlier periods found in the North Kurgan or mound at Anau, “may well point to some connection between the stone and early metal-using cultures of Transcaspia and Elam”. It would be idle to press the argument further until more ample materials are forthcoming. Enough has been said to show that the earliest period discovered by de Morgan dates back to a hoary antiquity undreamed of a generation ago.

The Archaic Period.—Just above the prehistoric zone the French Mission discovered a layer of earth some 6 feet thick, in which nothing was found; and the theory was formed that the prehistoric city had been destroyed by a higher race, which covered up the ruins with earth before commencing the construction of a new city. In the next, or Archaic, zone were found tablets of unbaked clay with archaic writing and also unguent vases, but very little pottery. Almost all the articles made of alabaster were pitted with holes as the result of its having been burnt. De Morgan believed that this period should be dated about 4000 BC.

Elam in the Legend of Gilgames.—One of the greatest, and certainly one of the most interesting, epics in the history of mankind is that of Gilgames, containing a legend of the Deluge, from which that in Holy Writ was inspired, Gilgames himself being the Nimrod of the book of Genesis. In it the subjection of Elam is dealt with, and although the mists of antiquity lie low over the episodes, there is no doubt that these legends possess an historical basis, and are therefore of considerable value.

The first of these old-world stories is to the effect that Khumbaba, King of Elam, had invaded Babylonia, had razed its temples and had substituted the worship of Elamite gods for the local deities. In this crisis all hopes rested on Gilgames and his devoted monster Eabani. The heroes set out to meet the Elamite invader, and heard from a female magician that the foe was concealed in a sacred grove. Undeterred by fear they pressed on “and stopped in rapture for a moment before the cedar trees; they contemplated the height of them, they contemplated the thickness of them, the place where Khumbaba was accustomed to walk up and down with rapid strides; alleys were made in it, paths kept up with great care”.

The Elamite king, surprised when about to take his outdoor exercise, was slain and the heroes returned in triumph to Erech, the well-protected. Here, apart from the extraordinarily modern habit of the Elamite monarch in taking exercise in a well-kept pleasance and the evident wonder and joy shown in the sacred grove, we note that Elam, as in the earliest historical times, raided the rich lowlands.

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A second Elamite sovereign, Khumbastir, also appears, but merely as a name. Kudur-Kuku-Mal, yet a third Elamite monarch, whose name is also preserved to us, was more successful, as he defeated the Babylonian forces and ravaged their country. No details are forthcoming, nor is it possible to fix even an approximate date for these monarchs; but there is no doubt that, in these delightful legends, we obtain glimpses of the great struggle in which Elam was probably the aggressor for many generations, but which ended in her subjection to the higher organization of Babylonia.

Elam: The Land

ELAM, the name given in the Bible to the province of Persia called Susiana by the classical geographers, from Susa or Shushan its capital. In one passage, however (Ezra iv. 9), it is confined to Elymais, the north-western part of the province, and its inhabitants distinguished from those of Shushan, which elsewhere (Dan. viii. 2) is placed in Elam. Strabo (xv. 3.12, &c.) makes Susiana a part of Persia proper, but a comparison of his account with those of Ptolemy (vi. 3. I, &c.) and other writers would limit it to the mountainous district to the east of Babylonia, lying between the Oroatis and the Tigris, and stretching from India to the Persian Gulf. Along with this mountainous district went a fertile low tract of country on the western side, which also included the marshes at the mouths of the Euphrates and Tigris and the north-eastern coast land of the Gulf. This low tract, though producing large quantities of grain, was intensely hot in summer; the high regions, however, were cool and well watered.

The whole country was occupied by a variety of tribes, speaking agglutinative dialects for the most part, though the western districts were occupied by Semites. Strabo (xi. 13.3, 6), quoting from Nearchus, seems to include the Susians under the Elymaeans, whom he associates with the Uxii, and places on the frontiers of Persia and Susa; but Pliny more correctly makes the Eulaeus the boundary between Susiana and Elymais (N.H. vi. 29-31). The Uxii are described as a robber tribe in the mountains adjacent to Media, and their name is apparently to be identified with the title given to the whole of Susiana in the Persian cuneiform inscriptions, Uwaja, i.e. " Aborigines."

