EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR1 OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES

EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR 1

OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES


Objectives:

This what you want to accomplish through research. It is a research objectives. Example: to find out why students are not performing well in class.

This is not what you intend to do to solve the problem. You can’t write Objectif kajian ini ialah untuk menyediakan module latihan. This is not the research objective. This is the product of the reseach


Have to write general objective as well as specific objectives

Specific objectives may be written in (1) question forms

(2) hypothesisDepending on the type of research.Descriptive research questionsEx post facto and experiemental

hypothesis


However, people normally write specific objectives in objectives forms. Then they will poceed with writing research questions or hypothesis

Objectives (G & S) are best located after the problem statement


Characteristics of specific objectives specifically identify the variables being investigated instead of achievement of students

use specific operational definition like GPA, Score on test

instead of charactersitics of students write like age, sex, grade level, SES

If specific relationship being investigated, should state what variables are being related to what variables

Indicate the nature of the relationship being investigated (explantory or cause effect)


OBJEKTIF KAJIAN: Objektif umum kajian ini adalah untuk

mengenal pasti pencapaian objektif KBSR oleh murid program percantuman masalah pendengaran dari aspek guru besar, guru, suasana tugas, komitmen dan kemuduhan

PENCAPAIAN OBJEKTIF KURIKULUM BERSEPADU SEKOLAH RENDAH DI KALANGAN PELAJAR BERMASALAH PENDENGARAN DALAM PROGRAM PERCANTUMAN PENDIDIKAN KHAS


Contoh-contoh soalan kajian: Apakah persepsi guru besar program percantuman

masalah pendengaran terhadap pelaksanaan pengajaran dan pembelajaran?

Adakah terdapat hubungan antara umur dan pengalaman guru pendidikan khas masalah pendengaran dengan pelaksanaan pengajaran dan pembelajaran?

Adakah terhadapt hubungan antara umur dan pengalaman guru pendidikan khas masalah pendengaran dengan suasana tugas mereka?

Adakaha terdapat hubungan di anatara umur dan pengalaman guru pendidikan khas masalah pendengaran dengan tahap kemudahan yang disediakan?


PERSEPSI GURU TERHADAP DISIPLIN PELAJAR DALAM KEPEMIMPINAN PENGETUA SEKOLAH-SEKOLAH MENENGAH

DI DAERaH KOTA BAHARU, KELANTAN

Objektif umum: Dapat mengetahui persepsi guru terhadap

kepimpinana pengetua dalam menangani masalah disiplin pelajar di sekolahKhusus:

Perspsi guru terhadap faktor pelajar melanggarmasalah disiplin di sekolah

Persepsi guru terhadap peranan mereka terhadap disiplin pelajar

Persepsi guru terhadap implementasi hukuman yang dijalankan di sekolah

Persepsi guru terhadap kepemimpinan pengetuan dalam menggalakkan penglibatan ibu bapa


CONCEPTUALIzING CHANGE ON THE WWW: CAPTURING THE CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH IN WEB-BASED LEARNING AMONG ENGINEERING LECTURERS

Objectives General: the general objective of the study is to

examine the ways to incorporate the constructivist theory into web-based learning and teaching by engineering lecturers in the polytechniques. This will provide direction that not only help learners accomplish instructional objectives, but more importantly helps them become more successful, continual on-line learners


specifically, to describe the general pattern of usage of

the WWW among engineering lecturers to study the extent of influence of various

independent variables on the adoption of the WWW by engineering lecturer

to relate the extent of the WWW usage with the application of constructivist approach by engineering lecturer

to develop a simple path model connecting all the variables under investigation


Research questions: What is the pattern of web-based learning

maong lecturers at politeknik? What are the engineering lecturer doing to

upgarde themselves? How do engineering lecturers adopt and

utilize the internet and its resources into the curr?

To what extent do organizational factors influence the use of www by engineering lecturers to supplement their teaching learning tasks?


What is hypothesis?

