EDWARD R. REAVCHAMP

Edu,ard R. B e a ~ ~ r h a m p is professor of history of rduc-ation and cnmparative education at the Llnivrrsity of Hawaii at Manoa. HP received his Ph.D. in history of education and East Asian Studips from the Universit? of W;~shington in 1973. He served as Visiting Fulhright Lerturrr in history of education at Krio Vniuersity and 1ntern:ltional Christian I'niversity in Tokyo in 1975.76. and has lertul-rd and t;~t!ght at Llniversiry of 7 o k ~ o . 1;niversiry of 11ong Kong. Chinrse LTniversity of Hong liong. I'nirrrsity of Mal;~vsi;l. Ilnivcrsity of thr Philippines. I1nivrrsity of thr South Pacific. ;lr,d uthrrs.

Bmuchamp is thr author of ,4,1 Amrrirnn Tmrhr r in Enrly .W~ii i Jnpnn (1976) and Lrnr,~ing. T o B P J n p n n ~ . ~ ~ (1978). His i~l.ti~Ies hare ; ~ p p e a r ~ d in Monzim~ntn h'ipponirn. t h ~ intrrnntionnl J o t ~ m n l o f Il'nrnrn's Studies. Con~finrotiz,r Edurntion. Edrirntional Forum. Tmnsnrtio,zso(thr .A.~intir Sorietv ofJnpnn among others. Hcisalsoa contributor to the forrhroming multi-volnme Enr\*rloprdin of Jnpnn.

Derek I . . Rurlrron. Srrirs Edilrr

Education in Contemporary Japan

by Edward R. Beauchamp

Library of C:ongrrss Catalog Card Numbrr: 81-86313 ISBS 0-87367-171-6

Copyight ': 1982 b) the Phi Delta Kappa Educationzl Foundation Bloomington. Indiana

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This fastback is sponsored by the Broward County Florida Chapter of Phi Delta Kappa through a generous contri- bution by one of its members, Miss Bessie Gabbard.

Table of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Japanese Education-A Brief Historv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

The Structure of Japanese Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Examinations-Life Determiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Introduction

J apan-a semi-frudal society in 1868, victorious ovrr Imperial Russia in 1905. a devastatrd emnire at thr rnd o l IVorld B a r 11-todav is horh our rival as a world economic power and our strongest ally in Asia. What armunts lor this phoenix-like rise, thisextraordinary post- war reco\.rr)? '1'0 understand Japan's remarkable achievement over the past century, we most ronsidrr the roleoleducation in mnhiliringthir mrrgrt i r , intelligent, and arnhitious p ~ o p l r .

Contemporary Japan is intensely rducation-orient~d end plarc\ a high premium on fornial eduration. 'This is, in part. a legacy of tradi- tional inllucnces, (primarily Confucian), which ernphasizcd the i n - porlanre of literacy and hook Insrningand the resultingmoral i n s i ~ h t s as t h ~ hasis lor thc ruling cl;iss. 'That the Japanesr spcnd over 12% of thrir national h u d g ~ t on edur;ttion hut only 7.7% on thr milirar)- is indirativc o l the priority givrtl to education. T h e L1.S.. on the other hand. sprnds srven timcs as niuch on military rxpmditurrs a s it does o n elemrntary and secondary rducation. Wherras fonrtional illitrrarg is a major problem in thr L1.S.. in Japan. virtually no one f;tils tolrarn to read and write--no small arhirvrrnrnt in that Iapanesr is considered orlc ol rhc most difficult langr~;lgrs to lcarn.

Olfirial Ministry ol Education lig~rrrs show t h ; ~ ~ in 1976.92% o l all srudmts c o r ~ ~ p l r t i n g thr r ~ q u i r r d ninc years of rompulsory education rontinurd thcir studirs at the upprr srrondary Icvcl (including lirct through third years of trchnic;rl rollrgel. In 1'175. 97%of thosr studrnts r n t ~ r i n g h i a l ~ school rornplrted it as opposrd to only 79% of thrir ,Americ;~n rountrrparts. Today lhrrr aremon.than 1.000 irtstit~ltionsol h i shr r rducation in Japan with o w r two million stodrntc in attcnd- anc-r. 'l'tiii mcans that more than 40% of Japan's youth arrenrolled in sonlr form of highrr ediication.

The Japanesr arr voracious rrad~rs. .A short ride on any cornrnutrr train or suhway will impress an ohser\er with the\.ery high prrrentagp of passmgrrs wading n ~ w y ~ a p ~ r , , m ;~~a , i r~es . ilntl hooks. The quality of these materials varies widely, hut the facl remains that thr J apan~se are a reading peoplr. A recent study reportrd that Japan'sdaily news- paper rirrulation is 5 0 per 1,000 poptllation, second only to Sweden's 574 prr 1.000. T h r [oral circulation fiaures of Japnnesenctvspapprsare the ~ n v y of American publishers. Japan ' s thrcr lrading nrrcspapers. the .4.~nhi. Yomittri, and rllnintrtii h;~r,r a total ~norningpdition rircu- lation of more than 16 million. Thesc same paprrs also puhlish eve- ning editions with approxiniatrlv onr-half the morning circulation figures. In contrast. thr largest 11,s. newspaper is the ,\'C-W Yo~k Dnily ,\'?u,s with a rirrulation of 1.9 million, followed hy thr ,\'?us York Trmm and llrnshin,q!on Port with rirculations of 841.000 and 514,000 rrsperrirely.

The figurrs for hook puhlishingarronlyslightly lrss imprrrsive. In 1976 owr 36.000 titles were puhlishcd in Japan. a figure exreeded only hy the I'nitrd Stater and the Soviet I'nion, which hnvr much larger populations. Japan's periodicals n u m k r almost 10.000 and range from high quality intellectual journals to pulp pornography. Circula- tion figores are often astounding; for rxamplr. ahout 1.400 monthly ma~azinvs are puhlishrd witha total circulationof a.eII over90 million ropies!

M'hilc Americans dehare thr rneril? of (he "hack-to-basirs" rnovp- mpnt, Japanese youngsters achieve superior sc;tdcmic rrsults as re- flected in their performance on thr lntrrnational Evaluationof Educa- tional ~Ichievrmcnt Trstr. Japanrs? studrnts ranked among the world's best in hoth the mathematirs and sriencr portions. It is not an exaggeration lo suggest that the typical Japanrse high school graduate is better informed, not only about international affairs hut also about .American history, than is his American rounterpart. In fact, many Japanrsr husinessmrn and diplomats stationed in thr Ilnitctl States prefer to leave their families in Japan so that th~irchildrrn will ~ C C C ~ V C the academic skills nrt,drd tocompctr succrssfully for a placein a pres- tigioms Japanese university, which is the "escalator" to iurrrss.

