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PUB DATENOTEPUB TYPEJOURNAL CIT

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

IDENTIFIERS

ABSTRACT

DOCUMENT RESUME

Malena, RichardVision '90: Theof Teaching and1990.Maricopa CountyAriz.

9073p.; PublishedCollected WorksVision '90: Theof Teaching and

JC 920 004

Fol Ed.Maricopa Community Colleges Journal

Learning, Volume 2, Numbers 1-2,

Community Coll. District, Phoenix,

twice a year.- Serials (022)

Maricopa Community Colleges Journal

Learning; v2 n1-2 1990

MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.Accounting; Adult Students; *Classroom Techniques;

Community Colleges; Computer Uses in Education;

Cooperative Learning; *Critical Thinking; *Ethical

Instruction; Instructional Improvement; *Learning

Strategies; Part Time Faculty; Student Evaluation of

Teacher Performance; Student Motivation; Teacher

Behavior; *Teacher Effectiveness; *Teaching Methods;

Two Year Colleges; Writing Skills

Maricopa County Community College District AZ

Designed to provide a forum far faculty and staff in

the Maricopa Community College District to exchange information about

effective teaching methods for practical application and intellectual

stimulation, this journal publishes articles on teaching, learning,

and classroom research activities. The two issues in this volume

contain the following articles: (1) "Putting Value in Evaluation: A

Review of the Research," by Susan Starrfield; (2) "Collaborative

Learning: Confronting the Lip Service," by Julie Ann Wambach; (3)

"Want to Add Some Adrenalin to a (Yawn) Essay-Writing Class?" by

William Butler; (4) "Effective Learning Strategies in a Jazz History

Course and Their Possible Application to Other Subject Areas," Dy

Antonio Blasi; (5) "Point of View: Critical Thinking," by Mike

Morgan, Anna Solley, Roy Amrein, and A.In Mahoney; (6) "Using the

Learning Cycle to Teach Biology Concepts and Basic Skills," by W.

Bradley Kincaid; (7) "Setting the Tone: Creating and Maintaining a

Supportive Environment with the Adult Learner," by Rene

Diaz-Lefebvre; (51) "Local Resources on Critical Thinking: A Selected,

Annotated Bibliography," by Jill R. Seymour; (9) "An Accelerated

Approach to Accounting Basics," by Bernadine McCollum; (10) "'Why'

Affects 'How': Student Motivations and Literacy," by Virginia V.

Stahl; (11) "The Electronic Forum: Linking Students to Their Future,"

by Cyndi Greening; (12) "Writing for Reality: How to Coax Writing Out

of the Classroom," by Linda Evans; (13) "Point of View: Teaching

Ethics," by Roy C. Amrein, Harvey Turner, and Edd Welsh; and (14)

"Increasing the Effectiveness of Part-Time Facuty," by John

Lampignano. (PAA)

1

Vision '90. The Maricopa Community Colleges Journal

of Teaching and Learning. Volume 2, Numbers 1-2.

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

A. G. de los Santos

TO TI1E EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

Richard F. Malena Ed.

S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOno e no f durationai Retouch and improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES 1NEORmATioNCENTER (ER/0

thts documenl has been reproduced asreceived trOrn the peiltan Or 0r9enphortonsimairmlner Oanges have hams made In 4nproreoockso,orp Quota.,

Point; of Wwob Of opinonS stated ,n ape

men1 do not necessarey represent ottIcket

DE Rs poArlion or policy

Maricopa Community College District. Phoenix, Arizona

(

CRITICALTHINKING:How do youteach astudent tothink,and why is itso important?

Page 20

SPRING 1990VOI,UME TWONUMBER ONE

-1111...Alk..

2VISION Sprtng 1990

Statement of Purpose

VISION '90: The Maricopa Community Colleges Journal ofTeaching and Learning provides a forum for faculty and staff toexchange information about effective teaching and learningstrategies. We encourage faculty and staff to submit articles onteaching, learning, and classroom research including thosedescribing programs, projects, and research activities acrossthe curriculum at the community college level. Articles may beresearch based or derived from practical experience in theclassroom. The language of all articles should be accessible tofaculty outside of the authors discipline.

Articles are either accepted, accepted with revisions, or notaccepted based on the relevance of their content and style tothe journal's statement of purpose. For information on manu-script requirements write the editor at:

VISION '90Maricopa Center for Learning and Instruction

Maricopa Community Colleges3910 East Washington Street

Phoenix, Arizona 85034or call (602) 392-2462 and ask for a VISIONstaffer. The journalis published two times a year. Points of view published hereinmay not reflect the opinions of the Maricopa Community Col-leges except where stated.

Maricopa Community CollegesDistrict Administrators

ChancellorPaul A. Elsner

Vice-ChancellorsRon BleedAlfredo G. de los Santos Jr.William F. WaechterDan S. Whittemore

Governing BoardRoy C. Amrein -- PresidentDonald R. Campbell -- SecretaryM. Grant Christensen -- MemberBarbara Hitchcock -- MemberLinda B. Rosenthal -- Member

Raul Cardenas, President SMCCLarry K. Christiansen, President MCCJohn A. Cordova, President PVCCArthur W. DeCabooter, President SCCCharles A. Green, President RSCCMyrna Harrison. President PCHomero Lopez. Provost EMCCCPhil D. Randolph, President GWCCJohn R. Waltrip. President MCArnette Ward, Provost CGCCC

1

VISION '90

Journal Staff

Richard F. MaloneEditor

Sheila SchumacherArt Director

Billie J. HughesEditorial Consultant

Alan ChurchConsulting Editor

Peg GalliganEditorial Assistant

John NelsonIllustrator

Cynthia GreeningProduction Director

Editorial Board

Karen Conzelman, GCC

Wilton Cooper, CGCCC

Chris Ferguson, PVCC

Patrick Haas, GCC

Laura Helminski. RSCC

Ann Mahoney. MCC

Kathleen Murphy-Irwin, GWCC

Liz Warren, District

Copyright 1990 by the Maricopa Commu-nity Colleges. 3910 East Washington,Phoenix. AZ 85034. ISSN #1045-2031Maricopa Community Colleges are EqualOpportur ity/Atfirmative ACtion Institutions.

114116..._^

$7.

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1111120b-

Page 10

Page 16

Contents

introductionLinda B. Rosenthal Page 4

Letter to the Editor Page 4

Notes from the EditorRichard F. Malena Page 5

Putting Value in Evaluation:A Review of the Research

Susan Starrfield Page 6

Collaborative Learning:Confronting the Lip Service

Julie Ann Wambach Page 10

Want to Add Some Adrenslinto a (yawn) Essay-Writing Class?

William Butler Page 14

014,

Page 26

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 5

Effective Learning Strategiesin a Jazz History Course endtheir Possrile Application toother Subject Areas

Antonio Blasi Page 16

Point of View: Critical ThinkingMike Morgan Page 20Anna Salley Page 22Roy Amrein Page 23Ann Mahoney Page 24

Using the Learning Cycleto Teach Biology Conceptsand Basic Skills

W. Bradley Kincaid Page 26

Setting the Tone: Creating andMaintaining a SupportiveEnvironment with the Adult Learner

RenOr Diaz-Lefebvre Page 31

Local Pesources on Critical Thinking:A Selected, Annotated Bibliography

Jill R. Seymour Page 32

3VISION Spring 1990

4vtstorg *Jung 990

INTRODUCTIONLinda B. RLsenthal

Critical thinking andproblem solving skills havenow, as I understand lt, beenidentified as two of thoseskills determined to be as ba-sic as the "3 R's" reading,'riting and lithmetic. There-fore, one could argue veryconvincingly that they mustbe taught in our classroomsas a part of our curriculum.

The mission of ourcommunity colleges is veryclear. No matter how onelooks at it, we are the bestpublic institution to deal withthe educational needs ofadults. We cannot expectthese adults to return to ele-mentary or high school build-ings to learn what they missedeither through their own faultor someone else's. We can-not expect them to benefitfrom a philosophy or historycourse unless they have thebasic skills to apply to theirstudies. If people think thecommunity college is not theplace to teach these skills,they are only tooling them-selves. It is, I believe, a vitalpart of our mission as it re-sponds to an adult educa-tional need. How long andhow much we will need toprovide will depend on manyfactors which we may not beable fc control but teachbasic skills we must.

Having said that teach-ing these skills is a neces-sary part of our curriculum. Iwould ask the experts ourfaculty to accomplish it. Iwould hope that our instruc-tional program and uerviceswill be altered where neces-sant to achieve the desiredoutcome. Only through con-stant and continuous modifi-cations of our courses andprograms will we be effectivein responding to our constitu-ents. We will then be truly theeducational institution thatknows its mission and doesits very best to accomplish itfor its community.

Linda B. Ro-nnthal, BS,MA, la a member the Mari.cops Community CollegesGoverning Board.

Letter to the EditorDear Dr. Malena:

Recently I saw a copy of Vision '89. Since my hus-band taught at Phoenix College in the English Depart-ment in the early '60s and since I attended PC and earnedmy BA and MA from Arizona State University, I read themagazine with care. I enjoyed it. I saw the segment on"Point of View" and asked Mary Phillips to write up herarea of responsibilityshe had a 96% retention rate inthe fall semester.

Enclosed is a write-up from our college that I hopeyour readers might enjoy.

Nancy Sandberg, EdDDean of Instruction and Student Development

Paul D. Camp Community CollegeFranklin, Virginia

Definition of At-Risk-StudentAt-risk students at Paul D. Camp Community College

face complex obstacles which make persistence to gradu-ation difficult. Their obstacles usually include:

1. Few external reinforcements for college plans.2. Income less than $5,000 per year.3. Being academically underprepared.4. Needing child care.5. Being a single parent.6. Needing assistance with transportation to classes.7. Being a first-generation college student

Needs of At-Risk Students:At-risk students at PDCCC typically need financial

assistance, remedial instruction, strong support for theircollege plans, a thorough explanation of non-academicprocedures. counseling in realistic self-appraisal andgoal-setting and assistance with developing a positiveself-concept.

College Strategies for Helping At-Risk Students:PDCCC has a strong institutional commitment to

helping ALL students succeed. The faculty and staff areparticularly sensitive to the unique challenges at-riskstudents face. In response to those challenges, thecollege has aggressively initiated a number of programswhich help at-risk students. Strategies to help at-riskstudents include: a college-wide mentoring program,pre-developmental classes to help lower-functioningstudents receive specialized instruction, flexibility inscheduling of classes for working parents, Gender EquityPrograms which assist over 150 women with child care,transportation, tuition and support services, workshopstor students in goal setting and self-appraisal, continuousworkshops to help faculty improve student's self-con-cept, assistance with GED preparation, tutoring andcultural enrichment activities. Most importantly, the col-lege has a caring faculty and staff who provide positivereinforcement and support to at-risk students.

ti

HELLO! Spring is upon us! It isthe time for renewal and beginningagain. The first journal is now history.As I reflect back, this happened be-cause of the wonderful efforts of someoutstanding people. They have helpedcreate this issue, too, so that the qualityis consistent with the goal we set.They deserve some special recogni-tion.

The journal board deserves spe-cial thanks for its efforts. Additionally,Alan Church, editorial assistant andright hand man to me, worked veryhard to make each article perfect. Hisediting skills are truly reflected in thisissue. Peg Galligan, the legs of theoperation, was a tireless "go-fer" whoran everywhere to get us all the thingswe needed at the last minute. She hasdone all the paperwork that this effortentails.

It was my pleasure to receiveseveral phone calls and letters fromcommunity colleges around the coun-try. The callers praised us for the effortof creating a journal to address com-munity college interests and for thequality of the product they received.Many asked to contribute future ar-ticles; others asked to be part of thereviewing process. At this point, thejournal will remain an endeavor of thisdistrict only. That is not to say that thiswill always be the policy. We appreci-ate the comments and praise, andbecause of this interest, know that weare on the right track.

Because of the response to thelast issue's "Point of View" on the "At-Risk" student, we have added a newcolumn to this journal, Letters to theEditor. This column will allow all of youto share in the points of view ex-pressed.

This issue's focus on CRITICALTHINKING as the center for dialoguewas selected because of faculty inter-est on this important topic. Studentswith the ability to think critically are ingreat demand not only here but in thecommunity. Teaching critical thinkingwas for a time considered impossible,but that notion has been refuted by therecent research of Ruggiero, Stein-berg, Kurfiss, and others.

The "Point of View" column ad-

dresses the issue of what critical think-ing is and where is should be taught.The introduction by Linda B. Rosen-thal comments that the communitycollege is THE place for the instructionof critical thinking; indeed, the missionof the college is to teach students tothink critically and to solve problems.Following that are four viewpoints ad-dressing that issue. Roy C. Amreingives a college board member's per-spective. Mike Morgan addresseswhere to teach it; Anna So !ley stressesa complete curriculum approach; andAnn Mahoney focuses on philosophyas the discipline in which to instruct it.Jill R. Seymour annotates a bibliogra-phy of resources on critical thinking.

Articles in this issue of Vision '90deal with eclectic issues in the collegesetting. Collaborative learning is dis-cussed by Julie Ann Wambach; W.Bradley Kincaid explains the use oflearning cycles and reasoning skills inteaching biology concepts. "Want toAdd Some Adrenalin?" by WilliamButler offers ideas for injecting enthu-siasm in a writing class. Antonio Blasidescribes some effective learningstrategies from his jazz history classthat are applicable to other contentareas. Concerns about the learning

Notes fromthe Editor

Richard F. Malenaenvironment and its implications forthe adult learner are the topics dis-cussed by René Diaz-Lefebvre, andSusan Starrfield offers findings onresearch to enlighten us on studentevaluations.

Lastly, but certainly not least, isthe appointment of three new boardmembers who will take office in thefall: Don Richardson from PhoenixCollege, Susan Starrfield from SouthMountain Community College, andNancy Pittman from Mesa Commu-nity College.

PUTTING

VALUE INEVALUATION:

,

A REVIEW

OF TOE

RESEARCHSUSAN STARRFIELD

am--_.....0.1.

Adit.

At the end of each semester, yourstudents will be asked to evaluate yourcourse. They will be asked to rate theeffectiveness of your instructional prac-tices and activities and your attitudes andbehaviors. In a Gallup poll, college instruc-tors expressed a great skspticism of theeffectiveness of student evaluations(Phoenix Gazette. 1989). The samplepolled thought that students were notadequately prepared to evaluate instruc-tion. They also thought that students mightnot be objective. For example, they mightgive an instructor a good evaluation if they

..1

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

inflow. were anticipating good grades in thecourse. However, a research meta-analy-sis of 31 studies of student evaluationsfound that most of the time both studentsand faculty use the same criteria in theirevaluations. In other words, when theresults of 31 research studies (meta-analy-sis) were compared, it was found that whatstudents thought was most valuable in acourse was also perceived by instructorsto be valuable in a course (Feldman, 1988).The average correlation was about thesame in 2 and 4 year institutions. Thus,there is a positive relationship betweenwhat students and faculty value.

Let us exarn.ne some of the findings ofthis study and other studies to help yougain confidence in the student evaluationcredibility and '.o ascertain the similaritiesand differences between what is impor-

'NW

tant to faculty and students in a course.You might also compare your ownstrengths and weaknesses, your ownpreferences and dislikes with the ratingsof a large sample.

When each criterion was ranked andaveraged by both faculty and students,these were the "Top Ten" (Feldman, 1988) :

1. Teacher's sensitivity and concernwith class level and progress.

2. Teacher's preparation; organizationof course.

3. Teacher's knowledge of that sub-ject.

4. Teacher's stimulation of student in-terest in the course and its subjectmatter.

5. Teacher's enthusiasm for subjectandior teaching.

6. Clarity and intelligibility.7. Teacher's availability and helpful-

ness.8. Teacher's concern and respect for

students.9. Perceived outcome or impact of

instruction.10. Teacher's fairness; evaluation of stu-

dents; quality of e::aminations.

9

There was, however, great discrep-ancy in the way students and faculty rankedtwo instructional dimensions. Studentsplaced much greater emphasis than fac-ulty on an instructor being interesting orstimulating and on an instructor havingeffective elocutionary skills. Conversely,faculty valued intellectual challenge, moti-vation, setting high standards, and en-couraging self-initiated learning to a greaterdegree than did students. Both groupsagreed on the high importance of instruc-tors being knowledgeable about the sub-ject matter, clear and understandable, andsensitive and concerned about class leveland progress. Of low importance, relativeto other factors, were clarity of course ob-jectives and requirements, the personalityof the instructor, and the extent of theinstructor's research activities. Feldman(1988) used a rank order of criteria, be-cause he perceived from other researchthat when students indicated the degreeof importance of certain characteristics,they were in effect ranking them. Whenaverage stamardized rank of criteria(Feldman, 1988) is compared with that ofan earlier study by the same researcher(Feldman, 1976) the evidence shows thatexpectations have not changed over thedecade. The "Top Ten" dimensions arealmost identical in content and rank order.What is good teaching has remained goodteaching as far as students and faculty areconcerned.

These rankings for "Top Ten" wereconfirmed by another study (Erdle & Mur-ray, 1986) which also explored the ideathat the subject matter of a course mightinfluence student ratings of instructionaleffectiveness. It did not, "...;ndicating thatwhat makes an 'effective instructor' isroughly the same regardless of academicdiscipline" (p. 125). Differences were found,however, when observations were madeof teaching behaviors. Faculty ir the artsand humanities were found to exhibit morebehaviors associated with interpersonalorientation, while teachers in the naturalsciences demonstrated behaviors associ-ated with task orientation. Those in thesocial sciences had a balance of bothorientations (Erdle & Murray, 1986), None-theless, student ratings were not influenced by these behaviors.

What seems to influence students'ratings is their perceived learning (Baird,1987). Baird suggests that students rateinstructors according to how much theybelieve they have learned rather thanaccording to their anticipated grades. This

does not hold true if students are informedof their grade in advance. Of course, stu-dents' grades and what they have learnedmight just be related! Good students getgood grades and seek out good instruc-tors (Marsh, 1984). This meta-analysis,and yet another by McCallum (1984),provides credence for the validity of stu-dent evaluation of instruction. Evaluationsmeasure actual effectiveness of instruc-tion.

The personality of the instructor tendsto influence student ratings. Students areattracted to instructors who are perceivedas being "warm" rather than "cold," regard-less of the discipline they teach (Widmeyer& Loy, 1988). This effect was even morepronounced for female instructors. Stu-dents like female instructors who are bothwarm and competent, although both fe-male and male students tend to favor maleinstructors over female instructors in theirratings (Basow & Silberg. 1987; Kierstead,D'Agostino, & Dill, 1988). Therefore, ad-ministrators might consider the bias ofratings in favor of male instructors whenlooking at faculty evaluations.

It is also encouraging to note thatimpressions are flexible and influential.Students modify their first impression ofthe instructor over time. Their ratings areunbiased by initial expectations (Gigliotti,1987), unless they are barred from a fairchance of being successful and achievinga good grade. The results of two studiessupport the "Looking Glass Self" theory ofsociologist Charles Horton Cooley whichstates that individuals form self-conceptson the basis of how they perceive thatpeople are viewing them. In other words,we see ourselves based on how we thinkothers see us. The pexeptions whichinstructors have about how students evalu-ate them can, in turn, influence their in-structional behavior (Feldman & Prohaska,1979). Also, the students' impressions ofhow an instructor feels toward them influ-ences the ratings which students give toinstructors. The relationship between theinstructor and the stud.int was a goodpredictor of student ratings (cooper, Stew-art, & Grundykunst, 1982).

The research on evaluation of instruc-tional effectiveness is quite reassuring. Ittends to demonstrate the following:

1. Students and faculty agree on whatis important in instruction, althoughstudents value interpersonal cri-teria more than faculty and facultyvalue cognitive criteria more thanstudents.

2. The same criteria have oeen valuedby students and faculty for a dec-ade.

3. Students base their evaluations onthe perceived value of what theyhave learned. Grades are n at asignificant basis for evaluation itgrades are fairly awarded.

4. Students rate faculty whom theyperceive as warm and competentmore highly than those faculty whothey perceive as cold and lesscompetent.

5. The interaction between student andfaculty affects ratings. A positiverelationship yields a higher rating.

The evidence from the research sup-ports both the reliability and validity ofstudent ratings of an instructor's effective-ness. You. as an instructor, can trust themotivation and objectivity of your studentsknowing that you and your students agreeon the imporlant components of good in-struction. Evaluations can be confidentlyused by both faculty and administratorsfor comparison, prediction, and improve-ment of instruction.

ReferencesBaird. J.S. Jr (1987) Perceived learning in relation

to student evaluation of university instruction,Journal of Educational Psychology. 79, 90-91

BMW. S.A.. & !berg, N.T. (1987), Student evaluations of college professors, Are female andmale professors rated differently' Journal ofEducational Psychology. 79. 308-314

Cooper. P., Stewart. L & Grundykunst. W (1982).Relationship with instructor and other variablesinfluencing student evaluations of instructionCommunication Quarterly. 30 (4), 308-315

Erdle, S.. & Murray. H.G, (1988). Interfaculty differ-ences in classroom teaching behaviors and theirrelationship to student instructional ratingsResearch in Higher Education. 24. 115-127

Feldman, K A. (1976), The superior college teacherfrom the students view. Research in HigherEducation, 5, 243 088

Feldman. K A. (1978). Course characteristics andcollege students' ratings of their teacher Research in Higher Education. 9, 199 242.

Feldman, KA. (1984). Class size and college students' evaluations of teachers and courses Acloser look. Research in Higher Education, 21.45 83

Feldman. K.A, (1988) Effective college teachingfrom the students and faculties' view. Matchedor mismatched priorities', Research in HigherEducatio i. 28. 291-330.

Feldman. R.. 8 Prohaska. T (1979) The student asPygmalion Journal of Educational Psychology,71, 485 493.

(3ig Ital. R.J. (1987). Expectations, observations.and violations7Comparing their effects oncourseratings. Research in Higher Education. 26. 401415.

