Effect of Father-Presence and Father-Absence on the Self

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Effect of Father-Presence and Father-Absence on the Self-Effect of Father-Presence and Father-Absence on the Self-

Concept of Black Males in Special Education and Regular Concept of Black Males in Special Education and Regular

Education Classes Education Classes

Queen Esther Woodard Western Michigan University

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EFFECT OF FATHER-PRESENCE AND FATHER-ABSENCE ON THESELF-CONCEPT OF BLACK MALES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION

AND REGULAR EDUCATION CLASSES

by

Queen Esther Woodard

A Dissertation Submitted to the

Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education Department of Special Education

Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan

December 1984

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

EFFECT OF FATHER-PRESENCE AND FATHER-ABSENCE ON THESELF-CONCEPT OF BLACK MALES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION

AND REGULAR EDUCATION CLASSES

Queen Esther Woodard, Ed.D.

Western Michigan University, 1984

This study compared the self-concept of Black males residing in

father-present and father-absent low socioeconomic status homes, who

were between the ages of 8-12, and who were enrolled in emotionally

impaired, or regular education classes. Literature indicated that

since 1970, the number of children reared in one-parent homes has

increased by over 60%, with over 90% of these children living with

their mothers. This changing lifestyle has prompted researchers to

investigate the effects of father-absence on children; especially on

boys.

It was hypothesized that self-concept would be influenced by

father status, chronological age, and class placement. These three

independent variables resulted in a total of eight comparison groups.

Black male students with chronological ages between 8-12 years from

two school districts were identified. From this population a total

of 80 were randomly selected for study. Ten students were selected

for each of the eight comparison groups.

All subjects were administered the Piers-Harris Children's Self-

Concept Scale. A three-way analysis of variance was performed on the

total self-concept scores, and on the six Piers-Harris self-concept

components. It was found that Black males in regular education had a


significantly higher self-concept than Black males in emotionally

impaired classes, regardless of father status or their age. Analyses

of the self-concept component scores revealed significantly lower

self-concepts for the emotionally impaired in the areas of Behavior,

Anxiety, and Popularity, regardless of father status or chronological

age.

On the basis of this evidence, it was concluded that neither

father-presence nor chronological age significantly affected the

total or the dimensional self-concepts of the Black male students.

Rather, class placement was the only variable that produced a sig

nificant effect on the children's self-concepts.

Further research was recommended to identify other factors which

may affect self-concept. These include: teacher perceptions of a

child's self-concept, home environment (extended families and surro

gate fathers), community factors, and the quality of contact that a

child has with his father.


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Woodard, Queen Esther

EFFECT OF FATHER-PRESENCE AND FATHER-ABSENCE ON THE SELF-CONCEPT OF BLACK MALES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION AND REGULAREDUCATION CLASSES

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International



© 1985

QUEEN ESTHER WOODARD

All Rights Reserved


DEDICATION

To my son, Sean L. Johnson, whose existence made it all worthwhile.


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The privilege of being counseled in one setting by two eminent

professors is a rarity. However, I was afforded that opportunity

with Dr. Morvin Wirtz and Dr. Alonzo Hannaford serving as major

advisors. To Dr. Wirtz, who brought me from the conception of an

idea to the dissertation proposal and whose door was never closed— my

heartfelt thanks. To Dr. Hannaford, who took on the task of advisor

and mentor and who, through his advice, encouragement, and construc

tive criticism, proceeded to take me down the path from the proposal

to the defense, my deepest gratitude.

I have also benefited from the insight, wisdom, and encourage

ment of my committee members. Dr. Elizabeth Patterson, Dr. Lewis

Walker, and Dr. Benjamin Wilson. My appreciation goes to Dr.

Patterson, who always took the time to listen, edit, and assist; to

Dr. Walker, who shared so much of his time and knowledge, and to Dr.

Wilson, who provided me with an in-depth understanding of the Afro-

American heritage.

A special acknowledgment goes to Dr. Joseph J. Eisenbach, whose

initial trust and encouragement made my personal and professional

achievement a success. In addition, the support and encouragement

from the faculty of the Department of Special Education at Western

Michigan University provided the needed stimuli for the completion of

this dissertation. To Marilyn Rowe and Gayle McMillon, who were

always there for words of encouragement and assistance, and Lee

ii


Pakko, who provided technical assistance with a cheery smile, thanks.

I am also tremendously indebted to my mother, Mrs. Mary Woodard,

who has always encouraged me to take a chance and who provided the

necessary support; to my son, Sean L. Johnson, who was always patient

during the most trying times; and to Charles Johnson, who provided a

sense of security during critical periods.


iii


TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................ ii

LIST OF T A B L E S .............................................. viii

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ...................................... 1

The Problem and Its Background..................... 2

Impact of Fathers’ Presence on Males'Development .................................... 3

Parental Deprivation of Black Males ............ 6

Self-Concept Development ........................ 9

Emotional Impairment and Self-Concept .......... 11

Summary............................................ 12

Purpose of the S t u d y .............................. 12

Research Questions ................ 12

Outline of the S t u d y .............................. 13

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE...................... 14

Effects of Father-Presence and Absence onCognitive Development and Achievement .............. 14

Effects of Socioeconomic Status on FatherAbsence............................................ 20

Effects of Self-Concept on CognitiveDevelopment and Achievement ........................ 23

Effects of Father-Absence on Self-Concept ......... 28

Effects of Chronological Age on Self-Concept . . . . 30

Relationship Between Father-Presence andAbsence, Emotional Impairment, and Self-Conceptin Black Males, Ages 8 to 1 2 ...................... 33

Summary of Literature Review ....................... 36

iv


Table of Contents— Continued

Chapter

III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY............................ 39

Operational Definitions ............................ 39

Subjects.......................................... 40

Research Hypotheses ................................ 41

Instrumentation .................................... 43

Plers-Harrls Children's Self-Concept Scale(The Way I Feel About M y s e l f ) .................. 44

Socioeconomic Status Index Scale (SES) .......... 45

Design of the Study .......................... 47

Internal Validity .............................. 47

External Validity .............................. 50

Methodology........................................ 52

Procedures for Administering the Plers-Harrls Children's Self-Concept Scale .................. 54

Data Analyses...................................... 56

Summary............................................ 58

IV. RESULTS ..................................... 60

Results of Analyses.......... 60

Main Results.................................... 61

Null Hypothesis 1 (Father Status) ........... 64

Null Hypothesis 2 (Ages)........................ 65

Null Hypothesis 3 (Class Placement) ............ 65

Null Hypothesis 4 (Father Status x A g e ) .... 66

Null Hypothesis 5 (Father Status x ClassPlacement)...................................... 66

V



Chapter

Null Hypothesis 6 (Age x Class Placement) . . . . 67

Null Hypothesis 7 (Father Status x Age xClass Placement)................................. 67

Additional Results ............................... 68

Component 1 (Behavior) .......................... 69

Component 2 (Intellectual and School Status) . . . 72

Component 3 (Physical Appearance andAttributes)..................................... 72

Component 4 (Anxiety) .......................... 75

Component 5 (Popularity) ........................ 75

Component 6 (Happiness and Satisfaction) ........ 75

Summary of Analyses for the Means of Self-Concept Components............................... 79

Summary............................................. 80

V. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION............................. 82

Limitations of the S t u d y .......................... 83

Interpretation of the Results...................... 85

Behavior......................................... 90

Intellectual and School Status .................. 90

Physical Appearance and Attributes .............. 91

A n x i e t y ......................................... 91

Popularity....................................... 92

Happiness and Satisfaction ...................... 92

Conclusions......................................... 93

Implications and Recommendations .................. 94

vi



REFERENCES.............................................. . 97

APPENDICES................................................. 107

A. State of Michigan's Definition of Rule #340.1706Emotionally Impaired .............................. 108

B. Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale(The Way I Feel About Myself)...................... 110

C. Socio-Economic Status Index (SES Index) ............ 114

D. Parental Cover Letter and Requests forConsent and Additional Information ................ 116

E. Follow-Up Parental Consent Letter .................. 120

F. Introductory Statement ............................ 122

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................... 124

vii


LIST OF TABLES

1. Description of Sample by School District . ........... 42

2. Means, Standard Deviations, and jt Tests ofChronological A g e s ..................................... 62

3. Means for Total Self-Concept Scores by Group ......... 63

4. Means and Standard Deviations for All Groups onthe Total Self-Concept Scores ........................ 63

5. 2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for Total Self-Concept Scores......................................... 64

6. Means of Self-Concept Component Scores for FatherStatus, Age, and Class Placement ...................... 70

7. Means and Standard Deviations for All Groups onBehavior and Self-Concept Component Scores • . ........ 71

8. 2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for the Behavior Self-Concept Cluster Across Father Status, Ages,and Class Placement................................... 71

9. Means and Standard Deviations for All Groups on Intellectual and School Status Self-ConceptScores................................................. 73

10. 2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for the Intellectual and School Status Self-Concept Cluster AcrossFather Status, Ages, and Class Placement ............... 73

11. Means and Standard Deviations for All Groups on Physical Appearances and Attributes Self-ConceptComponent Scores ....................................... 74

12. 2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for the Physical Appearance and Attributes Self-Concept ClusterAcross Father Status, Ages, and Class Placement . . . . 74

13. Means and Standard Deviations for All Groups onAnxiety Self-Concept Component Scores ................. 76

14. 2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for the Anxiety Self-Concept Cluster Across Father Status, Ages,and Class Placement................................... 76

viii


Liât of Tabl##— Contimu#d

13. Maanj and Standard Dovlacions for Ail Oroupa onPopularity Self-Concept Cotaponent Scores 77

16. 2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for the PopttlarlcySelf-Concept Cluotor Acrone Pathor Status, Agaa,and Claoe P l a c o o o n t .......... ................ ... . 77

17. Means and Standard Oavlatlono for All Groups on Hepplneaa and Satisfaction Self-Concept ComponentScorea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

18. 2 x 2 x 2 Analyois of Variance for the Happlnaasand Satlafactlon Self-Concept Cluster Across fatherStatus, Ajgee, and Class P U c c e i e n c ................. 78

Ix


CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The effects of father-presence and absence on children have

been topics of concern since World War II when paternal absence,

precipitated by the war, produced long periods of estrangement from

families. Early research was stimulated by reports that fathers who

had been in the armed forces and away from their families, often

reported a sense of alienation from children who were born or were

in the early preschool years during their absence. This sense of

estrangement seemed to have been greater toward sons than daughters

(Hetherington & Deur, 1971). There is disagreement about the idea

that the absence of a primary socializing agent (usually the father)

is likely to have direct effects on the children, since both parents

contribute to the psychological development of their offspring

(Lamb, 1981). According to Herzog and Sudia (1970) and

Hetherington, Cox, and Cox (1975), these direct effects may in turn

cause indirect effects which may be exacerbated by an emotionally

and economically strained and socially isolated single parent.

Since the initial concern for the effects of father-presence

and absence on children was voiced and documented, researchers have

been investigating the effects of father-absence on the cognitive

and social domains. A limited amount of research, however, has

focused on the effects of father-absence cn the affective domain of


2

Black males, especially its effect on families of low socioeconomic

status.

The remainder of Chapter I presents (a) an overview of the

problem and its background, (b) the purpose of the study, (c) re

search questions pertaining to the problem, and (d) an outline of

the study.

The Problem and Its Background

Matthew (1976) has suggested that the number of children being

reared in father-absent homes is increasing chiefly because the

population is increasing and that one-sixth of all children in the

United States under 18 live in single-parent homes. More recently,

Bringle and McLaughlin (1982) estimated that during the current

decade 50% of all children born will experience the absence of

fathers in the home. According to a number of authors (Herzog &

Sudia, 1970; Matthew, 1976; Parish & Taylor, 1979; Sciara, 1975),

this absence is primarily due to the rising rate of divorce, separa

tion, desertion, and illegitimacy in families. Edelman (cited in

"Dr. Spock Says," 1983), president of the Children's Defense Fund,

pointed out that between 1970 and 1982 the number of children in one-

parent families increased by 62.4%, rising from 8.4 million to 13.7

million. In 1982, 22% of all children were in one-parent families as

compared with 12% in 1970. Edelman asserted that in both years more

than 90% of one-parent children lived with their mothers.

Because of these changing life-styles, a number of studies have

focused on the role of fathers in families and the subsequent


3

effects of father-absence on the children, especially males (Alston

& Williams, 1982; Blanchard & Biller, 1971; Carter & Walsh, 1980;

Collins, 1970; Courtney, 1978; Drake & McDougall, 1977; Fowler,

1977; Fowler & Richards, 1978; Gershansky, 1980; Herzog & Sudia,

1970; Hunt & Hunt, 1977; Matthew, 1976; Mertz, 1977; Rosenthal,

1971; Rubin, 1974). Other studies (Drake & McDougall, 1977;

Hetherington & Deur, 1971; Lamb, Frodi, Hwang, & Frodi, 1983; Fleck,

1981; Shinn, 1978) have provided evidence that when fathers are

absent from the home during the earlier years of children's lives,

the children will experience several negative consequences, includ

ing a less positive self-concept. These negative consequences

appear to be more prevalent in lower-class Black families in which

the natural father is absent (Sciara, 1975) than in White families.

While the majority cf studies have centered on the cognitive

development, achievement, and sexual role of males raised in fami

lies with fathers present and absent, very little has been reported

about the effects of father-presence and absence on the affective

domain, especially its effects on the self-concept of preadolescent

Black emotionally impaired malec (Alston & Williams, 1982; Cortes &

Flemings, 1968; Jordan, 1981).

Impact of Fathers' Presence on Males' Development

The impact of fathers' presence on their male children's devel

opment can be noticed as early as the period after the child's

birth. According to Parke and O'Leary (1976), shortly after the

child's birth, fathers vocalize, touch, and respond to their first


4

born sons more frequently than to their first born daughters. From

the age of 3 weeks to 3 months, fathers look at sons more than

daughters and provide sons with more visual and tactile stimulation.

In addition, fathers are also more likely to diaper and feed their

3-month-old sous than their daughters.

Pederson and Robson (1969) maintained that most infants appear

to be attached to both parents by the age of 8 months. In stress-

free situations, infants appear to show no preference for either

parent, but when distressed, the infant organizes his or her attach

ment behavior around whichever parent is present (Lamb, 1977b).

The degree and quality of a father's involvement, even in the

child's first year of life, has been reported by Biller (1981b) as

having much influence on the child's behavior. According to Herzog

and Sudia (1970), a large body of child development literature

supports the idea that the age of the child when the father leaves

the home is an Important factor influencing the impact of father-

absence. Their study revealed that the younger the child is at the

time of separation, the greater the impact of father-absence.

Clarke-Stewart (1978) reported that from the first year onward,

infants and young children appear to prefer playing with their

fathers, and Lamb (1976b, 1977a) found that boys up through 4 years

of age prefer fathers over mothers as playmates. This, according to

Lamb, is due largely to the fact that fathers are more novel and emit

more affilitative behaviors than mothers. Lamb further maintained

that during the second year of life, boys start to show strong pref

erence for their fathers on attachment behaviors such as touching


5

them, asking to be held, or asking to stay near them. These prefer

ences appear to be caused by fathers' greater interest in sons than

in daughters (Biller, 1981a; Lamb, 1977a; Lewis, Feiring, & Weinraub,

1981; Parke & Tinsley, 1981). Radin (1972) suggested that as boys

identify with their fathers, not only are attributes, values, roles,

gestures, and emotional reactions emulated, but problem-solving stra

tegies, thinking processes, and vocabulary skills are emulated as

well.