Despite this glo!ving p i ru~rr . it would hea mistake toronrlude that

Japan is an cduratiorral otopia. T h e Japancsr arr conrrrned about d ~ c l i n r in standards. growing anti-social nttitudrs among young people, thr drleterious rffrcts of ch ikm ji,qokrt ("esamination h ~ l l " ) . and thc power o l the leftist and militant Nikkyoso (Jap;~nesr'l-r:ichrrs L'nion)-problrrn~ not anrornmon to other indttstrial sorirtirs. On balance, hoxvr\rr, i t xvould lie hard to diaaxrcc with f o r m ~ r V.S. Am- bassador to Japan and Harvard historian Edwin Rcischauer's rom- mrnr that "Nothing, in fact, is rnorrrmtral toJapanrsrsociety ormore basic to Japan's surrcss than its rducatinnal system."

This bsthack provides ;I historical prrspecti\.r for ondrrstanding Japanrsr education tuday, drsrrihrs its structurt.and~~rganiration.and disc osrcs thosr fartors that are at onrr its strength ;ind thr sourrr of its prohlrrns.

Japanese Education-A Brief History

J apan's surccss in rrbuilding its rhatterrd sotirry a f t ~ r \\'r,rld \Var I1 is usl~ally nurihr~trd lo ils rsrt.llent rdt~cational sysrern. Ir is i rnpor[an~ to recognize. howcvrr. that this rrlurational system did not spring lull- hloran airel 1945 hut r\.olvrd over srvrral rrntorir.i and parti?rind. I h r mpslnnr (11 thi* r1111y e r I~c .a r i~na l syctrm !?a\ a C:~rl l l~( i ;~r l

T h r rduration of rc>mmoners rerei\.rd thr enrouraxement. if not thr fittancial support. of the Tokugawa gorernmrnt. which hrlirvrd that prnplr steeped in the Confurian vier%- of the morality contrih~rted to a ham~oninus socirty. Hor . rv r~ . the eduration received hy those commoner\ who attended lrrnkora (trmple schools) was rudimrntary and prartiral.

Riln;tld Dorr. wrhaps thr l ~ a d i n g rtttdmt of Tokug ; t r~~a~d~ t r a t i on . points to the rrlatirrly high litrracy rate of Japart at thr limp of thr blriji Restoration of 1868 and susgrsts that it compared favorably x*.ith the "drveloprd nations" of thr day. Most import;~nt. thr Japitnesr l~roplc had lrarned "how to Irarn" and wrrr psyrhologirally preparrd to advancp rapidly onrr thr country was oprned u p and TYrstrrn idcac and practices flooded thr country. In a neat phrase, Dorr s ~ i ~ g r s t s that by 1868 the Japanrsr were "not just a sack of potators."

Aftrr 1868. Japan wholrhearwdly accepted We-strrn lrarning and hrrame enthosiastirally committed to modernization. T h r national goal. under thr l rad~rsh ip of ;I small handful of oligarchs rlrvrrly using thr itnpcrial symhol tolrgitirnate their artions, heramr a "strong army and ;I wralthy nation." Education playrd a paramount role in attairtirlg this goal.

\('it13 thr prnmulgation of the landmark "ImperialCharter Oath of I R R R . " the young Mriji Emperor drrrred that "Knoa.lrdgr shall he sought throughout thr tuorld." lmplrmenting this rharge took two tnajor forms. T h r first was thedispatchof hrlndredsofyonng Jitpanesr s tudrn~s to Fn+ ind , France. Ckrmany. and thr i1.S. to learn thr "srcrrts" of \Yestern trrhnology and produrtion. T h r se-cond was thr invitation. ;it premium s;tl;irirs, ofsr\.rral t h o u s a n d o ~ n t o i g ~ ~ k ~ k u j i , ~ . or fnreixrt employrrs, whose task it rras to teach t h ~ Jepanrsc to hrlp rstithlish ii wid? variety of institutions, from thc fotlnding of a mint f a thr ronstrurtion of railroads. from the writingofa conrtitution to the introduction of modern agrirtzltural methods.

A hixhly rrntral i~ed Mirtisrry of Education was ~stablished in I871 and a lihrlxl "Fundamrntal Codeof Eduratinn" was promltlgated thr following yrar. The ambitious plan was to divide the rountry into eight itnivrrsity districts. ~ a c h subdividrd into 31 m i d d l ~ ~choo l dis- trirts, which in turtt uc.rrdividrd into210 pr im;~psrhool disrricts.The

orgatiizational strurulrc, basrd on thr Frrnch model. was never fully implemented for financial and nthrr rmsons. hut it is important be- cause it clearl) illustrates thr nrw govtrnmtnt's strong-commitment to p,hliceduration;tss meansofdrvrlnpm?nt. By 1893. morr than 13.000 rlernentary schools wrrr in oprration, and 46% ofclementary agc boys and 17% of elementary ;age girls wrrr in attrndanrr.

1 -hr rurrirulum of Meiji rr;t schools rrflertrd ;\mrriran cdura- tional practices. A Japanesr mission to the !\lest. the Iwaktrra Emhassy of 1872, spent much timr observing hrnerican schools and %\-err so imprssrd with the idrasof Horace b1;tnn. Henry Rsrnard. Calxin Stow and othrrs that lhpy adoptrd ihr 1 l . S rlrmentary school model for Japan. They even wrnt so far as to employ Da\,id Murray of Rt~tgers trniversity as thpir National Suprrintrndrnt of Education from 1873- 1878.

There rxists in Japan today a kind of Coloni;~l !Villiamshurg. rallrd Mriji ~VIurn, whosr artifacts inclodr ;t restor;~tion of an 1875 school hottse with a classroom idrntiral to what one would h;tve found in Boston at the time. Even American strle trxtbooks wen, used in many of the schools until Japanere texts cotlld he- wrillrn and ptnhlishrd.

T h r ?car I880 marked the rnd of thr American educational ap- proach and thr beginning of a more conservative and nationalisticap- proach. A formal nationalist-oriented coursr in moral education (shrtshin) was introduced to the curriculum: and the Ministry of Edu- cation began itsrontrol over textbook adoption, which was tolast until 1945. The more conserva~ivr Grrman pedaxogical thought. especiall) that of Herhart, came into vogue: and thr number of f o r r i ~ n rmployers was drastically slashed as Japanese finishrd their overseas schoolins and rt-turned home to take over jobs for which they had brrn trained.

