Einführung Computerlinguistik

Pragmatik

Hinrich Schütze & Robert Zangenfeind

Centrum für Informations- und Sprachverarbeitung, LMU München

2013-12-09

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Take-away

Pragmatics: Introduction

Grice: conversation as cooperation

Speech acts, performative verbs – language is not just aboutmaking factual statements about the world

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Overview

1 Pragmatics

2 Grice

3 Speech acts

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Outline

1 Pragmatics

2 Grice

3 Speech acts

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Teilgebiete der Linguistik

Phonetik und Phonologie

Morphologie

Syntax

Semantik

Pragmatik

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Pragmatics

Study of how people do things with language

Study of how a speaker chooses language in social interactionand how this affects others

Pragmatics: “What was your intention when you said X? Whydid you say it?” Semantics: “What is the literal meaning ofX?”

From Greek “pragma” ‘deed, action’

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Pragmatics: More general definition

Pragmatics = study of meaning in context

Linguistic context

Situational context

Social context

Pragmatics: “the study of a linguistic expression X in aparticular context” Semantics: “the meaning of X inabstraction from particular situations, speakers or hearers”

Context is often action-related (“pragma-related”), but notalways

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Deixis

Klassische Bedeutungskomponente, die nur im Kontext derAeußerung untersucht / beschrieben werden kann

Definition: Deixis = Zeige- und Hinweisfunktion sprachlicherAusdrücke in einem gegebenen Kontext

deiktische/indexikalische Ausdrücke, die Bedeutung/Referenzerst im Rahmen der konkreten Situation erhalten:

ich, du, er, . . . ,mein, dein, sein, . . . ,hier, dort, da drüben, . . . ,jetzt, heute, morgen, nächstes Jahr, . . .

Diese Ausdruecke erfordern zur Bedeutungsbestimmung dieräumliche und zeitliche Bestimmung von Sprecher,Angesprochenem und beschriebenen Situationen(Gegenstände, Ereignisse etc.)

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Pragmatik in der Semiotik

Sprachliches Zeichen gekennzeichnet durch drei Dimensionen(Charles William Morris):

Semantik (Bezug zur Bedeutung)Syntaktik/Syntax (Bezug zu anderen sprachlichen Zeichen)Pragmatik (Bezug zu Zeichenbenutzern)

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Semantics: Propositional content

The propositional content of a sentence is itscontext-independent meaning.

E.g., the following sentences all have the same propositionalcontent:

Du räumst dein Zimmer auf. (Aussagesatz)Räumst du dein Zimmer auf? (Fragesatz)Räum dein Zimmer auf! (Aufforderungssatz)

In contrast to semantics, pragmatics studies meaning thatgoes beyond propositional content . . .

. . . meaning that is context-dependent, intended (but notexplicitly expressed), invited inferences, “speech act meaning”(questions, orders, promises etc)

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Präsupposition

Vergleiche

Karl weiß nicht, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist.Präsupposition: “Rom ist die Hauptstadt von Italien”Karl weiß nicht, ob Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist. keinePräsupposition!

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Präsupposition

Sinn-Komponente, die der Hörer für wahr halten muss, damitder Satz für ihn einen Sinn ergibt

auch bei Verneinung des Satzes bleibt die Präsuppositionerhalten

“Karl weiß nicht, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist”und “Karl weiß, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist”haben die gleiche Praesupposition.

die Präsupposition kann nicht verneint werden

“Karl weiß nicht, dass seine Mannschaft verloren hat, aber siehat gar nicht verloren”

Der Satz wird “infelicitous”, wenn die Präsupposition falschist.

“Karl weiß nicht, dass Neapel die Hauptstadt von Italien ist”

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Pragmatik: “nur”

(i) nur Hans hat dieses Buch gelesen(ii) Hans hat nur dieses Buch gelesen(iii) Hans hat dieses Buch nur gelesen

Was ist die Bedeutung? Was hat das zu tun mit Pragmatik?

(i) niemand anderes hat dieses Buch gelesen(ii) Hans hat kein anderes Buch gelesen(iii) Hans hat nichts anderes mit diesem Buch getan

Skopus = Wirkungsbereich (eines Quantors, eines Adverbs)

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Pragmatik: “obwohl”

Hans geht ins Kino, obwohl er krank ist

Was ist die Bedeutung? Was hat das zu tun mit Pragmatik?

Hans geht ins Kino, er ist krank, es besteht ein Widerspruchzwischen Ins-Kino-Gehen und Kranksein

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Pragmatik: “ganze”

die Reparatur hat ganze zwei Minuten gedauert

Was ist die Bedeutung? Was hat das zu tun mit Pragmatik?

die Reparatur hat zwei Minuten gedauert, eine Dauer von zweiMinuten ist kurz fuer diese Art von Reparatur

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Pragmatik: “sogar”

sogar Hans schwieg

Was ist die Bedeutung? Was hat das zu tun mit Pragmatik?

Hans schwieg, andere schwiegen, es waere zu erwartengewesen, dass Hans nicht schweigen wuerde

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Outline

1 Pragmatics

2 Grice

3 Speech acts

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Paul Grice

speaker meaning = sentence meaning + what is implicated

what is implicated: based on the assumption that theparticipants in a conversation are cooperating

Conversation is cooperative behavior and proceeds by rules ofcooperative conduct.

→ cooperative principle

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Cooperative Principle

Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at thestage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction ofthe talk exchange in which you are engaged.