A prediction A tentative solution or expected

answer to the question Is a tool in the research process not

the ends in themselves


To show that the researcher has sufficient knowledge in the area

Gives direction to the collection and interpretation of data, reporting and conclusion Methods or research Sample statistics

What is the effect of preschool training on the achievement of culutral disadvantage children in first grade? Culturally disadvantage children who has had preschool training achieve at a higher level than those who have not had preschool training

Why have hypothesis?


Provide a relational statements that are directly testable in the study

Question can’t be tested. Is the feedbact given by teachers beneficial for students? What statistics do we want to use? Chenge it into hypothesis:

There is a relationship between teachers feedback and students achievement

Students who received feedback from teachers obtained a significantly higher academic CGPA that those who do not.


To stimulate research endeavour that result in the accumulation of new knowledge


Types of hypotheses:

Research hypothesis: hypothesis derived from theory or literature

Also known as scientific hypothesis, alternative hypothesis, or control hypothesesThey are stated in the proposal


Alternatif hypothesis is the hypothesis that is accepted when null hypothesis is rejected

WHEN WE TEST HYPOTHESIS WE ACTUALLY WANT TO NULLIFY THE NULL HYPOTHESIS. WE ACTUALLY TEST THE NULL HYPOTHESIS NOT THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS


Kita nak mengatakan bahawa dalam populasi memang terdapat perbezaan pencapaian (misalnya). Kita nak mengatakan bahawa dalam populasi memang ada perbezaan skor ujian.

Kita nak mengatakan bahawa dalam poluasi memang terdapat hubungan anatara jenis feed yang diberikan kepada lembu-lembu dan pertambahan berat badan lembu berkenaan.

Kita nak katakan bertambahanya baja yang kita berikan kepada tanaman maka akan bertambahan hasil tanaman bekenaan.


Null hypothesis: also known as statistical hypothesesHypotheses of no difference or no relationshipNot stated in research proposal

Ho: THERE IS NO RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE AND ONE’S WEALTH

Ha: THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE AND ONE’S WEALTH


Null hipotesis mungkin benar dan juga mungkin tidak benar.

Dengan munggunakan statistik inference penyelidik akan membuat keputusan untuk menerima atau menolak hipothesis berkenaan. Misalnya kita membuat andaian bahawa dalam populasi adalah bersamaan 100 (H o: =100). Sekiranya kita menolak Ho : =100 kita mengatakan bahawa dalam populasi 100.


Hypothesis can be written in directional and non-directional format

Directional (One-tail) Ways of stating one-tail for continous and categorical variables

When it is appropriate o use one-tail testNon-directional hypotheses (two tail hypotheses)


Examples of directional hypotheses

There is a positive relationship between the amount of study time and grade-point average

Girls obtained a significantly higher scores on mathematic test than boys did

T=6.314

T=10.00

Acceptance region

Rejection region


Example of non-directional hypotheses

There is a relationship between study time and CGPA

The CGPA of both male and female students differ significantly

T=12.706

T=10.00


Let’s take the value of t at 1 df at .05 for one-tail is 6.314

The value of t at 1 df at .05 for two-tail is 12.706

Now let’s assume your calculated t is 10.00

Which hypothesis is much easier to be rejected


DECISION True Null False Null

Reject Type I error Correct

Retain Correct Type II error

Rejecting true null is a serious offense. Why?

Apakah kesanya jika kita tolak null hipotesis? Kita nak accept the true null hipotesis Tambah keyakinan dalam membuat keputusan


Falsely rejecting a true Ho is called a TYPE I ERROR (finding an innocent person guilty). The probability of committing a type I error is always equal to alpha. Failure to reject a false Ho is called a TYPE II ERROR (finding a guilty person innocent).


Type I error

Type I error occurs when we reject the null hypothesis when in fact, the null hypothesis should be retained. Example a researcher might have concluded that the treatment works where in fact in reality the observe difference might be due to sampling error. We do not want to make type I error often because we will be making incorrect decision.