The impact of fathers on boys' development appears to be more

significant because, according to Radin (1972), the bond between

fathers and sons is stronger than the bond between fathers and

daughters. Even though fathers may spend relatively little time

with their children, fathers apparently still have significant

impact on boys' development (Lamb, 1981).

Findings by Radin (1972) suggest that the reasons for fathers

having a strong bond with their sons are: (a) Boys identify with

and model their fathers particularly from about 4-9 years of age,

and (b) fathers who identify with their sons become invested in

their activities, abilities, and behavior patterns.

Another major impact of fathers' presence on children's devel

opment is that of sexual identity. According to Money and Ehrhardt

(1972), if sexual identity is to be secure, it must be established

in the first, second, or third year of life. If father-absence

occurs early in a child’s life, the absence will most likely affect

the development of masculinity in boys.


6

Herzog and Sudia (1970) and Pettigrew (1964) reported that the

matriarchal structure, or more specifically a female-headed family,

has been viewed as very common in lower-socioeconomic neighborhoods

and appears to be prevalent among lower-class Blacks. According to

Hetherington and Deur (1971), this type of family structure may

present problems that are associated with sexual identity. In

environments where a boy’s early social contacts are entirely with

his mother and where a father is excluded from interacting with the

infant, a process of discontinuous identification occurs.

Herzog (1979) speculated that during a child’s developmental

stage a father may also function (from the viewpoint and experiences

of a child) as a moderator of aggressive drive and fantasy. Herzog

stated further that "father absences during early phases of develop

ment may have specific long-term consequences, affecting the Ego’s

capacity to deal with and control aggressive feelings and impulses"

(p. 133).

Parental Deprivation of Black Males

Lovelene and Lohmann (1978) reported that there were more

negative consequences attributed to the absence of fathers within

the Black families than within the White families. The above

author's assumption was based upon a general belief that more Black

children grow up in homes without father.^ (Lovelene & Lohmann, 1978;

Moynihan, 1965; Sciara, 1975) and that if a Black father does not

live in the same house with his children, then he is not physically

or emotionally accessible to them (Lovelene & Lohmann, 1978).


Though it may appear that a Black man's absence from his family is

an almost natural assumption by many, Sciara (1975) asserted that:

Father-absence among Black families is not a natural phenomenon, but one which can be historically traced to slavery when white masters forced the break-up of families, favored the females, and provided for the powerless Black male as an emasculating cultural heritage. A female dominated family structure became the norm, not because it was desired, but because it was forced upon them. Acceptance of this condition represented an adaptation to a forced environment, necessary for survival, (p. 45)

As a result of father-absence in Black families, the economic

security of a family rests primarily with the mother. According to

Grambs (1965), this, too, is an outgrowth of slavery, when at least

mothers could keep their children with them until they were physi

cally independent and able to work while "the father was often not

accorded the recognition of paternity" (p. 2). A "family," as the

White population knew it, was prohibited for slaves.

Patterns of employment in today's society have continued to

make economic stability more available to Black women than to Black

men. Sciara (1975) reported ^hat with the abolition of slavery came

significant changes in the political, social, and economic structure

of society. These changes affected the available opportunities for

Black men, and although the matrifocal family pattern has decreased

since slavery, economic and other forms of discrimination have

continued throughout history, thus initiating a higher frequency of

father absence for Black Americans than for any other group.

Kvaraceus suggested in 1965 that Black Americans were very

often marked by father substitutes as well as father absences. He

further stated that when one father left home, a stepfather or


8

father substitute might appear. This family reorganization, could

continue and later, because of death. Illness, or desertion, the

children might be left with grandparents or other relatives. If an

attachment occurred, Kvaraceus maintained that It might not last

until adulthood, thus many Black children might have few experiences

with stability, warmth, and attention— all of the things which may

be taken for granted as part of the necessary environment for

healthy personality development. There are those who do not agree

with Kvaraceus, and suggest that the extended family that Is common

In the Black family and which consists of grandfathers, uncles, an

older brother, a male cousin, the preacher, or teacher provides an

abundance of love, paternal relationships, and helpful guidance

(Lovelene & Lohmann, 1978; Rubin, 1974).

The absence of fathers In Black homes appears to be more damag

ing to boys than to girls (Grambs, 1965; Rubin, 1974). Boys, par

ticularly In father-absent families, have less ability to postpone

gratification. For example, these boys will accept a small choco

late candy bar today rather than wait until next week for one five

times as large. It Is said that these boys have a low need to

achieve but a high need for power (Grambs, 1965; Hetherington &

Deur, 1971).

Boys In father-absent families tend to develop sexual role

confusion (Pleck, 1981). Such boys adopt a masculine role only

secondarily, since the primary adult models are provided by mothers.

In order to gain a masculine role, the boys must compensate by

expressing toughness and acting out, which Is said to be a rejection


9

of everything feminine— ranging from their perception of school

(with its high percentage of female teachers and which is a symbol

of femininity) to the fact that girls perform better than boys at

the early years of elementary school.

Because of the increasing magnitude of father-absence among

families, and in this case the Black family, an explanation of the

family structure and its effects on the development of self-concept

appear to be germane to this study.

Self-Concept Development

Lifshifz (1975) suggested that one's sense of identity, or

self-concept, develops as a result of a series of successive com

parisons and contrasts between self, father, and mother. The self,

according to Grambs (1965), "can never be isolated from the complex

of interpersonal relations in which the person lives and has his

being. . . . The self is heavily affected by the 'reflected

appraisals' of the society in which the person lives" (p. 4).

Psychologists have proposed various definitions of self-

concept; however, there are two aspects of self-concept about which

most of them agree:

1. The perceptions of self that an individual has include his view of himself as compared to others (self- perception), his view of how others see him (self-other perception), and his view of how he wishes he could be (self-ideal).

2. The perceptions of self that an individual has are largely based upon the experiences that he has had with those people who are important to him (significant others). Thus, such people can effect change in the individual's self-concept. (Quandt, 1972, p. 5)


10

Another important factor of self-concept is that it is not one

dimensional. Piers (1984) maintained that children are not charac

terized simply by an overall level of self-concept but may view

themselves quite differently across different areas. These f”-pas,

according to Piers, may include (a) behavior, (b) intellectual and

school status, (c) physical appearance and attributes, (d) anxiety,

(e) popularity, and (f) happiness and satisfaction.

The self is also conceptualized differently at various age

levels with the more critical stages occurring during middle child

hood (Fahey & Phillips, 1981). Middle childhood is said to span the

period from age 5 to 11 or 12 years. The above authors indicated

that this stage of development involves two major and permanent

changes in a child's experience, both of which are said to influence

the development of self. The first of these changes is the child's

entry into school and the second is the development of interpersonal

relationships with peers and the community.

The self-concept of 11 and 12-year-olds, as observed by Stevens

(1975) and by Stenner and Katzenmeyer (1976), is composed of several

dimensions which include peer relations, social concerns, personal

adjustment, and school-related areas. During the 11-12-year-old age

period there is an expansion and reorganization of the self-concept

dimensions as compared to the self-concept dimensions of the 8-10-

year-old. This expansion appears to be in the structure of the

"self"; and in instances in which the child is classified as emo

tionally impaired, these dimensions may be even more pronounced.

Because the self-concept has been identified as a pluralistic entity


11

across different age levels, it is necessary then to consider the

self-concept development of preadolescent males who are identified

as emotionally impaired.

Emotional Impairment and Self-Concept

Schultz (1979) maintained that the need for a sense of personal

worth and an ability to adjustment successfully can be described as

needs of children. It is crucial that children attain and maintain

happy, healthy perceptions of themselves. However, as a result of

an unstable home environment, inadequate intellectual abilities, and

lack of care and concern demonstrated by important "other" persons,

many children lack a happy perception of themselves and subsequently

may later be diagnosed as emotionally impaired (El).

Children identified as El exhibit inadequacies not only in the

school setting and on psychological tests, but also in the area of

self-concept as well. Michigan's State of Education rule 340.1706

(1982) stipulates the following:

The emotionally impaired shall be determined through manifestation of behavioral problems primarily in the affective domain, over a period of time, which adversely affect the person's education to the extent that the person cannot profit from regular learning experiences without special education support, (p. 11)

The affective domain includes areas such as emotional stability

and control, interaction and reaction to self and others, ability to

work with others, and self-control. Brunner and Starkey (1974)

maintained that students who are classified and placed in classes


12

for the emotionally impaired have lower self-concepts than any

other students.

Summary

Literature has revealed that there is a rise in the incidence

of children being reared in single-parent homes, and as such, this

matriarchal structure appears to perpetuate certain negative conse

quences in children, especially male children. Based upon the

review of background literature, it appears that the presence and

absence of fathers may have a significant effect on the development

of self-concept in Black male children and as such, an investigation

of this effect was warranted. Because the developed self-concept

seems to expand during the ages of 8-12 and may have an effect upon

placement in special classes (El), it appeared that these two vari

ables were also worth investigating.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to compare the self-concept of

Black males between the ages of 8-10 and 11-12 years, of the same

low socioeconomic level, who reside in father-present and father-

absent homes, and who are placed in special education classes for

the emotionally impaired and in regular education.

Research Questions

The background literature pertaining to the study prompted

several questions concerning the research problem. The specific


13

questions which were addressed in this investigation were;

1. Do Black males in father-present homes have a higher self-

concept than Black males in father-absent homes, regardless of

special class or regular education placement in school?

2. Do Black males in the 11-12 age group have a higher self-

concept than Black males in the 8-10 age group, regardless of spe

cial class or regular education placement in school?

3. Do Black males in regular education classes have a higher

self-concept than Black males in special classes for the emotionally

impaired, regardless of age?

4. Do Black males, ages 8-10 and 11-12, in regular education

classes and in father-present homes have a higher self-concept than

Black males, ages 8-10 and 11-12, in classes for the emotionally

impaired and in father-absent homes?

Outline of the Study

Chapter II is a review of selected literature and Chapter III

presents the definitions, subjects, instruments, research design,

and procedures used for this study. An analysis and summary of the

results appear in Chapter IV. Chapter V describes the limitations

of the investigation, presents interpretations of the results in the

form of conclusions and implications, and contains recommendations

for further research.


CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Chapter II presents a review of empirical and authoritative

literature directly related to the problem under Investigation which

Is to compare the self-concept of Black males who reside In father-

present (FP) and father-absent (FA) low socioeconomic status (SES)

homes, who are between the ages of 8-12, and who are enrolled In

classes for emotional impairment and regular education.

The review Is divided Into six categories: (1) effects of

father-presence and absence on cognitive development and achieve

ment; (2) effects of socioeconomic, status on self-concept; (3)

effects of self-concept on cognitive development and achievement;

(4) effects of father-presence and absence on self-concept; (5)

effects of chronological age on self-concept; and (6) relationship

between father-presence and absence, emotional Impairment, and self-

concept In low socioeconomic status Black males, ages 8-12.

Effects of Father-Presence and Absence on Cognitive Development and Achievement

Changing family patterns have resulted In an Increasing focus

on the role of fathers within families and the effects of their

absence on their children. Among the effects Identified has been

the lack of adequate cognitive development and achievement.

14


15

As the literature regarding the effects of father-absence is

examined, a mixed pattern of results becomes apparent. Studies

reporting the effects of father-absence on children's cognitive

development have revealed significant negative effects. Bronfen-

brenner (1967) has indicated that one of the more consistently

reported effects of father-absence on boys is a deterioration of

school performance and intellectual capacity.

Blanchard and Biller (1971) described different levels of

father availability and investigated the relationship of these

levels to the academic functioning of those fathers’ third grade

sons. Four matched groups of boys were established (ji = 22): (1)

early father-absent (beginning before age 3), (2) late father-absent

(beginning after age 5), (3) low father-present (less than 6 hours

per week), and (4) high father-present (more than 2 hours per day).

The boys were matched on age, IQ, SES, and presence and absence of

male siblings.

Academic performance was assessed by means of Stanford Achieve

ment Test scores and classroom grades. The findings of the study

were; (a) that boys in the high father-present groups were superior

to the boys in the other three groups in both achievement and class

room grades, (b) the early father-absent boys were generally under

achievers, and (c) the late father-absent boys and low father-

present boys were somewhat below grade level.

In 1975, Mueller provided evidence from a study of 314 Black

and White third grade boys and girls that father-absence had a

negative effect on the Metropolitan Achievement Test Word Analysis


16

scores. In another study, Hess, Shipman, Brophy, Bear, and

Adelberger (1969) examined a population of 80 low income Black

preschool children and followed them through ages 6 and 7. The

sample consisted of 40 FP and 40 FA families. The results of the

study revealed that FP children received better grades in 5 of 14

subjects (first grade writing, second grade arithmetic, spelling,

speaking, and science) than the children with FA. Two intelligence

tests and three standard reading tests also favored the two-parent

children.

Shelton (1968) conducted an investigation to determine what

differences, if any, occurred in educational achievement between

students from broken homes and students from intact families. The

foci of the study were: (a) the educational achievement of subjects

in academic and nonacademic areas of the curriculum, and (b) a

determination of differences in educational achievement between

various one-parent subgroups (children living with a mother or

father) and two-parent samples. The subjects were 162 students from

junior high schools in Iowa. Each category of one-parent and two-

parent groups had an equal number of students. Grade point averages

in academic and nonacademic subjects were used as criteria. The

controlling variable was the Otis Intelligence Test scores. The

results indicated:

1. Differences in mean scores of academic grade point averages

favored the two-parent group.

2. Differences in mean scores of nonacademic grade point

averages favored the two-parent group.


17

3. Differences in achievement between boys from one-parent

families and the two-parent group favored boys from the two-parent

group.

4. Differences in achievement between students from one-parent

families living with mothers and students from one-parent families

living with fathers were not statistically significant; however, the

trend of the differences favored the "living with mother" subgroup.

5. Students who experienced a broken home condition during

early primary grades tended to be most adversely affected in their

educational achievement.

In a later study, Fowler (1977) investigated the effects of

early father-absence on educational preparedness and academic

achievement on a sample of 120 urban, predominantly lower SES Black

children. An equal number of males and females from FP and FA homes

was selected. All subjects were selected for the study upon entry

into kindergarten. Academic achievement was measured at the second

grade level by the Science Research Associates (SRA) Assessment

Survey in reading, mathematics, and language arts. Analyses re

vealed no significant sex differences on the factor score of educa

tional preparedness or on the SRA criteria, once differences in

social class and family size were controlled. Although discriminant

analysis revealed no significant differences between FP and FA

subjects on the various factors, a significant difference favoring

father-presence subjects was found for the SRA mathematics test.