Uwaja is probably the origin of the modern Khuzistan, though Mordtmann would derive the latter from j5 "a sugar-reed." Immediately bordering on the Persians were the Amardians or Mardians, as well as the people of Khapirti (Khatamti, according to Scheil), the name given to Susiana in the Neo-Susian texts. Khapirti appears as Apir in the inscriptions of Mal-Amir, which fix the locality of the district. Passing over the Messabatae, who inhabited a valley which may perhaps be the modern MahSabadan, as well as the level district of Yamutbal or Yatbur which separated Elam from Babylonia, and the smaller districts of Characene, Cabandene, Corbiana and Gabiene mentioned by classical authors, we come to the fourth principal tribe of Susiana, the Cissii (Aesch. Pers. 16; Strabo xv. 3. 2) or Cossaei (Strabo xi. 5.6, xvi. II. 17; Arr. Ind. 40; Polyb. V. 54, &c.), the Kassi of the cuneiform inscriptions. So important were they, that the whole of Susiana was sometimes called Cissia after them, as by Herodotus (iii. 91, v. 49, &c.). In fact Susiana was only a late name for the country, dating from the time when Susa had been made a capital of the Persian empire. In the Sumerian texts of Babylonia it was called Numma, "the Highlands," of which Elamtu or Elamu, "Elam," was the Semitic translation.

Apart from Susa, the most important part of the country was Anzan (Anshan, contracted Assan), where the native population maintained itself unaffected by Semitic intrusion. The exact position of Anzan is still disputed, but it probably included originally the site of Susa and was distinguished from it only when Susa became the seat of a Semitic government. In the lexical

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tablets Anzan is given as the equivalent of Elamtu, and the native kings entitle themselves kings of "Anzan and Susa," as well as "princes of the Khapirti." The principal mountains of Elam were on the north, called Charbanus and Cambalidus by Pliny (vi. 27, 31), and belonging to the Parachoathras chain. There were numerous rivers flowing into either the Tigris or the Persian Gulf. The most important were the Ulai or Eulaeus (Kuran) with its tributary the Pasitigris, the Choaspes (Kerkhah), the Coprates (river of Diz called in the inscriptions), the Hedyphon or Hedypnus (Jerrahi), and the Croatis (Hindyan), besides the monumental Surappi and Ukni, perhaps to be identified with the Hedyphon and Oroatis, which fell into the sea in the marshy region at the mouth of the Tigris. Shushan or Susa, the capital now marked by the mounds of Shush, stood near the junction of the Choaspes and Eulaeus (see SusA); and Badaca, Madaktu in the inscriptions, lay between the Shapur and the river of Diz. Among the other chief cities mentioned in the inscriptions may be named Naditu, Khaltemas, Din-sar, Bubilu, Bit-imbi, Khidalu and Nagitu on the sea-coast.

Here, in fact, lay some of the oldest and wealthiest towns, the sites of which have, however, been removed inland by the silting up of the shore. J. de Morgan's excavations at Susa have thrown a flood of light on the early history of Elam and its relations to Babylon. The earliest settlement there goes back to neolithic times, but it was already a fortified city when Elam was conquered by Sargon of Akkad (3800 B.C.) and Susa became the seat of a Babylonian viceroy. From this time onward for many centuries it continued under Semitic suzerainty, its high-priests, also called "Chief Envoys of Elam, Sippara and Susa," bearing sometimes Semitic, sometimes native "Anzanite" names. One of the kings of the dynasty of Ur built at Susa.