Consider a case in a drug experiment in which the researcher concluded that the new medication works significantly better than the placebo. Yet, this conclusion was a type I error. This is the mistake most researcher would not want to make. To avoid a type I error a statistical model has been developed whereby the researchers have control over the probability of making type I error. At alpha .05, the error is 5% of all cases. At .01, the error is 1% of all cases. Thus at .05, 5 errors will be made in 100 cases. At .01, 1 error will be made in 100 cases.


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Type II error

Making type I error is embarrassing and we should try to avoid it. Yet in the process we may increase the chance of making type II error. That is we retain the null hypothesis when in fact the hypothesis was wrong. In other words, the treatment actually works. If we are very conservative we set alpha at a very low level, we may have a very strong chance of making type II error. So manipulation of alpha can reduce type I but at the same time will increase Type II


In many parts of the world the arrival of rats on islands can be disastrous for ground nesting birds. The YYY islands in the ++++ support the largest population of the ship rat Rattus rattus remaining in the United Kingdom. The islands also support 60,000+ pairs of breeding puffin Fratecula arctica. It has been suggested that the rats are responsible for a decline in the puffin on the Shiants.


Suppose we decide to test this theory by experimentation. We begin by setting up two hypotheses:

Ho : the rats have no significant effect on puffin numbers H1 : the rats have a significant effect on puffin numbers.

Depending on the outcome of our experiment a rat eradication programme will be started. What are the consequences of type I and Type II errors in this situation?


If Ho is true the rats have no significant effect on the puffin, but somehow we reject the true null hypothesis, we commit type I error

A Type I error means that we will begin a costly eradication of the United Kingdom's most significant population of this mammal even though it is doing no harm.

If Ho is false, it means the rats are having an effect on the puffin but we fail to reject, we commit type II error.A Type II error means that we will do nothing to the rats and

the puffin decline will continue.


We begin our analysis by assuming that the Ho is true.

This is analogous to the presumption of innocence if you are committed for trial.

If the Ho is true, what is the biggest difference between the sample means that can occur by chance at a reasonable level of probability?

In other words, how different can we expect means to become simply as a result of chance?


If the observed difference is less than this chance amount we have insufficient evidence for an effect since the difference could have arisen by chance.

In such circumstances we must conclude that there is no significant difference between the two mean values.

Again this analogous to finding someone innocence if there was insufficient evidence of guilt.


According to the rules of significance testing we must establish a strict criterion for rejection of the null hypothesis.

If P is true is less than alpha we can reject Ho and accept Ha.

If we reject Ho we are reasonably confident that a real difference exists, (there is evidence beyond 'reasonable doubt to presume guilt’).


So to reduce type II as well as to reduce type I, use a large sample size. The larger the sample size, the larger will be the probability of making a correct decision.


Type II error

That is we retain the null hypothesis when in fact the hypothesis was wrong. In other words, the treatment actually works. If we are very conservative we set alpha at a very low level, we may have a very strong chance of making type II error. So manipulation of alpha can reduce type I but at the same time will increase Type II


Type I error

Type I error occurs when we reject the null hypothesis when in fact, the null hypothesis should be retained. Example a researcher might have concluded that the treatment works where in fact in reality the observe difference might be due to sampling error. We do not want to make type I error often because we will be making incorrect decision.


Contoh hipotesis:

A particular feed ration will increase the weight of steers

The use of new foot ware will increase one’s running speed

If one use a certain type of textbook (A) the chances to pass will be greater compared to other type of textbook (B)

The correlation coefficient in the population is zero

Mean in the population is zero

The slope of the regression is zero

The difference between the two means is zero


Characteristics of quality hypothesis:

1.Mempunyai kuasa penerangan (explanatory power)

should be able to explain the intended relationship between variables

there is a relationship between number of votes obtained by a candidate of party A and the cuaca pada hari pengundian


there is relationship between number of votes obtained by a candidate of party A and voters satisfactions towards certain issues

Nasi tak masak sebab tak ada sayur

Nasi tak masak sebab air tak cukup

Tempahan kereta baru merosot sebab komisyen kepada jurujual kereta di hapuskan (inverse relationship)


2. Must state the expected relationshipidentify the variables (specifically and operationally)state direction (negative/positive/no-direction)

the car will not start and it has a wiring problem is there a proposed relationship?The car will not start because of fault in wiring system

If children differ from one onother in self-concept, they will differ from one another in social achievement study.