The r;irly Mpiji lihrral approarh cndrd and wotnld not again play an importan1 role. exrrpt for a brief pcri

rvcrirrrird in lnynlty 2nd lilial pirtr haxr irom grnrration tr,gt.nrmtion tllus~ratrd thr ht.:tuty thrrrnl. This is ihr slory oiihr 1und;nmrntnl c har- ;~ct?iof Our Enll?ilc. ;andhrrrin lie\ thrsor~rr~olOr~rrdur;~~ion .Yr .Our Suhj~fls , he iillal to your parents. aflrr~ion:,w lo Y O I I I l ~ ~ o t h ~ r ~ and sisters: as hushandi and wisei h? harmonious. a\ Irirndq Itttr: briar r o u -

prrfrrl inor;il po\rrrr: lurrh~rmoir advartrr l~~l l>l i r s o d and promote common intrrcst: ;tl\vavr rfsprct thr Con,titution ;and obrrrvr rhr laws; shr,ctld ctnv!sency arise. oiler ,ourrd~es i

tirely. to ;~cquire hasir knowlrdge and skills: crrativr thought was not only rare. i t war dangrrous. .An Amrriran teachrr wholivrdand taught in prr-war Japan conrludcd that J:~pancse schools produccd "\villing. rllicient wnrkrrs in ;I smoothly operating industrial machinr."

T h e T r a n s f o r m a t i o n of Japanese E d u c a t i o n \Vhcn thr Pacific \\';!r m d r d in .At~gust. 1945. thr Japanrs? F-nnpi~r

lay in ruins. Almost 2.000.000 Japanese werr dead and millions i r rrr ~voundrd . Sulfrring was crtenrive, hut n o single group s u l l r r ~ d 111orr. than thr ? o o n g An Amrriran estimate of ronditioris on the da, of surrmdrr Iorlnd IR.000.000 stttdrnts idlc, over 4,000 schools desrroyrd. thour;~nds more hrarily darn;tgrd, and a sevrrr shorragcof trachers and teaching malrrials. .Available teachers had to he s r recn~d ior mi l i~ar - istic leanings, and most ;tvailahlr textbooks werc unslrit;tblr hr

the Emprror irsurd a n lmprrial Rrscril,t drnying his divinity and rn- dorsing thr p r i n ~ i p l r s of the 1868 Ch;trtrr at t l t . \chic11 had srrvcd as t h ~ , hasis for rdurational inodernizat i~~n durinp thvrarly Mriji prriod.

T h e end of this initial phasr of rdur;ttion;tl rrform was marked by the arrival of a U.S. Ed~rrat ion hlission in ;\l;trth 19-lfi .rhi\ high-lwrl delegation of 27 American r d u m t o r ~ . Ird h) George Stoddard, Yen. York Commissionrr of E d u ~ x t i o n and prrsidmt-rlcctof thr C:ni\.rrsity of Illinois. ,

lie, t r , ;tdviring. gathrring rlata. and ron,lucting rrrmrch studirs. T h r s?strln o f who01 inspection n.a* srrapprd. and thr pr;ll.tice of light crn~ralizrd rontrol owr srhonl trsthooks Wac modified bul not ;~hnndonrd. Finally, teacher\ wr rc rncrrumg~d 1r1 un ion i~e . and hnrr- clrcdi of thoumnds did $0. making ,Vikkroio (.T:~lxun I"a< her5 I'nion .T'I.(r) ;I p o ~ v ~ r f u l lorrt,.

.Aftrr thr 1952 pram ~reaty ~ ~ S I O I C ~ Japittl's sovereign~y and rnded the Orrupation. thr gorrrnmrnt began lo modify and, in some r a s ~ s . rrjrrt many o l the educational rrfnrrnr imposrd dttring thr precrding se\.m years. O v e r t h ~ next twod~cadrs th r~apanesrmadref for t s totrim hark the rnurr objrction;!hle r ~ f n r m s and to rn;tkr thr re-rn;~indcr take root in Jap;mrsr soil. Th is process is usuall! rcfnrcd to 28s a "Rwrrse Cnljrse:" somr have rhargrd that it was a revrrsinri to tht. "had old days." ;\lthnugh i t is ondouhtedly trur that Japanese eduration br- c;lrne morr ~nnserrat ivr . the nvrv pnlitir;il and sori;tl contrxt of posc war Japan maclc a rrtx-rsion to prr-war days t~nlikely. For on? thing, thc nrn Japan T ~ a c h e r r [Ininn, althnrlgh not strong m o o g h to get thcir 1 ~ 1 1 ~ on all issues. possrscrtl cno~rgh political musclr m force the Illinistry of Edttration to rn rnpromis~on inost ~ S S L I P I . :\s ihrhlinistry's h l~r r ;~ur ra t r fought to rrgnin thcir prr-war precminrnce, thry were op- p o x d every step of thr way hy thrI 'TI1 ;tnd itsallies in theSnci;tlistand C:ommunisl partirs.

C;radu;llly, hoa.c,vrr. thr prndulum h r ~ a r i to swing hark to what critics call a rnnser\.;itirr svstrrn of education or, prrhaps. "a more I a p r n ~ s e " system. TTI thr 20 )e:irs fol lo~ving the pracr treaty. rlrctrd hoards of rdu

to fresh ~dur;!tional thu~tghr. including Xlarxirl :tnd anridernorratir ideas. char Japan had not known sinrc thr 1920s. Onr 01 th r mosr notahlr ;,rhierrtnmrs of thc Orrttpation ,\.as probahl? rhr oprning of ~ d u r e t i o n a l ol,portrtnitirr a, ihp single- l a rgrs~ rninorir? gt.r,up in Japan-its rvornen. T h e Ocrupation laid doxrn the l r ~ a l prinriplrs for the emanriparion nf Japanrsc \romen: and thr :\merican-imposed Consritorion of 19.47 pro\.ided a gu;!rantee oleq~ialit!of thp srvrs r11;11 is still nor fo r~nd in thr LT.S. Cons~lrlition in 1982. A , e r r s ~ ~ l t , thrnrtm- hew of u,r,rnr.n pljrsrlinq big-hrr rdurarionandrnrrringthc~~rmfrision\ in J ;~pan ha5 incrr.;&rt.d fairly rapidly.

The Structure of Japanese Education

U n t i l the end of \\'orld \Var I1 Jap;ineseeduration asch characterized hy a multi-track system. which prepared thr mass of :mtng people for procluctive labor and a handful of the moreahlr for positionsof lradrr- ship and privilege. Contemporary Japanev eduration, howrvrr, is a lrgary of hoth the i\tneric;m Orrupation's ed t~f i~ t iana l r ~ f n r t n s and the post-1952 reactions tn snme of th~c*reforrns. In 1916. for example. the sapanrsr a

Fig. 1. Organization of educational system

Kindergarten An optional hut inrrrasinaly popular first rung on therducational

ladder, t h ~ kindrr~arcm provides onr- to thrrr-year coursrs for rhil-

drrn hesinning at age 5. In 1979.64% ol the 3 lo 5 age group wrrrin at- trndance. Evrn thotlgh apprnximat~ly 708 of all kindergartens are private, they must mrrt standards cstahlishrd by the Ministry ol Edo- cation bascd on the advicr o f a national School Curriculum Council. I 'hc six arms of st~tdy in kindrrgarten r lass~s throughout Japan are hralth, society, natorr, language. music, and art. An allrrnatire to kindrrartcn is the day nurscry, which has a similar program hul is operatrd hy I ~ P Ministry a1 ~Vrlfare.