Various authors (Carter & Walsh, 1980; Fowler & Richards, 1978;

Sciara, 1975; Shelton, 1968; Shinn, 1978; Soloman, 1969; Svanum,


18

Brlngle, & McLaughlin, 1982; Verdianl, 1970) have concluded that

higher achievement and intellectual development is more prevalent

among boys with fathers in the home and that paternal encouragement

of intellectual performance is related to achievement and paternal

rejection is detrimental to it. Blanchard and Biller (1971) deter

mined that boys whose fathers are accessible to them are more cogni

tively competent; but according to Lamb (1981), boys who have

relationships with fathers whom they regard as rejecting or hostile

are often identified as underachievers. The importance of this

father-son relationship is explained by Rosenthal (1971) as follows:

If the father's [sic] hostile or indifferent to a son before separation, the aftermath in terms of the child's development may have more to do with this relationship than with the father's absence. And, conversely, if he has been living in supportive [sic] and has spent meaningful time with his children, if he has actually participated in their formative years, then the results may be more favorable, regardless of later separation, particularly if he maintains positive relations with his children after leaving the household, (p. 63)

There are opposing views about the effects of father-absence on

children's cognitive abilities. Wasserman (1972) compared the school

performance of 117 lower-class Black boys in FP and FA families. One

of the major findings of the study was that the presence or absence

of fathers failed to discriminate between boys who do better or worse

in school. These findings, according to Wasserman, suggest that

"more likely causal explanations lie elsewhere; that the society in

which the lower-class Black boy exists is so unrewarding, frustrating

and beyond his control, that, apart from his own personal or family

attributes, he is extremely vulnerable" (p. 141).


19

In 1968, Baughman and Dahlstrom looked at the presence and

absence of fathers of 1,006 Black and White disadvantaged children

aged 6 through 14 from a rural southern community. The boys came

from 56 father-absent families, 63 father-substitute families, and

477 father-present families. There were no controlling variables

and the results suggested that there was no relationship between

father-absence and IQ.

Although research indicating negative consequences of FA on

cognitive development and achievement outnumbers the research citing

neutral consequences, there are some studies that report no differ

ence exists between the intelligence or academic achievement of FP

and FA lower-class Black children (Hess, Shipman, Brophy, and Bear,

1968). A theory by Shinn (1978) suggests that father-absence does

not cause poor cognitive performance in children either directly or

indirectly. Instead, he theorized that families in which one parent

ultimately leaves the home may, from the start, be unrepresentative

of families in general and in some ways this may lead children to

perform poorly on cognitive tests. The evidence implies that

"financial hardship, high levels of anxiety, and in particularly,

low levels of parent-child interaction are important causes of poor

performance among children in single-parent families" (Shinn, 1978,

p. 316).

In support of the theory that there is no difference in intel

ligence or academic achievement of FP and FA children, it is inter

esting to note that extended families, which are more prevalent

among Blacks than Whites, may mitigate the adverse effects of


20

father-absence. This may account for a slightly lower percentage of

studies that found less negative effects of father-absence for

Blacks than for Whites.

The effects of father-absence cannot be considered in isola

tion. In addition to a father's departure, his length of time of

separation, the presence of siblings, and the gender, age, race, and

socioeconomic status of the children are also important interactive

variables that can modify the consequences of father-absence in the

home. Because the effects of father-absence is so closely linked to

low socioeconomic status, it is important that this variable be

addressed.

Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Father Absence

It has been established by Blanchard and Biller (1971) and by

Lamb (1981) that the social and economic situation of a child,

mother, and family unit is strongly influenced by the presence or

absence of a father. Herzog and Sudia (1970) have reinforced this

idea by asserting that:

Everytime a child at school is asked his father's occupation, everytime there is a "Father's Night," everytime he hears about other boys being taken to ball games by their fathers, everytime he wishes his father were there for a game or a talk, he is reminded that his father is not present and he is, therefore, different from other children, (p. 70)

The economic values of a father's presence are reflected in the

repercussions of the deficit often left by his absence. Some of

these are a reduced income, a changed lifestyle, and a move to a

different neighborhood. Some boys may have to drop out of school to


21

help support the family or take a part-time job for support, thus

contributing to additional responsibilities for the boys.

Most SES measures depend on the occupation of the principal

breadwinner. In intact families, this is usually the father but in

FA homes it is the mother. Thus, the measures used to control for

SES differences between the two samples, FP and FA, are not always

comparable (Shinn, 1978).

In 27 studies summarized by Shinn (1978) in which the absence

of the father produced detrimental effects, only 9 controlled the

important variable of SES and, of those that did, there was no

indication of what measurement was used for assessing SES. Of the

11 studies that showed no significant effects of father-absence only

5 controlled for SES. Results from these studies revealed: (a)

There were no significant differences on Grade Point Average (GPA),

reading, and vocabulary; (b) IQs were 1-5 points higher among chil

dren with fathers present prior to birth; (c) the effects of father-

absence increased with SES and was greater for Whites than Blacks;

(d) fatherless children scored lower th^n all other children with

fathers present, but there was no evidence of an educational handi

cap when allowance was made for social class; and (e) father status

was unrelated to test performance when the mother’s education and

child’s prekindergarten educational experience were used as control

variables.

Two studies relating the SES effects on FA boys were conducted

by Broman, Nicholas, and Kennedy (1975) and by Svanum et al. (1982).

Broman et al. studied 26,094 White and Black 4-year-olds from a


22

perinatal project by administering the Stanford-Blnet Intelligence

Test. Based on prenatal interviews with the mothers, there were

19,078 fathers present and 7,016 fathers absent. The matching

variables were race, gender, and three levels of SES. Without

control for SES, the data showed decrements associated with FA.

These decrements were less than half of a standard deviation for

Whites and were smaller for Blacks. Father-absence was found to be

disproportionately distributed across SES levels. Of all factors

included in this study, SES was found to have one of the strongest

relationships to intellectual development. After controlling for

SES, the decrements due to FA were no longer significant. Specific

findings relative to SES indicated that; (a) the effects of father-

absence increased from low to high SES and was greater for Whites

than for Blacks, and (b) father-presence was not a significant

predicator of IQ when equating SES with the mother’s education.

The study conducted by Svanum et al. (1982) investigated the

effects of father-absence on achievement and intellectual develop

ment of 6 to 11-year-old children. A nationally representative

sample of 5,493 father-present and 616 father-absent children from

the Health Examination Survey of the National Center for Health

Statistics was chosen. The socioeconomic status of the child’s

family served as a control variable, and the vocabulary and Block

Design subtest of the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children and

the 1963 revisions of the arithmetic and reading subtests of the

Wide-Range Achievement Test were administered. Father-absent Black

children evidenced a decrease in test performance only on measures


23

of achievement. Following statistical control for SES, no decre

ments were associated with father-presence and father-absence.

In reviewing studies that were performed prior to the 1970s,

Herzog and Sudia (1970) discovered certain trends in relationship

between SES and other variables. Low SES samples were studied more

with regard to problems that troubled society (e.g., school achieve

ment associated with juvenile delinquency), while middle-class

groups were studied more with regard to traits that could be defined

as problems to the individual (e.g., self-esteem, psychosomatic

symptoms, immaturity, masculine identity, dependency). More

recently, studies (Fu, Korslund, & Hinkle, 1980; Growe, 1980;

Osborne & LeGette, 1982; Phillips, 1982; Phillips & Zigler, 1980;

Sciara, 1975) have shown a relationship between low SES and traits

that were once associated with only the middle social class, pri

marily the self-concept.

The findings of this study were consistent with the pattern of

results reported in the previous large sample (e.g., Broman et al.,

1975). Thus, the previous research (Broman et al., 1975; Svanum et

al., 1982) represents two studies which provide convergence on the

conclusion that father-absence has little association with cognitive

development independent of SES.

Effects of Self-Concept on Cognitive Development and Achievement

Campbell (1981) theorized that "intellectual development, or

the child's ability to act on information, is a function of his


24

self-concept” (p. 202). In a study that Investigated the relation

ship between intellectual development, achievement, and self-concept

of elementary minority school children, Campbell selected 51 second-

grade subjects who were enrolled in a predominantly biethnic (45%

Black, 45% Hispanic, and 10% others) school located in a low-class

urban setting. The average age of the subjects was 8 years, 1

month. Three different tests were given to each subject. The

Stanford Achievement Test was used to measure academic achievement

in the areas of reading (word and comprehension), social studies,

science, and listening comprehension; the Piers-Harris Self-Concept

Scale was used to assess self-concept; and seven Piagetian-like

tasks were used to measure intellectual development.

The results of this study indicated that there was a relation

ship between self-concept and academic achievement of minority

school children. There were significant positive correlations be

tween self-concept and reading achievement (word and comprehension),

social studies achievement, science achievement, and listening com

prehension achievement.

The question that the author raised concerning a relationship

between minority school children's (Black and Hispanic) self-concept

and their intellectual development was also partially supported.

There were significant positive correlation between self-concept and

four of the seven Piagetian tasks. According to Campbell (1981),

this would imply that "having a high positive self-concept makes it

easier to achieve higher levels of intellectual development as a


25

minority child moves from one stage of development to another" (p.

203).

Brookover, LePere, Hamachek, Thomas, and Erickson (1965) con

ducted a comprehensive study with high and low achievers in junior

high school. This study examined the relationship of self-concept

to school achievement and was based upon the assumption that the

achievement of most students is functionally limited by self-

evaluations of their own ability. It was also assumed that these

self-evaluations held by students are not fixed, but may depend upon

the reactions of significant "others." Results from this study

support the general theory that any changes in reactions by signifi

cant "others" (e.g., parents) may induce changes in self-concept of

ability in the student and thus effect changes in academic behavior.

Thus far, a review of literature has revealed that the majority

of studies comparing self-concept and cognitive and achievement

abilities have centered primarily on children enrolled in regular

education. The review of studies which follows, however, will be

centered on the self-concept and academic achievement of children in

exceptional classes.

In 1977, Calhoun and Elliott investigated the self-concept and

academic achievement of emotionally impaired (El) and educable men

tally retarded (EMR) students in special class and regular class

placements. Using the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale

and the Stanford Achievement Tests, these authors found a positive

relationship between academic achievement and self-concept for both

El and EMR students.


26

There are other studies that have presented evidence in support

of, and studies which contradict these findings. Crockett and

Gutherie (1975) found no significant difference between the self-

concept of educable mentally retarded students in special education

classes and their peers in regular classes. Brunner and Starkey

(1974) found no significant differences in the social self-concept of

learning disabled, emotionally disturbed, and remedial and average

students. On the other hand, Richmond (1972) reported that educable

mentally retarded (EMR) students exhibit lower estimates of self-

worth than do advantaged learners. However, there is very little

difference in the self-worth of EMR students when they are compared

to disadvantaged students.

More recently. Beck, Roblee, and Hanson (1982) conducted a study

to determine what differences, if any, existed between the self-

concept of Exceptional Educational Needs (EEN) children and Non-

Exceptional Needs (Non-EEN) children. The Piers-Harris was adminis

tered to 47 EEN children and 47 Non-EEN children with the groups

being matched on gender (M = 35; F = 12) and chronological age. The

EEN group consisted of emotionally impaired, mentally retarded, and

learning disabled; and the Non-EEN group was comprised of all regular

education children. The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale

was administered to all subjects, and the total self-concept scores

and the six component (cluster) scores for the groups were compared

using one-way analysis of variance. Results indicated no significant

differences in total school scores or on any of the six cluster

scores between EEN and Non-EEN.


27

Research comparing the self-concept of exceptional students in

special education classes with the self-concept of exceptional stu

dents in regular classes is limited. However, there was one study

performed by Clifford (1974) which investigated whether there were

differences in self-concept with retarded students in various educa

tional placements, including special education classes and regular

classes. The results showed that there was no difference in the

self-concept of retarded students in various educational placements.

There has been concern by Wylie (1974) that although the reli

ability of the Piers-Harris seemed satisfactory for research pur

poses, there exists the question of "to what extent are low scores

indicative of poor self-regard and to what extent indicative of

unreliability of responding?" (p. 275). Wylie maintained that there

is the strong possibility that unreliable responding and poor self-

regard may have an impact to an unknown degree in many of the

individual scores.

In order to disclaim Wylie's (1974) concern that scores on the

Piers-Harris scale were invalid because of unreliable or chance

responding. Smith and Rogers (1977) conducted a study to determine

the stability or reliability of the Piers-Harris. These authors

used subjects hypothesized by Wylie as "known groups" (e.g., delin

quents vs. normals, retardates vs. normals, poor achievers vs.

normals, emotionally disturbed subjects vs. normals), who could be

expected to vary not only with respect to self-regard but also with

respect to reliability of responding.


28

The results failed to confirm Wylie's concerns. Children with

lower levels of self-regard compared with those with higher levels,

although maintaining relatively stable feelings of general self-

regard, demonstrated greater fluctuation over time with respect to

highly specific feelings about themselves and thereby evidenced

greater variability in responses to specific items. Wylie's ex

pressed concern that low Piers-Harris scores were invalid because of

unreliability of responding was unfounded.

Although there is empirical evidence that self-concept and

achievement are related (Andrews, 1971; Brookover et al., 1965;

Caplin, 1966; Godfrey, 1970; Manzano & Towne, 1970), there is no

agreement as to its causal ordering, that is, whether a positive

self-concept causes high achievement, or that a high achieving

individual becomes the recipient of a high positive self-concept.

The preceding literature review implies that a positive self-

concept is basic to all aspects of development and learning and that

the presence or absence and interaction of significant "others"

(parent-child) greatly affects the development and stability of a

positive self-concept. One significant person whose presence or

absence has been viewed as having a great impact upon the self-

concept of the child is the father.

Effects of Father-Absence on Self-Concept

Self-concept has been described by Dinkmeyer (1965) as one's

inner world which results from interactions with others. He com

pares it to a foundation for the formulation of the self which


29

assimilates a child's perceptions of the attitudes, and the judg

ments of others who make up his world. If a significant person such

as one parent is absent, it is proposed that a male child's self-

concept will either deteriorate or not develop normally.

There is a general belief that father-absence contributes

greatly to the low self-concept of male children (Biller, 1981a;

Herzog & Sudia, 1970); however, few studies are available that

directly address this problem. One such study was performed by

Alston and Williams (1982) in which the self-concept of 35 randomly

selected Black adolescent boys, 21 of whom were from FP homes and 14

from FA homes, was investigated. All were in the ninth grade, came

from a low socioeconomic background, had a mean Grade Point Average

(GPA) of "C," and a mean chronological age of 14. Results from the

Self Appraisal Inventory and Personal Background Data Sheet showed

that boys with fathers present in the homes had a significantly

higher and more positive self-concept than those boys whose fathers

were not present.

Parish and Taylor (1979) also measured the self-concept of

children with absent fathers. Of the 406 grade school and junior

high school students they studied, there were 49 third-graders, 75

fourth-graders, 68 seventh-graders, and 79 eighth-graders. From

this population, 347 were from intact families, 44 were from fami

lies that had experienced father loss through divorce and where the

mother had not remarried, and 15 were from families that had expe

rienced father loss through divorce and where the mother had re

married. Students responded to the Personal Attribute Inventory for


30

Children by checking the 15 words which best described themselves.

An analysis revealed that students who had lost fathers through

divorce and whose mothers did not remarry had significantly lower

self-concepts than the students who were from Intact families.

Students who had lost fathers through divorce and whose mothers had

remarried tended to demonstrate lower self-concepts than the stu

dents from intact families. Further results of the study Indicated

that neither grade placement nor gender had a significant effect on

the students' self-concepts.

Biller (1981a) and Fahey and Phillips (1981) Indicated that at

certain ages, children who are deprived of fathers will be more

predisposed to the development of insecurities In Interpersonal

relationships (which can also contribute feelings of anxiety and low

self-esteem) than at other ages. It is worthwhile then, to examine

the effect of children's chronological age upon their self-concept.

Effects of Chronological Age on Self-Concept

A number of authors (Fahey & Phillips, 1981; Montemayor &

Elsen, 1977; Stevens, 1975) have suggested that young people at

different age levels (preschool, middle childhood, and adolescent)

conceptualize in different ways.