“Making as is required” has four aspects, the Gricean maxims:

Maxim of qualityMaxim of quantityMaxim of relevanceMaxim of manner

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Maxim of quality / Tell the truth

Do not say what you believe to be false

Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence

Example: “Did you eat the last piece of pizza?” – “No, Ididn’t.” (assume this is a lie)

In this case the maxim is violated.

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Maxim of quality / Tell the truth (2)

Example: “This restaurant has one of the best Chinese menusin town.” – “And I’m Queen Marie of Romania.”

Implicature: X = “The restaurant is really bad.”

“I’m Queen Marie of Romania.” does not contain / entail Xand it does not presuppose X. X is an implicature that isjustified by the maxim of quality.

In this case the maxim is flouted.

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Maxim of quantity / Say just as much as necessary

Make your contribution as informative as is required for thecurrent purpose of the exchange

Do not make the contribution more informative than isrequired

Example: “Did you finish your homework” – “I finished myalgebra” – “Well, get busy and finish your English, too”

Implicature: X = “I didn’t do my English”

“I finished my algebra” does not contain / entail X and itdoes not presuppose X. X is an implicature that is justified bythe maxim of quantity.

In this case the maxim is flouted.

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Maxim of relevance / Stick to the point

Make your contributions relevant

Example: “Dear colleague, Dr. Jones has asked me to write aletter on his behalf. Let me say that Dr. Jones is unfailinglypolite, is neatly dressed at all times and is always on time forhis classes. Sincerely – Prof. H.P. Smith.”

Implicature: X = “Dr. Jones has none of the skills required forthe job”

The letter does not contain / entail / presuppose X. X is animplicature justified by the maxim of relevance.

In this case the maxim is flouted.

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Maxim of manner / Be clear

Avoid obscurity

Avoid ambiguity

Be brief

Be orderly

Example: “I went to the supermarket and bought sugar”

Implicature: X = “I bought sugar at the supermarket afterhaving arrived there” (not before going to the supermarket,not at the convenience store next to the supermarket)

The utterance does not contain / entail / presuppose X. X isan implicature justified by the maxim of manner, specifically“be orderly”.

In this case the maxim is observed.

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Jokes are often based on Gricean violations

I came home last night, and there’s a car in the dining room. I saidto my husband: “How did you get the car in the dining room?” Hesaid: “It was easy. I made a left turn when I came out of thekitchen.”

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Generalized conversational implicatures

Based on the cooperative principle (= the four maxims)

Do not depend on the context of the conversation.

Cancelable/defeasible

Examples:

A car ran over John’s foot. (implicature: not John’s car, notthe speaker’s car)A car ran over John’s foot – actually, it was my own car.I’ve completed some of the required courses. (implicature: notall)I’ve completed some of the required courses, actually I’vecompleted all of them. (implicature canceled)

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Conventional implicatures

Not based on the cooperative principle (= the four maxims)

They are conventions of lexicon or grammar.

Do not depend on the context of the conversation.

Not cancelable/defeasible

Examples:

Donovan is poor but happy. (implicature: contrast)

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Exercise

Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of quality (truth).

Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of quantity.

Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of relevance.

Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of manner (be clear).

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Outline

1 Pragmatics

2 Grice

3 Speech acts

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Speech acts

Example sentences: “Can you tell me the time?” “Can youopen the window?”

Locutionary act: the act of uttering the words / the sentence

Illocutionary act: the act the utterance is intended to perform(question, assertion, exclamation). Doing something by sayingsomething

Perlocutionary act: the rhetorical act intended by the speakerin performing the illocutionary act (getting the hearer to tellthe speaker what time it is, conveying to the hearer that thespeaker is hot)

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Illocutionary speech acts: Performative verbs

assertives = speech acts that commit a speaker to the truthof the expressed proposition. Example: “I believe in God theFather almighty, creator of heaven and earth. I believe inJesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord.”

directives = speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take aparticular action, e.g. requests, commands and advice.Example: “I beg you to leave now.”

commissives = speech acts that commit a speaker to somefuture action, e.g. promises and oaths. Example: “I promisethat I will pay you back the principal plus 5% interest.”

expressives = speech acts that express the speaker’s attitudesand emotions towards the proposition, e.g. congratulations,excuses and thanks. Example: “I apologize for being late.”

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Illocutionary speech acts: Performative verbs (2)

declarations = speech acts that change the reality in accordwith the proposition of the declaration, e.g. baptisms,pronouncing someone guilty or pronouncing someone husbandand wife. “I pronounce you man and wife”

(from Wikipedia)

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Exercise

Locutionary act: the act of uttering the words / the sentence

Illocutionary act: the act the utterance is intended to perform(question, assertion, exclamation). Doing something by sayingsomething

Perlocutionary act: the rhetorical act intended by the speakerin performing the illocutionary act (getting the hearer to tellthe speaker what time it is, conveying to the hearer that thespeaker is hot)

What are the locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionaryreferred to in the following sentences? “In Paris, deputy mayorAnne Hidalgo promised to create a Nelson Mandela street inthe French capital. In the West Bank, Mahmoud Abbas, thePalestinian Authority president declared a day of mourningand ordered all Palestinian flags to be flown at half mast.”

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Take-away

Pragmatics: Introduction

Grice: conversation as cooperation

Speech acts, performative verbs – language is not just aboutmaking factual statements about the world

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