Before the rise of the First Dynasty of Babylon, however, Elam had recovered its independence, and in 2280 B.C. the Elamite king Kutur-Nakhkhunte made a raid in Babylonia and carried away from Erech the image of the goddess Nana. The monuments of many of his successors have been discovered by de Morgan and their inscriptions deciphered by v. Scheil. One of them was defeated by Ammi-zadoq of Babylonia (c. 2100 B.C.); another would have been the Chedor-laomer (Kutur-Lagamar) of Genesis xiv. One of the greatest builders among them was Untas -GAL (the pronunciation of the second element in the name is uncertain).

About 1330 B.C. Khurba-tila was captured by Kuri-galzu III., the Kassite king of Babylonia, but a later prince Kidin-Khutrutas avenged his defeat, and Sutruk-Nakhkhunte (1220 B.C.) carried fire and sword through Babylonia, slew its king Zamama-sum-iddin and carried away a stela of Naram-Sin and the famous code of laws of Khammurabi from Sippara, as well as a stela of Manistusu from Akkuttum or Akkad. He also conquered the land of Asnunnak and carried off from Padan a stela belonging to a refugee from Malatia. He was succeeded by his son who was followed on the throne by his brother, one of the great builders of Elam.

In 750 B.C. Umbadara was king of Elam; Khumbanigas was his successor in 742 B.C. In 720 B.C. the latter prince met the Assyrians under Sargon at Dur-ili in Yamutbal, and though Sargon claims a victory the result was that Babylonia recovered its independence under Merodach-baladan and the Assyrian forces were driven north. From this time forward it was against Assyria instead of Babylonia that Elam found itself compelled to exert its strength, and Elamite policy was directed towards fomenting revolt in Babylonia and assisting the Babylonians in their struggle with Assyria. In 716 B.C. Khumbanigas died and was followed by his nephew, Sutruk-Nakhkhunte. He failed to make head against the Assyrians; the frontier cities were taken by Sargon and Merodach-baladan was left to his fate.

A few years later (704 B.C.) the combined forces of Elam and Babylonia were overthrown at Kis, and in the following year the Kassites were reduced to subjection. The Elamite king was dethroned and imprisoned in 700 B.C. by his brother Khallusu, who six years later marched into

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Babylonia, captured the son of Sennacherib, whom his father had placed there as king, and raised a nominee of his own, Nergal-yusezib, to the throne. Khallusu was murdered in 694 B.C., after seeing the maritime part of his dominions invaded by the Assyrians. His successor KudurNakhkhunte invaded Babylonia; he was repulsed, however, by Sennacherib, 34 of his cities were destroyed, and he himself fled from Madaktu to Khidalu.

The result was a revolt in which he was killed after a reign of ten months. His brother Ummanmenan at once collected allies and prepared for resistance to the Assyrians. But the terrible defeat at Khalule broke his power; he was attacked by paralysis shortly afterwards, and KhumbaKhaldas II. followed him on the throne (689 B.C.). The new king endeavoured to gain Assyrian favour by putting to death the son of Merodach-baladan, but was himself murdered by his brothers Urtaki and Teumman (681 B.C.), the first of whom seized the crown. On his death Teumman succeeded and almost immediately provoked a quarrel with Assur-bani-pal by demanding the surrender of his nephews who had taken refuge at the Assyrian court.

The Assyrians pursued the Elamite army to Susa, where a battle was fought on the banks of the Eulaeus, in which the Elamites were defeated, Teumman captured and slain, and Umman-igas, the son of Urtaki, made king, his younger brother Tammaritu being given the district of Khidalu. Ummanigas afterwards assisted in the revolt of Babylonia under Samassum-yukin, but his nephew, a second Tammaritu, raised a rebellion against him, defeated him in battle, cut off his head and seized the crown. Tammaritu marched to Babylonia; while there, his officer Inda-bigas made himself master of Susa and drove Tammaritu to the coast whence he fled to Assur-banipal. Inda-bigas was himself overthrown and slain by a new pretender, Khumba-Khaldas III., who was opposed, however, by three other rivals, two of whom maintained themselves in the mountains until the Assyrian conquest of the country, when Tammaritu was first restored and then imprisoned, Elam being utterly devastated.