Stevens (1975) offers a possible explanation for the reorgani

zation of a child's conceptualization at these different age levels.

As the child becomes Increasingly able to conceptualize his social impact upon others and begins to internalize social attitudes as a basis for evaluating his own worth, the previous distinction between social-maturlty of behavior and self-acceptance as a person breaks down, and


31

the two elements are integrated into a single component of the self-system, (p. 108)

As children get older, the factors affecting self-concept ex

pand, as well as fuse with other dimensions. This expansion is

revealed by changes that occur in 11 and 12-year-olds. Stevens

suggested further that the self-concept appears to expand as the

process of internalization occurs and as children's internal repre

sentation of themselves enlarges. As 12-year-olds move into the

adolescent period they appear to experience structural changes in

their self-concept.

During the middle childhood years, a child is more capable of inferring the thoughts, feelings, and intentions of other people and also becomes increasingly aware of the fact that his own thoughts, feelings, and intentions may be subjected to other people's inference and evaluation. (Stevens, 1975, p. 99)

By the end of the stage of concrete operational thought, a child can

further understand that mutual role-taking often occurs simulta

neously between himself and other people.

Montemayor and Eisen (1977) hypothesized and provided evidence

to support the contention that with increasing age an individual's

self-concept becomes more abstract and less concrete. These authors

utilized an almost exclusive White population of 136 males and 126

females in grades 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 with average and above average

intelligence. These subjects were administered The Twenty State

ments Test which measured self-concept from a cognitive structural

perspective. The younger children in the study described themselves

in terms of concrete, objective categories, while adolescents used

more abstract and subjective descriptions. According to Montemayor


32

and Eisen, a developmental increase in the depth and vividness of

self-conceptions exists. They stated;

Children describe where they live, what they look like, and what they do. Their self-concept seems somewhat shallow and undifferentiated, both from other people and from their environment. Adolescents, however, describe themselves in terms of their beliefs and personality characteristics, qualities which are more essential and intrinsic to the self and which produce a picture of the self that is sharp and unique, (p. 318)

These authors further explained that self-concept development

is not an additive process. Adolescents do not simply add more

complex and abstract ideas about themselves to their earlier, child

ish, concrete conceptions. In comparison to children, adolescents

conceive of themselves quite differently; earlier notions either

drop out or are integrated into a more complex picture.

Fahey and Phillips (1981) also provided information about the

nature of self-concept in middle childhood. They studied a random

sample of 2,610 Catholic primary school children who ranged in ages

from 6 to 11.5 years. Students were presented with a blank piece of

paper and requested to respond in writing to the question "Who am

I?" which was written on the blackboard and read to them by the

researcher. Results indicated that the acceptance of negative self

descriptions increased with age. Fahey and Phillips equated this

evidence to the ego and self theories of Erikson and Freud, that is,

that the self-concept becomes less tenuous and less fragile as it

develops beyond the preschool years. By the end of primary school

the self-concept has matured sufficiently to be able to deal with

threat without trauma.


33

The literature seems to suggest that the ages of 8 to 12 are

delicate, and that a child's self-concept may be enhanced or may

deteriorate during this time as a result of the many factors In his

life— factors which could contribute to a lack of, or deterioration

of, a positive self-esteem. These factors may be Identified as low

SES, father-absence, and class placement in the public school. The

relationship between these variables as they relate to the emotion

ally Impaired child's self-concept are noteworthy.

Relationship Between Father-Presence and Absence, Emotional Impairment, and Self-Concept

in Black. Males, Ages 8 to 12

Father-absence has been associated with an Increased Incidence

of Inappropriate or undesirable behavior In children and adolescents

(Parish & Taylor, 1979). Atkinson and Ogston (1974) and Cortes and

Flemings (1968) reported that boys who endured a sustained period of

father-absence were found to be more seriously emotionally mal

adjusted than boys In father-present homes. This emotional distress

of father-absent boys was reflected In their significantly higher

ratings on Immaturity, moodiness and depression. Insecurity, Impul

siveness, and Irritability. Hetherlngton and Deur (1971) maintained

that the "effects on the development of the child attributed to

parental absence have ranged from minor disruptions In social and

emotional development to gross forms of psychopathology" (p. 235).

Children who are Identified as having emotional distress or

Instability are classified as having an emotional Impairment and are

placed In classes for the emotionally Impaired. One Indicator for


34

identifying and placing children in classes for the emotionally

impaired is a lack of inappropriate types of behavior or feelings,

including a lower or more negative self-concept. Leaders in the

field (Bower, 1969; Herbert, 1974; Hewett & Forness, 1977; Kirk,

1972; Morse, 1967) have offered different definitions of emotional

impairment; however, they do agree on the more common symptoms of

emotional impairment, that is, withdrawal, hyperactivity, and

inattentiveness.

These symptoms seem to appear more frequently in boys than in

girls. From Quay (1962) one learns that boys outnumber girls in

being considered as having behavior problems. Boys tend to exhibit

antisocial behavior patterns, while girls, especially as they become

older, exhibit increasing personality problems.

Bower (1969), in comparing emotionally impaired and non-

emotionally impaired children, found that emotionally impaired boys

exhibited a greater self-dissatisfaction about their lives than

other boys and showed signs of greater discrepancies between self

and wanted self. It.is asserted by Grambs (1965) that this problem

of dissatisfaction seems to exist more in Black families than other

groups of people. Reasons given for this assertion is that Black

families, and especially female-headed families, are more likely to

cluster at the lower SES level (Grambs, 1965; Herzog & Sudia, 1970).

Damage to children's self-esteem, as reported by Biller (1968),

Herzog and Sudia (1970), Kvaraceus (1965), Phillips and Zigler

(1980), and Seasholes (1965), which subsequently affects their emo

tional state appears greater for Black boys than for Black girls.


35

For whatever the reason, there is documentation (Grambs, 1965;

Lovelene & Lohmann, 1978; Parish & Doatal, 1980) that during early

childhood and school years. Black girls accommodate better to the

circumstances of their existence than Black boys. These boys'

vulnerability, according to Kvaraceus (1965), may be accounted for

in part by the fact that males who are role models for the growing

boy are themselves demoralized. Rosenthal (1971) explained the

obstacles that a Black male in a low SES must face:

As the black adolescent male moves from childhood into adulthood in the United States, he is faced with forging an identity for himself within the context of today's urban "ghetto." The challenge he faces is doubly hazardous: not only must he cope with the typical emotional and social strains inherent in the transitional role of "adolescent," but also he must cope with the simultaneous marginality and centrality inherent in the very fact of his blackness, and the conflict between developing an identity as an individual and as a young black man in America, (p. 60)

Circumstances such as these provide children, especially Black

males, with a negative view of society and themselves. Children

with a negative view of themselves, reports Grambs (1965), are

children who will not be able to profit adequately from school. He

suggested that:

Most children who hate themselves act out this self- hatred by kicking the world around them. They are abusive, aggressive, hard to control, and full of anger and hostility at a world which has told them that they are not valued, are not good, and are not going to be given a chance, (p. 17)

Atkinson and Ogston (1974) supported the view that an intact,

nuclear family is both desirable and essential for the development

of normal attitudes and behaviors in children. It seems evident


36

that further research on the relationships of father-presence,

father-absence, emotional impairment, and self-concept is needed if

society, and schools specifically, are to deal with this population

effectively.

Summary of Literature Review

A review of pertinent empirical research and theoretical liter

ature has provided evidence that the self-concept of children devel

ops as a result of the experiences they have had and the nature of

their experiences. The absence of parents or negative family rela

tionships that are formed early in life, the development of a poor

self-concept, and a lack of trust in others are specific factors

that have been found to be related to the development of emotional

impairment (Bettelheim, 1967; Combs & Snygg, 1959; Horse, 1967;

Purkey, 1970).

There is an extensive body of research on the effect of father-

presence and absence on children, especially boys; however, the

results continue to provoke controversy. The majority of literature

reviewed supported the idea that there is a relationship between

fathers' presence and absence, cognitive development and abilities,

emotional impairment, and self-concept. Males with fathers present

in the homes were shown to have a higher self-concept than those

with fathers absent, and it was also found that fathers have a

direct effect on boys' cognitive development and achievement.

Scores on intellectual achievement tests appear to be positively

correlated with high scores on self-concept measures.


37

Low SES and chronological age were identified as variables that

may have an effect on children's self-concept. Low SES Black males

were identified as a population most vulnerable to the pressures of

society and who suffered more than other groups when fathers were

absent from the home. Children with chronological ages of 11 to 12

were identified as possessing a self-concept that was higher, more

stable, and which could withstand more trauma than children aged 8

to 10.

Without fathers in the home. Black males classified as emotion

ally impaired and between the ages of 8 to 10, may encounter many

environmental and personal crises that may seem insoluable. These

crises may be triggered by a lack of paternal identification and a

lack of encouragement for intellectual motivation necessary for the

child to achieve and perform— both of which are essential for the

development and maintenance of a positive self-concept.

The literature cited has indicated that fathers play an impor

tant role in the development of children, especially male children.

While somewhat equivocal, father-absence seems to have an effect on

the cognitive development, achievement, and emotional development,

especially in Black males.

The research has been plagued with various methodological prob

lems, such as definitions of father-presence and absence, control

ling for SES, and the age of a child that is considered conducive for

a stable self-concept. There has been a limited amount of research

that dealt with father-absence and emotional disturbance, and no

research was found that deals with the self-concept of Black males.


38

ages 8-12, in special education classes for the emotionally impaired

and in regular education, who reside in low SES father-presence and

father-absence homes* This study attempted to control the

methodological problems cited above as it focused on the effects of

father-presence and absence on the self-concept of Black emotionally

impaired males, ages 8-12.


CHAPTER III

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to compare the self-concept Of

Black males who reside in father-present and father-absent low SES

homes, who are between the ages of 8-12, and who are enrolled in

classes for emotional impairment and regular education.

Chapter III describes the method and procedures used in this

study. Included are (a) operational definitions, (b) a description

of the subjects taking part in the study, (c) research hypotheses to

be tested, (d) instrumentation used in collecting the data, (e) the

research design, (f) methodology, (g) data analyses, and (h) a

summary of the chapter. Central to the understanding of the study

are terms which are operationally defined.

Operational Definitions

Black male— A child with an ethnical and gender code on public

school student lists that identifies him as Black and male.

Emotionally impaired students— Children who meet the State of

Michigan's Definition of Rule No. 340.1706 (see Appendix A), are

placed in either a special class for the emotionally impaired or a

resource room, and who are receiving services as emotionally im

paired students.

Age— Children who were 8-12 years of age by the testing dates

(May 30-June 5, 1984), and not more than 9-12 years of age by

39


40

December 31, 1984.

Father-present (FP)— Presence of the natural father, step

father, or grandfather In the home for the entire duration of the

child's life, except for temporary absence up to 6 months.

Father-absent (FA)— Absence of the natural father, step-father,

or grandfather in the home for more than half of the child's life.

Self-concept— Total and cluster scores on the Piers-Harris

Children's Self-Concept Scale that represent a positive or negative

self-concept. The higher the self-concept score, the more positive

the self-concept (see Appendix B).

Low socioeconomic status— Results from the Socioeconomic Status

(SES) Index Scale (Brookover, Patterson, & Thomas, 1962) utilizing

current data that place individuals at Levels 2, 4, or 5 on the

occupational level for either father or mother (see Appendix C). In

FA, the SES status of the mother is considered; and in FP, the head

of the household (mother and/or father) is considered.

Regular education students— Public school students who attend

regular education classes and who have not been deemed eligible for

special education services as defined by the state of Michigan's

education rules.

Subjects

Samples of regular education (n = 40) and emotionally impaired

students (ii = 40) were drawn from the population of two Midwestern

school districts in the state of Michigan. The school districts,

hereafter referred to as School District 1 and School District 2,


4L

were representative of large and medium size districts, respec

tively.

School District 1 was a multicultural city with a population of

approximately 100,000. School District 2, with its approximate city

population of 50,000, was identified as being located in a predomi

nately Black community.

With the assistance of school officials from each district,

certain schools were identified as possessing the accessible popula

tion of regular education students based on their attendance of

schools in low SES areas.

Randomization was used to select 125 regular education students

from each school district who met the criteria (25 students from each

of the five age levels— 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12). The total number of

emotionally impaired students for whom parental permission was given

and who met the criteria comprised the sample used in the study.

All individuals in the investigation (ii == 80) were identified

as: (a) Black males with father-present (FP) or father-absent (FA)

status, (b) 8-10 or 11-12 years of age, (c) emotionally impaired

(El) or regular education (RE) students, and (d) having low socio

economic status. A description of this sample is presented in

Table 1.

Research Hypotheses

The methods described in this study were designed to address

the following research hypotheses:


CD■ DOQ.Cga.

■ DCD

C/)wo'30 3CD

8

( O '3"13CD

"nc3.3"CD

CD■ DOQ.Cao3■ DO

CDQ.

■ DCD

C/)(/)

Table 1

Description of Sample by School District

Note: El = emotionally impaired; RE = regular education.

FP = father-present; FA = father-absent.

8 = 8-10-year-old group; 11 = 11-12-year-old group.

Samplemeetingcriteria

Parentconsent

Final sample

Schooldistrict

Citypop.

Schoolpop-

,Sample from school

formssent

Fatherstatus Age

Classplacement

districtEl RE El RE FP FA 8 11 EX RE

1 100,000 30,876 3,096 83 924 83 125 17 25 17 25 27 15

2 50,000 15,000 1,218 16 359 16 125 23 15 23 15 13 25

Totals 150,000 45,876 4,314 99 1,283 99 250 40 40 40 40 40 40

ro

43

1. Black males with FP status will have a higher self-concept

than Black males with FA status, regardless of age or class place

ment.

2. Black males ages 11-12 will have a higher self-concept than

Black males ages 8-10 regardless of FP, FA, or class placement.

3. Black males in regular education classes will have a higher

self-concept than Black males in emotional impairment classes, re

gardless of FP/FA status or age.

4. Black males with FP status and ages 11-12 will have a

higher self-concept than Black males with FA status and ages 8-10.

5. Black males in regular education classes with FP status

will have a higher self-concept than Black males in emotionally

impaired classes with FA status.

6. Black males ages 11-12 in regular education classes will

have a higher self-concept than Black males ages 8-10 in emotionally

impaired classes.


have a higher self-concept than Black males with FP/FA status ages

11-12 in emotionally impaired classes and ages 8-10 in emotionally

impaired and regular education class placement.

Instrumentation

Two measurement instruments were used in this investigation:

(1) the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (Piers, 1984) and

(2) the Socioeconomic Index. Each are discussed below.


44

Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel About Myself)

The self-concept of the subjects was the dependent variable in

this study and was measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self-

Concept Scale. As an 80-item self-report instrument designed for

elementary children, the items are written as simple descriptive

statements (half of them written to indicate a possible negative

self-concept) to which the children respond by circling a "yes" or

"no." Terms such as "don't" are omitted because they can be mis

understood by children, especially younger children. The instrument

produces a total score plus scores on six self-concept factors. The

authors indicated that the six factors were derived from a factor

analysis using revised cluster scores which identified six principal

components: (1) behavior, (2) intellectual and school status, (3)

physical appearance and attributes, (4) anxiety, (5) popularity, and

(6) happiness and satisfaction (see Appendix B).

The Piers-Harris scale was standardized on 1,883 children in

grades 4 through 12 in a Pennsylvania school district. The particu

lar age group was chosen by the authors because developmental

changes in a child's concept occur during the middle childhood

years. The scale has also been used with upper grade students; and

if items are read by the examiner, children below the third grade

level can take the test (Piers, 1984; Piers & Harris, 1969; Wylie,

1974).