Kierstead. D , D'Agostino, P.. & Dill, H. (1988). Sexrole stereotyping of college professors: Bias instudents' ratings of instructors. Journal of Educa.Portal Psychology. 80 (3). 342-344-

McCallum, L.W. (1984). A metaanalysis ol courseevaluation data and its use in the tenure decision.Research rn Higher Education. 21. 150-158.

Marsh, H.W. (1984). Students' evaluations of univer-sity teaching; Dimensionality, reliability. validity.potential biases, and utility. Journal of Educational Psychology. 76. 707-754.

Phoenix Gazette. Seotember 23, 1989.Widrneyer. W.N & Loy. J.W. (1988), When you're

hot, you're holt Warm cold effects in first irnpressions of persons and teaching effectiveness.Journal of Educational Psychology. 80 (1), 118,121.

Susan Stanfield is a full time Research Assrs .tant doing Institutional Research for South MountainCommunity College. She received her PhD in Sooology. with an emphasis in multicultural education.from Arizona State University. Stanfield has pre-sented papers tor several professional organiza-tions including meetings of the American Educa-tional Research Association, Phi Detta Kappa. andthe Association of Teacher Educators Also a part-time sociology instructor for Rio Salado CommunityCollege. she has taught courses since 1982 in soci-ology. history. communication and English throughout the Maricopa Community Colleges

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When was the last time you en-countered a g-oup of students in the cafe-tena or hbrary involved in a lively discus-sion of ideas and issues generated from acollege course? I am not referring to col-lege life survival questions such as whichinstructors give less homework. or whohas a used text for less than the collegebookstorg. I mean a student-initiated in-terchange of information and speculationbeyond the text and lecture. Collaborativelearning holds unique womise for commu-nity college students to become so en-gaged Instructors who wish to try collabo-rative learning need to plan carefully andrecognize that collaborative learningstands opposed to mi ich of traditionalinstruction . Neither students nor instruc-tors find collaborative learning immediately easy or comfortable.

(4. II a I) ()In this article. I will discuss (1) what

collaborative learning is. (2) some adapta-tions required of those considering col-laborative learning, and (3) some evalu-ation formats unique to collaborative learn-ing. The last section will include examplesfrom my college small group communica-tions classes that utilize collaborativelearning as both course method and content. Not only is collaborative learning thestrategy I use to teach group communica-tions. but the course emphasizes learnedcommunication skills necessary for col-laboration

Collaborative LearningSeveral educational terms are associ-

ated with collaborative learning. Activeteaming means a student is doing morethan listening to lectures, reading textmaterials, and taking tests. So long asthere is class discussion, active learningcan be said to be taking place - even if theInstructor is more active than the students.While some use the term synonymouslywith collaborative learning (Hamlin &Janssen. '1987. Nanda. 1985) active learn-ing can occur alone (Benware & IDeci,1984). Traditiohally. science instructorsexpect students in labs to learn activelyunaided by other student; (Gilbert, 1984).Active learning is not necessarily collabo-rative learning, but collaborative learningrequires students to be active.

Learning communities include a vari-ety of ways to link existing courses under

existing college structures to providegreater depth and integration (Smith,1989). Depending on the model, learningcommunities may or may not provide col-laborative learning, but collaborative learn-ng does build communities of learners

Cooperative learning focuses onmethods that encourage students to worktogether, rather than compete. Coopera-tive learning provides students with tasksin which two or more peers are "allowed,encouraged, or required to work together"in order to assist one another to learn, andare rewarded for being interdependentwith other students (SI. win. 1983, p. 431).In our educational system that empha-sizes competition, cooperation is not easyfor either the student or instructor. Coop-eration is part of collaborative learning,but collaborative learning goes even fur-ther.

(t. Learning*Confront ing

irk*

Collaborative learning requiresstudents to confront the difficulties ofworking with others who bring variousinterests, perspectives, and skills to atask that demands group members'input. Regardless ofthe class content, theskills stressed in col-laborative learning arebasic to American gov-ernment, business'and social life. Most de- Julie Ann Wambachcisions that affect the electorate, or thecorporate entity-at-large, or the constitu-ents of our society are made by peergroups. Community colleges provide veryfew opportunities for what Richard Rortycalled "communities of knowledgeablepeers" (cited in Bruffee. 1984). Seldomare students required to think together,confront problems together, and worktogether to seek solutions to commonlyshared concerns.

Required AdaptationsIt is a mistake to put students into a

group. give them a task, and then wait fortheir product. They will needlessly floun-der as they attempt to accomplish that forwhich they are unprepared. You can besure students will immediately complain(Hamlin &Janssen. 1987). Instructors need10 present a clear task statement. proce-

dure guidelines, expected outcomes, andevaluation criteria. Task statements shouldbe written and include questions to beanswered (Weiner, 1986). A geology classgroup may be asked to identify specificrocks. A history class group may be re-quired to assess the immediate and morelong-term impacts of Lincoln'sassassination. Procedure guidelines in-clude the means by which the task can be

"To learn collaboratively,students need to trustclassmates who willaffect their grade in theclass."

completed. How does a political scientistcompare forms of government? How doesa chemist determine the makeup of a labo-ratory solution? Expected outcomes caninclude various products. A completedworksheet, a group composed essay, anoral report or demonstration by the grouprecorder or all group members are appro-priate for different class tasks. Evaluationcriteria should be specific for both the finalproduct and the participation in the col-laborative effort. In accounting and mathe-matics. the procedures may demonstratean understanding beyond the less-than-penect final answer. What contribution tothe final product is each student expectedto make?

To learn collaboratively, students needto trust classmates who will affect theirgrade in the class. Collaborative learningis best when students are willing to chal-lenge one another, and students will dothat only when they have confidence inthemselves and others in the group. Withplanning, an instructor can build groupcohesiveness into the tasks, procedureguidelines, and evaluation criteria.

Since the first assignment sets thetone for the succeeding work, consider agroup project to learn specific material andteach it to the rest of the class. Benwareand Deci (1984) reported a small studythat confirmed what most instructors al-ready know. They compared students wholearned material in order to be tested tothose who learned to teach others. The lotest" students received the same score asthe 10 teach" students on rote learning.The "to teach students, however. received

I 1

significantly higher scores on conceptuallearning. Compared to the self-reportedresponses of the "to test" students, the utoteach" students ranked their experience inthe experiment as significantly more inter-esting, enjoyable. al were willing toparticipate again. Ask students to collabo-rate on learning information to teach theirclassmates, and you may find they learnconcepts better and look fonvard to learn-ing more.

Classroom management is alsounique in collaborative learning (Sandburg,n.d.; Weiner, 1986). Instructors need toplan student movement into and out ofgroups, set tirnelines, encourage every-one to participate, and cover some basiccommunication suggestions, e.g. , supportothers, ask others to justify solutions, askothers to use examples, extend othersanswers (Johnson, Johnson, Holuber, &Roy, 1984).

Evaluating Collaborative LearningStudents and instructors who have

been part of our educational system arenot prepared to abandon traditional grad-ing formats. This means instructors whouse collaborative learning may select agrading system that is more complex thanmost. A summary of studies on coopera-tive learning concluded that group rewardsand individual accountability consistentlyincreased student academic achievementmore than control methods (Slavin, 1983).Presently, include both, but I still empha-size individual rewards. Because my grad-ing system is different from what studentshave known, they struggle with a finalgrade that is 20-27% group reward and73-80% individual accountability andreward.

Group rewards include one opportu-nity to excel in group work over individualwork, and two group grades. Near the endof the semester, I tell students what will beincluded in the second written test, for itcovers a broad range of material. The testis worth 10% of the final grade. The firstpart of the test (30 po;nts) they must takealone; the second part (70 points) theymay take alone or as a group. The bestway to prepare for the second portion is foreach group member to become the experton a portion of the material. Those whohave learned their group communicationsskills during the semester find this testchallenging but not beyond the group'sability. Those who take the test aloneseldom do well.

A group grade is the same for every-one in the group. The criteria for groupgrades goes beyond individual expecta-tions. Did the group devote its time to workor did members just fool around? Did thegroup stay on schedule or was it consis-tently behind? Did group members shareequally in the work or did some memberscarry a heavier load? Does the final prod-uct meet all the required information? Isthe final product in correct form or does thegroup still not understand the assignment?Three projects in group communicationsinclude group grades and they account fora total of 20% oi the final grade. Studentsmay inclurie an additional 7%, if they takethe seconi portion of the second test as agroup.

I disagree with Hamlin and Janssen(1987) who claim there is no way to controldisinterested, non-participating students.The individual accountability I build intomy grading scheme makes a difference.Participation in my group communicationclass is 10% of the final grade. Six of this10% are based on peer evaluations. Thismeans students receive 6% of their finalgrade from their peers. I have had stu-dents who dropped class early in thesemester when their peers gave them a"D" or "F," and others who immediatelyimproved their group performance. Be-cause collaboration cannot be learned inany way other than by doing it, I also attach15% of the final grade to attendance. Stu-dents begin with A+ and their grade goesdown with each absence. It takes virtuallyno class time to pass a roll sheet for stu-dents to sign next to their name.

The second written test includes 70points which students may do either aloneor as a group. Group members have theoption of telling classmates, who have notdone their part, that they must take thesecond portion alone. The impact of hear-ing this from one's peers goes far beyond7% of the test grade. I always talk witheach ousted student to make this painfullesson a constructive one. The studentswho tell their classmates they cannotparticipate also learn about standing upfor their rights and conveying face-to-faceevaluations which are often difficult toexpress.

Individualrewards include attendancegrades, participation grades, and individ-

ual assignments. Those who come to classand participate well are rewarded by theinstructor and by peer participation grades.Students take the first test, worth 5%,alone, and they also do a paper, worth15% of the final grade. The grade distribu-tion, then, shapes up as follows:Assignment row Individual

Project 1 05% 05%

SmallAssignments 05% 10%

Test 1 05%

Project 2 10% 10%

Paper 15%

Test 2 07% 03%

Participation

Instructor Graded 04%

Peer Graded 06%

Attendance 15%

Final CommentKenneth Bruffee (1984) noted that

interest in collaborative learning has beenmore theoretical than pedagogically prac-tical. Traditional education provides seri-ous obstacles to the use of collaborativelearning. It is difficult for students to en-gage in Bruffee's "conversation of man-kind" when lectures are still the primaryteaching method. It is difficult for studentsto believe in a group product when manyinstructors construe such activity as cheat-ing. It is difficult for students to trust classmates when grades have almost alwaysbeen a measure of individual excellence;the best academic students find my groupcommunication class most trying. Yet. Iam convinced that only when we offercollaborative learning opportunities willstudents generalize their group experi-ences to their lives outside the collegethe cafeteria, the library, the job, and thecommunity.

(Continued on page 25)

As a semester of essays windsdown, have you wished you could giveclassroom activity a little extra zing? Metoo. My students write eight essays overan 8-week course and need to rechargetheir batteries before tackling the term

paper. So for a changeof pace, I assign an ar-gumentation/persuasion five paragraphessay that gets theirattention and pro-duces some remark-able dynamics Unlikethe other essays. thisone is oral and makesmembers of two five-student teams respon-sible for one paragrapheach. Both teams have

wanttoaddsomeADRto a(yawn)essaywritinclass?William Butler

the same subject. ar-ping pro or coninother words. they de-bate. Team leaders in-troduce the argument.three members pres-ent individual items ofsupport. and a finalmember wraps it upwith a strong close.This oral essay stirsup the doldrums in myclasses just as it can inany class, not exclu-sive of those wherewritten composition isnot a requirement.

The team leaderis the spark plug forthe group. but teamspirit comes from allmembers taking part

in the process. including choosing theleader, I do not know if it is peer recogni-tion of leadership qualities, or if it is lead-ership qualities themselves that rise to theoccasion, but a strong leader alwaysemerges. As Bailey. Powell and Shuttle-worth (1986) outline, the opening para-graph of an essay begins with an atten-tion-getter. contains a central idea or the-sis. includes a blueprint or game plan to let

the reader know what to expect in theensuing paragraphs. and gives the writera framework upon which to build. I instructthe team leaders to compose the openingof their debates similarly, by getting thecentral paragraph topic sentences for theessay blueprint from the team membersresponsible for them. This ensues fromtwo or three lively classroom sessionswhen separate teams meet in the fourcorners of the classroom to exchangethoughts. With twenty or more students,two debates back-to-back are ey andfun, each group of pro and con teamsproviding an audience for the other.

The three central paragraphs get allteam members into the library. As I beatdrums and wave flags to get their competi-tive juices flowing. I am amazed at howgung-ho the teams get to find statistics.authoritative statements, or other data to

INsupport their position. To make sure theycan come up with something quickly. I usesubjects taken from the quick referenceguide of the Social Issues Resources Se-ries (SIRS) and suggest those volumes asa good place to start. They do not stopthere. though. and I am gratified at howquickly they get into other researchlim-ited of course, but after all, this is only ENG101.

The final team member works up the"close In the first class of the semester, Ireassure apprehensive students by tellingthem right out of Bailey et al. (1986) that Itis easy to write essays: "Just tell themwhat you are going to tell them, tell them,and then tell them what you told them." Soon this assignment. I instruct the teams towork together closely so their presenta-tions can conclude with a final speaker'ssummary that includes a vigorous, posi-tive assertion of their point, pro or con. Istress that the last presentation must wrapup their argument with force so the audi-ence does not just respond with "so what"or "Flo hum," My final words: "Nail the lid onthe keg and if you do feel you are goingdown, at least go down in flames"

This oral presentation is not a first limeexperience for my class because I havesix students each week present theiressays from the lectern in conjunction with

regular peer critiquing that the class con-ducts. This activity has several plus fac-tors: frequently the ear hears what the eyedoes not perceive: the students receivebroadened exposure to writing techniquesof their classmates: the class gets betteracquainted and a feeling of unity devel-ops: finally. self -confidence builds and asense of poise becomos apparent

The team presentation is voluntary.but I have never had a student decline.Once the teams are formed, they becomeself-sustaining with members helping eachother in lively interaction. When the de-bate is over, I ask all students to give mefeedback on the activity in a report theycan sign or not as they choose. In 4 years,they have all signed strong, positive state-mentsall but one. a lone dissenter Youhate to have not favorably impressed thatone, but a unanimous poll may not be ascredible. Some examples of student reac-tions are revealing. As one student, whosetopic was euthanasia. described:

Shaky and nervous, I went up tothe debate table. my notesclutched in my hand. Butterfliesdanced in my stomach and I haddifficulty breathing. Soon we weredelivering our arguments and Iwas next: I didn't really know howto say what I wanted to say, but Itried the best I could and soon thenervousness went away Emo-tions became very heated andfound myself getting angry at myopposing classmates! It was agood debate and I agree there areboth good and bad things abouteuthanasia. Afterwa-js, we con-gratulated each other arid laughedabout how upset we got. Evennow I think up rebuttals and argu-ments about the debate. I thinkthis has increased my reasoningcapacity.

Another student had this to say about thesubject:

This class had student juices flow-ing and many personalities be

came apparent in the debatesession. It was also an eye-opener. personally. My topic wasfor euthanasia. Going into thedebate. I was against euthanasia:atter researching the topic, I amnow for it under certain condi-tions I felt that by speaking infront ot an audience trying to per-suade them. I was better able torealize how you persuade yourreader in an essay. It was a won-derful way to end the class ses-sions. I am glad I was part of it.

When the debates end, I tell the class,"Everyone who participated in the debates.raise your hand." They all have, of course,so they all raise their hands. Then I say,-Now reach around and pat yourselves onthe back, because you're all winners!"They all Jhuckle, and then they all do.

If you want a new assignment for achange of pace, if you want to add someextra zing to a course, if you want to get allof your students involved and make themfeel like winners, you might consider anoral, five-paragraph argumentation/per-suasion essay. Even if you do not requirewritten assignments in your course, suchan organized debate over topics coveredduring the semester can serve to reani-mate your students in a fun and challeng-ing way. Try ityou may like it.

ReferencesBailey E P . Powell P.A . & Sbuttleworth. (1986)

The Practical Writer 13rd ed ) New York Holt.Rinehart. & Winston

Wham H Butler currently leaches FreshmanEnglish and Communications tor Rio Salado Corn,munity CollegeWest. Lulie Air Force Base. In1938 Butler graduated from the predecessor ofMancopa Community Colleges. Phoenix JuniorCulkve. with an AA in Liberal Arts. He re-enteredcollege atter 40 years in business and earned a BAin English and a MA in Creative Writing in 1981 and1984 respectively Butler has published articles insowral business and education journals. includingMENSA International and Me Arizona English Bulle-tin Certified for English. Insurance. Public Speahing.and Creative Writing. he joined Rio Salado Communiry College in 1985

I 7 1 5vISION Spring 1990

EFFECTIVE LEARNINGSTRATEGIES IN A

JAllHISTORYCOURSE AND THEIR

POSSIBLE APPLICATION

TO OTHERSUBJECT

AREASAntonio Blasi

Like any instructor, I use specificlearning activities to help me attain myeducational goals. In teaching a jazz musicclass, composed of a majority of non-music majors, I find the following tech-niques increase student involvement andretention in my classes. One such tech-nique I use is study groups. These studygroups with oral class reports give stu-dents active learning experiences. An-other technique I use is a written checklistthat guides student response to my lec-ture or a musical selection, thus ensuringanalysis and application of key concepts.When testing, I administer open-optionexaminations which seem to reduce anxi-ety and motivate students to study. Thesetools improve student involvement in myjazz classes yet can be adapted to fit inmany disciplines.

Study groups provide students withopportunities to study portions of theirtexts in class, material which time con-straints would otherwise prevent them fromreading. I form the study groups during thefirst class session and explain to the classhow the groups are to work. Each studygroup elects a leader who is responsiblefor delegating my assignments to theirgroup. These leaders also work with me todevelop the schedule for oral presenta-tions. To assure effective learning, I settime limits for each study session. Eachgroup works together to read and studytheir group's assignment and to plan theirpresentation. At the conclusion of eachpresentation, I elaborate on their reportsand make concluding remarks ensuringthat the class has all of the information Iwant covered on each topic. This report-ing allows group members to share infor-mation they have read with the entire classand also gives them an opportunity todevelop or sharpen their speaking skills.With my encouragement, many graduallybecome more confident about speaking infront of their peers.

To encourage students to analyze andapply class material. I devised an activityfor each class period around a checklist.The checklist is an outline of theoreticaland aesthetic principles discussed in class.such as rhythm, meter, and text. Whenusing it. students focus their attention onparticular aspects of the checklist whilelistening to a stimulus either music,lecture, or other material. As they areconcentrating on the stimulus, they indi-cate on the checklist the principle theythink labels or defines the stimulus. At

.1

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*

*

BEST COPY AVAILABLE. 4

19

es

Figure 1

RHYTHM(Patterns of Long and Short Sounds)

Long Sounds (When?)Short Sounds (When?)"" represents a longsound: "," represents ashort sound

Draw signs for the rhythmpatterns you hear in thespace below

May change for the samemeter

Polyrhythm = more thanone rhythm pattern at thesame time

METER (Pulses per Measure)

Strong pulse/weak beatsDuple = pulses groupedby 2s

Trip; = pulses grouped by3s

Compound = pulsesgrouped by 6s or 9s

Irregular = pulses groupedby 55, 7s, or lls

May change (when?)Polymeter = several me-ters simultaneously

TEXT (Words)

Does the music fit the text?Strophic = same music toreach verse of text

Is there a chorus or refrainin the text?

Through-composed = thetext or music does notrepeat

AESTHETICS

Listening to this music makes me:

ExcitedRelaxedOther

To use a metaphor for my feelings.this music is:

When?

SeriousSacred/relig ousTells a storyMajesticBroadMilitarySadGloomy

DDarkramaticExcitingRestlessBHrai gpitoty

CheerfulDreamyTenderSentimentalQuietSoothing

DaiximMed upStraight aheada color which color?

times they may be asked to explain ingreater detail. The checklist also assistsme ;n lesson planning. When a particularitem is not being selected by studentsusing the checklist. I change my instruc-tional emphasis to elaborate on it (seefigure 1 above).

My main goal in using the checklist isto develop each student's aesthetic sensi-tivity. The aesthetic categories consist ofmetaphors and descriptive phrases deal-

ing with aesthetic awareness. Studentscheck the phrases which best correspondto their feelings about the music I play forthem in class and of the images the musicinvokes for them, I also try to get them toexpand on their responses verbally. Aes-thetic theory is included as a quiz item.Aesthetic responses are also an elementof the student's written critiques. Throughthese means the quantity and quality ofstudents aesthetic responses improves,

Checklists can be created for any sub-ject area that has learning objectives thatrequire either critical thinking or aestheticawareness. For example, a history lessoncould incorporate a list of principles thatwere basic to a period or movement. Asstudents listened to a lecture or someother stimulus, they could check the perti-nent items that correspond to the histori-cal principles discussed in that class.

A short-answer, open-option exami-nation format is an effective means ofevaluating student learning. Open-optiontesting allows students to choose whichtest questions they will answer from alarger list. By analyzing previously admini-stered exams, I can ascertain which itemsare consistently being selected. Thisanalysis also helps me to identify thosequestions the majority of students avoid.This gives an indication of which courseobjectives are being met. I can then con-centrate my inr" ction on these items.

Open-option testing allows studentsto respond to items to which they attachpersonal meaning. This generates posi-tive attitudes toward the examination proc.ess. During a semester. I constantly ad-vise students to highlight information inthe lesson content that appeals to them: ifsomething that is initially attractive about a

subject is highlighted, students are morelikely to remember it. This practice alsoseems to promote greater student interestin the subject matter.

Students learn better when they ac-tively participate in learning_ This includescomprehensive practice in analyzing andapplying factual information, and in mycourse, the cultivation of aesthett aware-ness I accomplish these goals by using acombination of study groups, checklists.and open-option examinations. In addi-tion , an analysis of the responses to check-lists and examinations assists me in les-son planning and test construction. Thesetools can be successfully employed byany instructor who has a teaching philoso-phy similar to mine.