T h r school day usually hrgins at 8:30 a.m. with a lree play p~riorl with rrlalively little tcarhrr supervision. althouxh thr teacher may help children construct castles and sculptures in thc sandbox, play with them on thc slidr or other outdoor rtluipmmt, or particip;~te in a myriad ol othrr activitirs. T h r major dilferrnre brtween Jap;~ncscand American teachers at this l?vel is thal the Japanese actively participate with the rhildrcn rather than just supervise- them.

The frer play ppriodends in mid-morning. After a rt,stroorn break, a mornins asscmhly is common whrrr thr principal grrrts the children, thc srhool song is sung, or a rirclr dancing gamr is played. This is fol- 1orvt.d by more formal srhonlwork directed by thr tracher. A half-hour or so of frre play follows lunch, and alter a Iew moments to pul away thrir things and rlean the- room, thr childrrn go home at 1:00 p m .

Elementary School Evrr? chiltl who has pacsed ltis sixth birthday is rrqoirrd to attend

six years ol elementary school. Theaims of elernent;lry srhoolingcon- tained in lhe School Educ;~tion Law of 1947 strrss ihr cultivation

Grade

Subjects I II 111 I ' I' Vl

Japanese language 7 9 8 8 7 7

Social 5tudies 2 2 3 4 . 1 4

.Arithmetic 3 t j f ( i

Scicnrt 2 2 3 3 4 4

Music 3 2 2 2 2 2

.Art stid craft 3 2 2 2 2 2

Homr-making - - - - 2 2

Physi

Japan's general societal valurs and lays the foundation for attitudes and hrhavior ~xpr t te r i at higher levrls of schooling. For example, cvpn young rhildrrn are exprttrd to clear1 u p their rlassrooms and to takr turns serving lunch. Crorrally, thry arc far more responsible than American rhildren ton,ard their srhool environment. This sense of re- sponsibility transl;ttrs into substantial savingsfor Japan~scsrhools he- cause there is lrcs need for thr custodial support than is common in r\mt.rican schoolc. By the end of ~lementarv school thevast majority of rhildrrn havr intrrnalizrd traits of srlf-discipline and rooperation. whilr at thr samr time ahgorhir~g grrat amounts of information.

J u n i o r High School .At ahout age 12 the typical Japanrsc studpnt enters the final phase

of compulsory srhooling-the three-yrar lower secondarv or jrnnior high school. These studrnts genrrally wear a distingltishing uni- form-boys in dark t ~ l u r high-collarpd jackets with hrass buttons and srhool insignia, set off by a visored rap. Girls wcar navy blur skirts and h l ~ ~ t s r c . but changr into \chit? rach Junr . These uniforms art' worn proudly because they confer ;I scnsr of identity and a mrasrlre of status upon t h ~ strtdmt.

T h r organization of secondary level rlassrooms is very traditional. T h e trarher is the crnterof th~learningprocrssandlrct~tresfrom adais at rhr front of th r r o o m Students sit in straight rorvsof desks and takr cart-lul notes. Class discussion is not common. 11por1 thearrival of thr tracher in thr morning, all rise and how. Studmts also rice and stand next to thrir drsks to rerite. Most trachers arr careful t o f o l l o ~ ~ thetrxt- hook since they Iecl i t contains the information considered import;~nt by rhc prople constructing rntrance examinations.

T h r curriculum prescribed hv thr Ministryof Educationallows few deviations (see Fig. 3) and is officially geared toenable the junior high graduate to ht,rome an effrctivr and useful m r m h ~ r of sorirty. An un- spoken hut ever prcsrnt ohjcctivr. however, is to prepare those who wish even t~~a l ly to rakr rntranrc examinations for institutions of higher rduration. In this regard. it is common for most junior high school boys and an increasing nrrmher of girls to begin to a u m d the ubiquitous "supplrmmtary" schonls that sprcialize in r x ~ m i n a t i o n

Required subjects

Jz~parresr langoagr

Sorial strldirs

Mathematics

Srirncr

Music

Fin* arts

flralth and physical education

Industrial arts (Home-making)

Moral education

Special activities

Elertivr subjprts

(e.g. F o r r i ~ n languagrsl

(A vocational subirrt)

Total nurnhrr of hours

Fig. 3. Standard weekly number ol school hours lor junior hig-h schools

Sorlr

sion normally occurs at the end of hoth rlementary and junior high school. The typiral ninth gradw looks forward to thr rlnss visit to a historir or scenic loration in thr spring, prior togr:tduation. This trip. aboi~t a week long, is planned t ~ p to a year in adr-;incr: and families lay asidr money on a regular hasis to finanrc it. Costs arr krpt Ion so all students may participatr. In hardship cases thr local PTA usually i n t r r r m r to ensurr lull participation. In addition to its rduczitionnl valur, clacs excursions srn-e othrr important purposes; thry often art as a sorial glue that tips rlassmatrs togethrr in lifelong frirndship. Indrrd, it is cornmon lor many adults to reminisce about thrse trips through tear-fillcd ryes.

High School L'pon complrtion of rompolsory rduc;ition some youngste-rs go

into thc workplace, hut rhevitst majority prorcrdto highschool. Thrr r ;ire threp basic typrs of high schools available lo the juniorhigh school graduate: full-lime, p;trt-time. and rorrt-spondence. The lull-timr course is thrre years duration, and thr part-time and correspondence options ar? at lcast four years long. LXSS than 6% of the high srhool stu- dents rhoose to a u m d part-time rourses (osually at night) or take ror- respondence classcs.

ipproximately 36% of the full-timr high schools are cotnprehm- sire. that is, thry offer both academicand vocational tracks. B(,rause of higher prrst ig~. most studrnts opt for theacademic track. e\.m though they ma? not plxn toattrndunivrrsity. In prarrire, thcac;~dcmiccourse is hoth rollexe prrparatory and terminal. drpending on the student's plans.

The most common t\pe of comprehensive high school offers students an arademic trark. plus one vorational trark. The lirst year is devoted to general education lor all. In the second year the university hound students begin their speciali~ation-humanities and social science. or science and terhnolom. Fig. 4 illusrrates the studirs re- quire-d of the college preparatory high school student.