Is there an expected realtionship? It look like it has….

There is positive relationship between self-concept and social studies achievement is there an expectd relationship?


3. MUST BE TETABLE

Kita perlu boleh lihat sebab/kesan /hubungan akibat daripada apa yang dihipotesiskan melalui cerapan/observation

Tanah runtuh because an act of god…. Can we test?Tanah runtuh disebabkan oleh ground movement/ banyak penebangan pokok/hujan lebat …. Is it more meaningful/testable?There is a relationship between penglibatan dalam rakan muda and youth development… well it is hypothesis, but is it testable?To be testable, a variable can be measured. So have to operationally defined the variablesPlease avoid using value statementsA counseling program in elementary school is desirableElementary school children ho have had counseling will probably express greater satisfaction with their schools than those ….You can measure satisfaction , but whether it is desirable or not is value judgement


4. CONSISTENT WITH THE EXIXTING BODY OF KNOWLEDGE

jangan kontradict the existing theory or knowledgemy car will not start because the fluid in the battery has changed into goldThe car does not start because the fluid in the battery has evaporatedTry to establish hypotheses that are in agreement with the existing knowledge terutama seklai jika kita adalah a novice researcherReview the literature thoroughly so that the hypotheses will be formlated based on reported research in the area


5. SIMPLE AND CONSISE

It make the testing much esierProvide a clear and easily comprehend reportNeed to break general hipoteSis into sevaral smallr hipothesesTry to have several specifik hypotheises gunakan term yang mudah difahamiThe socio economic status of the family plays a part in determining the degree of conformity experienced by adolescents in vafious social context, and the various components of these social status differ in the extent of their effects upon his attitudes to authority;


Specific:Attitudes towards authority…at home and SES

Attitudes towards authority… at school and SESAttitudes towards authority.. with peers and SESAttitudes towards authority.. and father education


The objectives of the study was to determine the factors associated with secondary school teachers’ job satisfaction. Specifically, the study was conducted to acheiev these objectives:

determine the relationship between gender and job satisfactiondetermine the relationship between academic qualification and job satisfactiondetermine te amount of teaching load and job satisfaction. Etc.


1. nyatakan hipotesis nul dan juga alternatif hipothesisH 0 = 0H 1 0

Tiada perbezaan pencapaian antara pelajar lelaki dan pelajar perempuan dalam kursus matematiks (null)Penacapain pelajar lelaki dan perempuan dalam kursus matematik adalah berbeza ( alternatif/ hipotesis kajian)We want to disapprove the null hypothesis. We want to go for the alternatif hypothesis so that we can conduct some programs to enrich the learning of either group. Tetapi kita tidak mahu membuat keputusan tanpa bukti yang kukuh.


2.PIliH ARAS KEYAKINAN (significant level) Memilih tahap genting

Kita mestilah tetapkan syarat untuk menolak null hipothesis. Kita nak mengatakan bahawa kita mempunyai penuh keyakinan bahawa null hipotesis adalah salah dan kita nak tolak null hipotehis ini. Kita beri kelonggaran sebanyak 5% sahaja bahawa null adalah benar dan 95% lagi mengatakan null adalah salah. JIKA NULL ADALAH BENAR KITA AKAN TERIMA DAN JIKA NULL ADALAH SALAH KITA AKAN TOLAK. Kita tidak mahu tolak null yang benar. Jika kita tolak null yang benar kita membuat satu kesilapan yang besar (costly mistake) .


We set at 0.05 or 0.01. The smaller the value of alpha the stronger is the case against the null.