The Piers-Harris appears to be a highly reliable instrument.

Test-retest reliability coefficients range from .88 to .93. The


45

reliability figures compare favorably with other measures used to

assess personality traits in children and adolescents (Piers, 1984).

According to Piers, estimates of the content, criterion-

related, and construct validity of the Piers-Harris have been ob

tained from a number of empirical studies (e.g., Franklin, Dudley,

Rousseau, & Sabers, 1981; Smith & Rogers, 1977). In the Franklin et

al. and the Smith and Rogers studies, the Piers-Harris was shown to

have convergent validity, discriminant validity, and a relatively

high degree of internal consistency.

This scale was chosen for several reasons: (a) It is easy to

administer and does not require reading by the students, (b) it is a

widely used research tool, and (c) it is designed to be used with

age groups of this study. Other advantages in using the Piers-

Harris are: (a) There is an equal number of favorably and un

favorably worded items, (b) item analyses are more extensive or more

fully described than is found in other self-concept scales, and (c)

the Piers-Harris scale identifies multifacet components of self-

concept (Piers, 1977, 1984; Piers & Harris, 1969, Wylie, 1974).

Socioeconomic Status Index Scale (SES)

The SES index used in this study was devised by Brookover,

Patterson, and Thomas (1962). In the SES index, a rough classifica

tion of three social class levels was used to analyze the social

status. Categories were devised for those individuals who fell at

each end of the social class span and the remaining categories

constituted the middle SES level. The upper SES level consisted of


46

families where one of the following criteria was met: (a) The

father had at least some college, (b) the mother was a college

graduate, or (c) the father's occupation was professional or busi

ness. Criteria for being placed in the lower SES level consisted of

the following: (a) The father had 10 or fewer years of education,

and (b) the father's occupation was listed as a semi, unskilled, or

service job which produced a code of 4 or 5. All other individuals

(and in those cases where no educational or occupational data were

available) fell into the middle category. In cases where the father

was missing from the home, the mother's occupation and education was

used to determine the family's status (Brookover et al., 1962).

In this study, the investigator was only interested in those

parents who met the criteria for being considered as having low SES,

which meant having an occupation with a code of 4 or 5, or those

parents who identified themselves as unemployed. The educational

level listed in Brookover's criteria was omitted from this study

because, according to the information received from the demographic

section of the Parental Consent and Demographic Form, a majority of

parents had completed grades 10 and above, even though many were

either unemployed, or had met the job's description employment

criteria for being low SES (see Appendix C).

The format and content for the Parental Consent and Demographic

Form was reviewed and accepted by the Human Subjects Review Committee

of The Graduate College at Western Michigan University. This commit

tee serves to protect the rights and confidentiality of subjects.


47

Design of the Study

The research design chosen for this study was a Three-Way

Factorial design (Hinkle, Wiersraa, & Jurs, 1979). Though the design

was first applied in agricultural experimentation by Fisher (cited in

Best, 1970; Popham & Sirotnik, 1973), it was later used to provide a

more effective way of conducting realistic investigations in the

behavioral sciences. Fisher's concepts of analysis of variance and

analysis of covariance made possible the study of complex interac

tions through factorial designs in which the influence of more than

one independent variable upon more than one dependent variable could

be observed.

In this descriptive design there were three independent vari

ables (father status— FP/FA; ages— 8-10/11-12; class placement—

EI/RE). The controlling variables were race (Black), gender (male),

and SES (low).

One factor paramount in any investigation is its internal

validity. Internal validity is present when there is sufficient

control of variables to enable valid conclusions about the out

come's) of the study to be made.

Internal Validity

It is helpful to identify and classify variables that are

threats to internal validity. Campbell and Stanley (1963) identi

fied eight different factors affecting internal validity. These

factors include (1) maturation, (2) history, (3) testing.


48

(4) instrumentation, (5) statistical regression, (6) selection bias,

(7) experimental mortality, and (8) the Hawthorne effect. The

implications for each of these factors in the present study are

discussed as follows:

Maturation. Subjects change in many ways over a period of

time. Processes within individuals (not due to outside events),

such as fatigue or age, may influence the results. Because of the

short time needed for administration of the Piers-Harris and the

equal duration of the sessions for each group, it is unlikely that

maturation produced any distortions on the results of this study.

History. Specific external events occurring in the environment

and beyond the control of the researcher at the same time that spe

cific variables are being tested may have a stimulating or disturb

ing effect upon the performance of subjects. The effect of a fire

drill, anxiety produced by a pending examination, or a catastrophic

event in the home may significantly affect the test performance of a

group of students. Limitations on internal validity by virtue of

history are largely dealt with in this study through the randomiza

tion process.

Testing. The- process of testing at the beginning of an experi

ment may produce several changes in subjects. Pretests may sensi

tize individuals by making them more aware of concealed purposes of

the researcher and may serve as a stimulus to change; they may

produce a practice effect that may make subjects more proficient in


49

subsequent test performances. Pretest-posttest studies are common

producers of this threat to internal validity. This study, however,

used a single test procedure, thereby decreasing the effects of

testing.

Instrumentation. This factor refers to those changes occurring

in the calibration of the measuring instrument. If tests, or human

observers used as instruments of observation, are not accurate or

consistent, a serious element of error is introduced. It was im

probable that the Instrumentation used in this study affected the

results. The Piers-Harris was administered according to standardized

instructions.

Statistical regression. This phenomenon sometimes operates in

multiple testing situations in which scores taken during a subsequent

measurement tend to move toward the mean. Since this investigation

only used one administration of the instrument, there would be no

regression toward the mean.

Selection bias. Selection bias is likely to occur when volun

teers. are used or when the characteristics of an unequated group

introduce biases that would invalidate an apparently reasonable com

parison. Best (1970) suggested that selection bias may be introduced

when Intact classes are used or when subjects are selected from

schools that enroll students of a particular socioeconomic class.

The selection process used in this investigation largely controlled

for selection bias in regular education students.


50

Experimental mortality. This factor refers to the loss of sub

jects during the duration of the investigation. The chance that

experimental mortality affected this study was slim because the scale

was given to each subject in one setting, thus accounting for all

subjects who were randomly selected for the study.

The Hawthorne effect. The Hawthorne effect refers to the

change in sensitivity, performance, or both, by the subjects that

may occur merely as a function of being in an investigation. One

way to control for this effect is to remove or minimize the system

atic differences between the groups, or by providing attention to

both groups thereby eliminating the Hawthorne effect. In this

study, the Hawthorne effect was minimized by making each group as

equal as possible and applying the same procedures for test adminis

tration to both groups.

In performing a study, the researcher hopes that the results

can be applied at a later time to groups in other settings. The

extent to which this can be done is considered the degree of exter

nal validity of the study.

External Validity

In order for findings to be generalizable and, therefore, more

useful, it is necessary that consideration be given to external

validity; and in order to achieve external validity, at least four

factors which may jeopardize such validity must be addressed. These

factors are (1) reactive effects of testing, (2) interaction effects


51

of selection bias, (3) reactive effects of experimental arrangement,

and (4) multiple treatment interference. The implications of each

are discussed as follows:

Reactive effects of testing. This factor refers to the effects

of providing subjects with pretest or warm-up procedures designed to

ensure that they begin the investigation as planned and learn to re

spond. While this procedure may be useful in encouraging subject-

task interaction, such a pretest or warm-up may serve to threaten

external validity. These effects may modify the sensitivity and

responsiveness of individuals, thus, producing an unrepresentative

effect (Best, 1970; Drew, 1980; Tuckman, 1978). This factor was

controlled for as all subjects were administered the Piers-Harris

only once.

Interaction effects of selection bias. The interaction effects

refer to those situations when a characteristic of the environment

in which the investigation occurs causes the treatment to become

more effective. For instance, a study using urban dwellers as

subjects might not apply to rural dwellers if there is something

unique about the urban population; thus, it is desirable for pur

poses of external validity to use samples that are representative of

the broadest population possible. This factor was controlled for in

some respects in that all subjects were classified as living in a

low SES environment and the sample was selected from two cities

(large and medium) in the state of Michigan.


52

Reactive effects of experimental arrangement, ti significant

threat to external validity is In the actual research arrangement

chosen for the Investigation. When the research setting deviates

from the routine the subject Is accustomed to, It may be expected

that the subjects' responses will change. Drew (1980) suggested that

If a group of children have their daily classroom routine altered by

being tested in a "small dlstractlon-free room," their performance

may be heightened or depressed as a result of the nonroutine set

ting. Thus, the subjects' performance on the research task may be

different than it would be If they were to perform the task in a

nonexperimental or routine setting. The influence of research

arrangements threatens external validity to the degree that the

subjects' responsibility Is altered. This threat was minimized,

however not totally controlled.

Methodology

To initiate the planning stage of the study a letter of intro

duction of the Investigator and proposed research was sent to

various superintendents of schools in the state by Dr. Ronald

Gilliam, the Director of the State of Michigan's Division of Adult

Education. Superintendents in School Districts 1 and 2 were con

tacted by mail and later telephoned to acquire permission to perform

the study in their districts. The procedures for acquiring and

selecting the subjects consisted of the following steps:

1. School lists containing names of EX and RE students, blrth-

dates, and races were obtained from each selected public school


53

district (N = 4,314).

2. From the El and RE school lists, all names were checked to

identify students who were male. Black, and who met the age require

ment of 8-12 years based on birthdates. Of the students identified,

125 RE were randomly selected (simple randomization) from each

public school district with the use of a table of random numbers

(Total ^ = 250). The entire El population from both school dis

tricts who met the criteria for age, gender, and race was utilized

(ri = 99).

3. Letters seeking parental consent were sent to all parents

of the subjects selected at this point (see Appendix D). A total of

349 letters from a combined population of both school districts were

sent. Parents were also asked to respond to the demographic section

of the parental consent form which asked for information that would

identify father-presence and absence status and their SES level.

Parents were asked to return the signed parental consent forms to

the investigator by a specified date in the self-addressed stamped

envelope. Follow-up letters were sent to parents who had not re

turned the parental consent form by the specified date (see Appendix

E).

„ 4. Returned parental consent forms were further screened for

low SES. This was accomplished by identifying the occupational

level of parent(s) which consisted of a Code 4 or 5 or from informa

tion indicating "unemployed" on the demographic section. Students

who did not meet the criteria for low SES were eliminated from the

study. Those eliminated totaled 14.


54

5. From the demographic data on the form, father-presence and

absence status was determined by looking at information concerning

the head of the household, according to the operational definition.

6. As a result of these procedures, a pool of 107 Black, low

SES, 8-10 and 11-12, El and RE students was gathered from the com

bined school districts. The Piers-Harris was administered to all

subjects in the pool.

Procedures for Administering the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale

The superintendent or superintendent designee from School Dis

tricts 1 and 2 contacted the various identified principals in his

district to inform them of the study and the dates for the adminis

tration of the Piers-Harris. Dates for its administration were May

29 and 30 and June 4 and 5, 1984.

From the list of names in the pool of randomly selected sub

jects, and in groups of 5 or less, students were asked to accompany

the investigator to a vacant classroom, library, or other available

room designated by the principal. Each room was equipped with a

sufficient number of tables and chairs to accommodate the students.

The following procedures were performed:

1. Before distributing the scale, the investigator introduced

herself and explained why the students were asked to be there (see

Appendix F). The investigator also talked to them about the value

of finding out how students really feel about themselves and that,

in order to help them, it was necessary that they give complete and


55

true responses rather than ones which they thought it was desirable

to give. It was stressed that: (a) this was not a test and that

there were no right or wrong answers, (b) the results would not

affect their school grades, and (c) the results would be kept confi

dential. The students were instructed not to write their names on

the scales, and when they had completed them they were to fold and

place them in the envelope that was attached to the sheet. Any

questions concerning the questionnaire were answered at that time.

2. The Piers-Harris scale, with its attached envelope, and

pencils were distributed to students.

3. Students were reminded not to put their names on the

sheets; however, on the line with the word "age" they were asked to

write their present age.

4. The subjects were asked to follow along silently while the

investigator read the instructions aloud.

5. It was stressed by the researcher that students were to

circle YES or NO for all items, and that there should be no omis

sions and no double circles even if some items were hard to decide.

6. Each item was read twice slowly, but not so slowly that it

was possible for second thoughts or distractions to occur.

7. Any questions asked about the meaning of words (e.g.,

unpopular, pep) were answered.

All answer sheets were collected and coded with appropriate

categories (e.g., FP/FA; 8-10/11-12; EI/RE). This information was

transferred to a Data Coding Sheet. The envelopes with names were

destroyed.


56

From the pool of 107 El and RE subjects who took the Plers-

Harris (El = 40; RE = 67), 10 RE subjects who met the criteria for

each of the eight categories were randomly selected with the use of

a table of random numbers. The El subjects were assigned to their

appropriate categories. Data from all subjects, both those in the

study and those ‘eliminated were placed in a confidential file in the

Department of Special Education at Western Michigan University.

All 80 answer sheets were hand scored and the data were coded

on scanning sheets and transferred to the DEC-10 Computer at Western

Michigan University. The statistical analyses (seven 3-way analysis

of variances and four Jt tests) were performed by the Center of

Statistical Analysis at Western Michigan University utilizing the

Statistical Analysis System (SAS).

Data Analyses

In order to analyze the interval data obtained from the Piers-

Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale for the purpose of determining

what, if any, differences occurred between variables, a 2 x 2 x 2

analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used. The ANOVA was computed with

one dependent variable: self-concept scores, and three independent

variables: (1) father status, (2) ages, and (3) class placement.

There are two major advantages in using the ANOVA statistical

technique (Dayton, 1970; Hopkins & Glass, 1978; Popham & Sirotnik,

1973; Tuckman, 1978). These are:

1. It allows for statistical analysis of interaction and main

effects between factors.


57

2. More khan one variable can be manipulated at the same time.

There are assumptions that are associated with an ANOVA statis

tical analysis: (a) The subjects in each subgroup must be randomly

sampled from their corresponding populations; (b) the measures must

be normally distributed in the subgroup populations; and (c) the

variances within the subgroup populations must be homogeneous. The

design of this study was constructed to meet these assumptions;

however, Popham and Sirotnik (1973) found that:

The assumption of random sampling cannot be statistically tested— it is satisfied or not satisfied by the research design. Whereas the normality and homogeneity of various assumptions guarantee the mathematical basis of the statistical tests, the random sampling assumption guarantees the logical basis of the test. (p. 239)

Lindquist (1953) reported that, very frequently, an experi

menter can draw experimental subjects strictly at random from those

subjects that are accessible. If not, one can nearly always at

least randomize one's experimental subjects with reference to the

treatments. With the use of a table of random numbers the experi

menter can leave it strictly to chance which subjects are to consti-

. tute each treatment group.

A study was performed by Norton (cited in Lindquist, 1953), in

which the effects of nonnormality and heterogeneity of variance upon

the 2 distribution was investigated. Based on results from the

Norton study, Lindquist stated: "Unless the departure from norm

ality is so extreme that it can be easily detected by mere inspec

tion of the data, the departure from normality will probably have no

appreciable effect on the validity of the F-test" (p. 86). It is


58

anticipated that the variances with the subgroup populations will be

homogeneous; however, according to Lindquist, the safest generaliza

tion that can be made is that the assumption of homogeneity of

variance is practically never strictly satisfied in educational

experiments, but that in most instances the heterogeneity is not

marked. Hence, the 2 test may still be satisfactorily used in many

experimental situations.

Data were analyzed with the use of the 2 test for total self-

concept scores and component self-concept scores, and the 2 tests

for age equivalency.

The seven null hypotheses tested by the 2 test consisted of:

(a) three-main effects (A, 2» Ç.)î (b) three first-order interactions

(A X 2» 2 5.» ^ Q ; and (c) one second-order interaction (A x

2 X £ ) . Additional comparisons with the six subcomponents of the

Piers-Harris were also made using the 2 test.

The homogeneity of chronological age for students in the father-

present/father-absent groups and in regular education and emotionally

impaired classes were assessed through the use of t tests. Analyses

using 2 tests allow statistical comparison of two means to be made.

Summary

Chapter III has described the design and methodology utilized

in this study. Subjects were selected from two school districts in

low socioeconomic environments in the state of Michigan. From a

combined population of 4,314 (EX and RE), 1,382 subjects meeting the

criteria for the study were randomly selected. Of these 1,382


59

subjects, 250 RE students were then randomly selected, and the total

El population of 99 was chosen. Parental consent forms were sent to

the parents of the 349 selected subjects.

A combined total of 107 consent forms of subjects meeting the

criteria of low SES was returned, thus producing a pool of 40 El and

67 RE students. The Piers-Harris was administered to all 107 sub

jects. From this pool, 80 subjects (40 El and 40 RE) were selected

for analyses.

The characteristics of both subjects and school districts were

described. Operational definitions were presented and the research

hypotheses listed. In addition, the instruments and procedures used

for carrying out the study were identified and discussed. The

research design section included a discussion of the threats of

internal and external validity and how this study related to each

potential source of invalidity. The use of a three-way analysis of

variance was discussed in the data analysis section.

Chapter IV will present the results and interpretation of the

research.


CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

This study addressed the effects of father-presence and absence

on the self-concept of Black males, ages 8-12, who resided in low

SES environments and who were enrolled in emotionally impaired (El)

and regular education (RE) classes.

A 2 X 2 X 2 analysis of variance was used in computing the one

dependent variable: self-concept scores, and three independent

variables: (1) father status, (2) age, and (3) class placement.

Additional analyses were performed on the six Piers-Harris self-

concept components. In addition, four _t tests were performed on the

age of subjects across the other groups: (a) father status and (b)

class placement. These ^ tests were performed to determine the age

equivalency for both chronological age groups. The null hypotheses

that were tested involved only the total self-concept scores; how

ever, the cluster scores from the Piers-Harris were also analyzed.

This chapter presents the results derived from the procedures

described in the previous chapter.

Results of Analyses

The results section is divided into two parts: (1) the main

results which are derived from the hypotheses that test the total

self-concept scores; and (2) additional results derived from ANOVA

60


61comparisons based on component self-concept scores, and also ^ tests

for age equivalency.

Main Results

There were seven directional research hypotheses presented for

analysis (see Chapter III). These hypotheses were restated in the

null form for purposes of statistical testing. The .05 level of

significance was utilized for all analyses. As Tuckman (1978)

stated: "When statistics are employed by behavioral scientists, the

5% level(i.e.,2 < *05) often is considered an acceptable level of

confidence to reject the null hypothesis of equal means between the

control and experimental groups" (p. 224). In each instance pre

sented in the ANOVA tables, with degrees of freedom of 1,72, the

ratio had to have an obtained value of 4.00 in order to be signifi

cant at the .05 level.

In order to determine the homogeneity of ages with respect to

class placement and father status, four jt tests were performed.

Results of these tests are presented in Table 2.

Results from this analysis indicated that students in each of

the two class placement groups at both age levels were not signifi

cantly different in ages.

The null hypotheses were tested utilizing the 2 x 2 x 2 ANOVA.

Tables 3, 4, and 5 show the results obtained from these analyses in

which the total self-concept scores were analyzed.


62

Table 2

Means, Standard Deviations, and t Tests of Chronological Ages

n Mean t M . P

Class placement^

El 20 113.20 10.12(8-10) .2782 38 .7823

RE 20 114.00 7.93

El 20 138.85 8.31(11-12) .2867 38 .7759

RE 20 138.20 5.81

Father status^

FP 20 112.05 8.71(8-10) •1.0939 38 .2809

FA 20 115.15 9.21

FP 20 138.25 6.52(11-12) •0.2425 38 .8097

FA 20 138.80 7.77

^EI = emotionally impaired; RE = regular education.

^FP = father present; FA = father absent.


63

Table 3

Means for Total Self-Concept Scores by Group

Group n Means

Father status

Present 40 56.70*

Absent 40 55.18

Chronological age

8-10 40 57.48*

11-12 40 54.40

Class placement

Emotionally impaired 40 52.83

Regular education 40 59.05*

®The higher the score the more positive the self-concept.

Table 4

Means and Standard Deviations for All Groupson the Total Self-Concept Scores

Emotionally impaired Regular education

8-10 11-12 8-10 11-12

Father present X 56.40 48.70 52.10 59.60

11.67 12.52 10.76 13.16

Father absent X 55.20 51.00 56.20 58.30

SD 12.26 9.23 14.10 17.12


64

Table 5

2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for Total Self-Concept Scores

Source F value £

A 1 46.51 .28 .5956

B 1 189.11 1.16 .2860

JC 1 775.01 4.73 .0328*

A X B 1 82.01 .50 .4813

A X C 1 86.11 .53 .4706

B X C 1 165.31 1.01 .3183

A X B X C 1 1.51 .01 .9237

Error 72 11785.10

Corrected total 79 13130.69

*2 < -05; df placement).

= 1,72; A (father status); B (ages); C (class

Null Hypothesis 1 (Father Status)

There will be no significant differences between the self-

concept of Black males with father-present and father-absent status,

regardless of age or class placement. As indicated in Tables 3 and

5, the main effect for father status (A) is not significant at

the .05 level; therefore, there is no significant difference on the

total self-concept between the father-present and father-absent

groups. Thus, there is no evidence to warrant the rejection of the

null hypothesis; and consequently, the investigator was unable to


65

accept the following research hypothesis;

Black males with FP status will have a higher self-concept

than Black males with FA status, regardless of age or class

placement.

Null Hypothesis 2 (Ages)

There will be no significant difference between the self-

concept of Black males ages 11-12 and Black males ages 8-10, regard

less of FP, FA, or class placement. Results in Tables 3 and 5

indicate an £ ratio of 1.16. The main effect of age is, therefore,

nonsignificant; and consequently, there is no significant difference

in the total self-concept scores between the age groups of 11-12 and

8-10. There is no evidence to warrant a rejection of the null

hypothesis; and therefore, the investigator was unable to accept the

following research hypothesis:

Black males ages 11-12 will have a higher self-concept than

Black males ages 8-10, regardless of FP, FA, or class placement.

Null Hypothesis 3 (Class Placement)

There will be no significant difference between the self-

concept of Black males in regular education classes and the self-

concept of Black males in emotional impairment classes, regardless

of father status or age. As indicated in Tables 3 and 5, the main

effect of class placement is significant (]F ratio =■ 4.73). The

Black males in regular education had a higher self-concept than

Black males in classes for the emotionally impaired, regardless of


66

father status or age. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected

and the following research hypothesis is supported;

Black males in regular education classes will have a higher

self-concept on the Piers-Harris than Black males in emotionally

impaired classes, regardless of father status or age.

Null Hypothesis 4 (Father Status x Age)

There will be no significant differences between the self-

concept of Black males with fathers-present ages 11-12 and the self-

concept of Black males with fathers-absent ages 8-10. Results in

Tables 4 and 5 indicate that with an ratio at 0.50, the difference

is not significant; there is no difference on the self-concept of

the FP age 11-12 group and the FA age 8-10 group. Therefore, there

is no evidence warranting a rejection of the null hypothesis which

suggested an interaction between father status and age. Conse

quently, there is also no evidence warranting an acceptance of the


Black males with FP status and ages 11-12 will have a higher

self-concept than Black males with FA status and ages 8-10.

Null Hypothesis 5 (Father Status x Class Placement)

There will be no differences in the self-concept of Black males

in regular education classes with father-present status and the

total self-concept of Black males in emotionally impaired classes

with father-absent status. Results of the statistical analyses in

Tables 4 and 5 indicated that the null hypothesis was retained.


67

Consequently, there is also no evidence that warrants accepting the


Black males in regular education classes with father-present

status will have a higher self-concept than Black males in emotion

ally Impaired classes with father absent status.

Null Hypothesis 6 (Age x Class Placement)

There will be no differences in the total self-concept of Black

males ages 11-12 in regular education classes and the self-concept

of Black males ages 8-10 in emotionally impaired classes. The

results (Tables 4 and 5) indicated that the null hypothesis could

not be rejected; thus, there was no significant interaction between

age and class placement. There was no evidence, therefore, that

would warrant a rejection of the null hypothesis. There was also no

evidence that would warrant accepting the research hypothesis as

stated:

Black males ages 11-12 in regular education classes will have

a higher self-concept than Black males ages 8-10 in emotionally

impaired classes.

Null Hypothesis 7 (Father Status x Age x Class Placement)

There will be no significant differences in the total self-

concept of Black males ages 11-12 in regular education classes with

father-present status and the self-concept of Black males with

father-present, father-absent status, ages 11-12 in emotionally

impaired classes, and ages 8-10 in emotionally impaired and regular


68

education classes. The results (Tables 4 and 5) indicated that the

null hypothesis could not be rejected, thus, that there was no

interaction effect between the three independent variables. Accord

ingly, there was no evidence that would warrant accepting the fol

lowing research hypothesis:

Black males ages 11-12 in regular education classes with

father-present status will have a higher self-concept than Black

males with father-present, father-absent, ages 11-12 in emotionally

impaired classes, and ages 8-10 in emotionally impaired and regular

education class placement.

Additional Results

Since it was suggested by Piers (1984) that the self-concept is

not unitary but consists of several components, there were addi

tional analyses of these components performed. Utilizing the three-

way ANOVA, analyses were performed on the following self-concept

components: (a) behavior, (b) intellectual and social status, (c)

physical appearance and attributes, (d) anxiety, (e) popularity, and

(f) happiness and satisfaction.

The purpose of these tests was to determine what differences,

if any, existed between the three independent variables and each

self-concept component. Additional analyses were performed on each

self-concept component to ascertain what differences, if any,

existed between the three independent variables and each self-

concept component. The following comparisons were tested for each

of the self-concept components:


69

1. Father-present and father-absent, regardless of age or

class placement.

2. Ages 8-10 and 11-12, regardless of father status or class

placement.

3. Emotionally Impaired class and regular education class,

regardless of father status and age.

4. Father status (present and absent) and ages (8-10 and 11-

12).

5. Father status (present and absent) and class placement

(emotionally impaired and regular education).

6. Ages (8-10 and 11-12) and class placement (emotionally

impaired and regular education).

7. Father status, age, and class placement.

With the level of significance set at p < .05 and the ^ =

1,72, the 2 ratio required for significance is 4.00. The following

are the results of the analyses.

Component 1 (Behavior)

The data for the behavior self-concept component are contained

in Tables 6, 7, and 8. Of the seven comparisons presented in Table

8, only one was significant at the .05 level (£ ratio = 16.08). A

comparison of the class placements (El and RE) revealed that Black

males in regular education classes had a higher behavior self-

concept than Black males in emotionally impaired classes, regardless

of their ages or father status.


CD■DII%C/)

o'30SCD

85C5-3"13CD

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&

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%o3

Table 6

Means of Self-Concept Component Scores for Father Status, Age, and Class Placement

Self-Concept Components

Group nI

BEH

2

INT/SS

3

PHY APP/ATT

4

ANX

5

POP

6

HAP/SAT

Father status

Present 40 12.28* 12.73 9.93 8.65 7.20 8.18*Absent 40 10.95 12.70 9.33 8.83 7.55 7.70

Chronological age

8-10 40 11.58 13.45* 10.08* 8.05 7.63 8.13*

11-12 40 11.65 11.98 9.18 8.65 7.13 7.75

Class placement

El 40 10.08 12.08 9.55 7.95 6.63 7.65

RE 40 13.15* 13.35* 9.70 9.53* 8.13* 8.23*

Note. BEH = behavior; INT/SS = intellectual and school status;; PHY APP/ATT = physicalappearance and attributes; ANX = Anxiety; POP = popularity; HAP/SAT = happiness and satisfaction.

^Higher mean.o

71

Table 7

Means and Standard Deviations for All Groups onBehavior and Self-Concept Component Scores


8-10 11-12 8-10 11-12

Father-present X 10.00 10.10 13.60 15.40

12. 1.58 4.04 1.78 5.54

Father-absent X 10.10 9.50 12.00 11.60

1° 3.13 2.32 2.94 3.65

Table 8

2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for the Behavior Self-Concept Cluster Across Father Status, Ages, and Class Placement

Source 11 F value £

A 1 35.1125 2.99 .0883B 1 .1125 .01 .9224

C 1 189.1125 16.08 .0001*A X B 1 15.3125 1.30 .2576A X C 1 37.8125 3.22 .0771B X C 1 7.8125 .66 .4177

A X ]B X C 1 1.0125 .09 .7700Error 72 846.7000Corrected total 79 1132.9875

*£ < .05; ^ => 1,72; A (father status); B (age); C (class placement).


72

Component 2 (Intellectual and School Status)

Data from statistical analyses of this self-concept cluster are

presented in Tables 6, 9, and 10. Of the seven comparisons examined

for this three-way ANOVA, none yielded significant differences. An

analysis for each of the main effects (A, jB, and C) and their first

and second order interaction effects for the comparisons produced

evidence that suggested that there were no differences in the feel

ings that individuals in each category have about their intellectual

and school status.

The analysis for the father status (A) is particularly impres

sive in that the ratio is 0.00 with a probability of 0.9748. This

would indicate that it is highly unlikely that father status makes a

difference on the intellectual and social status component of self-

concept for subjects who are Black males, ages 8-10 and who are

enrolled in El and RE classes.

Component 3 (Physical Appearance and Attributes)

The data from the statistical analysis of this self-concept

cluster revealed that of the seven comparisons, none were signifi

cant. This would indicate that for all subjects with both father-

present and father-absent, ages 8-10 and 11-12, and classes El and

RE, there were no significant differences in the subject's self-

concept concerning physical appearance and attributes. Tables 6,

11, and 12 reveal tne results of this analysis.


73

Table 9

Means and Standard Deviations for All Groupson Intellectual and School Status

Self-Concept Scores


8-10 11-12 8-10 11-12

Father-present X 12.80 11.30 13.70 13.10

4.05 2.45 2.79 4.04

Father-absent X 13.10 11.10 14.20 12.40

12. 3.45 3.84 2.04 4.74

Table 10

2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for the Intellectual School Status Self-Concept Cluster Across Father

Status, Ages, and Class Placement

and

Source È L 11 F value £

A 1 .0125 .00 .97482 1 43.5125 3.49 .0659c 1 32.5125 2.61 .1109A X 2 1 3.6125 .29 .5922A X _C 1 .1125 .01 .9246B X C 1 1.5125 .12 .7288A X X C 1 .6125 .05 .8253Error 72 898.5000Corrected total 79 980.3875

*£ < .05; ^ = 1,72 ; A (father status); ^ (age); C (class


Table II

74

Means and Standard Deviations for All Groups on Physical Appearances and Attributes

Self-Concept Component Scores


8-10 11-12 8-10 11-12

Father-present X 10.40 9.80 10.70 8.80

SD 3.13 2.94 2.45 2.57

Father-absent X 10.00 8.00 9.20 10.10

2.26 3.65 3.68 3.12

Table 12

2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for the Physical Appearance and Attributes Self-Concept Cluster Across Father


Source df ss F value £

A 1 7.2000 .79 .3778B 1 16.2000 1.77 .1873C 1 .4500 .05 .8250A X 2 1 2.4500 .27 .6063A X C 1 5.0000 .55 .4620B X £ 1 3.2000 .35 .5559A X £ X £ 1 22.0500 2.41 .1248Error 72 658.2000Corrected total 79 714.7500

*£ < .05; df = placement).

1,72; A (father status); 1 (age); £ (class


75

Component 4 (Anxiety)

Data from the statistical analysis of the anxiety self-concept

component are presented in Tables 6, 13, and 14. Of the seven

comparisons, only one yielded significant results. This was class

placement (EX and RE). The other six comparisons were not signifi

cant. Results obtained suggest that there is a difference between

the anxiety level felt by individuals classified as El and RE with

the EX exhibiting a tendency for greater anxiety.

Component 5 (Popularity)

The self-concept component of popularity was also statistically

analyzed with the three-way ANOVA. The results indicated that only

the comparison between class placement (EX and RE) was significant.

Regular education students viewed themselves as having a higher

popularity self-concept than emotionally impaired students. Results

of this analysis are presented in Tables 6, 15, and 16.

Component 6 (Happiness and Satisfaction)

The data for the statistical analysis of the self-concept

component of happiness and satisfaction are presented in Tables 6,

17, and 18. Of the seven comparisons examined in Table 18 for this

three-way ANOVA, all were revealed to be nonsignificant. This would

indicate that no significant differences were found between subjects

who were categorized as father-present and father-absent, ages 8-10

and 11-12, and enrolled in emotionally impaired and regular


Table 13

Means and Standard Deviations for All Groups on Anxiety Self-Concept Component Scores

76


8-10 11-12 8-10 11-12

Father-present X 7.50 7.80 9.60 9.70

SD 3.44 2.66 3.65 4.52

Father-absent X 8.90 7.60 9.40 9.40

3.96 3.20 2.80 2.99

Table 14

2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for the Anxiety Self-Concept Cluster Across Father Status, Ages, and Class Placement

Source df SS F value £

A 1 .6125 .05 .8214

B 1 _ 1.0125 .08 .7716£ 1 49.6125 4.16 .0451*

A X 2 1 3.6125 .30 .5838A X C 1 3.6125 .30 .5838B X £ 1 1.5125 .13 .7228

A X £ X C 1 2.8125 .24 .6287Error 72 858.7000Corrected total 79 921.4875

*£ < .05; ^ = 1,72; A (father status); ^ (age); C_ (class placement).


Table 17

Means and Standard Deviations for All Groups onHappiness and Satisfaction Self-Concept

Component Scores

78


8-10 11-12 8-10 11-12

Father-present X 7.70 7.80 9.10 8.10

1.89 2.97 1.27 2.23

Father-absent X 8.10 7.00 7.60 8.10

£D 1.52 1.94 2.59 3.11

Table 18

2 x 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance for the Happiness and Satisfaction Self-Concept Cluster Across Father


Source df F value £

A 1 4.5125 .87 .3542B 1 2.8125 .54 .4640C 1 6.6125 1.27 .2628A X 2 1 .1125 .02. .8834A X £ 1 1.5125 .29 .5910B X £ 1 .3125 .06 .8069A X £ X £ 1 9.1125 1.76 .1894Error 72 373.7000Corrected total 79 398.6875

*£ < .05; placement) .

^ = 1,72; A (father status) ; B (age); £ (class


79

education classes on the self-concept component of happiness and

satisfaction.

Summary of Analyses for the Means of Self-Concept Components

An interpretation of the variable father status (FP; FA) across

each of the component self-concept scores revealed (Table 6) that

although the results were not significant for the ANOVA in Table 5,

FP subjects had a score with a slightly higher mean than FA subjects

in the following areas: total self concept, behavior, and happiness

and satisfaction. There were no significant differences between the

means for intellectual and school status, physical appearance,

anxiety, and popularity of the father status groups.

The mean self-concept for the variable "ages" (8-10 and 11-12)

across each of the self-concept components (Table 6) revealed that

although nonsignificant for the ANOVA (Table 5), subjects in the

younger group (8-10) had a slightly higher mean for the total

self-concept and the following self-concept components: intellec

tual and school status, physical appearance and attributes, and

happiness and satisfaction. There were no significant differences

between the means of the self-concept components behavior, anxiety,

and popularity for each of the chronological age groups.

An interpretation of the variable class placement, El and RE

(Table 6), across each self-concept component revealed that subjects

in BE classes had a higher self-concept mean score than subjects in

classes for the El in the following areas: total self-concept,

behavior, intellectual and school status, anxiety, popularity, and


80

happiness and satisfaction. The only component mean in which there

was no significant difference for both groups was physical appear

ance and attributes.

Summary

The results of this study indicated that of the seven research

hypotheses, only one was supported. The results of this investiga

tion supported the research hypothesis which stated that:

Black males in regular education classes will have a higher

self-concept than Black males in emotionally impaired classes,

regardless of father status or age.

The following research hypotheses associated with father status

and chronological age were not supported:

1. Black males with FP status will have a higher self-concept

than Black males with FA status, regardless of age or class place

ment .

2. Black males ages 11-12 will have a higher self-concept than

Black males ages 8-10 regardless of FP, FA, or class placement.

3. Black males with FA status and ages 11-12 will have a

higher self-concept than Black males with FA status and ages 8-10.

4. Black males in regular education classes with FP status

will have a higher self-concept than Black males in emotionally

impairment classes with FA status.


have a higher self-concept than Black males ages 8-10 in emotionally

impaired classes.


81


have a higher self-concept than Black males with FP/FA status, ages

11-12, in emotionally impaired classes, and ages 8-10 in emotionally

impaired and regular education class placement.

7. Further analyses were performed on the comparisons of

father status, age, and class placement. A 2 x 2 x 2 ANOVA was used

to ascertain the existence of differences, if any, between the

independent variables and each of the six self-concept components.

Of the 42 analyses, only the following 3 were significant:

1. Black males in RE classes had higher behavior self-concept

than Black males in El classes, regardless of father status or age.

2. Black males in RE classes had a more positive self-concept

toward anxiety than Black males in EX classes, regardless of father

status or age.

3. Black males in RE classes had a higher popularity self-

concept than Black males in EX classes, regardless of father status

or age.

A further examination of the means for the total and 6 self-

concept components were also presented and interpreted.

Chapter V contains an interpretation and discussion of these

findings.


CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

Prior research has addressed the effect of cognitive develop

ment, achievement, socioeconomic status, and chronological age on

the self-concept of children. There have been studies comparing the

self-concept of children in homes with and without fathers, and

studies that have investigated the self-concept of children in

special education classes. There have been no studies, however,

which addressed the effect of a combination of the three variables

father status, age, and class placement on the self-concept of Black

males.

Research on self-concept has been plagued with methodological

problems such as an inadequate or inconsistent definition of father-

presence and absence and insufficient control of SES. Also, there

has been a lack of consistency in studies on the ages at which a

stable self-concept is believed to occur. This study attempted to

rectify these methodological problems and to determine what effect,

if any, certain variables have on the self-concept. Investigated

were the effects of father-presence and absence on the self-concept

of low SES Black males who were between the chronological ages of 8

and 12, and who were enrolled in emotionally impaired and regular

education classes.

Seven hypotheses were developed to investigate the effects of

father status, age, and class placement on the self-concept of the

82


83

subjects as measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept

Scale (Piers-Harris). Additional comparisons were made to study the

effect of these variables on the six self-concept subcomponents of

the Piers-Harris.

Eighty subjects (El = 40; RE = 40) were randomly selected from

two school districts in the state of Michigan. These subjects met

the appropriate father status (FP or FA), age (8-10 or 11-12), and

class placement (El or RE) criteria. The Piers-Harris Children's

Self-Concept Scale was administered to all subjects.

The three-way analysis of variance was used to test the

hypotheses for the total self-concept test scores and to analyze the

results for the six self-concept components. Four tests were also

performed to examine the homogeneity of ages within the father

status and class placement groups.

This concluding chapter presents limitations of the study,

interpretation of the results, conclusions, and implications and

recommendations for further research.

Limitations of the Study

One possible factor which may limit the results of the study is

the measure of self-concept used. The Piers-Harris scale, the

dependent measure in this study, has been noted by Piers (1984) as

possessing a number of specific limitations which should be kept in

mind when interpreting the scale results. First, the intent of the

scale is not disguised. Thus, the scores are subject to conscious

and unconscious distortions by children, usually in the direction of


84more socially desirable responses. Second, the original norms are

based on data from one Pennsylvania school district, which consisted

of a White population. According to Piers, however, although not

standardized on a Black population, the Piers-Harris appears to be

quite appropriate for use with Black children. Like the results from

other self-concept scales, mean scores on the Piers-Harris for Black

groups have varied from above to below the norms for White children.

A variety of studies (Booker, 1974; Frith, 1973; Morse & Piers, 1973;

Ward & Braun, 1972) suggest that the Piers-Harris can be used with

more diverse school populations.

Another possible limitation is that this study did not investi

gate the presence or possible effects of extended families, or of

father surrogates, on the self-concept of children. Such an inves

tigation was beyond the scope of this study; therefore, only the

effects of more immediate paternal family members, father, step

father, and grandfather, were studied.

There may also be certain limitations dealing with the gener

alization of results to a larger population. First, the number of

subjects in each of the eight categories (ii = 10) may limit the

generalization of results to a larger population. Second, the con

trolling variable of low socioeconomic status is limiting to the ex

tent that the results can only be generalized to families classified

as low SES. It must also be noted that there are limitations inher

ent in the use of the SES Index itself. In this study, neither level

of education nor income could be included in the determination of SES.

Third, the highly defined variables of race (Black), gender (male).


85

and age (8-12) may have a limiting effect in that results can be

generalized only to individuals with these specific characteristics.

Interpretation of the Results

The results from the _t tests, which examined age equivalency

for father status and class placement, demonstrated that these

groups were homogeneous for age; and thus, differences between the

comparison groups did not occur because of age variability.

The first research hypothesis stated that Black males with FP

status would have a higher self-concept than Black males with FA

status, regardless of age or class placement. The rationale for

this hypothesis was based upon theoretical and empirical literature

which suggested that children, and especially boys, who had fathers

present in the home, scored higher on self-concept measures than did

boys without fathers in the home.

The results indicated that there was no significant difference

in the total self-concept scores between father-present and father-

absent groups. In other words, the father status (FP or FA) of

males, regardless of their age and class placement, had no effect on

Black male's total self-concept. These results may have been

affected by the presence of other male role models in the father-

absent homes. The investigation did not take into consideration the

presence or effect of adult uncles, brothers, ministers. Big

Brothers, cousins, or other male figures who, according to Sciara

(1975), may play an important role in the establishment of a posi

tive self-concept.


86

The second hypothesis stated that Black males ages 11-12 would

have a higher self-concept than Black males ages 8-10, regardless of

father status or class placement. Fahey and Phillips (1981), Harter

(1983), Stenner and Katzenmeyer (1976), and Stevens (1975) reported

that preadolescents, ages 11-12, possess a self-concept that is more

stable and more able to withstand trauma (e.g., father-absence) than

youngsters ages 8-10. These authors suggested that younger children

do not possess as deep a sense of self-worth as do older children,

but rather have self-concepts that are fragile and tenuous. Other

authorities (Black, 1974; Silverman & Zigmon, 1983) have reported

conclusions that differ on the relationship of age and self-concept.

These authors contended that attitudes toward the self, which later

become fairly well generalized, are at first more a function of the

immediate situation, and as such cannot be measured in any consist

ent manner. Piers (1984) on the other hand, believes that while

this may be true for preschoolers, self-attitudes are reasonably

stable by 8 years of age.

The results from this study did not support the hypothesis

addressing age and self-concept. It was found that there was no

significant difference between the self-concept of Black males in

the 8-10 and 11-12-year-old age groups, thus, supporting that liter

ature which suggested that a child's self-concept at 8 years of age

is reasonably stable.

The third hypothesis stated that Black males in regular educa

tion classes would have a higher self-concept than Black males in

classes for the emotionally impaired, regardless of father status or


87

age. The review of literature presented a mixed pattern of results

stemming from empirical studies (Beck et al., 1982; Calhoun &

Elliott, 1977) dealing with the self-concept of emotionally impaired

and regular education students. However, since the emotionally

impaired are described in the state of Michigan's rules as individ

uals possessing inadequate emotional stability and control, and

inadequate interaction and reaction to self and others, it would be

reasonable to assume that the emotionally impaired group would have

a lower self-concept than regular education students.

The results indicated that the self-concept of El students was

significantly lower than that of RE students. These findings sup

ported the hypothesis and the contentions of Bower (1969), Calhoun

and Elliott (1977), Schultz (1979), and Quay (1962) that emotionally

impaired students do possess lower self-concepts than do regular

education students.

The fourth hypothesis stated that Black males with FP status

ages 11-12 would have a higher self-concept than Black males with FA

status ages 8-10. The rationale for this hypothesis was based on

literature (Atkinson & Ogston, 1974; Cortes & Flemings, 1968; Fahey

& Phillips, 1981; Montemayer & Eisen, 1977) which supported both the

premises that children in father-present homes have higher self-

concepts than those children in father-absent homes, and that older

children have a more stable self-concept. The hypothesis for this

first interaction effect was not supported. In essence, it was

found that father status and age have no significant impact on the

self-concept of Black males. These results do not support the


88

majority of studies cited earlier which suggest that children with

fathers in the home, and/or those who are ages 11-12 will have a

higher self-concept than children ages 8-10 with absent fathers.

The fifth hypothesis stated that Black males with father-

present status, who are enrolled in regular education classes would

have a higher self-concept than Black males with father-absent

status, who are enrolled in classes for the emotionally impaired.

Literature (Beck et al., 1982; Calhoun & Elliott, 1977; Crockett &

Gutherie, 1975) which suggested that RE students with FP status

would have higher self-concept was the rationale behind this

hypothesis. The results revealed that this was not the case and

that there were no significant differences in the self-concept of

males with father-present status who were enrolled in RE classes and

males with father-absent status who were enrolled in classes for the

emotionally impaired.

The sixth hypothesis stated that Black males ages 11-12 in RE

classes would have a higher self-concept than Black males ages 8-10

in El classes. Based on the literature (Fahey & Phillips, 1981;

Harter, 1983), it was expected that males who were 11-12 years old

and enrolled in RE classes would perform better on the Piers-Harris

instrument than those males ages 8-10 who were enrolled in El

classes. This proved not to be the case. The results of the study

did not support this hypothesis. The interaction between ages and

class placement did not produce a significant difference in the

self-concepts of Black males.


89

The seventh hypothesis investigated the interaction between

father-status, age, and class placement. This hypothesis stated

that Black males ages 11-12 in RE classes with fathers present would

have a higher self-concept than Black males ages 11-12 in El classes

and ages 8-10 in El and RE classes, regardless of father status.

The literature (Beck et al., 1982; Fahey & Phillips, 1981; Harter,

1983) suggested that older children (ages 11-12) with fathers pres

ent who are in RE class placements should possess a higher self-

concept than younger children (ages 8-10) with father-present or

father-absent status who are enrolled in El class placements. Thus,

when these factors (father-present, ages 11-12, and RE) are com

bined, investigation of the interaction should also result in sig

nificant differences in the self-concept of Black males. There was

no interaction effect found between these variables. Significant

differences in self-concept between the RE and El class students

were found. However, when considered in conjunction with the other

variables (father status and age), the effect of class placement is

cancelled. Even though there was evidence from the literature to

justify the hypothesis, it could not be supported with the test

results.

Although there was no literature which suggested that father

status, age, and class placement would have an effect on the sepa

rate components (clusters) of the Piers-Harris, it was assumed that

similar differences would occur as those hypothesized for the total

self-concept. A three-way ANOVA was performed on each of the six

Piers-Harris components (clusters): (1) behavior, (2) intellectual


90

and school status, (3) physical appearance and attributes, (4)

anxiety, (5) popularity, and (6) happiness and satisfaction. The

results of the six statistical tests were varied. A description of

each component and an interpretation of the results follows:

Behavior

This 16-item cluster reflects the extent to which a child

admits or denies problematic behaviors. Item responses provide

clues as to how the child views his problems, whether or not he

assumes responsibility for these problems or externalizes blame for

them on others (Piers, 1984).

The findings for this component indicated that of the compari

sons tested, only class placement (RE and EX) was significant.

These results revealed, as would be expected, that Black males in RE

classes had less problem assuming the blame for their actions, and

did not appear to have as great a difficulty admitting problematic

behaviors as did Black El males.

Intellectual and School Status

This cluster of 17 items reflects the child's self-assessment

of his abilities with respect to intellectual and academic tasks,

including general satisfaction with school and future expectations

(Piers, 1984).

The results revealed that there were no significant differences

on this component for either the main effects (father status, ages,

or class placement) or for the interaction effects. Contrary to


91

literature which suggested father-presence plays a major role in the

intellectual status of children, this was not the case. Results

suggested that it was highly unlikely that father status made a

difference on the intellectual and school status self-concept of

Black males, regardless of age or class placement. These findings

may be accounted for in part by the lack of father surrogate identi

fication in the study.

Physical Appearance and Attributes

This third component, consisting of 13 items, reflects the

child's attitudes concerning his physical characteristics as well as

attributes, such as leadership and the ability to express ideas

(Piers, 1984). Again, the results indicated that father status,

age, or class placement made no difference in the way these subjects

perceived their physical appearance and attributes.

Anxiety

This self-concept component contains 14 items and reflects

general emotional disturbance and a dysphonie mood. Individual

items tap a variety of specific emotions, including worry, nervous

ness, shyness, sadness, fear, and a general feeling of being left

out of things (Piers, 1984).

Results revealed a significant difference when this component

was analyzed using class placement as the independent variable.

Although the mean self-concept score for El students was in the


92

positive range, it was still significantly lower than that of RE

students.

Popularity

The 12 items in this cluster reflect the child's evaluation of

his popularity with classmates, being chosen for games, and the

ability to make friends. Low scores may reflect shyness, lack of

interpersonal skills, or personality traits which tend to isolate

the child from others (Piers, 1984).

Based upon the definition of the El population, it was expected

that El students would have difficulty making friends and/or would

have lower interpersonal skills. Results from this analysis re

vealed that EX students had a mean self-concept score that, although

within the possible range, was lower than that of RE students though

not significantly so. Father status and age had no effect on the

child's evaluation of his own popularity.

Happiness and Satisfaction

This cluster of 10 items tap a general feeling of being a happy

person, easy to get along with, and feeling generally satisfied with

life. Low scores on this scale are associated with general dis

satisfaction, feelings of negative self-worth, and a longing for

things to be different (Piers, 1984).

There were no significant differences between any of the com

parisons on the measure of happiness and satisfaction. It would

have appeared that since El students differed significantly from RE


93

on the popularity measure, there would be a tendency toward lower

interpersonal skills which would imply a general feeling of negative

worth, and a longing for things to be different. This was not found

to be the case, for in spite of the El's significantly lower self-

concept on the popularity, anxiety, and behavior components, the

students still had a feeling of being quite satisfied with life.

While a review of the literature led to the predictions that

father status, age, and class placement, would have a significant

effect on the self-concept of Black male children, the results of

this study did not support this. Only class placement had a signif

icant effect. Black males in classes for the emotionally impaired

had significantly lower total scores on the Piers-Harris and on the

components of behavior, intellectual and school status, anxiety,

popularity, and happiness and satisfaction than did Black males in

regular class, regardless of age or father status.

Conclusions

Within the .context of the present study, several conclusions

can be drawn. First, the absence of fathers in the home does not

appear to cause a significant deficiency in the self-concept of

Black males, ages 8-12, who are enrolled in EX and RE classes.

Second, the age of Black children (8-12) does not appear to have an

effect on the self-concept of Black males, in spite of literature

which suggests that ages 8 to 12 is a period in which children's

self-concept goes through significant developmental changes. Third,

El students, as would be expected, have less positive self-concepts


94

than RE students. Their lower self-concepts are in the areas of

behavior, anxiety, and popularity. Fourth, all the students in this

study had positive self-concepts, regardless of father status, age,

or class placement.

Findings of the study may have practical implications and may

lead to meaningful recommendations for others involved in either

research or educational practice.

Implications and Recommendations

One of the principle implications of this study is that since

the father status in the home was not found to be a variable that

affects the self-concept of EX and RE Black males from low SES

environments, then investigations of causal relationships must occur

in other areas. This is not to suggest that the father's physical

absence from the home is unimportant, for it has been suggested by

Sciara (1975) that:

The presence of a father would seem to foster greater cohesiveness of family, a greater variety of family activities, a greater quantity of adult-child verbal interaction, and a greater variety of personal experiences for children than would the absence of a father.(p. 54)

There are also other important implications to this study.

First, these results, along with those of similar studies, should

reassure parents that although significant differences were found

between El and RE students, the self-concept of both groups were in

the positive range. Second, the evidence indicating positive mean

scores should assist in alleviating parental fears concerning the


95

effect of placement in special education programs on self-concept.

Third, the results should indicate to those professionals working

with El students (counselors, psychologists, teachers, etc.) that

they cannot assume that the absence of the father in the home has a

negative effect on self-concept. Fourth, the results concerning

chronological age suggest that perhaps the age in which children's

self-concept is most vulnerable may be the period prior to age 8

years.

The results of this study also point to recommendations to

special and regular educators. Since Black male children ages 8-12

in classes for the emotionally impaired perceive of themselves dif

ferently than comparable children in regular education in certain

self-concept areas, it becomes apparent that attention should be paid

to these differences. Whether the lower self-concept is a factor in

the initial placement of these children or develops as a result of

this placement, strategies need to be developed to remediate these

differences.

Since there is research evidence to support a relationship

between self-concept and achievement (Blanchard & Biller, 1971;

Calhoun & Elliott, 1977), it is important that teachers in special

education and regular education help these children develop a more

positive self-concept.

The following suggestions are offered as considerations for

future investigations of the self-concept.

1. Research is needed to address the effect of "extended

families" in the Black culture on the self-concept of children.


96

2. Research is needed in the identification of surrogate

fathers and the roles they play in the development of self-concept.

3. Research is needed on the effect of the matriarchal figure

of the household on children's self-concept.

4. Research is needed on the techniques and strategies that

may be employed during school activities for the development and

maintenance of a positive self-concept of children.

5. Research is needed to identify factors other than father

status, age, and class placement, which may be related to self-

concept. These factors may include: teacher's perceptions of a

child's self-concept, home environment, community factors, and the

quality of contact the children have with their fathers.


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APPENDICES

107


Appendix A

State of Michigan's Definition of Rule #340.1706 Emotionally Impaired

108


109

R 340.1706 Determination of emotionally impaired

Rule 6. (1) The emotionally impaired shall be determined throughmanifestation of behavioral problems primarily in the affective domain, over an extended period of time, which adversely affect the person's education to the extent that the person cannot profit from regular learning experiences without special education support. The problems result in behaviors manifested by 1 or more of the following characteristics :

(a) Inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships within the school environment.

(b) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

(c) General pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

(d) Tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.

(2) The term "emotionally impaired" also includes persons who, in addition to the above characteristics, exhibit maladaptive behaviors related to schizophrenia, autism,i J or similar disorders. The term "emotionally impaired" does not include persons who are socially maladjusted unless it is determined that such persons are emotionally impaired.

(3) The emotionally impaired shall not include persons whose behaviors are primarily the result of Intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

(4) A determination of impairment shall be based on data provided by a multidisciplinary team which shall include a comprehensive evaluation by both of the following:

(a) A psychologist or psychiatrist.

(b) A school social worker.

(5) A determination of impairment shall not be based solely on behaviors relating to environmental, cultural, or economic differences .

[^Autism has been deleted from the definition of the emotionally impaired by the Michigan State Board of Education.]


Appendix B

Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel About Myself)

110


PLEASE NOTE:Copyrighted materials in this document have not been filmed at the request of the author. They are available for consultation, however, in the author's university library.These consist of pages:

111-113


international300 N. ZEEB RD.. ANN ARBOR, Ml 48106 (313) 761-4700


Appendix C

Socio-Economic Status Index (SES Index)

114


115

Categories for Socio-Economic Status Index

The educational level of each parent was coded as follows:

Completed grade 4 or less 1

Completed grade 5 or 6 2




Completed high school plus othernoncollege training 6

Completed 1 or 2 years of college 7

Completed 3 or 4 years of college 8

Completed some graduate work 9

The occupational level of the parents was coded as follows:

(Note: A hierarchical ordering was assumed for only codes 2, 4, or 5)

Professional, Big Business 9

Semi-professional, Small Business 8

Clerical, Sales 7

Skilled labor 6

Service occupations 5

Semi- and unskilled labor 4

Housewife 3

Retired, unemployed 2

Other (military, student) 1


Appendix D

Parental Cover Letter and Requests for Consent and Additional Information

116


117

May 4, 1984

Dear Parent/Guardian:

This past fall, I received permission from your superintendent to conduct a survey concerning the self-concepts of male students who are enrolled in regular and special education classes. The self-concept is defined as how an individual feels about himself. This study is being conducted under the direction of Western Michigan University. As an educator who is interested in the education of our youth, it is my belief that the results from this survey will be helpful in providing information about the feelings and needs of our male children.

I am requesting your consent for your son to complete a short survey dealing with his self-concept. Your son and approximately 80 other boys will be taking 15-20 minutes to fill out the survey. He will only be asked to circle YES or NO about feelings that he has about himself.

Your son's name will not be used, instead a number in place of his name will be assigned to all material and the results will not be shared with anyone. Therefore, you and your child's identity and privacy will be strictly maintained. I am also asking that you please take a few minutes and complete the information on the next sheet which is needed to further group the boys.

If you have any questions concerning the survey or its procedures, you may call me in Kalamazoo, Michigan, at the number listed below or the deputy superintendent at your school.

Western Michigan University Special Education Department Kalamazoo, Michigan 49008 616-383-1680

Please sign the attached form and return it to me by May 10, 1984. A stamped self-addressed envelope is enclosed for your use. Thank you for your cooperation. Your urgent reply will be appreciated.


Alonzo Hannaford, Ed.D. Professor

C O P Y


118

PARENTAL CONSENT FORM

DATE

I understand that the information below and the results of the survey will be used by Ms. Q. E. Woodard from Western Michigan University.

I hereby give permission for to complete the self-concept scale and for the information gathered to be used in completing the study.

Signature of Parent or Guardian

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

In order to further group the boys that were selected, it is necessary to gather the following information. PLEASE CHECK THE STATEMENT THAT DESCRIBES YOU OR SOMEONE IN YOUR HOUSEHOLD. ALL INFORMATION IS CONFIDENTIAL.

1. The HEAD OF THE HOUSEHOLD is:_____the mother the father both mother and father the stepfather the stepmother someone other than those listed above. State who that person

is:

2. If mother is the Head of the Household, does father live with family?

YesNoSometimes

3. How long has this person been the head of the household? 6 months or less 7 months to 1 year 1 year to 5 years 5 years to 10 years or more

4. What is the HIGHEST GRADE COMPLETED by the head of the household? 4 or less 9 or 10

5 or 6 •• 11 or 12or 8 Higher


119

Is the head of the household employed? Yes (full time— outside the home) Yes (part time— outside the home)

_Yes (self-employed) No

(IF EMPLOYED, WHAT IS THE JOB, OR ON THE LINE BELOW BRIEFLY TELL WHAT IS DONE ON THE JOB)__________________________________________________

THANK YOU VERY MUCH.


Appendix E

Follow-Up Parental Consent Letter

120


121

May 11, 1984

Dear Parent or Guardian:

Last week you received a letter asking permission for your son to be involved in a survey. The purpose of this survey is to compare the self- concepts of boys who are enrolled in regular education classes with boys who are enrolled in special education classes. As of today, I have not received the consent letter that would have allowed me to include your son in the survey. I am therefore writing to further explain what I am doing and why I need your help.

As an educator and now as a Doctoral student, I have always been interested in the education of our youth. I am hopeful that the information I gather from this survey will assist in developing programs that would address the needs and feelings of our young boys. It is for this reason that I seek your permission in allowing me to give your son the self-concept questionnaire.

Each boy selected would be given the self-concept questionnaire and asked to circle YES or NO, if he agreed or disagreed with statements that expressed feelings that he had about himself. At no time would his name be used during the survey, nor would individual scores be reported. The name of the school district and the name of the school will also be eliminated. The information on the consent form that asks about the head of. the household and the job is included only so that I may further group the boys according to whether the father is present in the home or is absent from the home. This information will allow me to determine whether the presence or absence of the father in the home has an effect on the child's self-concept if he is enrolled in the special education or regular education class.

If for any reason you have questions about this survey, please feel free to call me COLLECT at the number below and I will discuss it further with you. In the meantime, may 1 count on you to help me carry out this survey.

CALL COLLECT from 5 p.m. to 9 a.m., TUESDAY OR WEDNESDAY, MAY 15, and 16.TELEPHONE NUMBER: 616-349-7034

If I can count on you to help me, please return the consent form sent to you earlier. If it has been misplaced, I am returning a second one for your use. Thank you for your assistance.

Queen Esther Woodard Doctoral Candidate

C O P Y


Appendix F

Introductory Statement

122


123

Good (morning or evening). My name Is Ms. Woodard, and I am a

student at Western Michigan University In Kalamazoo, Michigan. Your

parents have given me permission to ask your help In finding out how

boys your age really feel about themselves. Often other people,

especially parents and teachers, are asked to say how they think you

feel, but I would like to give you a Questionnaire that gives you the

opportunity to say for yourself how you really feel. I am hoping

that you will respond as honestly as possible, rather than how you

think others would want you to respond. Answer the Items as you

really feel you are, not as you think you ought to be.

This Is not a test and there are no right or wrong answers. The

answers or results that you write In your booklet will not affect

your school grades and will be kept confidential. This means that no

one In the school or In your home will see the answers In your

booklet. For this reason, each person has been assigned a number on

the front of his booklet. Instead of his name.

Are there any questions? Please turn to the front of the book

let and read the Instructions silently while I read them aloud. (The

scale Is Introduced by reading the Instructions on the booklet and

the Items are read aloud by the examiner.)


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Documents

Effect of Father-Presence and Father-Absence on the Self