The full-time high srhools with only an acadrmir track makt- up 40% of the total. Thosr with only a specializrd vorational track make up 21% of the 10tal. The anrational track is dcsignrd to providr ap-

Grade iind nurnhrr of credits'

X XI XI1 Total

Modcrn Japanesr 3 2 2 7 .Advnn~ed Japanese classics I 2 3 ,5 Adranced Japanrsr classics I1 3 3 Ethics-civics 2 2 Political srience~eronotnics 2 2 J;I IX!~CSL. history 3 3 Adv;inred world history 2 2 4 ~\rlv;ancrd ~ c o g r a p h ? 4 4

Ka*ir mathematics 5 3

.\dvanrrd rn;tthrmatics I 7 5

.Advanred m a ~ h ~ r r ~ a t i c r I1 5 3

.\d\.anrrd physics 3 2 5 Adv;tnrcd chemistry 2 2 4 Biology 4 4

E; t~th science 2 2 Hcl l th 2 3 3 9.7$ P h \ c i ~ t l erluration I I 2 Fine n r ~ s 2 2

.Adv;mced fin? ;trts 2 2 4

.Advancrd English 5 5 5 15

Home-making 2' 2? 2 2 Rr

Spec i:~l ;irtivitie-s I 1 1 3

Totztl 32 31 30 93

33? 9 j Z

'On

propriatr training for those youth who havedcridpdona specificvoca- tional field, such as agrirulturr. cornm~'rcial, domesticarts. finr arts. fishing, and others.

The part-time high rhoo l s ~~ t i l i ze reguli!r high srhool farilitiesantl teachers but usually take four o r r~iore years to complrtc brcarnr they arr oftrn conducted at night. Corrrspond~nrr dura t ion is ;dsu gearrd toward full-time workers. but has traditionally hren held in low rsterm by the puhlir.

Jonior rolleges havr grown rapidly in Japan. Almost 500 junior colleges throughout tht. rountry offer two- to three-year programs in such diverse firlds as agrirulture. humanities, kindergarten rduc;ition. auto m~rhanics, litrraturr. food prorrssing. rosmetology. photog- raphy, elertronics. ;ind many morr.

Education for Women One of the morr inrrresting facts ahot~t junior rollrges is that 85 to

90% of their rnro l lm~nt arr tromrn, r\ jnnior college rduration for worncn is genrrally seen as good preparation lor marriage. It is \\.idel? helirwd that a national or highly prestigious priaatr university is not a suitable choice for females sinrr i t grmtl! rrdurrs the numhrr of possible marriage partncrs from which to choose. It is considrrrd un- srrmly for a malr tomarr? a woman whoattrnded a "bettrr" nnivrrsir~ than hr attended. Thrrrforr, many women. drspitr high ability levels, arc- likrly to a t ~ r n d a women's collrgr that is not as aradrmically rigor- ous, but is known torultivatr "good ~ r i v e ~ ; ~ n d ~ ~ i s r m o t h e r s . " T h c o n r bright spot for the frn~alc in thiscontext is th;st sheisnotfarrdwith thr same kind of "examination hrll" prrr\orr ;IS h n malr countuparts.

Ocher Educational Options Othcr kinds of schools in Japan offrr additional ~duc;ition;tl

options for students. Technical colleges in a number of engineering fields admit studrnts after graduation from junior high school and offrr five-year rourses that romhinr three years of high srhool with trrn years of post-high school rdocation. There are also sprrial training schools to irnprovc the joh skills and to raise thr lrvrl of grneral edu- cation. Thrse so-called rniscellanrous schools pro\,idr vonng people

with \.o

Examinations-Life Determiners

E a c h year children, agr 12 to 18, and in their final years of e i t h r r~ l e - mentary, lower, or upper srcondary srhools, hrgin intensivr prrpara- tion for the entr;rncr examinations for thr nrxt levrl on the rdura- tional ladder. Thesr examinations dttcrminr whrre they ~vil l go the next aradrmir year and indeed. for somr, whether they \\,ill evm con- tint)? in school. The examination "scason" in Japan is February and March. During this time. thousands of stt~drnts are pot to thr tcsr that will not only determinr thrir edurational futtlre hut also their l i f~t irnr career.

Professor Ezra Vogel, author of jnpo,? ns So. I : L~sconsfor A r n ~ r - im, has ronlmented that "No ririgle event, with the possihleexreption of marriage, determines thr rnursr of a young man's life as much as rntrance naminations; and nothing, including marriage. r ~ q u i r r s as many years of planning and hard work." Therefore, students who desire to compete for admission to university find that they must start preparing for the examinations at the lower secondary le\,el, nr earlier. The examination romprtition is reflected in the Japanese saying. "Four hours sleep, pass; five hours sleep, f:til"-that is, rvery extra lnomrnt a young person devotes m exam pr~parat ion, the greater the rhance of succrss. A newspaper arrirlc dcsrrihed a high school st i~drnt who spent all day at school, slrpt thrw hours a night, and srudied thr rest of the time. When hr was adviscd hya physician that the hest hours to sleep were from 10 p.m. to 3 a.m.. he rigged a tape recorder to the Ilmer of a rire cooker, so he could begin his study day at 3a.m. with the wund of his own voire yrlling "grt up, get up, get up." It is not un- common to find weary youngsters riding the subway or commuter

trains at 10 p.m.. after having attended supplementary lrssons since late afternoon. The pressure to climb rhe ladder of success through education begins at a very early age.

The Kyoiku Mama The infamous kroikv mama ("education mama") plays an im-

portant role at each le-ve-l of hrr child-s rduration. This is rrflected in thc many bizarre, but usually true. stories about the sortingprocess that h ~ g i n s at t h ~ kindergartrn Iwel. One pre-school. which was unable to devise adequate tests for its two-par-olds. solved this dilemma by de- ciding to test their mothers instead. The most ambitious mothers cn- roll their children in kindergarten pr~pnmtoiy schools becauseordinary kindergartens reach only gamcs and r ra l r , whirh thc? ronsidrr quite inadequatr prrparation for rntranrr examinations into "good" ele- mentary srhools. At thr othrrrndoithrladdrr , i t isestimated that 15 to 20% of srrldrnts taking enlrance rxaminations to the Vniversity of Tokyo are accompanied by their mothers. Such preoccupation ~ , i t h their children's success in rducation no doubt rcflrrts the typical Japanese mother's lark of opportunity for personal achievrment out- side hcr family. Working to cnsure hrr child's succrss enahles her not only to satisfy hrr duty as a mothrr hut alco to achiwe position and pre~tige in the neighborhood and among hrr friends and arquaint- anoes. It is not unusual at high school graduation ceremonies lor mothers, who have workecl exceptionally hard to ensure thrir chil- dren's academic success, to be commended by the principal and awardrd honorary diplomas.

Parrnts, and rsprrially mnrhers, rvork very hard to help their chil- drpn pass thr rxamination at each level of theeducational ladder.Thr prrssurr is parricularly great on a son, since he has often been selectrd by his family as the foral point of their effor~send their money. Thisis particularly trur in "salaried man" families that have no proprrty to pass on. Thus thr sprrtre of univrrsity entrance exarninarions domi- narcs the lives of rhildrrn whose families see education as the key to surress: and graduation from a t~niversity is a prerequisite tosuccrsr in Japan. But university graduation is not rnough-the real qurstion is "From urhirh university did you graduatc?"

The Universities Japanese universities are hirrarchic;rlly ranked according to

pr?stige. Whil? thr rrlativr prc'stigr of oni\.ersities is an element found in other countries, in Japan the gradations of universities, faculties within univrrsitics. and the prominrnt-r of profrssors s tud i~d under is difficult for outsiders to comprehmd. If viewrd as a pyramid. the aprx of Japanese higher education is the L'ni\,ersity of Tokyo: and the most prtstigioos faculty within that institution is its Faculty of Law-in Japan a comhination of political srienrr and publir administration. ,Just beneath ?'okyo are some of the former imperial universities such as Kyoto. Kyushu, and I 'ohoku, fnllntved closely by a handful of pres- tigious priratr oniv~rsities such as Keio and 12'asetla. T h e broad hasroi the pvramid contains hundreds of other institutions, many scornfully refrrrrd to as diploma mills or ~ k i b ~ ~ z d n i ~ n k u ("lunrh-hox univrrsi- tirs").

In nearly all Japanese rtniversitirs. success on the entrance rxami- nation is hy far the most important, and often th~~solerriterinn. forad- mission. Those who are ahle to pass the examination for a prestigious institution, preferably Tokyo, ran look forward to an assitred foturc, sinrr once the student rnters the university, rompletion of thedegrrr is almost automatic. The compctitiori for the L'nivrrsitv of Tokyo is fierce. It is not uncommon foronlyone of every 1010 12applirants to be admitted to various Tokyo faculties. This statistic has added meaning when on? realizes that only thr best studcnts are encouraged by their trachrrs to apply. In other words. a pre-selrrted elite takr the Univrr- sity of Tokyo examination and only 10 to 15% of these applicants succeed.

For those whoaresurr~ssful , ho~vevcr. the rewardsareconsidrrable. Almost 25% of all prrsidents of firms listed in thr A category of the Tokyo Srock Exchangr are Tokyo grado;rte$: o\.er 60% of all govern- ment employers serving aboar the rank of srction chief in the burmu- crac? are Tokyo graduates: more than 208 of elrrted members of the Dipt (Irgislature) are Tokyo graduates. Statistics arc similar for uirtu- ally every category in the Japanese rstahlishmcnt. Lower but still six- nificarit sraristics reflect the influence of othrr elite institutions of higher rduration.

Examinations Distort Lower Education Pressures on studmts to pass the entrance examinations to pres-

tigious universities distort lower levels of education. High school trarhrrs drill their students incessantly in ordrr to incrcasr thenumber going on toprestigiousuniversities. Junior high trarhrrs take theircue from the high srhonl teachersand hecomesimilarly absnrhcd. It is not unheartl of lor primary srhool trarhrrs to rontluct mock examinations to prepare their s t ud~n t s lor the system 01 exan>in;~rions.

Japanese entrancr examinations do not simply test the student's acadrmir porenti;il and intelligenc~: they dral ~xrlusirely with testing achievement. I'hrrrforr, whoever learns the most lacts and dcvclops skills in test-taking is most likrly to be successful. The examinations arr notorious lor containing tricky or arbitrary questions. For ex- amp]?, a rPrrnt English examination asked the applicants whrre thr word "rvidentlg" shottld heplitcrd in t h~ fo l l o~~ ingsen t cn r r : "\2'h;tt he sitid is t r u ~ . " r\rrording to the test exarninkrs, the only correct arlsrver \\.as to plarc it lollowing the word "is." Such rigidity is typical in the Japanese cl;~ssroom. C:ognitirr lrarning is emphasirrd at thr rxprnse of affertive and sor-ialization ronrt,rns.

. I t the junior high rrhool lrvrl. trnrhrrs hrgin discussing the voca- tional and rducational tracks availahlr, brrauiein thrsecondyear.sto- dents mrjst drride rvhrthrr they want to romprtr for lurthereduration. :\I this timr an intensive program hcgins in prrparation lor high school rsarninations. About 60% of all high school placcs are lor oni- wrsity pr~parntion and competition is intrnsr. E v m among high srhools ;I prestige rnnkingrxists:aschool's1>re~tige isdrtcrmined by its succrss in placing its graduates in thr top unir.rrsities. Thore schools with thr hrst track rrrord of placing students in the Llnivrrsity of 'Tokyo arc Nada. Komaba. and Arahu Hixh Schools, all loratrd within a frw minutes o l thr itnivcrsity. There is, of roursr. ronsidcrahle com- ~xt i r ion to he admittrd to onr of rhrsr high schools. and parrnts do rvrrything possihlr to rnsure that their offspring arr ahlr to atrrnd t h ~ m . 1-hry r irrumrmt school distrirt rrsidrnceregulationr by rrnting a room in thc desired district. hy srnding thrir child to live with rela- tives in the distrirt, or simply h, paying somcone lor the use of their address.

The rwdcnt'\ lilr in junior high srhool is ruled byextrastltdr,extra texts, and prartirr exan~inations-all dirrrtrd torr;lrd the onivrrcity examination cr,mprtition. The number of students participating in thrsc examination pl-rlx~rations is increasing. Onr recrnt surwy of fifth grader\ concludrd that 80% of the boys and 86% of the girls were [akin% nutqidr lrssnns. Reports in the Japanese press indicate that pub- lishers of supplernmtary tpats for junior high studcnts and the ubiquitous "sul>l~lrmrntary" schools that offcr "cram" courses lor both junior high and high school students arr all thriving. Tokyo bookstorrs err fillcd with studrnts of all agrs selecting books and pamphlets on rcrhniqtxrs to help them pass thcrxaminations. Samplm of past examinations arc in great dcmand. Sections in the bookstorrc are conspicuously markrd withsigns: "ForSerondary School Entrancr Preparation;" and the shelves arr stocked with such titles as T h r C o m - plptp Sttidy Gt tzdr fo~ Parsing thr "X" [.niziersit? Entmnre Examinn- lion or Englirh l'ornbulnry .Ilo.cf Likely to Appear on the Entmnrc Emrninnlion. etr. All ihic, of coursc. is big business for publishers.

T h r school :car prior to taking any entrance examination is de- \,otcd to preparing lor it. .At thr high srhool level. the regular rdura- tion p rogam is \'irtually ignorprl becausc both studrnts and teachers arr preoccupied with thr forthcoming exams. It is not uncommon for students to drop out of sports and othrr extracurricular activities in order to devotp full time to preparation. Teachers administer a num- ber of trial tcsts in class to rhrck students'pmqpss. These practice tcsts help t~achrrs identify individual student strengths and weaknesses so they can advise them regarding rvhirh courses of study to rmphasirr and which university's rxaminations the? are likely to pass.

Entranr? ?xaminations take plarr during thr last term of thesenior "ear and disrupt regular classes. The students travel to the unirersitirs to take the ~xaminations. The majority of students convwge on Tokyo. A rommon scene earh rear are long lines of young people in railroad stations waiting to buy tickets with worried looks on their laws.

The typical candid;~tr, often arrompanied by his mothrr, arri\.es a few days in advance toarclimatr himself tothrnrx\.environment. I!ntil he rrtorns home, he \%-ill receive the very &st of care in order to bras "rcady" as possible when it is time to takr the rxaminations. It is not

unlike the training of a boxer lxfore an important hot~t-hravy train- ing. a sprrial diet. and even rubdowns. Relatirrs living near famous shrines arr askrd to srnd sperial amulrts m hrlp in passing the exams. \Vithout question. thr rnlranre examinations arc the most critical event in thr st11dent's young life, on the outcome of which rests his chances for thr f t t~urr .

Students Without a School T h o v who fail thr examinations face intense pressurc to study

harder for ano~her )rar (or more) lo make a n o t h ~ r a t t ~ m p t to pass the examination fnr ;I I estigious school. These studmts who make a second cflort to pass the examination Itre called ronin, ;s term used to descrihr samurai of frudal days who had no mastrrs. 'Today's ronin arr herter drsrrihrdas"st~tdmts without a srhool."Therrwasa mild shock among Japanpsc when in October 1977. the Ministry of Education annol~ncrd that thcrr was a group of youngsters b~lu,rr ,z junior and senior high srhools who wcrc ron in~ . The Ministry concluded that scaen out of e\.er? 1.000 junior high graduates "delay, or arp forrrd to drlay, their advancement for a year or so-lime which is spent in cram schools." One newspaper. commenting on this pr;tctire of junior high graduat~s attrnding rram schools to improve their chances for admis- sion to prestigious crnior high schools. statrd. "If they don't managr that, the rhancrc of winning entry into a presrigious university are diminished."

Today. being ;I ronin is a i;~ct of life lor many h i ~ h school gradn- arm. .Ancxtra yearor t\r\.onf ronin lifeisconsidereda good investment if one is cvmtually able tocn~rraprrfrrred university. Roninaresuccess- ful; rarh ?rar a largr prrrrntage of ronin applic;tnts pass the entrance examinations for thr prectigc institutions. In 1976 thcrc were a total of 850.000 applicants for 350.000 national oniversily plares, and 190,000 (.54.2%) of the successful applicants were ronin. The fact that a studc-nt stands a much betterchanceof passinsif hecan afford lospendan extra ?car or more on preparation has lrd to the development of what many rdocators call a "6-3-3-X-4" system, sometimes (,\,en a "6-9-X-3-X-4" system. The "X" r~ fe r s to the period the rnrzin sprnds preparing for another tr? at the entrance examination.

Deleterious Effects of Examinat ions The psychological hurden imposed by thr "cxarnination hrll"

period results not only from thr studmt's own wish for sucrrss and status but also from the pressrsrr placed on him by his srhool and family to succred. Ilrith the school'sreputation dfpendingon the num- ber of its graduates who pass the collegr emtrance examinations, teach- ers arc under pressure from the school administration to rnsurea high percentage of surressful students. T h r trachers will advise students to drop extracurricular activities in order to spend more time studying.

A governmrnt I l 'hite PaQrr on School Childrrn and Youth links examination prrssure to prrsonality changrs in children. "Shunning of outdoor play has caused children . . . to avoid sorialiring.

same period at the elementary school level. Recent newspaper articles on thr subject suggcst that the situation has not improved. The Japanme press has rarrird many articlpson this srrhjrct, but thr follow- ing will sufficc to make thr point. Aftera dispurewith his father, an 18- ,rar-old studmr lpaprd in front of a commrlrpr rrain in Tokyo, r\ note found in his pocket read:

.\I ihr end of March lasr "ear, m y fathrr told mr t o tnkr the rntmnrr maminations fur such and such universiry and lo kave holnr if I tailrrl L ~ P P X B ~ . I mad? lip mr mind tocommit suicide: bur io parch things up for the moment. I onlv prewndrd I tvonld takr the rmmr for thr uni- vrriiry to a,hirh hr rommanded me ro go.

The studrnr's mothcr was quottd as raying thar she and her hus- band talkpd with him aboot going to a prrstigiouh universitv, but "my son said he liked painting and wanted to go to an art school." Com- rrrenting on these kinds of tragedies, one newspaper editorialized: "There is no mystery ahout the cause of this unfortunate trend. These young suicides sought relug? in drath from thr prcssnrcs of having to prpparr for thr highly romprtitivp entrance ~xaminations."

There are, of course, other less extreme emotional problems result- ing from rxamination-inducrd tensions, such as acute anxiety,depres- sir-e periods folloxving failure, and various types of learning blocks. While examination pressures are not the only causr of thcsc disturb- ances, Ezra Vogel helie\,es th;tt "the severity of thr disturbance and thr particular form i t took did seem to be relatcd to the rxarnination prrssnrr."

As a result of thr rxarnination pressurr, it isnot surprising that the typical Japanese high school graduate is Far ahead of his Ameriran conntrrpart in trrms of knowlrdgc acquisition. ETow~vrr, i t should he pointcd out that this intense competition in Japan is focused on gain- ing entrance ro higher rducation and not on achievement once the strtdrnt is in the nnivrrsit). Man? Japanrse students do not study ser- iously once they havemtrred theuniwrsity of theirchoice. At thissrage thc American university student tends to ratrh up and even pull ahead of thc Japanesr studmt.

Somr psychiatrists haw found that many Japanrsr univ~rsity f r~sh -

men undrrg-o a so-rallrd "Ma? Crisis" (hrrausr May is the rnonth fol- lowing the beginning of a new school ye;!,-). Studying for the ;ill-

important entrance examination is o\.rr. Stodcnls suddmly discover

tI1t.y h a w morr time than thpy know what todo with. Theunivrrsity is

not the pl;sr~.ofintelleruial stimulation studentsm\,isioncd. T h r ? find

that thry don't have to study vrry h;trd and hrgin to doubt whrthcr it was all ~corthu-hile. This leads to prolor~nd fcelings of ;llirnation and

depression. Some suggcs~ that this vacuum is l i l l ~ d hy brromingartiar

in thr politics of thc Japanrre student movemmt. Although therr is much lo rritirizr in the J;ipanrsr examination

system. and many Japanesr rrilirire it with a vengeance. in Ronald

Dorr's words:

"Onr 5usprctr [hat Japitn'r morr ronrrrvativ~ leadrrs, though thcc arc ptrpa~rd loshakr their hrsdsorrr ihr rystcm rri~h iho\rwhodrplorr i l . arc rerrrlly w\.rll rarirfird. The examiniuion hrll \or($ ihr S ~ P P ~ f10111 thr goats.. . a s long as you ran krrp adolerrrr~tr . . .glued tothcir lext- book5 ftom 7 in thc motnine lo I I at night, thrro< i?t\~sl~uuldmawrctcr - rLavc off for quiw a long uhilr yr, ha^ hrdonism whhh. :is r\rr)bodv knows, drsrioyrd ihr Roman mtpirr, knocked th r r t~r f l insoni~~f Rrirain. and is currrnlly sprradin~ vrnrrt.al dirrarr th lou~h ihc I,o

Conclusion

T , hc Jnpanrsr have ronsisr?ntly displayrd an ahility to adapt to new s i t ~ ~ a t i o n s and. especially. to nt'w ideas. In thr 1R70s the J;ipant.sr rmhrarrd \fesrern rdurational idras and prartirrs with ahandon. I . a t ~ r . ;I r o n s r r ~ ~ t i \ e rc~c t ion sct in, and modificatir,ns were made that rnade i t more rongrocnt with Jzlpancsc attitudrs and ralurs. T ~ P J;~~xuiese rombinrd Amrriran. Frcnrh, (;rrtnnn. 'imnrlana\.ian and nativist elements. which rrrulted in a s"stt.tn that can hest he drsrrihrd rrot as 2, foreign model, but a uniqurly Japanese one.

.After !Vnrld 11 the American impact was esperiall) strong, hut a g i n a ronsrrvative reaction-thr "Rrvrrsr Course"-follorvrd i r r the 1930s with rrrultr sirnilzir to thcmrlirr period. Even today t h ~ Jitpanese arc \.cr) srnritire to edrlratinnnl ~levelol,ments in lorrign n,untries. 2nd d o an ~xcel lent job in c\.aluatini:;~rid adaptingthrsrdr\.elapmrnts to thvir own system.

Amrriran rdur;~t ion is l ~ r t ~ a l l y chararterizrrl a

Further Reading

C I - . - .',... ~~ . . - T . ... , . : I p,FzA

EC;:., ., . itMTER COLLb.i;,, i i ~ i i N UTAH Sl'lil.t L,,. ,, U;.IT~

PDK Fastback Series Titles I . Schools W8thout Property Tsxer: Hope

or I l lur1an7 2. The Bert Kept Secret of the Part 5.000 Years:

Women Are Ready l o t Leaderrhlp in Education 3. Open Edutatlon: Pramlre and Problems 4. Performance Contract8ng' Who Profltr Mort7 6. How Schooir Can Apply Systems Ana ly r~ r 7. B u r ~ n g A Moral Isrue 8 Oi%rlpline or Olsa f te r~ 9. Learning Systems for the Future

10. Who Should Go to College? 11 Alternatwll Schools ~n Actlon 12. What 00 Students Really Want? 13 What Should the L h o o l r Te1ch7 14. How to Achleve A t r s u n t a b ~ l ~ t y in the Public

Schools I 5 Needed: A New Kind of Teacher 17 Systemltic Th~nking about Education 18. Selectlog Chlldren'r Rcadlng 19. Sex Olfference~ ~n Learning to Read 20, 1s Creat#v#ly Teachabld 21, Teachers and Pol!ticr 22. The Mlddle School Whence? What7 Whither7 23. Publish Don't Perish 24. Educatlon for a New Society 25 The Cr i r t r in Education lr Outride the Clarrraom 26. The Teacher and the Drug Scene 28. tducatlan for a Global Soc~ety 29. Can Intelligence Be Taught? 30. HOW t o ReCognlre a Goad School 31. I n Between The Adalescant's Strueele for ..

Independence 32 Effect8ve Teathlng in the Desegregated School 33 The Art of Fol louerrh~p (Whst Happened to

t h ~ Ind8ansll 34. ~eade; 1i;e;lth Crirer 35 Marshalling Community Leadership t o Support

the Public Srhoolr 36. Prepar8ng Educattonal Leaders- New Challenger

and New Perrpect~ver 37. General Eduratton The Search for a Rationale 38 The Humane Leader 39 Parliamentary Procedure Tool of Leadership 40. Aphorlsmt on Educat~on 41. Mstr8cation American Stvle 42 Opt~onal Alternat~ve pubill: Srhoalr 43 Mottvatlon and Learning I" School 44 Informal Learn~nq 45. Lcarnlng Wlthouia Teacher 46. Violence in the Sehaolr' Causer and Remedies 47. The Schools Rerponr lb i l~ ty for Sex Education 48. Three Views of Comoetencu-Bared Teacher . .

Educat~on: I Theory 49. Three Vlewr of Campetancy~Bared Teacher

Educat~on: I1 Univerr~ty of Hourton 50. Three Vtewr of Competency-Bared Teacher

Eduratlon I l l Univerr8tv of Nebraska 51 A Unlvarr8ty for the ~o; ld : The United

Natlonr Plan

53 Tranrperronal Psychology tn Education 54 S#rnulat#on Gamer for the Clarrroam 55 School Volunlesrr Who Needs Them? 56 Equltv i n School F~nanclng Full State Funding 57 Eoultv in School Flnanclne D l r t r ~ c t Power

tqsailzcng 58 The Cornouter in the School 59 The Legai Rlghtr a f Students 60 The Word Game lmprav8ng Communlcat#on~ 61 Planntng the Rest of Your Llfe 62 The People and Theu Schools Commun8ly

Partic#pat#on 63 The Battle of the Baokr Kanarha Caunty 64 The Camrnunltv ar Textboak

A+ School i n Cuptrf lno 68 Haw Much Are Our Young People Learn8ne7 The

Story of the National Arrerrmsnl 69 O8verrltv 8 0 Hleher Education Reform in

ihe colieges " 70 Drarnaticr in the Classroom Making Ltrronr

Came Alive 7 1 Teacher Centerr and lnr rw8ct tdurat,os 72 Allernatwer to Growth Educat8on f c r a

Stable Soc8tty 73 Thomas Jefferson and the Educat\on c' a

,.G" , . O , , " , ,

74. Three Early Champmnr a t Educat8or B.*:amin Franklin, Benlamm Rush and Noah W??r'r,

76 The American Teacher 1776~19'6 77 The Urban School Su~ar!ntendan:r A Cc-.arr

and a Half of Change 78 Private Schools: From the Pur>tanr t r ~ ~

Present 79. The People and Thelr Schools 80 Schaolr of the P a i l A Treasury of P b ~ ~ $ " p b s 8 1 Saxlsm' New l r ruc rn Amtrlcan Edu:a' r - 82. Computers in the Curr8rulum 83. The Legal Rlghtr of Teache