Misalnya kita mencipta ubatan dan mengatakan ubatan berkenaan tidak ada kesan sampingan kepada manusia. Dalam kes ini kita kalau boleh ujian mestilah lebih stringent atau lebih ketat (.05/.01). Katakan kita test at 0.10 (90% confident that there is no side effect on human being. Kita mungkin dengan lebih senang menerima null yang mengatakan tidak ada kesan sampingan


We want to be very-very sure that the ubat berkenaan tidak ada side effect sebelum dipasarkan.

Alpha juga dikenali sebagai Ralat Jenis I (Type I error). Iaitu ralat menolak null hipothes sedangkan null berkenaan adalah benar.

Jadi kalau kita besarkan alpha (dari 0.05 atau 0.01 ke 0.10) maka the risk is greater may be by 10%. Lebih senang bagi kita menolak the true null hypothesis. [Dalam menguji hipothesis kita nak tolak the false null hipothesis dan terima true null hipotesis]. Jika kita terima false null hypothesis kita dikatakan membuat kesilapan Ralat jenis II (Type II error).


3. Pilihlan tabuRAn UJIAn yang akan digunakan untuk menguji hipotesis yang telah ditetapkan tadi. (Choose the test distribution)

Ujian statistiks akan menentukan samada Null boleh DITOlak atau diterima. Kita boleh menggunakan nilai t, nilai z atau boleh gunakan 2.


4. Define the rejection region or critical region(rantau genting)

Seandainya kita telah nyatakan aras genting (alpha=.05) maka kita tidak akan menerima null hipothesis sekiranya perbezaan min (misalnya ) mempunyai 5% atau kurang wujudnya. If the test statistics fall within the acceptance region, bermaksud kita accept the null hipotesis. Iaitu bila test statistics adalah lebih kecil daripada critikal value of the test


5. Lakukan ujian statistik

Kita boleh menggunakan samada taburan t atau taburan z

bergantung kepada saiz sampel (n). Sekiranya n < 30 kita akan menggunakan taburan t. Sekiranya n> 30 kita akan menggunakan taburan z . Satu lagi kriteria untuk menentukan samada taburan z atau taburan t akan digunakan ialah nilai sisihan piawai () sampel berkenaan. Sekiranya diketahui statistik z akan dugunakan. Sekiranya tidak diketahui maka anggaran s perlu digunakan. Tetapi untuk mengiranya anggaran s, terlebih dahulu perlu diketahui .


6. MEMBUAT KEPUTUSAN STATISTIK

Jika setelah buat pengiraan kita dapati nilai yang dikira jatuh dibawah rejection region maka H o mestilah ditolak. sEKIRANYA NILAI YANG DIKIRA JATUH DI DALAM acceptance region maka h o mestilah diterima.


There is a relationship between study time and CGPA

The CGPA of both male and female students differ significantly

T=12.706

T=10.00


The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:

Is there a relationship between gender and job satisfaction?

Are teachers under the supervision of school principle practicing transformational leadership were more committed towards the profession than those supervised using transactional leadership?

Do students’ CGPA differ across races? Is there a relationship between students’ self-efficacy

and career interest? Is there a relationship between SES and career interest? Do students from school A have a better academic

achievement that students from school B?


Is there a relationship between location of school and academic achievement?

Is there a relationship between teachers’ gender and students’ achievement?

Is there a relationship between class size and course grade?

Is there a relationship between work experience and CGPA

Is the language of instruction related to students’ course grade?


Your duty is to transform them into null hypotheses and research hypotheses


Why again test hypothesis?

Tujuan utama kita menguji hipotesis ialah untuk membuat keputusan samada hipotesis statistik boleh diterima atau ditolak. Apabila nilai keberangkalian (p) dari sample adalah lebih kecil daripada risiko maksima () yang telah ditentukan, maka hipotesis statistik perlu ditolak.


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EDU 5900 AB. RAHIM BAKAR1 OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES