Edu5900 ab. rahim bakar1 Basically, you need to know how experimental units are assign to groups how level of treatments are assign to groups nature of

edu5900 ab. rahim bakar 1

Basically, you need to know

how experimental units are assign to groups how level of treatments are assign to groups nature of X what are under the control of experimenter

These are characteristics of true experiment

If you can’t do true experiment, use designs that can give you the most control quasi-experimental design


QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

In education, difficult to do true experiment because of the difficulty to have randomization, no control on the scheduling of treatment.

Lost part of the power due to lack of randomization (assignment of subjects)

Control of extraneous variable, difficult. External validity is enhanced ―> may be

moving toward real world setting


Use when true experiment is not possible

Any design that does not randomly assigned subjects to the group is known as quasi-experimental designs.

Researchers do not use randomization but rely instead on other techniques to control threat to internal validity


Quasi Experimental Designs

This type of design involves a treatment (manipulation ) and an outcome but lacks one of the other two properties that characterize a true experiment: randomization or a control group.

Example: if you want to study the effects of smoking on a variable, you cannot randomly assign people to smoking vs nonsmoking group.


Quasi-experimental Methodology

In this methodology, the essential controls are not administered, such as treatments not being randomized. It is otherwise similar in structure to a true experimental design.


Designs frequently used:

NON-EQUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP DESIGN

(NONRANDOMIZED Control group, pretest-post test design) E O1 X1 O2 -----------------------C O3 X2 O4


Not equivalent because no randomization Naturally formed group Contoh? Class sections>differ Randomized the treatmet not the subjects

will make the design stronger Assess before and after treatment Experiment occupies the same time

period Control almost all IV problem Possible problem > regression


Choose two classes of form five students (your school may have 5 classess)

Choose two classes that appear to be equivalent (no remedial and no advance classes)

Give pretest (comprehension test) to both experimental and control groups

Administer the treatment to improve students comprehension to the experimental group only

Look for difference on posttest scores E C , can you conclude, treat is

effective?


No randomization, not equivalent group High score could be due to high ability

to begin with Thus, there is a selection bias and it

threaten the internal validity, but Pretest can overcome this threat. It

checks if the groups are equivalent to begin with. If no different, selection threat is eliminated.

If yes, use ANCOVA to adjust posttest score for the pretest differences


Other threats, NO, why? Subjects take the same pretest and

posttest They occupy the same time period This design does not control for

interaction of selection and maturation, interaction of selection and regression, and interaction of selection and instrumentation


What is interaction of selection and maturation?

One of the selected group is more subject to maturation than the other (will it happen in our proposed study?)


But, what if


Non equivalent control groups - other than the absence of randomly assigned groups, these designs are similar to experimental designs . However, lack of random assignment to control and experimental groups, can not assure that the groups are equal. The researcher must do everything possible to show that there are no differences. For example, a pretest may show that there is no difference. If the study is done on "after only data", this control is not present


COUNTERBALANCED DESIGN

Another design that can be used with intact group

Rotate the group at interval during the experiment

Group 1 & 2 might use method A, respectively for the first of the experiment, then exchange the method for the second half


Experimental

Treatment

Replication

Method A Method B

1 Class 1 Class 2

2 Class 2 Class 1

Column mean

Column mean


After the study compute the column mean and compare the result to determin the effectiveness of the methods

Because the treatment is administered to all groups, the results can’t be attributed to the existing differences

Main disadvantage is the carryover effect form one X to another X


Time siries design

One Group Time Series Design

O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6


Ambil ukuran beberapa kali sebelum dan selepas treatment.

Check for the stability of repeated measures Still lack the control Rules out maturation, testing, regression but not history Should specify the time interval in advance X mestilah dibawah kawalan penyelidik Show contoh? Must have sufficient number of repeated measures * Study the effect of a major change in

administrative policy upon disiplinary incidents * The effect of a motivation programs on students’

attitudes towards school

edu5900 ab. rahim bakar 19Xyi y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8

D* **

**

* ** C

* * * *

** * *

B

* * * *

* * * * A


Difference between Y4 and Y5 on A justify you to suggest that X affect Y

Pattern B, possible temporary effect Patter C, could be the result of

maturation Pattern D could be some influences of

extraneous variables.


Threats: History Instrumentation Testing Pretest treatment interaction


Control group time series design

E Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 X Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8

C Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 - Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8


Time series designs - tests for changes over time. There is no randomization and there is no control group. However, the researcher can use each person as his own control. If possible, test the group several times prior to introducing the intervention. This method gives more reliability to the study


Source on invalidity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

HISTORY - + + + + + + + + + - +

MATURATION - ? + + + + + + + + + +

PRETESTING - + + + + + + + + + + +

INSTRUMENTATION - + + + + + + + + + ? +

STATISTICAL REGRESSION

? + + + + + + + ? + + +

SELECTION + - + + + + + + - + + +

MORTALITY + - + + + + + + + + + +

INTERACTION OF SELECTION AND OTHER THREATS

- - + + + + + + - ? + +

PRE TRUE EXPERIMENTAL QUASI


DESIGNS NAME OF THE DESIGN

1 ONE GROUP PRETEST-POSTTEST

2 STATIC GROUP COMPARISON

3 RANDOMIZED POSTTEST –ONLY CONTROL GROUP

4 RANDOMIZED MATCHED SUBJECT POSTTEST ONLY CONTROL GROUP

5 RANDOMIZED SUBJECTS PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTOL GROUP

6. SOLOMON THREE GROUP DESIGN

7 SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN

8 SIMPLE FACTORIAL

9 NONRANDOMIZED PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTROL GROUP

10 COUNTERBALANCE DESIGN

11 ONE GROUP TIME SERIES

12 CONTROL GROUP TIME SERIES


Ex post facto research


We want to know why certain behavior the way it is.

Why are some children better readers than the others?

What is the effect of single-parent home on achievement

Here we normally deal with attribute variables or variable that can be manipulated but not manipulated


When a researcher use attribute independent variable that he or she can’t manipulate, ex post facto research sometimes called causal-comparative research must be used.

Also when variable can be manipulated but not manipulated


Two basic mode of ex post facto research

Begin with subjects who differ on an independent variable and try to determine the consequences of this differences (A)

Begin with subjects who differ on an dependent variable and try to determine the antecedent (cause) of the difference. (B)


Example of (A): investigating the effect of single-parent versus that of two-parent on…

Example of (B): compare students who graduated from … and those who drop-out on independent variables such as motivation, clarity of goals, and social maturation


Independent variables

Dependent Variables

Design 1 Subjects are already known to differ on independent variable(s)

Investigators test hypothesis concerning possible dependent variable(s)

Design 2 Investigator tests hypothesis concerning possible independent variable (s)

Subjects are already known to differ on dependent variable(s)


Design 1

Look for the consequences of differences on independent variable

One group posses the characteristics and the others do not

A study to compare the academic performance of creative and non-creative college students

Hypothesis: creative college students will exhibit greater speed and accuracy on a problem-solving task than will noncreative college students.


What is the independent variable? Creativity.

Can we manipulate creativity? Or randomly assign students to creative and noncreative group?

We start with two groups that are known to differ on independent and compare them on dependent variable.

You must identify other independent variables that might have an impact on dependent variable.


Design 2

Look for the cause(s) of difference in the dependent variable

Research on gender differences in performance on standardized mathematics test.

What factors might account for the observed difference.


“The Effect Of Students Anxiety In An Achievement Testing Situation On Examination Performance”

Apa yang berlaku di sini?

Bolehkah kita menggunakan kajian experiment ?

Why not or why shouldn’t we?

Why do you go for ex post facto?

You can have either ex post facto or experimental study dalam kes ini


Ex post facto → ukur tahap kerisauan sebelum examination

Then what do you do ? high and low anxiety compare the exam result if test result significant→what

does it mean? Here you do not induce

anxiety→natural occurring Experimental way >how?


What’s the different between ex post facto and experimental?

Begin with the measure of the present situation like student achievement then try to determine the factors that may contribute to the achievement

Manipulation of X

Assignment to groups

Both methods require at least one categorical variable (group membership)

Both compare group performance


Frequently used design: static group comparison

X 1 OX 2 O

Other designs?

Use quasi-experimental designs such as: + time series + non-equivalent control group design + multiple time-series design

Jika berupaya cadang guna salah satu daripada rekabentuk quasi-experiment


DESIGNING EX POST FACTO STUDY

Begin with research hypothesis to be tested [major hypotheses]-educational level and

commitment construct alternative hypotheses [extraneous variable and the relationship with

dependent variable are tested] those EXTRaneous that are significantly

correlated with DV pose threat to the internal validity of the study

Analyse


If that is the case, test the relationship antara significant EXT var dan major independent variable

If there exist significant correlation between the two, threat to internal validity

A study was conducted to determine the effect of type of institution and program effectiveness


Major hypothesis: Variable: types of institution and

program effectiveness Control hypotheses: Variable: age, data processing

experience Example :age X program

effectiveness


If there is significant correlation, test the hypothesis between age and type of institution. No correlation is good, but yes correlation no good


Type of institution

N Mean score

Sd.

Public 52 33.27 8.02

Private 119 27.25 8.89

T=4.17, p<.05


There may be significant correlation between age and type of institution

There may be correlation between data processing experience and type of institution

Difference of effectiveness may be because of those two extraneous variables


Therefore, major hypothesis may not be supported even if the difference exist.

Graduate of public institution could be older and have more data processing experience than those from private institution


Do automobile and scholarship mix? No straight A students use car 15% of B students drive to school 41% of C students drive to school 71% of D students drive to school 83% of E students drive to school there is a relationship between scholarship and

the use of car!!! But can we conclude that penggunaan kereta ke

sekolah boleh menjatuhkan pencapaian akademik?


Look at common cause> ada tak pembolehubah yang mungkin mempengaruhi penggunaan otomobil dan juga pencapaian akademik? Bagaimana dengan status sosioekonomi? SES mungkin mempengaruhi penggunaan otomobil


Reverse causality> is it possible that pencapaian yang rendah menyebabkan pertambahan kadar penggunaan otomobil. Pelajar mungkin mencar satu jalan untuk mengurangkan frustration. Pelajar mungkin mencari pengangkutan alternatif untuk menjimatkan masa perjalanan dari dan ke sekolah


Lain-lain pembolehubah bebas> could it be that teachers perception about car users. Could it be that the students are poor students to begin with therefor using or not using oyomobil has no effect on the grade


BEBERAPA JENIS KAJIAN EX POST FACTO

(1) Exploration Of Effect (Dependent Variable)

Penerokaan Kesan Yang Disebabkan Oleh Keahlian Dalam Sesuatu Kumpulan

Q-Adakah terdapat perbezaan rancangan kerjaya antara pelajar berdasarkan pengaliran (streaming)

contohnya? exploration of causes (independent variable)


(2) Penerokaan Penyebab Yang Menyebabkan Berlakunya Sesuatu Fenomena

contohnya? Predictors of academic success

of secondary school students in Hulu Langat District


(3) Exploration Of Consequences Of An Intervention

Q- how do students taught by method A react to …

Q- What’s the effect of participation in inservice courses on kecekapan pentadbiran

Alternative to experimental but many limitation, need to choose the design yang dapat mengatasi banyak internal validity threats

Masalalah Yang Paling Ketara Ialah: lack of randomization inability to manipulate independent variable


Conditions Necessary For Infering Causal Relationships

statistical relationship between X and Y has been established

that X preceeded Y in time

that other factors did not determine Y


Alternative explainations in ex post facto research

In experimental research you have reasonable evidence to say X causes Y

In ex post facto research, there are unsure things

You should consider alternative explainations such as:

(1) common cause (2) reverse causality (3) the presence of other independent variables


Controls in ex poxt facto research

Provide partial control on the internal validity threat

The strategies are: Matching Use of homogeneous groups Building extraneous variables into the

design Analysis of COVARIANCE Partial correlation


Pilih rekabentuk yang paling kuat mengawal pembolehubah extranus (quasi-experimental seperti non-equivalent control group design, time-series and multiple time-series designs.

Statistical analysis seperti ANCOVA-partially adjust the preexisting difference between groups. Pecifically, it adjust scoes on the dependent for any initial differences on extraneous variable

Gunakan kumpulan yang homogeneous (serupa) dari segi variable yang mungkin menyebabkan berlakunaya dependent variable.

Nak compare commitment of male and female teachers.

Build the extraneous variable into the design then analyse using factorial analysis of variance misalnya you cannot control for the effect of intelligence

on academic performance, pastikan ianya dijadikan salah satu daripada pembolehubah

edu5900 ab. rahim bakaredu5900 ab. rahim bakar 5757

Correlational researchCorrelational research


Kajian korelasi dan tinjauan adalah ialah satu Kajian korelasi dan tinjauan adalah ialah satu kajian deskriptifkajian deskriptifsalah satu bentuk penyelidikan perihalan because salah satu bentuk penyelidikan perihalan because ia hanya menerangkan hubungan antara dua ia hanya menerangkan hubungan antara dua pembolehubah.pembolehubah.Kajian korelasi adalah amat serupa dengan kajian Kajian korelasi adalah amat serupa dengan kajian causal comaprative Sutter (1998)… a close cousincausal comaprative Sutter (1998)… a close cousinThey both suffer the same limitation → lack of They both suffer the same limitation → lack of control and lack of interventioncontrol and lack of interventionCorrelational normally used continous scale but Correlational normally used continous scale but you may also have categorical scale. Want to find you may also have categorical scale. Want to find the relationship between these scales (variables)the relationship between these scales (variables)


Correlational normally used continous scale but Correlational normally used continous scale but you may also have categorical scale. Want to find you may also have categorical scale. Want to find the relationship between these scales (variables)the relationship between these scales (variables)EgEg: whats the relationship between….: whats the relationship between….Causal-comparative → involve grouping : subject Causal-comparative → involve grouping : subject must belong to a group must belong to a group Eg: types of teaching method, type of study Eg: types of teaching method, type of study methods, learning style, school climatemethods, learning style, school climateTry to determine the differences in criterion Try to determine the differences in criterion variable as a result of being a member of the variable as a result of being a member of the groupgroup


Tujuan Kajian Korelasi:Tujuan Kajian Korelasi: Dua matlamat utama:Dua matlamat utama:

Explain/exploratoryExplain/exploratorymencari pertalian, sekutuan antara mencari pertalian, sekutuan antara beberapa pembolehubah tanpa cuba beberapa pembolehubah tanpa cuba mempengaruhi pembolehubah bekenaanmempengaruhi pembolehubah bekenaan

Predict the likely outcomesPredict the likely outcomesKajian korelasi tidak estbalish cause and Kajian korelasi tidak estbalish cause and effecteffect


Explain/exploratory:Explain/exploratory:

to clarify our understanding of to clarify our understanding of important phenomena through the important phenomena through the identification of relationships among identification of relationships among variablesvariables– (to describe or identify the pattern of (to describe or identify the pattern of

the relationships between two or more the relationships between two or more variables)variables)


banyak pembolehubah akan dikaji untuk banyak pembolehubah akan dikaji untuk menerangkan phenomenamenerangkan phenomena

hanya hubungan yang melebehi .20 yang hanya hubungan yang melebehi .20 yang di kira untuk kajian lanjutandi kira untuk kajian lanjutan

pembolehubah yang dipilih berasakan pembolehubah yang dipilih berasakan kepada theory atau kajian lepaskepada theory atau kajian lepas

do not use shotgun approachdo not use shotgun approach


Predict (ramalanPredict (ramalan))Kita cuba nak meramal outcomes variable Kita cuba nak meramal outcomes variable setelah kita tahu ada hubungan anda dua setelah kita tahu ada hubungan anda dua variable berkenaanvariable berkenaan

Ramalan adalah berasaskan kepada Ramalan adalah berasaskan kepada hubungan yang kuat serta munasabahhubungan yang kuat serta munasabah

Jika terdapat hubungan yang significant Jika terdapat hubungan yang significant antara dua variables, maka kita boleh antara dua variables, maka kita boleh meramal skor outcome variable.meramal skor outcome variable.


Misalnya:Misalnya: jika keputusan SPM mempunyai jika keputusan SPM mempunyai hubungan yang tinggi dengan CGPA, maka hubungan yang tinggi dengan CGPA, maka kita boleh gunakan SPM results to predict kita boleh gunakan SPM results to predict college CGPA.college CGPA.

Misalnya kita boleh ramalkan bahawa Misalnya kita boleh ramalkan bahawa good SPM will obtain high CGPAgood SPM will obtain high CGPA

The correlation must be substantial the The correlation must be substantial the higher the better will be the predictionhigher the better will be the prediction


The magnitude of correlation range between –1 and +1The magnitude of correlation range between –1 and +1

CoefficientCoefficient DescriptionDescription0.7 or higher0.7 or higher very strongvery strong.50 - .69.50 - .69 substantialsubstantial.30 - .49.30 - .49 moderatemoderate.10 -.10 - .29.29 lowlow.01 - .09.01 - .09 negligiblenegligible

jika perfectly correlated the coefficient will be +1.jika perfectly correlated the coefficient will be +1.(Davis, Elementary survey analysis, 1971)(Davis, Elementary survey analysis, 1971)

Dalam menganilisis kajian korelasi kita banyak Dalam menganilisis kajian korelasi kita banyak menggunakan pekali korelasi (r and R)menggunakan pekali korelasi (r and R)


What do correlations tell us?What do correlations tell us?

Whether the two variables or a combinatin of Whether the two variables or a combinatin of variables correlate with the criterion variable.variables correlate with the criterion variable.

To be meaningful go for correlation between .4 To be meaningful go for correlation between .4 and .6. and .6.

Should use .5 before any crude prediction can be Should use .5 before any crude prediction can be made. 0.65 for a reasonably accurate prediction made. 0.65 for a reasonably accurate prediction for most purposes (Frankael, 1990)for most purposes (Frankael, 1990)


Pembolehubah yang digunakan untuk Pembolehubah yang digunakan untuk prediction dikenali sebagai predictor prediction dikenali sebagai predictor variable (SPM results) dan variable yang variable (SPM results) dan variable yang dipredict dikenali sebagai criterion variable dipredict dikenali sebagai criterion variable (College CGPA).(College CGPA).

A simple prediction equationA simple prediction equation– Ýi = Ýi = a a + + bbXiXi– ÝÝ is predicted score is predicted score – A (a) is the intercept, where the regression line A (a) is the intercept, where the regression line

cross the Y axiscross the Y axis– B (b) is the slope regression lineB (b) is the slope regression lineHow much Y change for every unit change How much Y change for every unit change in Xin X


Misalnya kita katakan SPM ada hubungan Misalnya kita katakan SPM ada hubungan dengan college CGPAdengan college CGPAKatakan a=.18, b=.73 SPM Katakan a=.18, b=.73 SPM (converted)=3.5(converted)=3.5ÝÝ == .18 + .73(3.5) .18 + .73(3.5)

= 2.73= 2.73kita bandingakan dengan CGpA kita bandingakan dengan CGpA sebenar pelajar. Jika ada persamaan sebenar pelajar. Jika ada persamaan (rapat) lebih yakin dengan prediction (rapat) lebih yakin dengan prediction in the futurein the future


Dalam pendidikan kita ada banyak Dalam pendidikan kita ada banyak variable yang boleh digunakan untuk variable yang boleh digunakan untuk meramal criterion variable. Jadi kita tak meramal criterion variable. Jadi kita tak lagi gunakan simple regression equation. lagi gunakan simple regression equation. Kita akan gunakan multiple regression Kita akan gunakan multiple regression equation.equation.Ýi = Ýi = a a + + b1b1X1 +…….+ X1 +…….+ bibiXiXiLagi banyak variable yang digunakan lagi Lagi banyak variable yang digunakan lagi tepat ramalan yang kita dapat buat. Boleh tepat ramalan yang kita dapat buat. Boleh atau tidak kita gunakan apa-apa jenis atau tidak kita gunakan apa-apa jenis variable? Must be meaningful and variable? Must be meaningful and substantially correlated.substantially correlated.


Misalnya: a high correlation was observed Misalnya: a high correlation was observed between shoe size and math ability. was the between shoe size and math ability. was the correlation meaningful? Was the correlation correlation meaningful? Was the correlation substantial? Substantial,→ yes! Meaningful→no! substantial? Substantial,→ yes! Meaningful→no! so what does it mean?so what does it mean?Dalam penyelidikan korelasi kita cuba Dalam penyelidikan korelasi kita cuba mengetahui berapa banyak variance dalam mengetahui berapa banyak variance dalam criterion variable yang dapat diramalkan oleh criterion variable yang dapat diramalkan oleh pembolehubah-pembolehubah tertentupembolehubah-pembolehubah tertentuKita banyak gunakan multiple regression analysis. Kita banyak gunakan multiple regression analysis. Correlation between criterion varaible and the Correlation between criterion varaible and the best combination of 2 or more predictor variables.best combination of 2 or more predictor variables.


Apa bezanya R and r?Apa bezanya R and r?

R ialah a correlation of the three variables R ialah a correlation of the three variables with the criterion variable.with the criterion variable.

Apa bezanya R2 and r2?Apa bezanya R2 and r2?

What is coefficient of determination? It indicates What is coefficient of determination? It indicates the percentage of variablity in criterion variable the percentage of variablity in criterion variable that can be attibuted to difference in scores in that can be attibuted to difference in scores in predictor variablespredictor variables

What is the meaning of R=.70, R 2 = .49?What is the meaning of R=.70, R 2 = .49?


What if you have categorical criterion variable?What if you have categorical criterion variable?

You are interested in predicting if students like You are interested in predicting if students like sains and technolgy or humanities. Here you have sains and technolgy or humanities. Here you have two categories of variable (science and two categories of variable (science and technology or humanities)technology or humanities)

Here you use discriminant function analysisHere you use discriminant function analysis

Sometimes you have too many variable. You need Sometimes you have too many variable. You need to reduce the variable into smaller number of to reduce the variable into smaller number of variables so it is much easier to do the prediction. variables so it is much easier to do the prediction. Here you may use factor analysisHere you may use factor analysis


Basic steps in correlational researchBasic steps in correlational research

Problem selectionProblem selection

Variables to be included should be based on Variables to be included should be based on certain rationalecertain rationale

Three major types of problems are focused by Three major types of problems are focused by correlational studycorrelational study

– is variable X related to variable Yis variable X related to variable Y– how well does variable A predict variable Bhow well does variable A predict variable B– what are the relationships among a larger number of what are the relationships among a larger number of

variables and what predictions can be made that are variables and what predictions can be made that are based on them?based on them?


Example of correlational studies:Example of correlational studies:

Teacher commitment and its relationship with teaching Teacher commitment and its relationship with teaching performanceperformance

Factors associated with the use of leadeship style in Factors associated with the use of leadeship style in managing the schoolmanaging the school

Moral development and emphathy in counsellingMoral development and emphathy in counselling

The relationship among…..The relationship among…..

The relationship of ….The relationship of ….

Predicting students academic achievement from…..Predicting students academic achievement from…..

What can you see in the topic?What can you see in the topic?


Can you differentiate between these topics? Can you differentiate between these topics? Tell me what is the type of research for each of Tell me what is the type of research for each of these topics?these topics?Kesan penceraian ke atas motivasi pencapaian Kesan penceraian ke atas motivasi pencapaian anak-anakanak-anakKesan program pemulihan ke atas pencapaian Kesan program pemulihan ke atas pencapaian dalam pelajaran matematikdalam pelajaran matematikHubungan antara saiz kelas dan kualiti Hubungan antara saiz kelas dan kualiti pengajaranpengajaranProgram types and the quality of the graduatesProgram types and the quality of the graduates


Threats to internal validity in Threats to internal validity in correlation researchcorrelation research

Threats such as implementer, Threats such as implementer, history, maturation, attitudes of history, maturation, attitudes of subjects →non of concernsubjects →non of concern


Yang perlu diberi perhatian Yang perlu diberi perhatian termasuklah:termasuklah:

Subject characteristicsSubject characteristics► ► we may correlate we may correlate height and running speed (high height and running speed (high correlation) goodcorrelation) good but mungkin ada ciri lain but mungkin ada ciri lain yang juga ada korelasi dengan running yang juga ada korelasi dengan running speed » berat badannya atau staminanyaspeed » berat badannya atau staminanyaWhat to do? Use partial correlation → What to do? Use partial correlation → partial out the unwanted explaination partial out the unwanted explaination (we’ll later in data analysis)(we’ll later in data analysis)


Location ►perbezaan suasana tempat pentadbiran kajianLocation ►perbezaan suasana tempat pentadbiran kajianExample :Example : noisiness level in one classroom vs the noisiness level in one classroom vs the

other classroom. How does it affect the result. The condition other classroom. How does it affect the result. The condition rather than the variable being studied may account for the rather than the variable being studied may account for the relationshiprelationship

Try to study the relationship between location of Try to study the relationship between location of school (bandar dan luar bandar) and students’ attitudes school (bandar dan luar bandar) and students’ attitudes toward science. You may get highly correlated coefficient toward science. You may get highly correlated coefficient correlation (.85). it may indicate that the location did not correlation (.85). it may indicate that the location did not really account for the relationship but the facilities, really account for the relationship but the facilities, exposure that accounted for the relationship.exposure that accounted for the relationship.

What to do? Should measure the other variable that are What to do? Should measure the other variable that are suspected to possibly account for the correlation. Then use suspected to possibly account for the correlation. Then use partial correlation.partial correlation.


Instrumentation >Instrumentation >intrument decay: observers, and the intrument intrument decay: observers, and the intrument itselfitselfdata collectors characteristics:data collectors characteristics:testing → termasuklah:testing → termasuklah:•• the arrangement or questions in the arrangement or questions in questionnaresquestionnares

•• the number of questionsthe number of questions•• the readibility of questionsthe readibility of questions•• the time of administrationthe time of administration

mortality ►kehilangan subject mortality ►kehilangan subject will it happen in correlational research?will it happen in correlational research?


Descriptive Survey ResearchDescriptive Survey Research


One of the most common form of research One of the most common form of research in educational setting.in educational setting.It is done to describe the characteristics of It is done to describe the characteristics of a population a populationWe are not concerned with testing We are not concerned with testing relationship or the questions of why it relationship or the questions of why it happens the way it happenshappens the way it happensHowever, it is not uncommon to find However, it is not uncommon to find researchers testing the relationshipsresearchers testing the relationshipsThus, variables are not identified as Thus, variables are not identified as independent or dependent since the independent or dependent since the variables are used to describe the statusvariables are used to describe the status


Normally no hipothesie are constructed. Memadai Normally no hipothesie are constructed. Memadai dengan menggunakan research questions and dengan menggunakan research questions and objectives. He we do not hipothesised anything. objectives. He we do not hipothesised anything. We just want to know what is it? What is going We just want to know what is it? What is going on? How do students feel? What do people want on? How do students feel? What do people want to purchase.to purchase.

Misalnya, Dean of Graduate school wants to find Misalnya, Dean of Graduate school wants to find out the opinion of MS Pentadbiran Pendidikan out the opinion of MS Pentadbiran Pendidikan about the MS Programs. Here we describe the about the MS Programs. Here we describe the sample. We describe stduents opinion. We do not sample. We describe stduents opinion. We do not intend to say that older students perceive intend to say that older students perceive positively and younger students perceive positively and younger students perceive negatively.negatively.


Types of surveyTypes of survey Cross-sectional:Cross-sectional:dapatkan data dalam jangkawaktu yang telah dapatkan data dalam jangkawaktu yang telah ditentukan iaitu sekali sahaja untuk mengetahui ditentukan iaitu sekali sahaja untuk mengetahui the status of the sample the status of the sample We only collect onceWe only collect onceKebanyakan survey yang kita jalankan adalah Kebanyakan survey yang kita jalankan adalah merupakan a cross-sectional survey.merupakan a cross-sectional survey.Misalnya: you want to find out the attitudes of Misalnya: you want to find out the attitudes of your students towards vocational and technology your students towards vocational and technology subjects that are being offered at your school.subjects that are being offered at your school.Here you do not take the measueremnt twice only Here you do not take the measueremnt twice only once.once.


Longitudinal surveys:Longitudinal surveys:Take measurement at several Take measurement at several

points in timepoints in timeProgressive measurement. Same Progressive measurement. Same

group of students are measured group of students are measured several times using the same several times using the same instrument. instrument. Why? > to see the changes that Why? > to see the changes that might have occurred might have occurred


Three types of longitudinal surveysThree types of longitudinal surveys::trend studiestrend studiesdifferent sampels from the same populations are surveyed different sampels from the same populations are surveyed at different point in timeat different point in timepopulation may change and the same individual would not population may change and the same individual would not be sampled each timebe sampled each timemembers of the population may changemembers of the population may changedi sini kita ingin melihat what is the trend of the Pengetua di sini kita ingin melihat what is the trend of the Pengetua in Selangor attitudes towards penilaian prestasi in Selangor attitudes towards penilaian prestasi menggunakan SSB. 1997 senari nama pengetua mungkin menggunakan SSB. 1997 senari nama pengetua mungkin berbeza dari senarai 1998 dan seterusnya. Bersara dan berbeza dari senarai 1998 dan seterusnya. Bersara dan naik pangkat dsb.naik pangkat dsb.(trend dari satu jangkamasa ke satu jangkamasa yang lain). (trend dari satu jangkamasa ke satu jangkamasa yang lain). Any changes or not. Tahun 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000 ada Any changes or not. Tahun 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000 ada perubahan atau tidak?perubahan atau tidak?Look at the performance in SPM ≈ a good example of trend Look at the performance in SPM ≈ a good example of trend studiesstudiesCompare the results from year to yearCompare the results from year to year


cohort study → a specific population is followed cohort study → a specific population is followed over a period of timeover a period of timeexample: investigate the performance of 1997 5A example: investigate the performance of 1997 5A students in UPSR for Daerah Hulu Langatstudents in UPSR for Daerah Hulu Langat1998199819991999members of the population do not change. members of the population do not change. Kumpulan populasi yang sama tetapi sampels Kumpulan populasi yang sama tetapi sampels may be different. How?may be different. How?Nak kaji anxiety level of teachers who garduated Nak kaji anxiety level of teachers who garduated in 1999. the same population of teachers will be in 1999. the same population of teachers will be studied in 2000, 2001 so forth.studied in 2000, 2001 so forth.you want to find out what happen to the groupyou want to find out what happen to the group


Panel studyPanel study

The same sampel is used over and over The same sampel is used over and over again at different timeagain at different time

Want to see the changes in their Want to see the changes in their characterisrtics and behaviorscharacterisrtics and behaviors

How does cohort study differ from panel How does cohort study differ from panel study. How do they differ from trend study. How do they differ from trend study?study?



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Edu5900 ab. rahim bakar1 Basically, you need to know how experimental units are assign to groups how level of treatments are assign to groups nature of