The return of Khumba-Khaldas led to a fresh Assyrian invasion; the Elamite king fled from Madaktu to Dur-undasi; Susa and other cities were taken, and the Elamite army almost exterminated on the banks of the Itite. The whole country was reduced to a desert, Susa was plundered and razed to the ground, the royal sepulchres were desecrated, and the images of the gods and of 32 kings "in silver, gold, bronze and alabaster," were carried away. All this must have happened about 640 B.C. After the fall of the Assyrian empire Elam was occupied by the Persian Teispes, the forefather of Cyrus, who, accordingly, like his immediate successors, is called in the inscriptions "king of Anzan."

Susa once more became a capital, and on the establishment of the Persian empire remained one of the three seats of government, its language, the Neo-Susian, ranking with the Persian of Persepolis and the Semitic of Babylon as an official tongue. In the reign of Darius, however, the Susianians attempted to revolt, first under Assina or Atrina, the son of Umbadara, and later under Martiya, the son of Issainsakria, who called himself Immanes; but they gradually became completely Aryanized, and their agglutinative dialects were supplanted by the Aryan Persian from the south-east.

Elam, "the land of the cedar-forest," with its enchanted trees, figured largely in Babylonian mythology, and one of the adventures of the hero Gilgamesh was the destruction of the tyrant Khumbaba who dwelt in the midst of it. A list of the Elamite deities is given by Assur-bani-pal; at the head of them was In-Susinak, "the lord of the Susians," - a title which went back to the age of Babylonian suzerainty, - whose image and oracle were hidden from the eyes of the profane. Nakhkhunte, according to Scheil, was the Sun-goddess, and Lagamar, whose name enters into that of Chedorlaomer, was borrowed from Semitic Babylonia.

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Elam and War

The earliest battle/war in recorded history was between Sumer (in modern Iraq) andElam (a region that is now part of Iran). They fought in the area around Basra.

Why Is Elam So Significant?

Shushan the palace (the Citadel of Susa) located near Andimesk is mentioned 19 times in Esther, as well as in Nehemiah 1:1 and Daniel 8:2. Not only was Shushan the ancient capital of the Elamite Empire, but became the capital of the Medo-Persian Empire after Cyrus conquered Babylon. Evidently, Hamadan (Ecbatana) which was located in cool central Iran was the summer capital while Persepolis (Takht-e-Jamshid - 20 miles north of Shiraz) was the ceremonial capital for events such as the Persian New Year.

A. Historical Background Of Elam And Susa (Shush, Shushan)

Shushan was located 150 miles north of the Persian Gulf east of the Tigris River in Steppe country which is a continuation of the southern Mesopotamian plain. Three names are used for the one city - Shushan in the Bible, Susa in secular history, and Shush in present day Iran. Elam was the area around Shushan. Excavations at Shushan indicate that the city was occupied from 4000 BC to 1200 AD. It was the capital of a small kingdom made up of hill peoples with various successes and failures. The Elamite power was checked by Hammurabi of Babylon (1792 -1750 BC). (This was the king who designed the “Code of Hammurabi”, a famous legal code, which incidently, was found in the ruins at Shushan in 1902.)

From 1650 to 1175 BC, Elam and Babylon as well were under the rule of the Kassites fromLuristan. Following this Elam was established as its own kingdom for a while. Then variousnations such as the Assyria under kings Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal, and Babylon underNebuchadnezzar attacked and conquered Elam. Next it became part of the Medo-Persian Empire with a main palace located in Shushan. The other capital at Takhte Tamshid has carved inscriptions on the northern stairway of the audience palace (Apanda) showing Mede, Persian, and Elamite soldiers guarding the Persian throne. Also, Elamite inscriptions are found along with Persian inscriptions.

Tradition dating back to 1170 AD places the tomb of Daniel at Shushan. However, we are not sure whether or not Daniel was actually at Shushan since the reference to Daniel at Shushan in Daniel 8:2 was a vision.

“In my vision I saw myself in the citadel of Susa in the province of Elam; in the vision I wasbeside the Ulai Canal.”

Recent Jewish tradition states that in the early centuries the Jews in Shushan argued about Daniel’s grave. The Jews who lived on the side of the river where Daniel’s grave was located were wealthy, but the ones on the other side of the river were poor. To stop the arguing, the placing of the bier of Daniel was alternated each year from one side of the river to the other.

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Finally, the Persian king had the bier suspended from chains precisely in the middle of the bridge spanning the river.

Scientist have stated that the present-day area around Shushan is a potential agricultural miracle. If this area could be irrigated it could become one of the most productive in the world. Two crops of sugar cane alone can be grown a year. Remember, this is at the eastern tip of the old fertile crescent.

B. Biblical History Of Elam

1. Elam was one of the sons of Shem, the son of Noah. Therefore Noah was thegrandfather of Elam. (Genesis 10:22)“The sons of Shem: Elam, Asshur, Arphazad, Lud and Aram.”2. Abraham delivered his nephew Lot from Chedorlamer, King of Elam, after he wascaptured by him. (Genesis 14)3. The Assyrian king brought in some Elamite settlers to replace the rebellious Jews ofthe 10 northern tribes who were taken captive. (Ezra 4:9)4. God judged Elam, probably using Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar. (Jeremiah 49:34-37; Ezekiel 32:24-25)5. The Medes with Elam’s help took over the Babylonian Empire. (Isaiah 21:2-10) Also,compare this with Isaiah 22:1-6.

C. Prophecy About Elam

1. Isaiah 11:10-16 gives a prophecy about God reclaiming Israel. Verse 10 tells us thatthe root of Jesse (Jesus the Messiah) will stand as a banner for all the peoples and thenations who will rally to Him. Verse 11 states, “in that day the Lord will reach out Hishand a second time to reclaim a remnant that is left of His people from Assyria, lowerEgypt, upper Egypt, Cush, Elam, Babylonia, Hamath and from the islands of the sea.”Then verse 12 talks about gathering the exiles of Israel. Those holding the belief thatJesus Christ will return to the earth to rule for 1000 years (the millennium) believe thispassage refers to Jewish people scattered in different nations who have returned toIsrael during the past several decades and are returning to Israel now. Did you noticethat one of the countries God reclaimed a remnant from is Elam?

2. There is another prophecy concerning Elam found in Jeremiah 49:35-39. In verse 35the Lord says, “See, I will break the bow of Elam.” The Elamites were long famous asbowmen (Jeremiah 50:9 and Isaiah 22:6). In the standard Farsi translation we readverse 38 and 39, “For there shall come to past, in the latter days, I’ll bring in thecaptivity of Elam, saith the Lord.”This is similar to the translation in the King JamesEnglish version. However, in the Farsi commentary version verses 38 and 39 reads,“Yet I will restore the fortunes of Elam in the days to come declares the Lord.” Therest of the passage tells about God’s judgment against Elam and God scattering itsexiles to many nations because of His anger. Is this passage referring to past historicalevents or events which are yet to happen?

a. In general, this historical event is interpreted as having taken place already.

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(Note that in addition to Jeremiah 49:39, this phrase, “I will restore the fortunes”,is found in Jeremiah 48:47 in reference to Moab and in 49:6 in reference to the Ammonites.) The Elam and the Babylon empires were conquered by the Medo-Persian empire under king Cyrus who replaced the Elamite king and set histhrone in Elam (Jeremiah 49:38). Thus, Elam became another conquered countryunder Cyrus’ rule showing this prophecy was fulfilled already. The phrase,“latter days” is used in connection with the fortunes of Elam, not peoplereturning to Elam. As mentioned previously, Elam was once a prosperousagriculture area. Now it is desolate, but in the latter days it will become an areaof fortune again with a great agriculture harvest. I can remember being in Iran inthe 1970's and talking with an agriculture expert who had surveyed the land. Hesaid that with irrigation this area could become one of the greatest distributioncenters of agriculture in the world. This is yet to happen, “in the days to come”,for the fortunes of Elam.

b. Another interpretation emphasizes the “latter days” with the events of thisprophecy yet to happen. Some Iranian believers have seen how God has beenworking among Persians during these “latter days.” In 1977 there wereapproximately 250 Persian Muslim background Christian believers only. By theyear 2000, this number increased drastically to more than 27,500. To them thisis fulfillment of the prophecy in the “latter days” and bringing again the“captivity of Elam.” Keeping in mind that Elam is part of present-day Iran, someIranians say verses 35 and 36 refer to the Islamic revolution of 1978 whichcaused Iran to become an Islamic republic with new political and economicpolicies. As a result, many Iranians left Iran scattering all over the world. In1999 there were about 53,500 Iranians living in Australia, 110,000 in Germany,80,000 in England, 120,000 in Canada, 1,380,000 in USA, 250,000 in Iraq,100,000 in Kuwait, 140,000 in Pakistan, 800,000 in Turkey, 350,000 in the GulfStates and some in other countries as well. One Christian organization, IranianChristians International, is in contact with Persian believers in more than 30countries. (See Chapter 18, Where are Persians Living Today, for more details.)“This is what the Lord Almighty says: “See, I will break the bow of Elam,the mainstay of their might. I will bring against Elam the four winds fromthe four quarters of the heavens; I will scatter them to the four winds, andthere will not be a nation where Elam’s exiles do not go. I will shatterElam before their foes, before those who seek their lives; I will bringdisaster upon them, even my fierce anger,” declares the Lord. “I willpursue them with the sword until I have made an end of them. I will setmy throne in Elam and destroy her king and officials,” declares the Lord.“Yet I will restore the fortunes of Elam in days to come,” declares theLord.” Jeremiah 49:35-39

This interpretation says verse 38 took place when the 2,500 years of continuousmonarchy in Iran came to an end with the overthrowing of Reza Shah Pahlavi inJanuary, 1979. Iranian believers have the future hope that this present regimewill end with God removing the Islamic rulers thus ending His judgment onElam completely and then restoring the captivity of Elam in the “latter days” asmentioned in verse 39. At that time many believing Persians will return to their country of Iran. Several Iranian Christian organizations have Jeremiah 49:39written on their stationary. To them this prophecy has not been fulfilled yet.

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They see the promise of Deuteronomy 30:1-10 not only applying to the Jewishpeople returning to Israel, but also the returning of Iranians to their own country.c. Other Iranians hold to both interpretations mentioned. Yes, Elam was punishedand a new throne was set in place under Cyrus. However, this passage has adouble fulfillment. It refers to past history as well as God’s working among thePersian people in the future. They base this view on other passages of scripturewhere a prophecy primarily about Israel in the “latter days”.

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Scottish and English History

The Scottish/English border was a tract of rugged territory stretching from Carlise in the west to Berwick in the east.  The name Elam is one of the oldest border surnames or clans.  Ancient manuscripts such as the Exchequer Rolls of Scotland, the Inquisitio, the Ragman Rools, the Domesday Book, Acts of Scottish Parliaments, baptismals, parish records and cartulaaries, and tax records, were researched.  The name Elam was first found in Berwickshire where they were seated from very ancient times, some say well before the Norman Conquest and the arrival of Duke William at Hastings in 1066 AD.

Although the name Elam appeared in many references from time to time, the surname was shown with the spellings Ellem, Ellim, Ellam, Ellames, Ellams, Ellems, Elum, Ellum, and even Elm.  These changes in spelling frequently occurred during a person’s own lifetime, or between father and son.  Simple errors by scribes and church officials occurred when they spelt the name as it sounded.  The same person was often born with one spelling, married with another, and on his gravestone, yet another.

The family name Elam is believed to be descended originally from the Boernicians (See Below).  This ancient founding race of the north were a mixture of Scottish Picts, Angles and Vikings, a race dating from about the year 400 AD.

Their territories ranged from Edinburgh in the north, southward to the North Riding of Yorkshire in England. From 400 A.D. to 900 A.D,, their territory was overrun firstly by the Ancient Britons, then the Angles from the south, and, finally the Vikings, Picts and Dalriadans from the north. By 1000 A.D., however, the race had formed into discernible Clans and families, perhaps some of the first evidence of the family structure in Britain. This area produced strange nicknames such as the Sturdy Armstrongs, one of whom, Neil, was the first to colonize the moon, the Gallant Grahams, the Saucy Scotts, the Angry Kerrs, the Bells, the Nixons, the Famous Dicksons, the Bold Rutherfords, 4heBudding Somervilles, and most of the names ending in “son”.

Emerging from this distinguished circle is the surname Elam and the earliest records were found in Berwickshire where they were recorded as a family of great antiquity seated at Longformacus near Coldingham. Henry Ellom rendered homage to King Edward I of England on his brief conquest of Scotland in 1296. Malaseus Ellam was Vicar of Forgund in 1463. They migrated south to the Liverpool area in England, and acquired Allerton Hall in that city. The family seat remained however at Slichthouss in the barony of Bonkle in Scotland. They also acquired lands in the barony ot Butterdene, and became one of Berwickshire’s distinguished families. Notable amongst the family name during the early history was Henry Ellem of Berwickshire.

The Clans or families to the north of the border became Scottish after about the year 1000 A.D., and to the south they became English. However, they would continue to be united clans, powers unto themselves, owing little allegiance to either Scotland or England, having territories and interests obi both sides of the border

Conflict between these aggressive families became so great that in 1246 A.D., six Chiefs from the Scottish side and six Chiefs from the English side met at Carlisle and produced a set of laws for all the border territory. These were unlike any laws prevailing in England or Scotland or, for that matter, anywhere else in the world. For example, it was a far greater offense to refuse to help a neighbor recover his property, wife, sheep, cattle or horses than it was to steal them in

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the first place. For refusal of assistance a person could be hanged on the instant, without a trial. Whiles clans were on this “hot trod”, from which we get the modem expression “hot to trot”, they were protected from almost all eventualities. Many of the descendants of this border area have enjoyed the distinction of claiming to be descended from cattle thieves and horse stealers, little realizing this was the way of life amongst the border people who, ironically, earned nicknames such as the Haughty Humes, the Worthy Watsons, the Proud Setons and the Jingling Jardines.

In 1603, unification of the crowns of England and Scotland under, James VI of Scotland found it expedient to disperse the “unruly border clans”. In 1587, an Act of Scottish Parliament had condemned certain border families for their lawlessness. Scotland was moving toward breaking up the old “border code”.

Hence, the Border Clans, largely the Strathclyde Britons on the western border, and the Boemicians on the Eastern Border Marches, were dispersed to England, northern Scotland and Wales. Some were banished directly to the Colonies.

In Ireland, they were granted lands previously held by the Catholic Irish. They signed an “Undertaking” to remain Protestant and faithful to the Crown. There is no evidence that the family ever migrated to Ireland.

Gradually becoming disenchanted with life in England, Scotland, and Wales many of these uprooted families sailed aboard the armada of sailing ships known as the “White Sails” which plied the stormy Atlantic. These overcrowded ships often arrived with only 60 to 70% of their original passenger list, many dying of cholera, typhoid, dysentery or small pox.

These migrants became the backbone of the first settlements from Maine to the Cumberland Gap. In Canada they settled Nova Scotia, the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa Valley. During the American War of Independence those loyal to the Crown moved northward into Canada and became known as the United Empire Loyalists. Meanwhile, the family name Elam provided many prominent contemporaries, and the family continued to make an important contribution to the political and cultural lift of the societies on both sides of the Atlantic.

Scotland: The Boernicians

The Boernicians, who were a mixture of Scottish Picts, Angles, and Vikings, were one of the ancient clans of the Scottish-English borderlands. Considered to be the ancient founding peoples of the north, the Boernicians inhabited the tract of rugged territory that stretches from Carlisle in the west to Berwick in the east. In the 4th century, Scotland was composed of five different kingdoms, which were each home to a different race: the Gaels, Vikings, Picts, Britons, and Angles all held land, each had their own realm.

Despite the border that separated the Scottish families of the north from the English families of the south, many of the clans remained united, by territory and interest, across the border and most felt little allegiance to either Scotland or England. There were about 1000 clans divided across the border.

The border clans consisted of the Strathclyde Britons on the Western Border and the Boernicians on the Eastern Border Marches. The history of the Boernician peoples reached a crucial turning point in the 13th century. The dramatic escalation of clan warfare brought chiefs from both the

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English and the Scottish sides of the border to meet at Carlisle in 1246. At this meeting the chiefs cooperated in drafting a new and unique set of laws for the entire borderland territory. For example, it was a greater offense to refuse to help a neighbor recover property or possessions that it was to steal them in the first place. Additionally, for refusal of assistance, a person could be hanged without trial. These laws were unlike any prevailing in Britain, Scotland, Ireland or Europe.

Nevertheless, by 1587 numerous border clans had been condemned by an Act of Scottish Parliament for lawlessness. After the unification of the crowns of Scotland and England in 1603, James VI of Scotland attempted to break up the "unruly border clans". The border clans were banished to England, Scotland, Ireland and the Colonies.

Elam – Name Analysis Study

English: habitational name for someone from a place called Elham, in Kent, or a lost place of this name in Crayford, Kent. The first is derived from Old English = ‘‘eel’ + ham ‘homestead’ or hamm ‘enclosure hemmed in by water’. There is also an Elam Grange in Bingley, West Yorkshire, but the current distribution of the name in the British Isles suggests that it did not contribute significantly to the surname.

Where does ELAM rank in the most common names in the U.S.?

ELAM is identified by the U.S. Bureau of the Census as a surname with more than 100 occurrences in the United States for the year-2000 U.S. Census. In "Demographic Aspects of Surnames from Census 2000", the Census Bureau tabulated the surnames of all people who had obtained Social Security Numbers by the year 2000.

ELAM ranks # 2413 in terms of the most common surnames in the United States for 2000.

ELAM had 13,776 occurrences in the 2000 Census, according the U.S. government records.

Out of a sample of 100,000 people in the United States, ELAM would occur an average of 5.11 times.

Race / ethnic origin

The race categories shown in these files are the modified race categories used in the Census Bureau's population estimates program. All people were categorized into six mutually exclusive racial and Hispanic origin groups: "White only", "Black only", "American Indian and Alaskan Native only", "Asian and Pacific Islander only", "Two or More Races", and "Hispanic".

For the last name of ELAM the Census Bureau reports the following race / ethnic origin breakdown:

69.83 percent, or 9,620 total occurrences, were "Non-Hispanic White Only" 26.13 percent, or 3,600 total occurrences, were "Non-Hispanic Black Only" 0.51 percent, or 70 total occurrences, were "Non-Hispanic Asian and Pacific Islander

Only"

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0.7 percent, or 96 total occurrences, were "Non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaskan Native"

1.53 percent, or 211 total occurrences, were "Non-Hispanic of Two or More Races" 1.3 percent, or 179 total occurrences, were "Hispanic Origin"

All data is derived from David L. Word, Charles D. Coleman, Robert Nunziata and Robert Kominski (2008). "Demographic Aspects of Surnames from Census 2000". U.S. Census Bureau.

Elam and the Internet

According to Google, the most popular internet search engine, there are over 19,700,000 references to the name “Elam” on the internet.

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