Antonio Blasi is a Substitute instructor of Musicfur Maricopa Community Colleges. He has BAs inMu5Ic and Music Education from the University ofWashington. and Is working on an EdD in MusicEducation at Arizona State University. Blasi is amember of the College Music Society and MusicEdorators National Conference and is an adjudicator for the Arizona Interscholastic Association. Amying in the Mancopa Community Col/Ages in 1988 asa part time Instructor for Glendale Community College Blasi has taught et been a substitute for Jazz illAmerrCa. Music Theory. Introduction te Music Bus,Hess and other music courses

PeAcifErCALTHINKING

Min

t-,?set,

0K.

20VGION Spring 1990

Recently, I was askedwhere I thought thinking shouldbe taught. Although I haveknown for some time that thebest place to teach thinking wason my sailboat in the Sea ofCortex, I kept mum because Ihaven't been able to find anydirect support in the literaturefor my position. On the otherhand, taken as a whole, the lit-erature has certain implicationsthat encourage my sailboat Idea

but more about that leer.More directly, in the literature,the issue of where and howthinking should be taught isframed In terms of the type ofprogrammatic approach,namely, whether an infused orseparate approach should beused. The separate approachinvolves a special course ofstudy, whereas in the innrsedapproach, thinking skills aremixed into courses and taught"across the curriculum."

Seth infused and separateapproaches have their ownspecial educational advantages(Sternberg, 1987). Separateprograms (a) can maintain theiridentities and avoid being MI-whelmed by curricular content,(b) can explicitly expose thestudent to thinking skills assuch, and (c) can be evaluatedindependently of coursecontent. Infused programs (a)don't requires separate course,(b) teach intellectual skills inthe applied context of a course,and (c) reinforce the point thatthinking skills are Importantthroughout the curriculum.

Which of these approachesis most effective in teachingthinking? Well ...experienceindicates that "thinking abilities

remain limited unless facultycombine forces to cultivatethinking skills deliberatelythroughout the curriculum"(Kurfiss, 1988 p. 91); that "stu-dents can learn the structuralfeatures of argumer.4, but theymust also learn the forms andstandards of evidence for eachfield of study" (Kurtss, 1988, P.13). On the other hand, there arerealistic limitations on just howbroad and deep the Infusion of"thinking across the curricu-lum" can be. Faculty cannot

$ really be expected to be experts

REST COPY BAILABLE

In their discipline and in theteaching of thinking skills(Sternberg. 1987). Specialistsand at least one special courseare also valuable. So, bothapproaches are the most effec-tive approach.

Separate and infused ap-proaches also present their ownspecial challenges to implemen-tation. The separate approachrequires (a) making a place for acourse In the curriculum, (b)Instructional staff, (c) space endfacilities, and (d) an adequateenrollment of stu*nts. An in-fused approath would requirefacutty involvement and train-ing across the collegium, andeepropriate course alterationsin the curriculum. So, althoughboth approaches have Owl r ownspecial implementation prob-lems, the political and organiza-tional challenges of infusing"thinking across the curricu-lum" are especially formidable,i.e., "curriculum-reform" formi-dable. Which is to say that im-plementation would have to beaccomplished in settings wherefaculty participation would bevoluntary; where neither theworking conditions nor the payof faculty would thereby be im-proved. and where participationwould onii add to, complicate,or change existing teachingresponsibilities and practices.Is it any wonder that Integratedinstruction at the curricular levelis rare" (Kurfiss, 1988, p. Se)?

it would be easier and fasterto implement a separate ap-proach by starting a singlecourse, and this is probably themost feasible way to begin(Kurfiss, 1988). Traditionally,courses in rhetoric, logic, andphilosophy have more or lessfilled the bill of a separate ap-proach. But the Important edu-cational advantages associatedwith "infusion" argue stronglythat the development of a think-ing skills program should notbe left at that. So, any approachthat could solve or even amelio-rate problems associated withthe implementation of thinkingskills would be useful.

Don Snow and I, in ourinstructional computing project,"Thinking Across the Curricu-lum," were motivated by I he ideathat the Implementation of pro-

grams tor training intellectualskills could be facilitated withthe instructional assistance ofcomputer-based tutorials de-signed to train specific intellec-tual skills. Faculty could assignsuch tutortals as appropriate tothe goals of their course or tothe needs of particular students.For example, Don is working ona program designed to trainstudents how to inter the mean-ings of words from context avocabulary-acquisition skill thatIs generally much more effec-tive than just a flash-card ap-proach. Such training couldhave very general utility acrossths curriculum. I'm working onan informal logic module, whichdeals with fallacies of explana-tion, relevance, ambiguity, andsell judgement. The fallacies ofexplanation would have specialapplicability to science courses;those of ambiguity to Englishand communication courses;those of relevance, to history.political science, few, end sect-Aociy; and those of self judge-ment to counseling and to per-sonal and social adjustment.Such tutorials could serve asinstructor assistants that couldbroaden, enrich, or provide akind of higher order remedia-lion across the curriculum.

The most important advan-tage to be gained from suchtutorials lies in their potential toenhance the educational powerof the instructor ang the educa-tional access of the student. Tothe extent that such tutorialscould reduce the need for addi-tional staff or additional pro-grams, cost could be reduced.To the extent that such tutorialscould be done in a computerlab, requirements for additionalinstructional space and facili-ties would be minimized. Mostimportantly, the need forcoursealteration. i.e., intrusive curricu-

ium reform, would also beavoided because the computer-ized tutorials could be used as"add-on," or Infused-in" as-signments. In these ways, thiscomputerized tutorial approect.has the potential to facilitate theimplementation of efforts toteach thinking across the cur-riculum.

Returning now to the ques-tion, we see that experiencesuPPorte the idea that thinkingshould be taught everywhere inthe curriculum as teachershave always striven mightily todo. What an intentional "acrossthe curriculum" approachbrings to this process is a focuson fostering a self-consciouskit of intellectual tools studentscan use in life "across the extra-CUITICUIUM." Where does thisleave me and my sailboat? Well,I take comfort in the fact thatthere is nothing in the literaturethat indicates that sailboatswould not be the best place toteach thinking. And I submit thata very sizable percentage ofstudents and teachers wouldrather learn thinking on my sail-boat than in a classroom. But Isuppose that my appeal to theauthority of the many, and myargument from ignorance arenot very convincing. So, untildirect evidence supporting myposition is developed, I supposeI'm best left to these thoughtswhere thinking is best for meone sailboat in the Sea of Cortez.

ReterencesKurfiss, J.G. (1988). Critical

thinking: Theory, research,practice, and possibilities.49HE-ERIC Higher Educa-tion Report No. 2. Washing-ton, D.C.: Association for thef,tudy of Higher Education.

Sternberg, R.F. (1987). Ques-tions and answers about thenature and teaching of think-ing skills. In Baron, JoanBoykoff and Robert J.Sternberg, Eds. Teachingthinking skills: Theory andpractice. New York: WM.Freeman, 1987.

Mike Morgan is a Psychol-ogy Professor kr ScottsdigeCommunity College. Morganwas a member of the CAUSEproject and developed an EDPproject called "A ComputerBased Laboratory for Introduc-tory Psychology." He has pub-Hatred two computer simula-tions with Lite Science Associ-ates and Houghton-Miffiln.Morgan joined ScottsdaleCommunity College in 1078, andhas served on the Liberal Artsand Development EducationTask Forces for the MaricopaCommunity Colleges.

POINT OF VIEW

MIKEORGAN

21yrstoht SprIng 199D

American colleges anduniversities have recently renewed their interest in develop-ing student's ability to think Cr di-cally. Several of these institu-tions of higher educatiun haveimplemented innovative pro-gramming efforts in an attemptto teach students how to organ-ize and present information andideas. to plan and make deci-sions, and to connect theorywith practice. In fact, universi-ties and colleges in Californiahave gone so far as to institutea graduation requirement lecritical thinkMg.

This renewed interest canbe attributed to several factors.First of all, students need todevelop critical thinking abili-ties to help them cope with andmake complex decisions aboutlite Secondly, the college sel-ling provides many studentswith their first real opportunityto focus attention on the rea-coning process. Thirdly, theexplosion of new and emergingtechnologies placesstudonts inthe position of synthesizing andevaluating more information inmore ways in less time. Finally,critical thinking skills are be-coming increasingly essentialto employment even at entrylevel positions.

The teaching at Ltiticalthinking has been around since

POINT OF VIEW

NNS

22VISON Sprmg

1

!§§116Pli

the days of Socrates. However.today the term has been ex-panded to mean an active andorganized process that empha-sizes a rational basis for beliefsand Ickes and provides proce-dures for analyzing, testing, andevaluating them.

Educators can foster Oledevelopment of critical thinkingskills by teaching them in disci.pline specific courses (someexamples include ENG MOTSThinking Skills, PHI 103 intro-duction to Logic, PHI 105 Criti-cal Thinking, and RDG 101 Criti-cal and Evaluative Reading) aswell as promoting campus wideprograms including criticalthinking across the curriculum.Such ettorts will ensure thatcritical thinking skills permeatethe teaching and learning proc-ess.

Critical thinking can beblended into content instructionin any discipline by utilizingseveral approaches to teaching.Instructors should focus onconcrete events including realworld situations drawn from ca-reer, academie, and personal cir-cumstances. Critical thinkingshould serve as a bridge be-tween students' personal andacademic worlds, showing stu-dents that they possess abili-ties in the real world contextwhich can be applied in ace-demic settings. The process ofthinking ("how") rather thanproducts or outcomes ("what")should be emphasized by en-couraging students to evaluatemany alternatives. Such ap-proaches will lead students fromconcrete, everyday ideas tomore abstract, reflective waysof thinking.

For the most part, studentsare not consciously aware ofhow they think. They need to beencouraged to think about theirown thinking (this process isknown as metacognition).Bringing the skins they alreadypossess to their consciousnessis a great beginning to an excit-ing process: the ability to moni-tor their own plan and reflect onits effectiveness, consciouslyknowing the thinking strategiesthey are using.

Higher education shouldlocus on how to think ratherthan on what to think. We need

to emphasize methods thattransform students into activeparticipants in their own intel-lectual growth rather than thosewhich make students passiverecipients of information. Aparadigm shift must occur fromrote memorization of informa-tion to self-directed learningwhich emphasizes criticallygathering and assessing dataThe time has come to createchallenging educational oppor-tunities tor an informed studentbody let's seize it!

Anna Salley is thib Assis-tant Provost of lnstrucitin forEstrella Mountain CommunityCollege Center. She earned aSA and an W in Elementaryand Special Education and elEdD in Higher and Adult Educa-tion at Arizona Slate University.A former chairperson of theReading Instructional Counciltor the Maricopa CommunityColleges, Salley is also a mem-ber of the Arizona Associationof Developmental Education,and the Arizona Association forChicanos in Higher Education,She joined the Maricopa Com-munity Colleges in 1975 asGlendale Community College'sLearning Assistance CenterDirector. Transferring to SouthMountain Community Collegein 1981. she taught various read-ing courses at all levels, andalso sermd as a Chairpersontor the College's Division ofCommunications and Fine Arts.

VVhenwe look at the needfor -critical thinking' in theclassroom, who goes first thestudent or the teacher?

As a frequent continuingeducation student over theyears, my classroom experi-ences on the whole have beenvery positive. But one isolatedexperience comes quickly tomind when considering en an-swer to the chicken-or-the-eggquestion above.

I was enrolled in a socialpsychology class, ereoying theentire experience, when theinstructor began to describemental and physical stability ofinhabitants of a remote fishingvillage. comparing them with theless favorable condition of in-habitants of a sugar plantation

all whom lived on the sameisland.

According to the teacher.the stability of the fishing vil-lage inhabitants was due to thevillage having been in existencelonger than the sugar planta-tion.

At this time. I had alreadybeen treating patients for morethan 20 years: I had witnessedin my patients what science haslong diagnosed as the effects ofdiet - not only physically butmentally. So I suggested to theteacher that there could be othercauses for the behavior andphysical conditions of those twogroups of people.

The teacher emphaticallyreplied. "No," that the textbookclearly stated this was the rea-son. I suggested there was apossibility that the difference indietary habits of the two (thehigh-quality protein of fish inone and the abundance of sugarcane in the other) might alsocontribute to their condition. Theteacher again declared. Thatwould have no effect."

Did this teacher displaysound "critical thinking" skills?By her response, she assumedthe role of an expert and Pa-fused to accept my communi-cation. She was not even willingto take into account the find-ings of biology or nutrition.

On the 3urface. this mayseem a trivial issue, but to me itdisplays the instructors lack ofability to impart and incorpo-rate the values of "critical" or

creative thinking into the learn-ing process. Here is also anexample of how a teacher's atti-tude can either create or de-stroy the symbiosis that ideallyshould exist between teacherand student.

What concerns me (andmany ethers) about the archaicteaching method I have de-scribed is the failure of someteachers to recognize that theyhave a problem psychologicallyand or spiritually. Their teach-ing style is the by-product oftheir own limited thinking proc-ess. My instructor was intim!.dated by my questioning. Herdefense was the textbook. Therewas no more questioning orprobing. analyzing or evaluat-ing or problem-solving. Thematter was closed! Could thatclass have been able to changethe lives of those islanders forthe better?

Michael Scriven, professorof education at the University ofWestern Australia, wrote in Na-tional Forum (1985)that "...train-ing in critical thinking should bethe primary task of education...."

When I took a class in logicat Phoenix College a few yearsag o. I discovered that logic dealtwith deductive reasoning andnot inductive reasoning, induc-tive reasoning examines how:deductive reasoning relates toWhy.

Do the leachers in our in-stitutions focus sufficiently onhow important II is for studentsto know this difference? Are weasking our students to think orlust fel in the blanks? With allthe global challenges that lieahead in this final decade of the20th Century. are we preparingstudents to become problem-solver s?

During the Nixon era,Arthur Schlessinger. then Sec-retary of Defense. gave the

commencement address at theMassachusetts Institute of Tech-nology. His opening statementwas ominOUS:" You are the mostdangerous people on earthbecause you have learned howto build the atomic bomb, but(you) have not learned why youshould build the atomic bomb."His statement, to me, signaledthe common thinking processof the masses in contrast tocritical thinking especially as itrelates to our educational sys-tem.

Most American educatorslack a clear understanding abouthow the mind works. Primaryand secondary school teachingespecially glorifies facts andmemory. Rarely have I found aneducator who could 011ie efe aclear definition of deduction andinduction as it relates to teach-ing. You may wish to ask your-self this question. To under-stand the deductive process isnot an easy skill. To apply II inthe classroom is even morechallenging!

The Maricopa CommunityColleges are distinctly teachinginstitutions. But the teacher isnot omniscient. If the teacher isinvolved in the process of dis-covery along with the students.both teacher and student arerewarded. We promote the idesof life-long learning for our stu-dents. Should we not model thatideal?

RplerencesScrivert, M 1985) Critical tar

survival. NaPonitt Forum. 65111, 9 12

Roy C. Amnsin has been amember of the Afaricopa Com-munity Colleges governingboard for the past 10 years andis serving as the board's pawl-dent in 1990. Dr. Amreln. whoattended Phoenix College. hasbeen a chiropractor in the Val-ley for the past 31 years.

POINT OF VIEW

ROYMREIN

23vtStON spr,na 199r)

The one thing that boththe biological evolutionist andthe biblical creationist agree onIs the fact that thinking la themost pronounced trait that dis-tinguishes mankind from otherlite forms. It is our ability toreflect on past experience endto organize data into meaning-ful collections from which wecan draw conclusions that hasenabled us to develop and prog-ress from fife in a cave to lite ina modern technological soci-ety. An knowledge rests on ourability to think. Without thisability, we would have no ethi-cal distinctions and no scien-tific theories, no artistic crea-tions and no aesthetic appro.clation. Thus, thinking skills arefundamental to life as we knowIt.

Given the fundamentalimportance of thinking skills, itfollows that we as educatorshave a responsibility to teachthese skills to our students. Thatmeans that we must give up ourreliance on memorization andthe use of exami nations that testonly the ability to memorize factspresented by either the instruc-tor or the textbook. All too of-ten, students identify learning

POINT OF V EW

with memorization and whenasked, -What do you thinkrthey are stunned. They do notknow haw to think about mate-rial they have so carefully memo-rized.

Students need to learn howto collect and use evidence tosupport conclusions. They needto learn how to evaluate evi-dence and to recognize the dif-ference between good reasonswhich support conclusions andfaulty evidence or fallacieswhich seem to support conclu-sions but in fact fail to do so.Students need to understandthe importance of consistentclaims and to recognize whenspeakers or writers rely on in-consistent claims which play onour emotions and persuade usto adopt false conclusions.

All of this leads to thequestion of who would be re-sponsible for teaching studentsthese important skills in thecollege curriculum. I think theanswer is obvious. Everyonehas a responsibility for teach-ing those skills that are relevantto that discipline. Literatureteachers need to show studentshow to evaluate plot, character,etc. History professors need toteach students how to identifycauses and how to evaluatehistoric evidence. Science pro-fessors need to instruct stu-dents in how to conduct experi-mentation and how to evaluatethe resulting data. Each disci-pline has unique thinking skillsthat need to be included in the

AHONEY

24laStON Spring 1990

content of the individualcourses. However, courses thatare devoted to thinking skillsexclusively should be taught byinstructors who have a thoroughgrounding in fowtal logic. Thismeans that the basic courses inthinking skills need to be of-fered by philosophy depart-ments. Logic is the basis forthinking skills. It is one of theoldest disciplines known toman. The first book on logicwas writ a by the Greek phi-losopher Aristotle approxi-mately 2000 years ego. Logiccan be viewed es the road mapfor our thinking processes, andunless one has a thoroughgrounding in formal logic, onelacks a true understanding ofhow the structure of argumentsis formed. As any logicianknows, there are eight basic In-ference patterns that underliethe structure of argumentation.Our thinking is a reflection ofour ability to combine theseeight valid inference patternsand to derive conclusions en-tailed by the combination of pat-terns. Unless one is tam War withthese patterns, one is hamperedin trying to teach basic thinkingskills. The same is true in tryingto teach students to recognizefallacies. One may be able torecognize intuitively that suchand such is a fallacy, but unlessone has learned to identify falla-cies and knows why such andsuch is a fallacy, then one lacksthe training to properly teachsuch skills.

Perhaps an analogy wouldbe useful. With the recent em-phasis on writing across thecurriculum, we have encour-aged professors in all disci-plines to provide students withopportunities to write. We havenot, however, suggested that abiology teacher leach grammar.We leave that to the Englishdepartment because the facultyhave formal training in gram-mar. The same is true of think-ing skills. All disciplines needto emphasize the importance o:thinking skills, but we shouldleave the basic teaching of suchskills to those who are trainedin formal logic.

One final thought. Therehas been considerable debateamong educators on the Issue

L

of teaching thinking skills. Thedebate centers on the question,can we teach people to think?By no means do all educatorsagree on the answer to thisquestion. It has been arguedthat thinking is not a skill in thesense that teaming to ride abike is a skill, and thus, it cannot be taught. I disagree withthis viewpoint. Certainly wecannot hope to makegreal think-ers out of everyone, nor can weever guarantee that even themost gifted thinkei *III use thatability in all situations. But thereare certain basic things that wecan teach students to do. If wefail to do this, our students willnot be educated. They will beonly memory banks or trainedtalking parrots. As such theywill not be able to function in themarketplace nor will they be ableto make valuable contributionsto society.

Ann Mahoney, who is aresident faculty member atMesaCommunity College. has herPhD in Fundamentals in Phi-losophy from Arizona StateUniversity. She also holds twomasters degrees, one in humani-ties and one in philosophy. Annhas been involved In issues ofteaching critical thinking for anumber of years. She Is cur-rently President of the MesaCommunity College FacultySenate and an active member ofboth the Budget and StrategicPlanning committees. Sincejoining the Mesa CornmunftyCollege faculty In 1979, Ann hestaught courses in philosophyand logic.

Collaborative Learning,from page 13

ReferencesBenware. C.A.. & Deci. E.L. (1984), Quality of team

ing in the active versus passive motivational set.American Educational Research Journal, 21 (4).7554 *.5.

Bruffee, KA. (1984) Collaborative learning and the'conversation of mankind.' College English, 46( 7). 635-652.

Gilbert, S. (1984) Mode; labs! An active approach toscience process learning. Curriculum Review,24(2). 75-77.

Hamlin, J.. & Janssen, S. (1987) Active learning inlarge introdt...:ory sociology courses, TeachingSoctology, 15, 45-84.

Johnson. D.W., Johnson. R.I., Hotuber, & Roy.P. (19.44). Circles of learning Alexandria, Vir-ginia: Association tor Supervision & Curricu(umDevelopment. 125 N. West Street. 22314-2798.

Nanda, S. (1985). Active learning in the introductorycultural anthropology course, Anthropology &Education Quarterly, 16, 271-275.

Sandburg. K.E. (n.d.). Affective and cognitive fea-tures of collaborative learning. Review of Re-search in Developmental Edulation. 60). NaDonal Center of Developmental Education, ReichCollege of Education, Appalachian State University. North Carolina 28698.

Slavin, R.E. (1983). When does cooperative learningincroase student achievement', PsychologicalBulletin, 94 (3), 429-445.

Smith, B L. (1989). Learning communities, (video-tape). Scottsdale (AZ) Community College StaffDevelopment Center

Weiner. H.S. (1986). Collaborative learning in theclassroom- A guide to evaluation. College Eng-lish. 48 (1) 52-61

Sources tor Future StudyJacques. D. (1984). Learning in groups. Burrell Row,

Beckenham. Ken. England BR31fiT: CroomHeim Ltd.

McDonald, B.A. , Larson. C. O., Dansereau. D. F.. &Spurlin, J. E. (1985), Cooperative dyads: Impactof text learning and transfer. Contemporary Edu.cational Psychology, 10, 365-377.

Schmuck, R.A Chester, M.. & Lippett, R. (1966).Problem solving to improve classroom learning.Chicago: Science Research Associates.

Schmuck, R.A.. & Schmuck. P.A. (1975). Groupprocesses in the classroom (2nd ed.). Dubuque,IA: Wm. C. Brown

R,. Sharon, S.. Lanzarowitz, R.H., Webb. C..& Schmuck. R. (1985). Learning to cooperate,cooperating to learn. New York: Plenium Press.

Juke Ann Wambach, Professor and Chairof theCommunication and Performance Arts Departmentat Scottsdale Community College, joined SCC in1971. Her MS in communication and PhD in AdultDevelopment and Aging came from Arizona StateUniversity A past president of the Maricopa Commu-nity Colleges Faculty Association, Wambach is cur-rently writing a textbook, Group Problem SolvingThrough Communication Styles. She teaches Ele-ments of Communication. Public Speaking. Interper-sonal Communication, anci Small Group Cornmunication,

25VISION Sprkreg 1990

Science education has been widelycriticized for the low achievement scoresof our students and their lack of reasoningskills, which would allow them to apply theknowledge they have to everyday prob-lems (Byrne. 1989. Cul Mon. 1989: Rothman, 1988). Student experiences in scionce classes have left too many of themdisinterested in science and with a lowopinion of scientists and their conclusions(Cole, 1990: Hufford, 1990) T he whole ofthe educational system needs to address

1

!

,/:\\ j /1\.\

W. BRADLEY KINCAID

these problems, and we, who teach in thecommunity colleges. must do our part

Many critics suggest that we overwhelm our students with a deluge of factswhile underemphasizing the narrative fievor of our discipline and the processes bywhich scientific conclusions are reached(Cole, 1990) they suggest we shouldemphasize depth. not breadth in our science courses and teach as much aboutthe process of science as the conclusionsTeaching studPnts how to do science andinvolving them more directly in the learn-ing process may improve their reasoningskills and their attitude toward science.

The learning cycle is a teaching modelthat requires students to examine alternative explanations for natural phenomenaand develop arguments based upon evi-dence for supporting or rejecting theseexplanations (Lawson. 1988). In essence,students learn science by doing scienceInderstanding and appreciation of scion

tific methods may promote the acquisitionof more appropriate concepts to replaceprior misconceptions. Repeated exposureto scientific reasoning may result in theinternalization of these critical thinking skillswith benefits for virtually every aspect oftheir lives Instruction based on learningcycles may also improve students atti-tudes toward science by involving them

more directly in the learning process.encouraging their curiosity, and removingthe mystery surrounding scientific conclu-sions (Lawson. Abraham. & Renner, 1989).

Classroom EvaluationIn an attempt to evaluate the efficacy

of the learning cycle model for biologyinstruction in the community college set-ting. I adopted the learning cycle designand materials developed for non-maior.introductory biology by Professors A.E.Lawson and S.W. Rissing at Arizona StateUniversity (Lawson & Rissing, 1988) Thebasis for the evaluation was a comparison

) LLPI,of my Biology Concepts classes with thosetaught by two other instructors in mydepartment during the 1988-89 academicyear. They used existing. more traditionalmethods of instruction based upon lecturepresentation and laboratory demonstra-tion of biological concepts. The fall se-mester was a trial period in which I improved my skiffs wet learning cycle in-struction and worked out the details of impiementing the new course design anddata collection.

During the spring semester, effects ofthe teaching method on reasoning skillswere assessed by pre and post-testing atotal of 108 students divided among thethree instructors A variety of scientificreasoning skills was tested includingconservation of mass and volume. piT.Ipor-tional reasoning. identificaticill and controlof variables. probabilistic reasoning,combinatorial reasoning, correlation anddependence of variables, and reasoningto a contradiction. The test did not includebiology achievement. Changes in attitudestoward science were assessed with a se-ries of open-ended questions on studentopinions about the course and their under.standing and appreciation of scientificmethods and conclusions, In the balanceof this article, I will describe the uniqueaspects of learning cycle based instruc-tion and my general conclusions regard-ing the efficacy of the teaching method.Detailed results will be presented else-where

.11111114,,..

0 ( 4

Aar-

27VISON, $porig. 1990

The Learning CycleThe learning cycle methods that I

adopted differed from those employed bythe other instructors primarily in the designof the weekly labor9tories and in the se-quencing of topics. The learning cycleapproach requires that biological phenom-ena be explored in the laboratory (or otherexploration situation) prior to any discus-sion of related material in lecture. Thisallows students to examine their priorconceptions or misconceptions and, inmany cases, design and conduct theirown experiments to support or reject theseexplanations.

All laboratories for my class werebased on learning cycles. There are threetypes of learning cycles, but they all share

'Students are encour-aged to develop asmuch of the new con-cept as possible on theirown...'

a three-phase sequence of exploration,term introduction, and concept application(Lawson, 1988; Lawson et al., 1989). Theexploration phase is designed to be astudent's first exposure to a new biologicalphenomenon. In the exploration phase ofsome lab exercises (descriptive learningcycles), students explore a phenomenonintroduced by the instructor and attempt todescribe the pattern upon wnich the bio-logical concept is based. In other labs(empirical-inductive learning cycles), stu-dents go beyond description to generatepotential explanations for the phenome-non. Class discussions then comparethese hypotheses to existing evidence todetermine which are most reasonable. Inthe most advanced learning cycles (hy-pothetico-deductive learning cycles), theexploration phase requires students togenerate hypotheses and then design andconduct experiments to test their hypothe-ses. This places a heavy burden on stu-dent initiative and reasoning ability, butthe rewards in learning are greatest here.The instructor plays an important andsometimes taxing role here, alternately asco-investigator and facilitator to maintainstudent progress.

As the name implies, the next phaseof the learning cycle involves introduction

of terms related to the phenomenon ex-plored. A term associated with a recog-nized pattern constitutes a concept(Lawson, 1988). The terms in differenttypes of learning cycles will variouslydescribe (1) the patterns discovered bythe students, (2) the hypotheses advancedto explain the phenomenon, or (3) thesupported hypotheses or conclusionsdrawn. Students are encouraged to de-velop as much of the new concept aspossible on their own before it is fullyrevealed by the instructor. We never ex-pect students to explicate fully a concepton their own, but they frequently comevery close.

In the concept application phase ofthe learning cycle, additional phenomenaare discussed or explored. Application ofthe concepts in new situations allows thestudents to separate them from their origi-nal context and generalize them. This re-quires students to recognize comparablepatterns outside the context in which theconcept was originally developed. Forsome students, this is particularly difficult,increasing the importance of practicingthis process. Application of a concept to anew situation is a good test of a student'sunderstanding of that concept.

A Learning Cycle on PhotosynthesisA description of an actual laboratory

exercise will further elucidate the learningcycle model of instruction. A class discus-sion of how plants grow and, more specifi-cally, where they obtain the necessaryraw materials and energy begins theexploration phase of a learning cycle in-.,estigating photosynthesis. Points raisedin the discussion are related to familiarobservations such as the growth of houseplzants and gardens and plants giving offoxygen. Eventually, the discussion focuseson the role of light. Students are thenasked to explore the spectrum producedby light passing through a spectroscope inrelation to the usually green color of plants.The class is then asked, "What colors oflight are used for photosynthesis?" Greenlight is invariably hypothesized along withan assortment of other colors and usuallynon-green light.

Now that we have a set of alternativehypotheses, an experiment is called for todifferentiate among them. Here, theinstructor's role as facilitator is necessaryto demonstrate how an aquatic plant pro-duces bubbles of oxygen when it is photo-synthesizing. Most students will readily

accept that more bubbles mean morephotosynthesis. Red, blue and green fil-ters along with light sources of varyingintensities are provided. Students arereminded that they must explicitly predictthe results of their experiments for each ofthe competing hypotheses. One suchstatement might be: If green light is usedin photosynthesis and the plant is placedunder a green light, then a high rate ofbubble production will be observed (i.e., ifhypothesis and experiment, then predic-tion).

The experiments are then performedby small groups of two or three studentswithout further direction from the instruc-tor. Initial results are discussed after ashort period of independent experimenta-tion. Usually, disparate results are pro-duced by a variety of experimental proce-dures. Comparison of experimental ap-proaches leads to discovery of numerousuncontrolled variables including variationin size of plant, light intensity, distance ofplant from light source, temperature, car-bon dioxide concentration, and so on. Thedifficulties of controlled experimentationare readily apparent. This concept wasintroduced in a previous lab period, but itis not until late in the semester that moststudents design well-controlled experi-ments without prompting.

Experiments are redesigned andconducted with the instructor serving inthe role as co-investigator. The term-intro-duction phase begins when final resultsare reported and compared to predictionsin order to draw conclusions. Of course,plants are green because they reflect greenlight, which produced the least bubbles.Terms introduced may include some relat-ing to properties of light (e.g., wavelength,photon, absorption spectrum), the photo-synthetic process (e.g., action spectrum,chlorophyll, photosynthesis itself), andeven controlled experimentation, if notpreviously introduced.

Concept application may proceed withsome short demonstrations such as paperchromatography of plant pigments orstarch production in variegated leaves orin leaves exposed to different levels oflight. Concept application may also occurin a future lab, in a homework assignment.or more likely in lecture as other aspects ofphotosynthesis are discussed. In fact, mostlearning cycles lead to other discussions.One of the best ways to continue thesespiralling learning cycles is through explo-ration of the history of the discovery of

these concepts. sHistorical approachesinvolve students in the narrative of ourdiscipline and give them a true sense ofthe process of discovery that is science.

Evaluation and ConclusionsThe hypothesis that learning cycles

can help students develop their reasoningskills is supported by a statistical analysisof the reasoning tests. Students in thelearning cycle class had post-test scoresthat were 19.4% higher than those ofstudents from other classes. Moreover,the absolute improvement of these stu-dents between pre- and post-testing wasmore than three times that of the otherclasses. Hence, it is apparent that use oflearning cycles can improve the low rea-soning skills of our students. This alsodemonstrates that reasoning skills can belearned and that our efforts can be fruitful.

The hypothesis that learning cyclescan improve the attitudes of studentstoward science was supported by com-parison of student responses to opinionquestions. Virtually all of the learning cyclestudents, compared to 20% from the otherclasses, stated that they had a better

"Students in the learningcycle class had post-testscores that were 19.4%higher than those of stu-dents from other classes."

understanding of science as a result of thecourse. This result was expected as thelearning cycle course was suffused withdiscussions of scientific reasoning. How-ever, an unexpected result was that fully88% of the learning cycle students (com-pared to 22%) responded that they had ahigher opinion of scientific conclusionsbecause o) their experiences in the course.Many of the learning cycle students re-sponded that their greater appreciation ofscience was a result of their greater insightinto scientific methods. Improved attitudesof our students toward science may facili-tate our achievement of scientific literacyand improve our ability to attract and retainscience students (Hufford, 1990).

Learning cycle instruction is demand-ing on instructors. Lab write-ups providedto students are purposely kept very simpleto encourage creativity. Themfore. it is

incumbent upon the instructor to providemuch of the information at the appropriatepoint in the learning cycle. Good class-room discussions are essential to successof leaming cycle instruction. Instructorsmust ensure the participation and coop-eration of all students. Learning cycleinstructors will have to break the bad habitsmost students have. Many students WI..

'Many students will resistthe requirements thatthey think, especially the-just-tell-me-what-to-memorize-so-l-canpass-the-tests" students.

resist the requirements that they think,especially the "just-tell-me-what-to-memo-rize-so- I-can-pass-the-tests" students.Efforts will occasionally be necessary toengage advanced students who are boredwith the slower progress of other students.To be maximally effective, learning cycleinstruction requires adjustments of ourteaching styles including lectures, testingmaterials, and grading systems. Manyinstructors will resist these requirements.

Learning cycle instruction can be avery rewarding experience. Experiencingthe varied roles of lecturer, facilitator, andco-investigator is stimulating. Experienc-ing student curiosity, involvement, ;--tdenthusiasm is refreshing. Experiencingimprovements in student reasoning skillsand attitudes toward science is encourag-ing. The potential rewards of learning cycle

instruction justify its further considerationfor the improvement of science etlucation.

I gratefully acknowledge Tony Lawsonand Sandra Meyer of Arizona State Uni-versity for introducing me to learning cycleinstruction and the faculty and staff of theLife Science Department at Mesa Com-munity College for their support during thestudy.

ReferencesByrne, G. (1989). U.S. students flunk math. science.

Science, 243, 729.Cole, K.C. (1990. January 7). Science under Scrutiny.

New Ywk Times Education Section, 18-19.Culllton, B.J. (1989). The rfismal state of scientific

literacy. Science. 243, 600.Hufford, Ti, (1990). Educational receptivity before

science literacy. BioScience. 40. 44-45.Lawson, A.E. (1988). A better way to teach biology.

American Biology Teacher, 50,266-278.Lawson, A.E., Abraham, M. R., & Renner, J. W.

(1989). A theory of instruction: Using learningcycles to teach science concepts and thinkingskills. National Assxiation for Research in Sr '-ence Teaching MOnagrxh, 1, 1-131

Lawson, Al., & Rissing, S.W. (1988). The LivingWorld Laboratory Manual. Prospect Press:Scottsdale, Arizona.

Rothman, R. (1988, September 1). Science-achieve-ment levels on test distressingly low. EducationWeek, 11.

W. Bradley Kincaid, a Biology Instructor forMesa Comniunity College, earned his BS in Environ-mental Science from Western Washington Univer-sity and his MS and PhD degrees fmm the Universityof Houston. He has published many research articleson topics ranging from small mammal ecology to theeffects of air pollution on forest growth Kincaid wasa Faculty Research Associate at Arizona State UM.versify for 7 years before coming to the MaricopaCommunity Colleges last year. He is currently work-ing on alternative instructional approaches for non-biology TOPS and a Maricopa Community CollegesInstructional Computing Grant to develop interactivevideodisc software for biology.

Studies of college teach-ing support the view that the fre-quency and quality of a teacher'scontact with students, inside andoutside the classroo m, affect stu-dents' involvement in their ownlearning. Positive teacher-stu-dent relations have been linkedto students' satisfaction withcollege, their educational aspire-tio ns, and their academicachievement. When adult stu-dents perceive their teachers aspartners in the educational proc-ess, they are more likely to takeon new challenging tasks (Ellner& Barnes, 1983). I have listedbelow some things I do to estab-lish positive relations with stu-dents.

The Weicomm Letter: Saying itin a Different Way

During the first class ses-sion, students enrolled in myPsychology 101 classes receivea personalized letter. The letter(on college stationary) is titled"Welcome to Rio Salado Com-munity College and the ExcitingWorld of Psychology!" The letterhighlights new information andresearch in applied psychology,the nature of the teaching/learn-ing process, and research on theadult learner. In closing, the let-ter indicates my pleasure inhaving them in class. Attached tothe letter is a more traditionalcourse outline (weekly assign-ments, test dates, projects andpresentations, grading and evalu-ation). As students read theirletters, baroque or classicalmusic is playing in the back-ground. According to research,baroque music, with its stablecomposition and unique rhyth-mical structure, is particularlyconducive for stress-reductionand productivity (Summer, 1981).

Students' interest Cards: "WhyI'm Here"

After receiving the courseoutline and answering questionsstudents may have on my ex-pectations and goals for the ciass,I ask students to write their goalsand expectations. Each student

ET ING

ONEis given a 3"x5" index card andstates "Why I'm taking the class."The information on each studentgives me an opportunity to learnmore about students' interestsin psychology and to attempt toincorporate their interests intochapter and class discussions.

Positive PostcardsFeedback is information

about current performance thatcan be used to improve or en-hance future performance. Inhelping adult students attributetheir success in the course totheir ability and their effort, I per-iodically send each student (twoor three times a semester) apostcard to challenge, acknowl-edge and reward effort for suc-cess. Some of the commentscould be: "Great to see your hardwork pay off ." "I know a lot of per-severance went into this proj-ect." "Your knowledge and un-derstanding is apparent in yourwriting." On the other hand, thepostcard allows me to acknowl-edge a student whose perform-anc6 could be better. Appropri-ate comments may be: "I realizeyou may be disappointed withyour score on Study Guide No.2, but my honest estimate ofyour performance is that withcontinued effort you can defi-nitely improve. Come by my of-fice and we can review a gameplan." By using tact, I let stu-dents know that I believe in theirability to learn; I recognize areaswhere they can improve; I invitethem to realize their power andresponsibility in the learning task;and I offer my time to clarify andreview difficult, unsuccessfullearning outcomes.

Students have reacted posi-tively upon receiving the post-cards. One v.oman came up tome one night in class exclaim-ing, "Look, my daughter received

CREATINGANDMAINTAININGA SUPPORTIVEENVIRONMENTWITH THEADULT LEARNERRENE DIAZ-LEFEBVRE

a similar card from her third gradeteacher. Now both cards are onthe refrigerator doorr

ConclusionThe Welcome Letter, Stu-

dent Interest Cards, and PositivePostcards are techniques appli-cable to other disciplines accord-ing to instructor and studentneeds. Granted, it does ask moreof an instructor's time and effort,but the pay-off tor students andinstructor is very rewarding!

References& Barnes, C.P. (1983).

Studies of college teaching:Experimental results, theoreticalinterpretations, and new perspm-lives. taxington, MA: LexingtonBooks. D. C. Heath.

Summer, L. (1981, Spring). Tuningup in the classroom with musicand relaxation. Journal of theSociety of Accelerative Learningand Teaching, 46-50.

Rena Dlaz-Lefebvre, ResidenPal Faculty and Discipline Specialistin Psychology at Rio Salado Com-munity College. received his MA inCounseling from California StateUniversity, San Bernardino, and aPhD in Counseling Psychokigy fromthe Union Graduate School. He is amember of Division 2: Teachers ofPsychology (APA). Phi Beta Kappaand the National Association of Adultand Continuing Education. Diaz-Lefebvre has published a variety ofarticles and given national presenta-tions on the adult learner, and hasbeen recogrided by the CommunityCollege Leadership Pmgram at theUniversity of Texas, Austin, as anExceptional and Master Teacher, Hejoined Rio Salado Community Col.lege in 1985,

LOCAL RESOURCES ON

CRITIC A THINKING:A SELECTED, ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHYJill R. Seymour

The purpose of this paper is to provide aselected, annotated bibliography of local re.sources on the subject of critical thinking pub-lished in the last 5 years. Particular emphasiswas placed on identifying those materials re-lated to instruction in the Maricopa CommunityColleges. To locate these materials, the authorused the library catalogs of the MaricopaCommunity Colleges, Arizona State University(ASU. ASU WEST), and the public libraries ofPhoenix (PPL), Glendale (GPL), Scottsdale(SPL). Mesa (MPL), and Tempe (TPL). Inaddition, Education Index and ERIC CD-ROMIndex were also checked for related materials.So much has been written on this subject thatit is impossible to include everything here. Amore complete listing of materials can be re-ceived by contacting the author.

Arons. A.B. (1985). Critical thinking and thebaccalaureate curriculum. Liberal Educa-tion. 71, 141-157. (ASU, ASU West)The author provides rationale for teachingcritical thinking across the curriculum. Afterdescribing some of the problems existent instudents' learning of critical thinking, Aronsconcludes with a suggestion of how facultymight assist each other in designing unitsthat would teach critical thinking skills.

Bandman. E.L., & Bandman. B. (1988). Criticalthinking in nursing. Norwalk, Conn.: Apple-ton & Lange. (ASU West, MPL, PPL)"The purpose of this book is to identify andstrengthen the critical thinking skills of nursesby demonstrating the role of scientific rea-soning, logic and philosophy in increasingthe effectiveness of the nursing process.and everyday nursing decisions" (p.xi).Designed as a text on critical thinking fornurses, each chapter begins with a list oflearning objectives. Many chapters includeexercises.

3

Brookfield, S. (1987). Developing critical think-ers: Challenging adults to explore alterna-tive ways of thinking and acting. San Fran-cisco: Jossey-Bass. (GCC. GWCC, PCC.MCC, RSCC, SCC. ASU. ASU West. PPL,SPL)The author. Direfior of the Center for AdultEducation at Teachers College, ColumbiaUniversity, has divided this volume i1itothree parts: (1) understanding critical think-ing in adult life. (2) practical approaches fordeveloping critical thinkers, and (3) helpingadults learn to think critically in differentarenas of life.

Brown, W., & Leon. J.J. (1986). An approach toquestioning as a teaching and learningmethod in sociology. College Student Jour-nal, 20, 110-114. (GCC. ASU West)The authors present a model for using thequestioning method in teaching sociology.

Brown, M.N., & Litwin, J.L. (1987). Criticalthinking in the sociology classroom: Facili-tating movement from vague objective toexplicit achievement. Teaching Sociology.15, 384-391. (PVCCC, ASU, ASU West)The authors recommend that practiceswhich encourage students to think criticallyneed to be fully integrated throughout thesociology curriculum. They then providespecific suggestions for classroom behav-ior, curriculum materials, and evaluationtechniques.

Carpenter. C.B.. & Doig, J.C. (1988). Assess-ing crifical thinking across the cuMculum. InJ.H. McMillan (Ed.). New directions forteaching and learning: No. 34. Assessingstudents' learning (pp. 33-46). San Fran-cisco. Jossey-Bass. (PVCCC. ASU, ASUWest)While focusing on techniques that can beused in all disciplines, the authors "...reviewassessment procedures that can be used inthe classroom and on the institutional levelto measure critical thinking.' (p. 33).

Commeyras. M. (1989). Using literature toteach critical thinking. Journal of Reading.32703-707. (GCC, MCC, PCC. SMCC.ASU, ASU West, MPL, PPL)The author focuses on the connection be-tween reading and critical thinking andmentions seven critical thinking abilitiesthat can be enhanced through literatureinstruction.

Evans. ER, & Supnick, R. (1989). Evaluatingevidence of critical thinking skills. BusinessEducation Forum. 43,16-18. (ASU, PPL).Using writing to evaluate critical thinking,the authors have designed a checklist whichincludes components of the purpose of thewriting, audience analysis. coherence logic,sentence logic, parallel features, and sub-ordinate features to assist them.

Finster. D.C. (1988). Freshmen can be taughtto think creatively, not just amassinformation. Chronicle of Higher Education,34. A40. (DIST. MCC. PVCCC, ASU, ASUWest, MPL)The author briefly describes William Perry'sview of cognition in college students. In-cludes a discussion of developmental-in-struction theory. and tells how the author. achemistry instructor, applies both conceptsin his classes.

Grant. G.E. (1986). Teaching critical thinking.New York: Praeger. (PVCCC. SCC. ASU.MPL)Using knowledge gained from observingthe teaching of four experienced high schoolteachers and reviewing the literature, theauthor discusses the relationship betweenteacher knowledge of content, their stu-dents, and themselves and the teaching ofcritical thinking

Grinol. A, B. (Ed.) (1988). Critical thinking:Reading and writing across the curriculum,Belmont. Calif.: Wadsworth Pub. Co. (PCC.SCC)Part one of this textbook briefly explainsconcepts of learning critical thinking, read-ing, and writing. The remainder of the vol-ume contains short essays on many topicsfrom the physical sciences, the social sci-ences, and the humanities, Each essay issupplemented by ten multiple-choice ques-tions, evaluative essay questions. andsuggestions for future discussions.

Halpern. D.F. (1989). Thought and knowledge:An introduction to critical thinking. Hillsdale.N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates. (PCC. ASUWest)Designed as a textbook. each chapter in-cludes a summary, exercises, arid sug-gested readings. It begins with an introduc-tion to thinking. Succeeding chapters dis-cuss reasoning and analyzing arguments,

the acquisition and retrieving of knowledge.decision making and problem solving andcreative thinking.

Henk. W.E., & DeStephen. D. (1987). Courseuses thinking as thread in communication.Journalism Educator, 42,38-41. (ASU, ASUWest)The authors describe a mass communica-tion course they have developed in whichthey teach critical thinking skills. Includedare specific exercises and assignments.

Klemp, G.O. (1988). The meaning of success:A view from outside the academy. LiberalEducation. 74. 37-41. (ASU)The author, president of an organizationspecializing in human resource manage-ment, discusses the three skills cogni-tive, interpersonal, and intrapersonalwhich contribute to job success.

Kloss, R.J. (1988). ToWards asking the rightquestions: The beautiful, the pretty, and thebig messy ones. Clearing House. 61, 245-248. (SMCC, ASU, ASU West, MPL)The author begins by briefly reviewing theliterature as it relates to the kinds of ques-tions teachers ask their students. He fol-lows with two examples from a literatureunit of how an instructor might includequestions that encourage higher-orderthink-ing skills. He concludes by emphasizing theimportance of employing the inquiry methodin teaching.

Kurfiss, J.G. (1988). Critical thinking: Theory,research, practice, and possibilities. Col.lege Station, TX.: Association for the Studyof Higher Education. (CGCCC, ASU)The author discusses the three perspec-tives argument skills, cognitive process.and intellectual development on criticalthinking discovered in a survey of the litera-ture. She also describes many programsand courses which teach critical thinkingskills. A list of references is included.

Kurfiss. J.G. (1989). Helping faculty fosterstudents' critical thinking in the disciplines.In A.F. Lucas (Ed.), New directions forteaching and learning: No. 37. The depart-ment chairperson's role in enhancing col-lege teaching (pp. 41-50). San Francisco:Jossey-Bass (PVCCC)Kurfisscomments briefly on the critical think-ing ability of students and Perry's four levelsof cognition in college students. She sug-gests some mechanisms for teaching criti-cal thinking across disciplines and con-cludes with a discussion of the role of thedepartment chairperson in encouragingteaching critical thinking.

Mayes. C. (1987). Five critical thinking strate-gies for adult basic education learners. Life-long Learning, 10, 11-13, 25. (PCC, ASU,ASU West, MPL, PPL)"This article presents five critical thinkingstrategies that can be used to increasecritical thinking skills among adult basiceducation learners. The five strategies areanalogy, comprehension-monitoring, stu-dent-constructed questions, gloss, and key-word methods of learning vocabulary words"(p.11).

McMillen, L. (1986). Many professors now startat the beginning by teaching their studentshow to think. Chronicle of Higher Educa-tion. 32. 23-25. (MCC, PVCCC, ASU, ASUWest. MPL)Discusses the need for students to be taughtcritical thinking skills, and describes howseveral colleges and instructors are ad-dressing this need.

McWhorter. K.T. (1988). Study and thinkingskills in college. Glenview, IL: Scott, Fores-man. (SCC. SMCC, MPL)Designed as a textbook to assist students inlearning the skills needed for success incollege. it includes critical thinking and prob-lem solving skills as well as the thinking/writing relationship and self-assessment ofthinking and study skills.

Meyers. C. (1986). Teaching students to thinkcritically: A guide for faculty in all disci-plines. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (GCC,GWCC, MCC. RSCC, SMCC)Advocating the teaching of critical thinkingacross the curriculum, Meyers presentsseveral steps for accomplishing this goal.Some of the steps given involve fosteringstudent interest, structuring classes to fa-cilitate critical thinking, and designing effec-tive written assignments.

Norris. S.P. (1986). Evaluating critical thinkingability. History and Social Science Teacher,21, 135-146. (ASU)Norris begins with a brief discussion ofseveral concepts related to evaluating criti-cal thinking. In the article he considers howinformation is collected, such as the CornellCritical Thinking Test, and the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. andconcludes with comments concerning howthis information can be used.

Novak. J.A.. & Dettloff. J.M. (1989). Develop-ing critical-thinking skills in community col-lege students. Journal of College ScienceThinking, 19. 22-25. .okSU Noble)The authors, two biology instructors, de-scribe two methods they have designed forassisting students to develop higher-orderthinking skills, the task analysis, and thelong-term investigation.

Page, H.W. (1985). Teaching critical thinking inthe English literature surveycourses. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED272 896) (ASU. ASU West)Page surveys Piaget's, Perry's and Bas-seches' theories of adult cognitive develop-ment. She describes how knowledge ofthese theories and students' learning stylescan assist instructors in designing classesin English literature that assist students indeveloping critical thinking skills

Page, H.W. (1988). Literature across the col-lege curriculum. Joume of Reading, 31,520-524. (GCC. MCC. SMC, ASU, ASUWest, MPL, PPL)In this essay instructors describe how theyhave incorporated the use of literature intotheir non-English classes to assist studentsin learning both subject matter and criticalthinking skills.

Pintrich. P.R. (1988). Student learning andcollege teaching, In R.E. Young & K.E. Eble(Eds.), New directions for teaching andlearning: No 33. College teaching and learn-ing: preparing for new commitments (PP.71-86). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass(PVCCC)After presenting the three general themesthat are prevalent in research on cognitionand student learning, the author describesrecent findings from research on students'knowledge, learning strategies, and criticalthinking.

Presseisen, B.Z. (1988). At-risk students andthinking: Perspectives from research.Washington, DC: National Education Asso-ciation; Philadelphia, PA: Research fcrBetter Schools. (PCC)While th;s focuses on at-risk students andcritical thinking from an ,lementary andsecondary school perspective, the conceptsdiscussed here may carry over to work withstudents in post-secondary education.Some of these concepts involve learningand assisted performance, intellectualassessment, and strategies to help teach-ers empower at-risk students.

Ruggiero. V.R. (1988). The art of thinking: Açuide to critical and creative thought (2nded.). New York: Harper & Row, (RSCC,SCC)A textbook for teaching thinking, it is dividedinto four sections: 1) awareness of thethinking process, 2) the relationship be-tween creativity and t h inking, 3) critical think-ing, and 4) the art of persuasion.

Ruggiero, V.R. (1988). Teaching thinking acrossthe curriculum. New York: Harper & Row.(PCC, ASU, ASU West)The goal of this book is to assist instructorsin understanding the theory of thinking in-

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struction and to provide some assignmentand thinking exercises which may beadapted for use in various content class-rooms. It also includes a chapter on theassessment of students' thinking skills.

Sheridan, J.J. (1987). Teaching thinking: Themission of the humanities. Community,Technical and Junior College Journal. 5818-21. (GCC, GWC. MCC. PCC. PVCCC,SCC, SMCC, ASU, ASU West. PPL)Sheridan, an English professor. argues thatthe process of thinking ought to be taught inhumanities classes. He then describesvarious techniques. such as metaphor jour-nals, free-writing. Plus, Minus. Interesting(PMI), and Alternative Ways of Looking(AWOL), which he has used to teach think-ing.

Silberman. R. (Ed.). (1988). Symposium oncritical thinking and consumer chemistry.Journal of Chemical Education. 65, 204-218. (MCC, ASU, ASU West, MPL. PPL)In this symposium, eight authors providesupport for the use of consumer chemistryto foster critical thinking. For example, onearticle explains how students apply chemis-try principles to evaluate claims made inadvertisements.

Stemberg, R.J. (1986). Critical thinking. lts na-ture. measurement, and improvement.Washington, DC: Nationre Institute of Edu-cation. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 272 882) (ASU, ASU West)Sternberg defines critical thinking as "themental processes, strategies. and repre-rentations people use to solve problems,make decisions, and learn new concepts"(p. 2). He describes the philosophical, andeducational tradition of critical thinking andmentions various tests of critical thinkingwhich have their origins in the three differ-ent traditions. He concludes by describingvarious programs which have been devel-oped for teaching critical thinking.

Slice, J.E. (Ed.). (1987). New directions forteaching and learning: No. 30. Developingcritical thinking and problem-solving abili-ties. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (PCC,PVCCC. RSCC. SMCC, ASU, ASU West)This volume focuses on teaching problemsolving. Seven essays. written by profes-sionals involved in teaching these skills,provide practical suggestions for accom-plishing this goal.

,

Taylor. W.M. (1987). Political science 202:international relations: Writing assignments.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 284 626) (ASV ASU West)The author provides five writing assign-ments, geared to the content of a commu-nity college course on internationd rela-tions, which Taylor uses to teach hie stu-dents to think critically. Included also areexplanations of each assignment which heprovides to his class.

Wilcox, R.T. (1988). Teaching thinking whileexploring educational controversies. Clear-ing House, 62.161-164 (SMCC, ASU, ASUWest, MPL)The author, an education professor, pro-vides seven recommendations for teachingthinking skills. They are: 1) make minimaluse of the lecture method of teaching; 2)teach it as part of the content area; 3)require interaction between the teacher andthe student or between students: 4) teach-ers should present both their own and others'opinions and identify them clearly as such;5) modify grading practices to encouragean atmosphere of trust and freedom ofexpression: 6) pare content courses toessentials to allow time to employ interac-tive methods; and 7) students should berequired to express themselves clearly inthe written form.

Jill f?. Seymour is the Director of LearningResources at Paradise Valley CommunityCollege. After earning an AS in Legal Secretar-ial Science from Northwestern ConnecticutCommunity College and a BA in History fromSouthern Connecticut State University. Sey-mour went to the State University of New Yorkat Albany where she acquired her MLS. Amember of the American Library Associationand the Arizona State Library Association.Seymour joined the Maricopa CommunityColleges in 1984.

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Statement of Purpose

Vision '90: The Maricgoa Community Colleges Journalof Teaching and Learning provides a forum for faculty andstaff to exchange information about effective teaching andlearning strategies. We encourage faculty and staff to submitarticles on teaching, learning, and classroom researchincluding those describing programs, projects and researchactivities across the curriculum at the community collegelevel. Articles may be research-based or may result frompractical experience in the classroom. The language of allarticles should be accessible to faculty outside the author'sdiscipline.

Articles are either accepted, accepted with revisions, ornot accepted based on the relevance of their content andstyle to the journal's statement of purpose. For details onmanuscript, see the Writer's Guidelines on page 34. Forfurther information, write the editor at:

VISIONMaricopa Community College District

Maricopa Center for Learning and Instruction3910 E. Washington Street

Phoenix, Arizona 85034or call 392-2462 and ask for a Vision staffer. The journal ispublished two times a year. Points of view published hereinmay not reflect the opinions of the MCCD, except wherestated.

Maricopa Community CollegesDistrict Administrators

ChancellorPaul A. Elsner

Vice-ChancellorsRon BleedAlfredo G. de los Santos Jr.William F. WaechterDan S. Whittemone

Governing BoardRoy C. AmreinPresidentDonald R. CampbellSecretaryM. Grant ChristensenMemberBarbara HitchcockMemberLinda B. RosenthalMember

Raul Cardenas. President SMCCLarry K. Christiansen, President MCCJohn A. Cordova, President PVCCArthur W. DeCabooter, President SCCMyrna Harrison, President PCHomero Lopez, Provost EMCCCPhil Randolph, President GWCCLinda M. Thor, President RSCCJohn R. Waltrip, President GCCArnette Ward, Provost CGCCC

10

iSiON '90

Journal Staff

Richard F. MaloneEditor

Sheila SchumacherArt Director

Naomi 0. StoryEditorial Consultant

Peg Ga iliganAnastasia Amabisca

Editorial Assistants

John NelsonIllustrator

Cynthia GreeningProduction Director

Editorial Board

Karen Conzelman, GCC

Chris Ferguson, PVCC

Patrick Haas, GCC

Patricia Medeiros, SCC

Kathleen Murphy-Irwin,GWCC

Nancy Pittman, MCC

Don Richardson, PC

Susan Starrfteld, SMCC

Liz Warren, District

Copynght 1990 by the Maricooa Corn-munq Colleges, 3910 East fishing-ton, Phoenix, AZ 85034. ISSN #1046-2031. Mahcopa Com mu My Colleges areEqual Opportunity/Affirmative Action In.stitutions..

'TIAS ONThe merkopa Commoofty Colleges lama of Yeaching sod turning

Contents

'90

IntroductionNaomi 0. Story Page 4

Notes from the EditorRichard F. Malena Page 4

An Accelerated Approach toAccounting Basics

Bernadine McCollum Page 5

EnVision ThisPage 8

"Why" Affects "How": StudentMotivations and Literacy

Virginia V. Stahl Page 12

The Electronic Forum: LinkingStudents to their Future

Cyndi Greening Page 16

Writing for Reality: How to CoaxWriting Out of the Classroom

Linda Evans ........... Page 22

Point of View: Teaching EthicsRoy C. Am ein Page 27Harvey Turner Page 28Edd Welsh Page 29

Increasing the Effectiveness ofPart-Time Faculty

John Lampignano . Page 30

BEST COPY AVAILABLE4 1

INTRODUCTION

Bil:ie Hughes has recentlytaken a faculty position atPhoenix College. With herforesight and leadership Visionhas become a reality and atestament to the many excellentteaching and learning ideas andactivities that exist in our district.

The Maricopa Center foizming and Instruction is

continuing its commitment andsupport to the journal and itseditorial board. Among severaldistrict-wide agendas to improveteaching and learning, the Centerworks to ensure collegiality andprofessional growth amongfaculty and administrators as wellas to foster new and differentinstructional innovation. Vision'90 provides this opportunity.

As the Director for theMaricopa Center for Learning andInstruction, I am enthused aboutbeing part of the Vision editorialboard. I also look forward toperpetuating the direction thatBillie Hughes provided to thiseffort and hope that I can promoteand facilitate the growth andmaturation of this unique andimportant journal.

Naomi 0. Story

Welcome to the newest edition of Vision '90: The MaricopaCommunity Colleges' Journal of Teaching and Learning.Incredible as it may seem, this is the third edition of Vision, whichin its appearance and content is continually improving.

The newest journal board members deserve much credit forthis issue. Thanks for a job well done: Don Richardson, SusanStarrfield, Nancy Pittman, and Pat Medeiros. However, let menot forget the time and effort put in by other members of theboard: Kathleen Murphy-Irwin, Karen Conzelman, Pat Haas,and Sheila Schumacher. Additionally, we would like to welcomeNaomi Story as the new editorial consultant, replacing BillieHughes who did an outstanding job of assisting with everyaspect of the journal.

This journal issue carries on the theme of quality teachingand learning that is prevalent in our district, Articles in this issuethat reflect this are "An Accelerated Approach to AccountingBasics" by Bernadine McCollum, "Writing for Reality: How toCoax Writing Out of the Classroom" by Linda Evans, and "TheElectronic Forum: Linking Students to Their Future" by CyndiGreening. Also, two intervention articles are presented thatrelate to teacher effectiveness and student learning motivation:"Increasing the Effectiveness of Pan-Time Faculty" by JohnLampignano and "'Why' Affects 'How': Student Motivations andLiteracy" by Virginia V. Stahl.

Roy Amrein introduces the "Point of View" column on"Teaching Ethics," Harvey A. Turner and Edd Welsh share theirperspectives on this topic as it relates to the Medical andBusiness areas of instruction. Please note the new column in thisissue entitled "EnVision This" on page 8. This column is for allfaculty, staff, and administrators to share great ideas for teachingand learning with their peers. In addition, we have added a staff-written article to our contents, featuring interdisciplinary andintercampus topics. The feature on the "Electronic Forum" is ourfirst staff-written article. Your suggestions for topics of futurestaff-written articles are welcome.

Along with the success, Vision has had some Mitorialerrors. One such error appeared in the last issue. The title of W.Bradley Kincaid's article should have read "Using the LearningCycleto Teach Biology Concepts and Reasoning Skills." Personalapologies have been extended to the author; I also apologize tothe readers for this error.

Let me close with two messages. First, please continue tocontribute to the journal: remember you are our potentialauthors and only with your articles can Vision continue. Second.Don Richardson. of Phoenix College. will assume the editorshipof your journal as of January 1991.

Notes from theEditor

Richard Malena

An AcceleratedApproach toAccounting BasicsBernadine McCollum

Can one learn the basics of account-ing in eight hours without ever hearing thewords "debit" or "credit"? Many seasonedadjunct accounting instructors would nev-er believe it possible unless they, too,attended The Accounting Game, a fast-paced, eight-hour accelerated approachto understanding accounting transactionsand financial statempnts.

The Accounting Gam3 was featuredin an article in The Wail Street Journal afew years ago. This author put the articlein her lollow up some day" file. Over theintervening two years, she was exposedto accelerated, or activated learning con-cepts, thr.;1_ gh Rio Salado CommunityCollege where she teaches. Sold on theconcepts, she began to think of ways toapply them in her entry level accountingclasses to increase student comprehen-sion, interest, and participation.

The Accounting Game brought it allinto focus. After an explanation of thehighlights of the game, the use of theconcepts in courses will be detailed.

The class the author attended wassponsored by a local Certified Public Accounting firm and the majority of the at-tendees were their clients' staff people.data processors, salespeople, adminis-trators, and engineers, a mixed back-ground similar to that of entry level ac-counting classes.

The instructor immediately capturedthe class's attention and started theadrenalin flowing by offering a well-wornone-hundred dollar bill to any person whoasked a dumb question. If that was not aclear sign of what was in store, the gameof Simon Says which followed was. Theinstructor guided the students through thepaces of touching their noses. wiggling

their ears, and so on until only one unerr-ing student remained standing. The othertwenty-six students were not punished formaking errors which, of course, was thepoint of the whole exercise. Additionalcomforl came from the rainbow of bal-loons wafting above the tables affirming."Our Accounting Success Is AbsolutelyAssured."

Atter Simon Says, students closedtheir eyes and entered a time warpsummertime in the '50s. The music "RockAround the Clock" put them in the moodfor nicknames, scooters, and lemonadestands. The instructor, under the name"Bloomers," talked "Bully," "Eddie," "Stick."and the rest of the gang into opening alemonade stand.

With two dollars from the piggy bankand five dollars from "Mom" to buy lemonsand sugar, the gang was in business. Themusic was changed to a lower volumeBaroque-style "1-2-3-4-count."

The "gang" sold the first lemonade,and while "Bloomers" kept score on theoversized balance sheet at the front of theroom, students mapped out the account-ing transactions on individual gameboardsor balance sheets. Buy more lemons, sub-tract from cash, and add the cost to thelemon inventory. Sell lemonade, subtract;rom the lemonade inventory, and add tocash. Who said accounting was difficult?

Atter the first prof itable day, "Bloomers"took a snapshot of her giant scorecardwith a toy camera. At the end of the "week,""Bloomers" switched to a toy video cam-era to capture all of the expense andrevenue activities for the income statement."Bloomers" sang "Roll up the profits, lem-ons are turning to gold" to the tune of "RollOut the Barrel," and the first week's profits

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were moved into owner's equity. With thefirst week history, the students took a welt-deserved break.

This set the pattern for the day: fiftyminutes of buying, selling, and recordingfollowed by a closely monitored, ten-minutebreak, which included lemonade, of course.Before getting back to business, studentsstretched and bent to get their blood circu-lating.

The business prospered, even whenthe price of lemons went up a nickel andstudents had to worry about FIFO (first-in,first-out) and LILO (last-in, last-out) inven-tory evaluation. In fact, they were soon toobusy to make lemonade and found that itwas just as profitable to raise prices a littleand buy frozen lemonade. They were onthe fast track to entrepreneurial success.Lemons were turning to pots of gold everyfifty minutes, even when they switchedfrom cash to accrual accounting.

Oops! Their success quickly went totheir heads. They spent almost all of theircash for a new lemonade stand and didnot have enough left to buy lemons ormake lemonade for the biggest event ofthe summer. The mean old grocer refusedto sell to them on credit. Tapping theircollective creativity, they wriggled out ofthe tight spot but learned a valuable les-son about cash flow and the joys of leasingversus buying.

Reality struck wr,.n the students hadto pay taxes on their profit. One studentcame very close to winning the hundreddollars when he asked whether profitswere always taxed.

They rolled the final transaction intotheir financial statements, cheered theirsuccessful venture into history. and trans-ported themselves back to the '90s.

The truth written on the brightly col-ored posters in their peripheral vision re-minded them that "Accounting is fun, easyand creative." and was validated whenthey re-took the ten question pre-test. Thegroup average leaped from sixty-eight toninety-seven percent,

"Pomp and Circumstance" echoedtheir success as each student received asincere handshake and a suitable-for-framing diploma. No one won the hundreddollars.

This student, however, did developfour ideas for ilcorporating activatedlearning principles into basic accountingclasses. First, students stand and stretch.

4

bend, and take three or four deep breathsbefore beginning. Since the classes meetin the evening, teachers compete with aday's worth of job, traffic, and personalstress for the students' attention. This oneminute exercising helps them regain andrefocus their energy.

Second, the semester begins with anabbreviated version of the lemonade standexercise. Instead of gameboards, studentsuse scorecards with pre-labeled T-ac-counts. This eases the transition into deb-its and credits. The gameboard conceptalso satisfies the needs of different learn-ing styles, i.e. audio instructions and ex-planations, visual demonstration of howthe transactions look, and a kinestheticexperience of entering the dollars in thecorrect columns.

The third idea is to give five-questionpre- and post-quizzes covering the keyconcepts emphasized during each classsession. This assists the students to focuson the concepts that remain unclear andprovides positive, immediate reinforce-ment. Baroque music played during thequizzes and also during the formal testshelps ease the students' nerves.

The final idea is to display severalposters to convey accounting principles orequations using a cartoon format, somewhich state truisms like, "Genius is ninety-nine percent perspiration and one percentinspiration," and other posters which de-pict a picture of a mountain or a pastoralsetting. Two or three posters are used asperipherals to set a mood for each classsession. The posters are not referred tounless students ask questions about them.

Over time, experimentation and stu-dent input will help determine which acti-vated learning techniques work best. Theend results should increase student interestand put the element of fun back into thefundamentals.

Bernadine McCollum graduated from San JoseState University with a BS in Business Administra-tion-Accounting. and later received a MBA fromGolden Gate University. She began teaching ac-counting and small business classes part-time forRio Salado-North in 1986 and became the Account-ing Discipline Specialist in 1989. Bernadine McCol-lum also taught at Paradise Valley Community Col-lege when the new campus opened in 1988. ThisApril, she was awarded an Outstanding FacultyAward /rpm Rio Salado. Aside from teaching. Ber-nadine is also working on her doctorate from NovaUniversity and is the Arizona Site Federal ProgramsAccounting Manager for Intel Corporation.

445

Introducing a new regular feature of Vision!

V THISV

Projects, Programs and Pointers from your Peers

Each of you is an innovator in yourown classroom or office. You havenew strategies for teaching, man-aging your work, and stimulatingstudent enthusiasm, involvementand commitment. "EnVision This"provides a forum for you to ex-change and discuss those ideaswith your MCCD colleagues as wellas other educators throughout thecountry.

To introduce our new column, thisissue features contributions frommembers of the Vision editorialboard. We look forward to your con-tributions in the spring/summer is-sue.

VISUAL AIDS IN AN INSTANTIn less than one hour, an instructor

can make a complete set of lectureslides using Polaroid Instant Slide Film.In addition to a camera and copy stand,the only supplies required are Polaroidslide film ($12.00 per 36 exposures),Polaroid slide holders ($5.00 per 100),Polaroid developer ($100.00) and slidemounter ($25.00). This process is rel-atively inexpensive (the prices quotedhere are estimates based on volumediscounts) and allows anyone to cre-ate customized visual aids quickly andeasily.

Kathleen Murphy-IrwinGateway Community College

1 f;

KEEPING CURRENTI teach a biology class for non-

major students. Many of my studentsstart each term convinced that thecourse is nothing more than a require-ment they must survive to get a de-gree, and many believe they dislikescience so much that they have post-poned taking the class for many se-mesters. It is my goal, therefore, notonly to convey the information of gen-eral biology, but also to help my stu-dents see the relevance of biology totheir daily lives, to help them developdeductive reasoning skills, and to thinkcritically about scientific issues andproblems.

This semester, I have asked mystudents to find articles in the newspa-per each week that relate to biologyand to summarize and comment onthem. My objectives with this assign-ment were to help the students see therelevance of the concepts they werelearning in class to their life outside theclassroom, to encourage students towrite about biology,and to developcritical reading and writing skills. Sofar, I have been very pleased with theoutcome.

Some unexpected benefits of theassignment for me have been that it ishelping me stay aware of new informa-tion in my own field, of the accuracy ofscientific coverage in the media, andof the public's perception and under-standing of scientific issues. Next se-

mester, I plan to implement the sameapproach using the electronic forum(featured on page 16 of this issue) sothat students will also be able to en-gage anonymously in on-going dis-cussions of the articles and the issuesthey raise with their classmates andme.

Karen A. ConzelmanGlendale Community College

THE MEDIUM IS THE MESSAGEMotivating the students in any pre-

100 level class is challenging in thesedays of apparently never-ending grat-ification, yet as teachers we havecommitted ourselves to this task, andsome of us still accept the challengewith eagerness and enthusiasm.Reading Imprcrement, for example,posits the hypotesis that studentswho have earned below acceptabletest scores can be raised to a satisfac-tory level for successful college coursecompletion.

Assigned to teach RDG 081(Reading Improvement), I asked my-self, "How can I cause students toapply what they learn from the text-book and in the classroom to theirother non-textual reading in the out-side world?" The answer I arrived atwas to assign them a reading projectwhich requires them to report on con-tent generally and words specificallywhich they find in non-traditional pub-lications. Thus, they are required toresearch publications which people insociety apparently take little note ofexcept as directly applicable to theirdaily lives. These publications includecereal boxes, T-shirts, caps, bumperstickers, personalized license plates,computer advertisements, joggingshoe advertisements, billboards,posters, grocery store fliers, recordalbums, rap music lyrics, campaignslogans and rhetoric, greeting cards,product names in a grocery store, but-tons, fast-food product names, and

new car advertisements.I allowed the students two weeks

to do their research and to prepare areport of no more than three pages.Then we used a class period to allowthem to present their findings, eitherread or summarized, to their class-mates. Naturally the levels of presen-tation were quite varied, but overallbelieve we all learned that reading isnot restricted to the traditional forms oftextbooks and it is important in allforms of written communication. Anattendant benefit is that they came toknow each other better, and we estab-lished a common purpose for the class.

Don RichardsonPhoenix Community College

CHECK THIS OUTMost composition teachers are

deeply committed to the necessity forreading carefully and respondingcomprehensively to students' writing;however, the sheer size of a stack offreshman essays usually makes it im-possible to give the kind of detailedresponse students need. To help dealwith this problem, my colleague ClaraFendley and I have adapted an ideafrom Karen Schwalm (GCC): a check-list that is attached to each essay.Other instructors use the system in avariety of ways, but on my checklistare listed ten items, which may changewith each specific essay type. (Forexample, the comparison/contrastchecklist rates the "consistent meth-odology" and the checklist for the ex-emplification essay rates the numberand appropriateness of the examples.)In addition, all essays are rated for theaspects of sentence structure, spell-ing, and other mechanics. Wi 'lin eachitem, the paper is ranked from one toten, ten being the best.

Thus, I can very quickly give agreat deal of information by assigninga rating for each of the ten items;adding up the scores yields the stu-

dent's grade on a hundred-point scale.Of course, I still write comments on thepaper itself, , but the checklist conveysinformation on all ten items. Now whena student comes to me to ask, "Whatdid I do wrong on this essay?" my firstresponse is, "Let's look at the gradingsheet." It is usually very easy to pin-point the specific areas that need fur-ther attention. Incidentally, this is alsoa valuable way to reinforce the impor-tance of proofreading because thestudent can see at a glance that apaper that was otherwise fairly strongreceived a lower grade because ofspelling or mechanicai errors.

Pat MedeirosScottsdale Community College

GETTING TO KNOW YOUStudents enjoy meeting each other

in class, and introductions facilitateclass bonding and the establishmentof a community environment. At thefirst meeting, I ask my students tobring something to the next class whichtells the group about themselves. Inthe past. students have brought suchthings as volleyballs, credit cards, golftees, and family photos. This exercisebreaks the ice and often forms newalliances. I find this is a far more inter-esting and effective way to get to knowclass members than the old standard,"Stand up and tell us your name andmajor."

Kathleen Murphy-IrwinGateway Community College

In order to establish some classunity or identification early in the se-mester, I have my students get toknow each other by using the follow-ing. Instead of having them introducethemselves, I have them introduceeach other. I do this by pairing themup. Then each of the students in thepair gets to know the other student.They must learn the student's name,

what high school they've graduatedfrom (if appropriate), what the stu-dent's major is (if the student knows)and some piece of general informationabout the student (hobby, etc.). Thistakes about 5 -10 minutes. Then we goaround the room and each pair ofstudents stands and introduces eachother. This helps the shy students toget over their :nitial fear of being in anew and strange environment. All stu-dents seem to enjoy this tension re-liever. I like it because it helps me toput names and faces together on thefirst day of class. It afso helps to estab-lish a team attitude, and it is easier toget cooperation among the studentsduring the semester because they arenot complete strangers.

Pat HaasGlendale Community College

SCHOOLWORK ON TRIALA classroom activity which requires

students to prepare using researchskills, and then to perform using ex-pository skills is that of the "mock trial."Students put famous historical figureson trial with members of the classperforming as judge, jurors, prosecu-tor, defendant, witnesses, and coun-sel for the defense. Class memberscan use exhibits, props, and costumesif they wish. At the end of the trial, thejury reaches its verdict. The mock trialis participatory democracy in action.

Group work in the classroom helpsform a cohesive bond of dependenceon peers and team spirit. By suggest-ing a role for each member, such asthat of researcher, recorder, archivist,or illustrator, everyone can be involvedon the team in a meaningful way. Groupwork can be included in the teaching ofa variety of disciplines. For example,students can be asked to work ingroups during laboratory exercises inscience, in preparing reports for thesocial sciences and languages, and insolving math problems. Creative finalreports such as skits, songs and po-

ems, games, puppet shows, question-naires, visual aids, or simulation exer-cises, can get students more person-ally involved in their work and maketheir presentations more vivid.

Susan L. StarrfieldSouth Mountain Community College

PLAYING WITH A PURPOSESeveral of us have found value in

modifying established board games orgame shows for our classrooms. Highlevels of class participation and aca-demic motivation u, d two of the advan-tages we have found using this strat-egy to review course material or toinformally examine learning and com-prehension.

Kathleen Murphy-irwin, GatewayCommunity College, has adapted therules of Trivial Pursuit® to her medicaltechnology courses. Instead of win-ning "game pieces" in the categoriesof Geography, History, Entertainment,or Sports and Leisure, her studentsattempt questions in "Blood Vessels,""Tissues," "Diseases," or "Organs." Thesimple structure of the game allows itto be used easily in a variety of cours-es and throughout the semester. Thereare a number of payoffs from such arelaxed and fun teaching strategy.Knowing that their team members arecounting on them often encouragesstudents to study hard in preparationfor the game day. Furthermore, in acompetitive environment like this, stu-dents tend to demand tremendous ac-curacy from their rival classmates, andthus pay close attention to every ques-tion and response. Being part oi ateam also helps to bond students as agroup.

A colleague at GWCC, Sheila Schu-macher has found Trivial Pursuitoisimilarly useful in her advertising artand computer illustration classes. An-other game she has used successfully

is Pictionary*, a drawing game suit-able not only for art courses but for anydiscipline with new vocabulary or ter-minology.

Karen Conzelman, Glendale Com-munity College, not only involves thestudents in the game itself but also inhelping to write the questions. Tryingto stump their opponents providesample motivation for a thorough re-view of the material and the prepara-tion of some thoughtful questions. Thisapproach effortlessly encourages stu-dents to think about the course mate-rial in a different way. It also developsor strengthens their higher level think-ing and reasoning skills.

The playing board from the gameHands Down® provides an indisput-able and inexpensive way to identifythe player who gets to attempt eachquestion first. As the players "ring in"they press on a numbered plastic hand.The sequence of players is identifiedby the stack of numbered hands.

To share your educational projects,programs, and pointers, submit a 1 -3 paragraph description to the fol-lowing address:

EnVision Thiscto Editor, Vision '91

Maricopa Community CollegesMarlcopa Center for Learning &

instruction3910 East Washington Street

Phoenix, Arizona 85034

Central to the discussions about stu-dent achievement in the classroom arethe motivations that students bring to theclassroom and the demands imposed byinstructors. The literacy study conductedby Arizona State University at one of theMCCD colleges, among others, has point-ed out that students operate under a dif-ferent set of assumptions than the instruc-tors about the purpose of higher education,the nature of the learning process, and theresponsibilities of instructors and students(Morrill and Steffy, 1980; Richardson, Fisk& Okun, 1983). In order to know whatstudents expect and what instructors be-lieve they should be teaming, it is essentialthat instructors understand what motivatesstudents to enroll in their courses.

It is also critical that motivations arerecognized as states, not traits. That is,motivations are determined by situationsor stages in a student's life; they maychange from course to course, from se-mester to semester, or even from thebeginning to the end of a course. Studentsmay fit into various groups based upontheir particular motivations.

Requirement MeetersThe most prevalent student group

observed was labeled "RequirementMeeters." They accounted for one-half ofstudents in the 27 classes observed. Re-quirement Meeters, as the name sug-gests, are interested in meeting courserequirements as efficiently as possible. Asecondary consideration is achieving goodgrades. However, if time constraints inter-fere, these students just want to acquirethe credit hours.

This quote from an unstructured inter-view illustrates the feelings of the quint-essential Requirement Mester:

Just give me what I need to know. I'llgo home and learn it. Then come backand you can test me on it. Then I'll pass.

Question: What is your goal?I don't have time to waste around.

work 30 hours a week. I have three teen-agers at home. I don't have time to waste.Another Requirement Meeter reportedthese feelings about grades.

Question: Grades are important toyou, then?

Uh huh (yes). I've just quit my job sothis is the first time that I've only had to beresponsible for going to school. Up untilnow I haven't really had time to study sinceI was a sophomore in high school. In highschool I had a much higher grade av,r-

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age. A 3.0 is kind of disappointing. I knowcould have done better if I had studied.

So, hopefully, now that I have extra time,my grades will be better.

Time is mentioned often by Require-ment Meeters. The demands on their timeare great because they choose to addeducation to their other responsibilities.When the demands of home and workcompete with education, they rank educa-tion third.

Because ot the time pressure, Re-quirement Meeters tend to use class andstudy time efficiently. One instructor saidshe would test only on materials coveredin class; therefore, the RequirementMeeters did not read the textbook.

I haven't read the bcok. Do you knowthat I haven't even open.,d that textbook?

OEMs

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"Why," Affects "How":Student Motivations and

LiteracyNot the way she lecturesI don't feel thatI have to.

The class also had a lab associatedwith it, The instructor began each labperiod by reading the directions in the labmanual, marked any changes in proce-dures, demonstrated how to do the exper-iment, and then showed slides that re-peated the demonstration. The Require-ment Meeters felt no need to read the labmanual, and did not. Instead of being

Virginia V. Stahl

bored with three repetitions, one said:like it because then I don't have to

read the lab manual. It's fasterand more tothe point if she tells you what to do than ifyou sit down and read through the book onit

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 51

Requirement Meeters resent unnec-essary or ungraded activities. One classrequired students to complete reportsabout six journal articles. These were notto be graded but were to be turned in bythe end of the semester. One student said

I haven't started it yet. It won't be hardto do, but it is a waste of time. If it doesn'tgo for a grade, ifs a waste of time.

Requirement Meeters did not askquestions except during review time orafter class. They did not want to take timeaway from the lecture because the in-structor was covering material that wouldbe on the test, and missing any lecturematerial would adversely affect theirgrades. Requirement Meeters do not likeclass discussions either.

People get off on something else andwaste more time than it is worth.

Knowledge Seekers"Knowledge Seekers" were the sec-

ond largest group obse J. They com-prised one-fourth of our respoodents. Asthe name implies, Knowledge Seekerswant to learn, and they like what they arelearning. They are truly interested in thesubject matter. Their attitudes are ex-pressed in these quotes from two studentsfrom two different classes:

Psychology isn't difficult for me. I loveit. I've taken every psych course they havehere.

Question: What is your objective forbeing in this course?

I'm here because I enjoy psychology.Question: Do you like the lab?Yes, it is very interesting. I like looking

thro, fgh the microscopes even if it doesmake my eyes ache. It's neat when yousee what she's been talking about. She'lldescribe something and you'll see it, andsay Eureka!

Knowledge Seekers are intrinsicallymotivated because of their genuine inter-est in the subject. Their use of the textbookalso differs from that of RequirementMeeters.

Question: What is the part of classthat you like best?

I like reading the text best.Question: Do you spend a lot of time

reading for this class?Oh, yes. More for this class than any

other class. The reading in this class ishard, but I like it.

Knowledge Seekers spend more timeon class material arid find it enjoyable andbeneficial. They also want more class

discussions and questions because theyenjoy the exchange of ideas about a favor-ite topic.

Specific information UsersThe "Specific Information User" ex-

pects to learn something which is relatedto a tangible outcome, such as job ad-vancement, job preparation, improving thequality of life, or even doing better in otherclasses. The Specific Information Users,about one-fifth of the sample, clearly knowwhat their goals are, how they will beattained, and what benefits will be de-rived.

Now I'm faced with having to go backto work to supplement our income, so Ithought I could at least brush up on mytyping and maybe learn some other skillsenough that I could hopefully go into anoffice.In a nutrition class. a Specific InformationUser said:

Al least the talking part of the classbrings out things you can use in daily life.Sure, it took time, but there again, it wasuseful information. I found out I don't eatwell-balanced meals and I don't get enoughcalories.

Course work is seen as a means to anend. The value of the materials deter-mines the students' use of literacy. Onestudent who plans to become an ocean-ographer did read the lab manual becauselab experiments would be necessary in hisfuture studies. He also sat very quietlyduring lectures and asked only two ques-tions during the semester; both pertainedto microbes that live in the ocean.

Non-Specific Information UsersThe "Non-Specific Information Users"

want to improve their lives through jobprocurement, yet they are unable to deter-mine specifically how education will assistin getting a job nor are they able to eval-uate whether or not they have been suc-cessful in reaching educational goals.

Types of goals for Non-Specific Infor-mation Users are seen in these observa-tions by a participant observer:

CHM enrolled to learn English betterto get a job.

CSA enrolled to learn English. Shewants English to be able to get a job whereher children work.

CRH wanted to learn English toable to work in a beauty shop and sheneeds to pass the cosmetology test.

The Non-Specific Information Users

rely on the instructor to tell them whetherthey have attained their goals: they areunable to assess their own progress.

Question: Are you ready to go on toanother English class?

I don't know. The instructor hasn't toldus yet.

Additional observations about Non-Specific Information Users illustrate theirinability to clearly identify the ways thateducation will assist them in improvingtheir lives,

Generally, the Anglo students describetheir reasons for taking the course aslearning to read, while the Spanish speak-ers give learning English as their reason.These students are in college for generallythe same reason: they find themselvesunable to succeed in the working world ata level they wish to. They chose to attendeither because they were referred by ateacher or a friend, or simply because itwas near their homes. One student cameto help her daughter enroll and was herselfenrolled. Most have only a general idea ofwhat they want to do after college. Onlyone, and he plans to join his father'sbusiness, could be specific about thissubject.

Another student. disabled by an acci-dent, hopes to be able to resume nursingon a more advanced level than her previoustraining allowed.

The Non-Specific Information Usersare dependent on the instructor tor direc-tion, aid, reinforcement, and evaluation. Ifthey are capable. they will do whatever theinstructor asks. They are constantlypracticing writing, reading. and verbal skills :thus, they appear to use literacy more thanstudents in higher-numbered courses,

lfrplicaOrms for the ClassroomAlthough motivational orientations are

states and not traits and although stu-dents can demonstrate more than oneorientation during a class, it is essentialthat instructors recognize the changeseffected by large numbers of studentswho attend only to meet requirements.Among those changes are tensions causedby differing motivations among students.lowering of cognitive demands on stu-dents, and tensions caused by instruction-al styles.

Students interviewed during this studyexpressed the expectation that other stu-dents should conform to their orientations.They brand those who do not as -weird" or"odd." Requirement Meeters especially

wanted conformity. They felt others werewasting their time with class discussionand questions that were not relevant toexaminations which translated into grades.Requirement Meeters stressed the im-portance of how time is spent, and studentswho devoted time to their studies oftenappeared to be apologizing. One studentconsidered himself an oddity and apolo-gized by saying:

Yeah, well, I rear! everything. I'mprobably one of the few students who do.Well. I don't work, so I lead a pretty boringlife.

Knowledge Seekers and Specific In-formation Users view the RequirementMeeters with equal distaste.

From the classes I've observed in thepast and from this class so far people havenot applied themselves totally to the class.They are not behaving in a manner worthyof college students.

Question: What's a manner worthy ofcollege students?

Doing the book stuff and studies. Ask-ing questions of the teacher if I don'tunderstand the information. Doing the labassignments the best I can. Basically youhave two groups. Some who are herebecause they have to be here and somewho are here because they want to behere. At this point. I could almost classifythem by name.

A second implication for the class-room that emerged from the study isidentifying the type of literacy demandedof students. Often students were expect-ed to learn isolated bits of information fromthe lecture, textbook, or study guides.Then students were expected to recognizewhen to use these fragments of informa-tion when given specific external cues,especially on multiple choice exams. Thisfragmentation and isolation of informationis called "bitting" (Richardson. Fisk, & Okun,1983).

Seldom were students expected touse lexting," which is reading, writing,and thinking about events or ideas in abroader context. Students were not taughtthat events are related or that one eventwill have impact on subsequent events.They were not required to use analysis.synthesis. or evaluation either during tests,or in writing papers. Without practice ormodeling of these critical thinking skills.students cannot be expected to learn them .

A third consequence of having largenumbers of Requirement Meeters in col-

Continued on page 33

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Many see education as the path forchange. Without higher education, peopleare often limited to following in the foot-steps of their family members or their peergroup. Yet, as networking pundits andcollege recruiters will attest. the magic isnot in the education alone. It is the socialconnections along with the education whichoffer most students the vehicle for lifetransformation.

Residential universities, with their four-year programs, sororities, fraternities,dormitories, and dining halls, naturallyprovide both of those components to theirstudents. A challenge faced by communi-ty colleges is in offering similar experiencesto their students, who often are not asimmersed in their education and face amore delayed payoff for their efforts.

Community colleges have been verysuccessful in providing occupational re-

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training, developmental education, flexi-ble scheduling, and alternative doliverysystems to meet the unique needs of theirstudent population. Yet their studentscontinually grapple with several majorchallenges to transformation, including:

1 . the more "transient population" andlimited professional contacts creat-ed by cor uter campuses:

2. the competing responsibilities offamily and employment;

3. the inaccessibility or unavailabilityof social organizations and activi-ties; and

4. the wide range of ages, experienc-es, interests, and outlooks of thestudents in each class.

Because the community college studentmay spend ten years or more workingtoward his or her goal, strategies for over-coming these obstacles to completion

ccncern instructors and administratorseverywhere.

Now, from a project developed atGlendale Community College to improvestudent writing skills, has come a link thathas impact on these obstacles and helpsto connect students to their future. It is the"Electronic Forum." The Electronic Fo-rum, or "EF" as it is often called by itsusers, grew out of the 'Electronic Journal,"a communication experiment initiated byEnglish instructor Karen Schwalm.

Like hundreds of other English in-structors across the nation, Schwalmwaged an ongoing battle with decliningskill levels in verbal and written communi-cation. Like other instructors, she wantedto offer students a means for improvingthose skills as a component of their coursework. Facing a week that was alreadyconsumed with preparing and presenting

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 5 51 7VISON, Fail, 1990

course lectures, correcting assignments.evaluating writing projects, fulfilling departmental responsibilities, and servingon committees, she knew that the projectwould have to be easy to implement andsimple to maintain. Then, she struck uponan innovahve idea the union of an oldconcept with a new technology.

S he contacted Christopher Zagar, thenthe director of GCC's Hiçj, lech Center.and proposed her plan. She wanted stu,dents to keep a community "learningjournal" on the computer. She reasonedthat students, using pen names to ensureanonymity, could make candid entries onvirtually any topic of concern in this "elec.Ironic journal." Entries could then be read

he nmgic is not in 1 he ed-twat ion alone. It is the socialconnect ions along wit h t heethical ion Whidi offer mostsi udents t he vehicle h)r huet ransformat ion...

and commented on by members of theclass. This would improve their writingskills along with their reading, reasoning,and computer skills. Since the purpose ofthe journal was to encourage students towrite, she needed to document only howmany words each student had written andhow often he or she wrote in the classjournal.

Zagar assured her that it could bedone. He created the programming tointegrate the student records with theelectronic journal, thereby limiting partici-pation to a specific class. He set up reporting capabilities to document such itemsas the number of words per entry. journalsubject areas, and writing activity by stu-dent identification number. At Schwalm'srequest, he also set up the journal to usethe language of writing, not computing.Finally, he established the means forstudents to change their pen names at will.

They implemented the project thatsemester. For their efforts, they were selected tor the Innovator of the Year awardat Glendale Community College in thespring of 1990.

Now, three semesters later, severalinstructors on several campuses are us-ing electronic journals as a component oftheir courses. Instructors across the dis

ciplines are overwhelmingly enthusiasticabout the benefits of the electronic journal. The benefits for the students fromthe simple improvement of computer andcommunication skills to the difficult-to-as-sess effects on networking and socialtransformation ---- are surprising nearlyeveryone involved.

"The original purpose of the journalwas to improve writing skills. It was to bewriting for learning rather than writing forevaluation," said Schwalm. "What we discovered was that the journal gave a voiceto silenced or marginalized students. Forinstance, a student who never spoke inclass was very active on the journal,contributing over twenty thousand wordsin one semester." Citing recent researchon classroom dynamics. Schwalm saysfindings indicate that minority. handi-capped, and female students are mostlikely to remain unvoicedin the classroom.Because of social, cultural, physical, orinstructor bias. these students often donot communicate, or communicate in avery limited way in the classroom. Theelectronic journal, she discovered, puteveryone on equal footing.

Former Glendale Chief of Police JackRose, now a GCC administration of justiceinstructor, had the same findings when heimplemented the electronic journal in hisCurrent Issues in Criminal Justice course.Finding students to be reticent during discussions on local enforcement issues,Rose required students to use pen namesand express their opinions on the elec-tronic journal, Like Schwalm, he found theelectronic journal to be the great equaliz-er. Sensitive issues such as the use offorce, police misconduct, police and mi-nority relations, and ethics of reportingwere all discussed in the journal,

-The journal was very useful becauseit stimulated enthusiasm and honest dis-cussion among the students, especiallyminority students, on a variety of issues. Itaiso introduced students to the use ofcomputers for communication. That's askill they must have to work in this field,"said Rose. Students were able to commu-nicate sensitive information and legal is-sues in a fairly public forum, a practicecommon in nearly all criminal justice ca-reers. Rose was able to give that experi-ence to his students specifically throughthe use ot the electronic journal, an ex-perience he feels is vital to their futuresuccess.

Both Schwalm and Rose use the elec

tronic journal as a learning tool. Both in-structors require that students use thejournal but do not grade on the content ofthe entries. Unlike Schwalm, however,Rose corresponds directly with studentsin the journal. He feels students are eagerto have his response. Under the pen nameof "Chief ," he debates issues with hisstudents in the journal. He challengestheir assumptions and asks them to con-sider other aspects or points of view on aparticular topic. Other students may thenjoin the discussion.

"This stimulates their critical thinkingskills and helps them to confront theirpersonal biases and prejudices beforethey're in a professional position. It helpsthem to see that something can be legallycorrect even though, ethically, it's not theright thing to do." he said. Because of howeasy it was to implement (Chris Zagarinstalled it during a telephone conversa-tion) and the many benefits for the students,Rose says he will continue to use theelectronic journal in his course.

"You have to see it happen to appre-ciate it," he said. That first semester, duringa lecture by a guest speaker from theNAACP. the subject of the Philadelphiapolice action against the "MOVE" groupwas mentioned. In an effort to remove theblack activist organization, the Philadel-phia police inadvertently burned down anentire block of the city. Rose asked thestudents if they thought the PhiladelpNapolice would have proceeded in the samefashion had the organization been a whiteactivist group. There was SILENCE in theclassroom. Immediately following thatclass, however, the electronic journal wentwild.

Lee Kirkpatrick, a biology instructor atGCC. also found the electronic journal tobe a "safety valve" for some students. "Idecided to have my non-major studentsuse the electronic journal for several rea-sons," said Kirkpatrick. "I wanted them tohave the opportunity to use the vocabu-lary of biology outside the classroom, tohave a chance to discuss quiz questionsprior to exams, and to have a way for themto develop bonds with their classmates,"She found that students were also usingthe journal to arrange study groups, toclarify difficult or confusing course mate-rial, and to vent frustrations following ex-aminations.

"As a group, the class got friendlier,faster," Kirkpatrick said. "The journalseemed to take the place of the 'student

union when I went to college. It was aplace where everyone could come togeth-er and talk about what was happening forthem."

As the administrator of the PublicForum" and her own course journals,Schwalm also sees this electronic com-munication as an equivalent to the studentunions at many universities. Like theircounterparts, the GCC students use theelectronic forum when the going gets tough.They share their frustrations and drawsupport from others. From her vantagepoint, the electronic journals and the openforums provide "the glue that binds somestudents more securely to their educa-tion."

"What we're seeing is a lot of *tappingon the microphone` to see if the lines areopen," said Schwalm. "The content of themessage often is not as important assimply finding out if someone will listen ifthey have something to say." Sometimes,students have a lot to say and need a safeplace to say it.

...the journal seemed to takethe place of the 'studentunion' when I went to col-lege. It was a place whereeveryone could comf.' togeth-er and talk about wh:ti washappening fbr them...

Stephen Cooper had that experience.He had a classroom crisis. Students in hisintroductory psychology course at GCCwould not interact in the classroom. Coo-per thought their reluctance might be aresult of feeling judged or a fear of ex-pressing their feelings in a room full ofstrangers. To get his students to "sayanything," he had them use the electronicforum to communicate on different sub-jects. including the subject of death anddying. He also had them write under a penname. "I was quite amazed at the level ofsharing," said Cooper. "It was the mostintimate sharing I've ever had in a 101class. The students were able to safelyshare their feelings and their experiences,and other people were then able to com-ment and share their experiences as well.I don't think we could have done the samething in a conventional 101 classroom." At

5 7 19VISION FiIt 440

the end of the course, he surveyed stu-dents on the use of the electronic forum inthe course. Cooper said the response wastotally positive: there wasn't one negativecomment.

In addition to the classroom journals,Chris Zagar and Karen Schwalm estab-lished two open electronic forums at GCC.The "Public Forum," which is adminis-tered by Schwalm, is open to everyone oncampus and in the community for thediscussion of anything. "The DialogueForum - The Forum tor the ThoughtfulDiscussion of Anything at All," is also opento everyone but is limited to the discussionof serious subjects. Kirkpatrick adminis-ters the dialogue forum. She reveals thatreligion, ethics, morality, domestic vio-lence. family abuse, the Smitty's Lituation(involving the death of a black men at thehands of employees at a local grocerystore), and the conflict in the Middle Easthave all been discussed on the dialogueforum.

As semesters pass and student pop-ulations change. there are recurring sub-jects which appear on the dialogue forum.The most common recurrence is the con-troversy between religion and science.Religious beliefs (which are generallyconnected to the student's home life andpath from the past) often come into conflictwith scientific theory (on the educationpath which leads to the future). On thedialogue forum, other students and facultymembers help these students to chart apath between their two worlds, to findagreement between their old beHirf sys-

..Ahrough t he Public forum,both rl'orn's and Nflary's liveswere changed. Tom 1 opli

sponsibility fOr his emotion-al health and Mary reavhf.dout to anot her human being.A connection was Made._

tems and current learning. Tight courseschedules rarely permit this type of dis-cussion in class. On the dialogue forum,however, students discuss these deeplypersonal issues and get the response theyneed from others.

Several instructors have said the re-sponse is most important. This is also trueon the two open forums. "On the surface.

much of the discussion on the public forummay appear trivial." said Schwalm, "butwhat we're seeing is the delicate negotia-tions which signal the formation of newfriendships. Through writing, students arelearning that language has the power tochange their lives. They are learning thatthe world responds to what they commu-nicate Schwalm shared a story thatrevealed the power of the electronic forumto affect student lives.

On the public forum, "Tom" revealed ahistory of family abuse and problems thathe was having because of it. Several stu-dents shared their experiences and em-pathized with Tom. Another student,"Mary," suggested counseling servicesavailable at the campus. She said that shehad seen a counselor and it had helpedher tremendously. Tom was leery aboutgoing for counseling and asked Mary totake him to the counselor. Since they werecommunicating on an open forum, Marywas concerned for Tom's privacy. Insteadof arranging a public meeting place wherethey could be observed by anyone whohappened to be following the open forum,Mary told Tom where she worked on cam-pus and what she was wearing that day.Mary suggested that Tom come to herwhenever he was ready. He did.

Through the public forum, both Tom'sand Mary's lives were changed. Tom tookresponsibility for his emotional health andMary reached out to another human be-ing. A connection was made. This is asignificant benefit of the public forum. Itarows and encourages students to takeresponsibility for their education, their lives,and their futures. It also helps them to formnew bonds which open them to new paths.

Clearly, the path to the future leadsfrom the path of the past. Schwalm seesthe forum as a way to smooth those paths.The public forum allows students to bringtheir family members to the campus tocommunicate with their classmates."Someone will write. 'my mom's here to-night so be nice.' And mom may make ajournal entry on some subject," saidSchwalm, "but what she really has doneby writing on the forum is to help smooththe paths between generations, allowingfor social mobility and change." Anotherstudent brought his high-school-age sis-ter to correspond on the forum, helping tosmooth her transition from high schoolstudent to college student.

The open for urns differ from the classjournals in that they are not course specif-

5 S

ic. Combining that fact with the appear-ance of triviality has brought the openforums under administrative concern. Inthe future, there may be a fee for use of thepublic forums or the inclusion of an elec-tronic journal in a course.

Some feel that this might discourageinstructors from using the electronic jour-nal as a teaching tool and discourage

students from taking those courses. Stu-dents would then lose a valuable oppor-tunity for improving writing, reasoning,reading, and computer skills. They sug-gest the electronic forum might be betterviewed as a resource similar to the librarywith fees for operation built into tuition. Ofcourse, the issue of a fee for use has been

Continued on page 33

Electronic Communicationin Actiofi

The electronic forum is transformingmore than the lives of the students whouse it. It is also transforming the lives of theinstructors who incorporate it in theirteaching strategies. The benefits of theelectronic forum are as diverse as thecurriculum itself,

Biology Lee Kirkpatrick (GCC)uses the electronic forum to encour-age students to use the language ofbiology, discuss course material,and practice exam questions withtheir classmates. She discoveredthey use the forum to coordinatestudy sessions and vent frustrationsas well.Child and Family Studies Sincethere isn't enough class time to al-low students to recount their manypersonal experiences, Child andFamily Studies instructor Eileen Shiff(GCC) uses the electronic forum asa means for her classes to discloseand discuss pertinent issues. Thisallows Shiff to spend the entire classperiod on CFS concepts and theo-ries r nd still allows students to sharetheir course-related experiences.Criminal Justice Jack Rose(GCC) requires students to use theelectronic forum for two reasons.First, because virtually all ?-riminaljustice professions require the elec-tronic communication of sensitiveinformation, he uses the electronicforum to acquaint students with thatprocess. Second, he challengesthem to discuss pertinent ethical,social, and legal issues in order toconfront their personal biases, de-velop critical thinking skills, anddevelop career ethics.

English and Literature MartiCombel, Patrick Haas, and KarenSchwalm (GCC) use the electronicforum in their courses to improvewriting and reasoning skills, elicitdiscussion on both course and non-course related topics, and stimulatestudent computer skills.Humanities Lynn Ann Wojciec-howicz (SMCC) uses the electronicforum in her Ideas and Values classto persuade students to practicecourse material and participate indialogues on essay questions ckir-ing the semester. Students mustrespond to each of the five courseunits at least twice. They can alsoearn extra credit for additional writ-ings. With the use of the electronicforum, overall comprehension andgrades have improved in hercourses.Psychology Stephen Cooper(GCC) uses the electronic forum toget students communicating onpersonal psychological issues un-der a pen name. He feels this alsogets them into GCC's High TechCenter and working on a computer.National Education Forum Bil-lie Hughes (PC) is exploring theimplementation and use of a nation-al electronic forum to facilitate theexchange of teaching strategies, in-formation, and methods amongeducators.Reading Roberta Delaney (GCC)is having her students read a shortstory with an ambiguous ending.Each student will then write a newending for the story. They will thenread all of the endings and com-ment on them in the forum. Shehopes this will develop reading andwriting skills.

Cyndi Greening

WRITING FORREALITY:How to Coax WritingOut of the ClassroomLinda Evans

In ten years of teaching writingfromtraditional freshman composition coursesto creative and technical writing I haverepeatedly encountered a perplexing andrecurrent problem: how can I persuade mystudents that the skills they are learning inmy classroom have valuable applicationsin their daily lives? How can I inspire mystudents to produce writing that hasmeaning and impact beyond the merefulfillment of an academic requirement? Inother words, how can I persuade my stu-dents to write for themselves and not forme?

The fault does not rest with the stu-dents. By the time they reach college,most students have discoveredeitherintuitively or through a series of hardknocksthat the path of least resistancethrough many classes is to absorb withmagnificent passivity what the teacherbelieves and to be prepared at a moment'snotice to reiterate the teacher's valuesand opinions. Students are conditioned tosuppress their own creativity, their ownknowledge and beliefs about the world inorder to make the grade. (Educator andpsychologist Jess Lair notes that a stu-dent with a perfect grade point averagemay not be so much a genius as a personwho has learned to "play dead.")

At this point, the reader may protest,"But that is not true of me! I am open andreceptive to the unique understanding thateach student brings to my classroom."That is admirable, but the difficulty is inconvincing students that you are differentfrom the memorize-and-recite leachersof their past. It's a case of guilt by associ-ation.

I begin every writing class by discussing the very foundation of writing, thewriting situation. We identify the fourcomponents of the writing situation: writer,

reader, occasion, and purpose. We talkabout the many roles each person plays intheir o.vn life and how the role we findourselves in at any given moment deter-mines the style and form of communica-tion, whether oral or written.

I use a series of assignments thatchallenge my students to don a mask,assume another identity, or zero in on oneparticular role they play in their lives to seehow that persona affects their writing. Forexample, very early in the semester whenwe are working with the paragraph as aunit of writing, I ask my students to write aparagraph in which they tell a lie to aspecific reader. The results are variousand entertaining. I have heard from mystudents why they were unable to com-plete their assignment for my class, fromtaxpayers why they cannot appear for anaudit, from employees why they cannotcome to work, from spousesthe list isendless.

But as soon as I assign a five-para-graph essay or some other mundane andpredictable assignment, students revertto their old conditioning. They begin topsych me out, to look for topics they thinkwill appeal to me and result in a highgrade. The problem seems to worsen whenwe approach persuasive writing. Theprospect of expressing an original opinionis very intimidating to students whoseopinions have not been sought and valuedby teachers, family, and friends in thepast.

The best way I have found to getstudents to write what they are genuinelyinterested in writing and to say what theyreally mean is to coax or, more correctly,to send writing out of the classroom I dothis by requiring each student to write apersuasive letter to the editor or a letter toa legislator. organizational leader, or otherperson in a position to make a change thestudent feels is important. For example,during the Spring semester of 1990, one of

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my students wrotl a letter to the baseballcommissioner criticizing his handling ofthe 1990 walk-out. Another student wrotehis state senator about driver's licensesthat flag persons under the drinking age.vet another wrote her city manager aboutinstalling a four-way stop sign at an inter-section near out campus where severalaccidents have resulted in serious injuries.

This is writing for reality, writing thathas the potential to make a difference inthe world and it makes a world of differ-ence in the way students approach thewriting assignment. Suddenly, I am nolonger the reader to whom they are writ-ing. I am, insteac, the editor who helpsthem clarify the message they want toconvey to their reader, a reader of theirown choosing. They are learning at thatpoint to identify the reader and to tailortheir message and their rhetoric to thatspecific reader (or group of readers, in thecase of a letter to the editor).

I have found that very few of my stu-dents have ever written a letter of this sort,so they need some solid direction. I askthem to gather sample letters, and I bringin letters I have written to demonstrateproper tone and format. Using my ownletters, I can show them the whole processfrom inspiration, to draft, to final copy, topublication or response. (They also seethat I practice what I teach.)

In most cases, students will do re-search as they prepare their letters. Forexample, many do not know the namesand addresses of their state or federallegislators, judges, and so on, to whomthey wish to write. They may also want tolook up recent studies or case histories tosubstantiate their letters. With a little as-sistance from their instructor and refer-ence librarian, students produce somevery respectable research because theyare aware these are real letters that willbear their signatures and, perhaps, beread by many people.

It is important to inform students thatthey can request their names be withheldwhen their letters are published, becausesome students will write on topics that arevery personal and sensitive. One of mystudents, for instance, wrote a letter to theeditor complaining about mandatory drugtesting conducted by her employer. Forobvious reasons, she did not want hername to appear with her letter.

In most cases, though. I encouragestudents to publish their opinions openly.I compare writing a letter to the editor or a

letter to a legislator to the at:1 of voting. Wediscuss the issue of civic responsibilityand the importance of expressing one'sviews in a democratic society. This givesa real and valuable purpose to the writingthey produce in my class.

Students turn in the final drafts of theirletters, typed and proofread with extremecare, in stamped, addressed envelopes. Iask for a photocopy, which I return to thestudent with my feedback. The originalsgo in the mail immediately after they aresubmitted to me.

Within a week, the letters to the editorbegin to appear in the newspapers. This isa very exciting time, since most studentshave never before seen their name andwriting in print. They scan the papers (ahidden benefit of this assignment) for theirletters and their classmates' letters. Occa-sionally, a controversial letter will create aflurry of responses. One student recniveda packet of literature about our state'seducational system from Eddie B asha afterhe read her letter to the editor. This feed-back is infinitely more rewarding to studentsthan a B+ and -nice work" at the bottom ofan essay.

This type of assignment IS applicableacross the curriculum and wuuld causethe same effect in sociology or biology thatit does in English: to persuade studentsthat what they learn inside the classroomis relevant outside the classroom as well.It opens lines of communication betweeninstructor and students, and between stu-dents and the community. It teaches stu-dents one effective means of expressingtheir opinions and advocating change.

Often when I turn to the editorial page,I am gratified to find a letter written by aformer student of mine. It is rewarding toknow that when our students leave ourclasses, they take what we have giventhem out into the world.

Linda Evans holds an AA from Glendale Corn.munity College. a BA in English and a MA withrimphasts in professional writing from Arizona StateUniversity, where she began teaching composition.She has taught for the Maricopa Community CollegeDistrict since 1986 and especially enjoys teachingcreative writing and technical krling. She is theadvisor for Rough Draft. the Chandler-GilbertCommunity College Center's creative writing maga-zine, and serves on the committee that designs thecomposition curriculum for the new Macintosh lab.She has written extensively on computers in educa-tion and is particularly interested in the computer asa writing toot She divides her time among teaching,freelance writing, and raising her daughter.

"

EDITORIAL BOARD VACANCIESat

1. 'handler Glibert Comnmnity College Centerl'aradise Valley Community College

Currently the board positions at the abtivc listed campuses for The Maricopa Communal, Colleges' lournalof Teaching and tearinngIre vacant. We are seeking anplicants who can assist with the release of a pnifessionalpublkation. Qualifications are liMed below:

ull-time faculty or stattAble to work under pressure to meet a deadlineWilling to donate time tor a meeting at the District Office each monthI lave ewk,rience reading and/or writing professional rapers1 lave a firm understanding of classroom practices of teaching and learning

Please send a ktter of intcrest includingaccomplishments by February 1, 1991 to:

a professional vita which details educational everiences andEditor, VisionMaricopa Community CollegesMaricopa Center tor Learning and instruction3910 East Washington StreetPhooth, Aritona 85034

For further information, you may also contact one of the board members listed on page 2.

Call for ManuscriptsYour name

could be on thesepages! Your experi-

ence, expertise and exu-berance could reach edu-

cators at over 1200 communi-ty colleges nationwidef The first

step is to simply submit your manu-script to the Editor of Vision.

Manuscripts are accepted by the EditorialBoard of Vision on a continuous basis, If you

would like your article to be considered for theSpring '91 issue, however, your orticlo must be re-ceived by January 15, 1991.

Authors must be administrators, full or part-timefaculty or staff of the Moricopa Community Colleg-es. Content of the article must be compatible withthe journal's Statement of Purpose Manuscriptsshould be typewritten and double spaced (includ-

ing references) on 8 1/2 x 11 inch paper. A coverletter is needed giving the title, author, professionalaffiliation and complete address (including homeand work telephone numbers). Since the reviewprocess is anonymous, no identification of the au-thor or affiliations should appear in the manuscript.

Send three copies of the manuscript along witha cover letter to the editor at the address listedbelow. Manuscripts submitted should not be underconsideration by any other publication. Manu-scripts accepted for publication may be edited topromote clarity and improve organization. For moreinformation on preparing your manuscript, see thecomplete Writer's Guidelines on page 34.

EditorVision: The Maricopa Community Colleges

Journal of Teaching and Learning3910 East Washington Street

Phoenix, AZ 85034

1)

POINT OF VIEW

at,

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As...

2 6VISK)id I 1990

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Several years ago, I remem-ber feeling overwhelmed whilelistening to the plight of a yotmgpatient of mine who had justbecome a new father, At a timewhen he should have been filledwith pride and joy, he was indeep despair; his son had beenborn with physical complica-tions that occurred at birth andhigh medical expenses ensued.For the child's six weeks of care,the medical bill exceeded$100,000.

Here was a young fatherwhose annual income was lessthan $19,000. Tears came to myeyes as he told me that the doc-tors bill alone was $18,000 - fortwo relatively minor surgicalprocedurs,, that took less thantour hours to perform.

Admittedly, health care in ournation is very expensive. Thedismpancy between the doc-tor's earning capacities andthose of my young patient wasso great that the societal impli-cations are exremely detrimen-tal.

A study released in July 1990,try the U.S. Department of Eco-nomics, reveals that our nationswealthy have become 7 percentwealthier in the last 15 yearswhile poorer people have be-come 11 percent poorer. Thesefigures ars based on actualpurchasing power. This trend isexpected to continue; the gapbetween the haves and have-note is widening even more.

In my opinion, the Increasinglack of compassion of those whohareem! those who do not haveis a major cause of this condi-tion. That leads me to ask thefollowing questions relating tothe young father's expertence:Was the doctor's fee justified?Did the doctor act within thelaw? Waa the doctor unethicalor immoral by charging a largefee? Asthma "right" or "wrong"answer?

The Hippocratic Oath clearlystates that the doctor's com-passionate views toward pa-tients is first and foremost. Italso states that the doctorshould do no harm.

Did this d.octor focus primari-ly on serving the father and hischild? Was the doctor, despitethe father's Inability to pay, jus-tified in charging the establ ished

fee of $18,000? Whet would youhave done had you been thedoctor?

Your response to these ques-tions Can give you direct feed-back about your own approachtoethical behavior. The answersHe in how one views the out-come and Its effect on everyoneconcerned: "Who won'?"

Based upon the standardpractices of the medical profes-sion in establishing medicalfees, the doctor did not violateany laws. HCONOVer, that doesnot presuppose that the doctor'sbehavior was ethical. Part of thedefinition of ethics fa the specif-ic moral choices made by theIndividual in his or her relation-ship to others; a rationality to-wards the highest level of sur-vival of the individual, the group,and humankind as a whole. Eth-ics are enforced, arising fromconscience and intuition, basedon a code of moral conductadopted as a yardstick for theconduct of individuals, groupsand society.

The American culture todayis suffering from a deteriorationof ethics in our society; In thehome, in business, in Proles-*Ilonal sports, law enforcement,in government, even in religiouscircles! A doctor conditiomidtowards materialistic goals isnot inclined towards ethical val-ues. He or she is much moreinclined to buy Into the conclu-sions based strictly on accept-able practices subscribed to bythe profession. Isn't this thebasis of so many of society'sethical dilemmas today? Don'twe have a multitude of exam-ples? Just look at the names inthe news: On Wall Street, 17indictments in two years;Charles Keating, Marion Berry,Pete Rose, Jimmy and TammyBakker, to name only a few!

6' 5

In an interview recentty, Bos-ton University's Olin scholar ofapplied ethics, Dr. Delattre, re-ferred to a recent study of edu-cation in which over 30 percentof the students Interviewed saidthey think cheating is an ac-ceptable way to get ahead. Theresponse from street gangmembers was, "The most im-portant thing in life Is money."Dr. Delattre summed it up bysaying, "When people have thatkind of poverty of imimination,when modey Is more importantthan who loves you, whose loveyou deserve, (then) you havesocial problems of great dimen-sion" (Dillin, 1990). Indeed!Along with the corruptionshimming from drugs, the situ-ational ethics of the Sixties andSeventies have created a na-tional backwash. Our leadinguniversities are now Includingthe study of ethics as pal of thecurriculum. Businesses aresending their managers back toschool. Can ethics be learned Inthe classroom? I am nal abso-lutely certain, but ifs clearly aneffort in the right dirtmtion. Istrongly feel that individualethics are the by-products of aperson's on-going, diligent ef-forts to develop socially, intel-lectually, and spiritually. Butthere must also be a public de-marsJ for ethical thinking andbehavior that will impact onevery level of our society. Thetask for doing so will dependmightily on our schools andcolleges to lead the way.

P.S. Several months after hisson's birth, the young fatherdied from a sell-inflicted gunshot wound.

References

Min, John (1990. May 31). Drugwar takes toll on Integrity of U.S.law enforcers. Christian Sci-ence Monitor, 1-2.

Roy C. Ammin has been amember of the Mericope Com-munity Colleges GoverningBoard for the putter, years andis serving as the board's presi-dent in 1990. Roy Arnrein, whoattended Phoenix College, hesbeen a chiropractor I n the Val-ley for the past 31 years.

POINT OF VIEW

ROYAMREIN

27VISION F a1I, 1990

Ethics. as I understand IL Isan umbrella term meaning thesystematic examination of themoral life. Ethics asks basicallytwo questions: "What should aperson do to live his or her lifeas humanely as possible?" and"What may one do to get themost out of life?" The firstquestion identities the ends, orfinal goals of life; the secondsearches tor the means of at-taining those ends.

Medical ethics is but onespoke in that umbrella. II is theapplication of moral principlesand theories to the practicalProblems of medical decisionmaking. These problems are

POINT OF VIEW

HARVEYTURNER

28a 114#(1

many and varied. Now shouldono approach a request to as-sist at an abortion? Should oneagree to surrogate mother-hood? is suicide s morally viableoption in terminal illness?Would the money spent on asingle liver transplant be bolterspent on a prenatal clinic? in asociety with finite resources,who should be responsible forrationing health care? Whoshould not be allowed into anintensive care unit?

The relative explosion ofmedical technology has result-ed in ethical choices and deci-sion making on a scale neverdreamed of prior to this centu-ry. If ail moral principles wereharmoniously woven into thesame logical fabric. ethics wouldbe self-evident. The fact thatthese principles can come intoserious conflict with each otheron a case-by-case basis makesit imperative that, at the veryleast, those involved with patientcare be aware of medical ethicalguidelines.

On a day-to-day basis nursesare involved with patient caremore closely than are otherhealth-care providers. In addi-tion to having a mandato frompatients and their families toprovide comfort and promotehealing, they are also responsi-ble for carrying out tho ordersof doctors. Conflicts can a nd doarise, especially when nursesaro requested to carry out or-ders which they may find mor-ally repugnant. In the light of

today's medical ethics, it is im-portant for them to examine theirmoral positions .

Several of the Ma ricopa Com-munity Colleges train nurses.These men and women will soonfind themselves In reel-life situ-ations that will call upon themto make decisions seriously af-fecting the lives of those in theircare. Some of those decisionswill Involve morality more thanmedicine. Since their actionscan influence life and death, theymust understand why they havesaid "Yes," as well as "No."

Tidy answers to all problemsexist in fairy tales. bul not in thisworld. Still, real problems aropressing, and acVions must betaken. Knowing somethingabout medical ethics allowshealth-care givers to abandonprejudice for reason. This in I urnallows them to justify their ac-tions not only to others but, moreimportantly. to themselves.Conscience need not makecowards of us all If we fool that,given a set of circumstances,we are making the best possibledecision.

Dr. Harvey Turner graduated!WM Columbia College in NewYork and attended medicalschool in Bern, Switzerland AFellow of the American Collegeof Surgeons, he is board certi-fied in thoracic and vascularsurgery, despite his divam ofbecoming a symphony conduc-tor. He has written medical col-umns for newspapers such asthe Milwaukee Sentinel and rhoPorthmd Oregonian, and is acontributing author to Ausmanand Snyder's Medical Library -Lawyer's Edition, 1900. This isHarvey Turner's s;.-st year withthe Maricops Community Col-lege District as a part-time in-structor of othks at OstoWayCommunity Coilege's School ofNursing.

The matter of ethics In thecommunity is a fairly recent his-torical phenomenon. 11 was tra-ditionally defined as what waspractical or pragmatic tor a rul-er or king. Machiavelli's Princewas not bound by any notion ofwhat was right Or wrens, exceptas it led to hls continued reign:that continuance transcendedany moral qualms. More recent-ly, however, society has im-posed on its citizens the expec-tafion that dealings with othersought to be defined by a codewhich is al limes more exten-sive than the legal code. Yet thedifficulty of this code is thatsince it is unwritten it may beignored or violated at will. Thisis especiany true in the field ofbusiness where the balancesheet reigns supreme. Dobusiness ethics exist, or is onemanagement guru corre-t whenhe contends there are no ethicsbut individual ethics (Drucker,1981)?

For those who believe busi-ness ethics exist, the ethicalproblems faced by the businessworld fall into two generalgroups. First, there are busi-ness actions that cause social-ethical problems. This categoryof social-ethical problems in-eludes pollution, toxic waste.nuclear contamination, ozonedepletion, and shrinking forestsand wetlands. The second groupcontains those problemscaused by society in whichbusiness is a significant socialagent. In this second group aresuch problems as poverty anddiscrimination.

Since ethics deals with thosevalues a society should/couldembrace, business ethics fo-cuses on those values an orga-nization should/could uphold.The traditional approach tobusiness ethics was more of acreed that reflected seven basicvalues:

"1, protecting the interest ofproperty owners by promotingefficiency, reducing goals. andthereby Increasing profits:

2. encouraging respect forthe right of private property;

3. refraining from anticom-petetive practices;

4, guarding freedom of labor,owners, and consumers, anddiscouraging government in-terierence ;

5. honoring contracts and re-fraining from fraud or coercion:

6. developing personal hon-esty, responsibility andindustriousness; and

7. encouraging private con-tributions to charity" (Ca-vanagh, 1976).

This traditional businesscreed has such profound his-toric**, religious, and philo-sophical roots that 0 need notbe questioned. But this busi-ness creed is being quietlychallenged with a vengeance insome business circles, by a newbreed of businesspeople. whoopenly admit their private deci-sions have some effect on thepublic (Bower, 1983).

Just as ethics provides theground rules for how a personacts, bustness ethics providesthe ground rules try which anorganization should act. How-ever, the business world hastraditionally disavowed any re-sponsIbility it might have towardsociety. Fortunately. the primaryfocus of business ethics ischanging as enlightened busi-nesspeople find it is in theirbest interest to be ethical. Somehave even suggested that busi-ness is not concerned with howethical it should be but ratherhow much it can profit by beingethical.

What are some of the prob-lems facing the business worldthat are business ethical prob-lems? They include the follow-ing:"1. CONSUMERISM - decep-

live advertising, pricing policies.product quality, safety, and is-sues of fraud;

2. RESOURCE USE/ENVI-RONMENT-pollution and wasteof scarce resources through et-ficientifrivolous use;

3. LABOR/INDUSTRIAL DE-MOCRACY - Job safety, wages.worker welfare, pensions, jobsecurity, meaningful work, theexport of jobs abroad, and thecodetermination of economicstructure by workers and man-agement;

4. ACCOUNTABILITY TOSHAREHOLDERS - profits,growth. disclosure, and share-holders' voice in corporategrowth;

5. POVERTYSOCIAL INE-QUALITY - obsolescence of ur-ban capital, urban poverty,

f;7

plant locationsebandonmtmt,profiteering, transfer pricing,lochnology transfer, and fobcreation;

6. PERVERSION OF THEPUBLIC PURPOSE - bribery,trawl. tax evasion, mlutioca-lion of resources, and exploi-tive development; and

7. EQUAL OPPORTUNITY/COMPENSATION - socialcriminallon based on race,creed, sex, handicap, etc."(Sethi, 1987).

How can these problems besolved? The primary focus ofbusiness ethics I. to changethe rules of the game by whichbusiness institutions in parlic.War, and society In general, aregoverned.

How soon coo these prob-toms be solved? Businessethics Is not a quick nx. h is atong historical process of so-cial change. Unlike individualethics, business ethics prob-lems involve the responsibili-ties of several Individuals andinstitutions over a period ofseveral years, several genera-tions or even several lifetimes.

itlowncesRoving, Jotarph C I I 983) Mimic}

mg lot eltomicy. matioging tortquity Harv.ird iilicfneSti Revit ifii). 83 90

Cavan:10h, Cottald (19 Ili) Arne,/can bustrutit; V.ihnqs ill ff.111,Yfion I figlinvond Ch8N, N JF't Imlay Halt

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Edd Welsh has taught Busi-ness Law and the Legal Envi-ronment of Business at PhD,-nix College since 1991 when hitrqmi, to the Wimps COMM-nily College District. Atter earn-ing a BS In Business from Ari-zona Slate ihriversity, he workedin accounting1 marketing, andgraphic arts, and later returnedto A.S.U. to earn his JD In 1981.N. has also completed most otthe MBA program. He Is a prac-ticing attorney In the areas ofContract Law, Employment Die-crimination, and general busi-ness areas. Edd Welsh Is mar-ried and has one son who isattending Creighton University.

POINT OF VIEW

EDDWELSH

29Vgidi 04 I all 19%

Increasing theEffectiveness of

Part-Time Faculty

The Maricopa Community CollegeDiorict relies heavily on part-time instruc-tors. Part-timers provide a means for en-riching our programs and course offeringsby bringing the latest skills from the field tothe classroom. However, teaching is morethan a simple sharing of expertise.Teaching requires unique skills. Ensuringpart-timers the opportunity to developteaching skills so students receive thebest education possible is incumbent uponthe institution.

Our heavy dependency on part-timefaculty is caused by two factors: 1) insuf-ficient full-time faculty to teach coursesoffered day and evening, and 2) a need forfresh concepts and techniques that part-time faculty bring to the classroom anddepartment. To maintain currency in ourspecialty courses requires that we useexperts working in the field. Part-timershave the first-hand knowledge and expe-rience which is critical for our students. Forexample, in the medical field, advance-ments in technology require experts in thefield to bring these issues into the class-MOM.

The process of organizing lectures,preparing visual aids, soliciting classroomparticipation, feedback, and assessmentmay become barriers tor the part-timeinstructor. In the minds of many non-edu-cators, teaching is an informal process ofsharing information with a group of willingand equally prepared students. Profes-sional educators, for the most part, under-stand the dynamic nature of teaching withits varied interactions, modes of delivery.and the other unpredictable variables that

John Lampignano

give us daily challenges. For the under-prepared part-time instructor, the class-room can become a confusing battle-ground. Along with the challenge ofteaching, there are attendance and graderosters to submit, tests to write and cor-rect, visual aids to develop, and studentproblems to resolve.

Be:Irice Davis stated in an October,1987, Innovation Abstracts, "Part-timefaculty in two-year colleges have beencharacterized in the literature as second-class citizens and stepchildren." Indeed,without the benefit of office space, part-timers often become -phantom faculty"who teach a class and then disappearfrom campus. Staff development activi-ties, division meetings, and in-servicesessions are held at times that normally donot allow for part-timers' participation. Themajority of part-time faculty have otherjobs which serve as their primary em-ployment and main focus of energy.

The Phoenix College Staff Develop-ment Office, in cooperation with the BristolBusiness School in Bristol, England, ad-ministered a questionnaire to part-timefaculty from four community colleges andthree four-yearcolleges. In Kathie Driscoll'sexecutive summary (August, 1989) of thesurvey findings of the community collegesample, only three topics are listed as highpriorities for professional developmentactivities for part-time faculty. They in-clude: 1) teaching material development:2) subject content development; and 3)course design. One conclusion drawn fromthe survey is thlt part-time faculty wantcontinuation of orientation with moreconcrbte support vrom departments in thoareas of syllabus development, courseobjective development, and outcomeidentification.

A district-wide training and mentoringprogram for part-time faculty can providethe tools for excellence in the classroom,

40.

32VISION Fall 1990

Lesson preparation, visual aids, question-ing techniques, discipline issues, studentrights, and test writing would be a fewtopics presented in this program. The lo-gistics of the program would be arrangedaround the availability of the participants.Summer, evening, or Saturday sessionswould be possible options, and all part-time faculty would be required to attend asa condition of employment.

A series of lectures and workshopswould be taught by content professionals.Teachers, administrators, and outsideexperts would be recruited for varioussessions, Since the concepts of instruc-tion are universal, these classes shouldbe made available to all part-time faculty,regardless of their disciplines. To providecontinuity, the participants would agree toattend all of the sessions during the train-ing program.

Frequent evaluation and review of theprogram would be needed to keep theworkshops fresh. To prevent stagnation,the format and design of the workshopswould be examined often. Ownership ofthe workshops must be dispersed amonga reasonable number of individuals oneach campus, to prevent the creation of amonopoly that would prevent neededchanges in their format.

Professional-growth activities for part-time faculty have been and are being heldat various campuses in our district. Underthe direction of Kathie Driscoll, a series ofclasses and workshops were held for part-time instructors at Phoenix College. Manyof the issues and concepts mentioned inthis article were addressed in that pro-gram. Other orientation programs are beingorganized and held at each of the districtcampuses.

The Health Science Division at Gate-Way Community College has held yearlyin-service workshops for its full- and part-time faculty. Over the past three years,topics on media production, teaching ob-jectives, assessment, and clinical evalua-tion have been discussed at these work-shops. They provide not only an opportu-nity to share information, but also a forumfor full- and part-time faculty to meet andshare ideas and promote a sense of co-hesion.

Staff development of part-time facultyis becoming a national issue. A program isoperating at Santa Fe Community Collegein New Mexico to update its faculty. Bothfull- and part-time faculty are brought to-gether each semester for a "Faculty Fo-

7 0

rum," an unstructured and open-endedmeeting that allows faculty to share ideas,concepts, and general information witheach other. It has been reported that theseinformal forums have created a more co-hesive bond among the faculty.

The Miami-Dade Community CollegeDistrict has developed a very assertiveproposal to increase the effectiveness ofall the faculty. By enhancing the skills ofthe faculty through a process of evalua-tion, peer-mentoring, and continuing edu-cation, the district hopes to enhance stu-dent learning.

A first step is to investigate the orien-tation programs currently being offered ateach campus. The framework for a part-time faculty training program may alreadybe in existence. Second, incentives forpart-time faculty to complete a trainingprogram must be examined. In the Miami-Dade proposal, promotions and ad-vancement on the salary schedule areincentives for their full-time faculty to par-ticipate. We need to provide incentives forpart-time faculty to fit staff developmentactivities into their schedule. Finally, weneed input from the part-time faculty re-garding their training needs. They willprovide us with direction in the develop-ment of the program.

Maricopa Community Colleges hasthe opportunity to be the largest communi-ty college district in the country. With sizecomes the responsibility of providing thehighest quality of training and education.The faculty serve as a valuable link withthe community. When faculty are betterprepared for the classroom, the studentsemerging from these classrooms are bet-ter prepared to serve the community.

ReferencesDavis. B, :587). Bringing faculty together, lnnova

tion Abstracts, 9 (22).Driscoll. K. (1989), Executive summary faculty de-

velopment needs questionnaire results. Au-gust.

John P. Lampignano has been a faculty mem-ber of GateWay Community Colioge since 1982. inthe Medical Radiography program. A graduate of thesame program in 1978. he wont on to complete aneducation degree at Weber State College. Afterteaching in the public school system in Ogden. Utah.he returned to Phoenix to teach in the MedicalRadiography program. In 1988. he was named asthe Outstanding Faculty at GWCC.

Since that time, he has completed a MEd inEducational Technology at Arizona State UniversityHe has worked with Project HOPE in Kingston.Jamaica (Summers. 1984-88) in developrng a newcurriculum in radiography for the University of theWest Indies.

Why Affects HowContinued from page 15

lege is the question of adaptation. Doinstructors conform to the students' ex-pectations or do they work to change theirmotivational orientations? One instructorwho allowed a participant observer in herclass was respected by both students andcolleagues as an excellent teacher.

The class was composed mainly ofnursing students who were, by and large.Requirement Meeters. The first examconsisted mostly of multiple choice ques-tions with one essay question and a fewshort answer questions. When the in-structor returned the test and was goingover the answers, students accepted thegrading of the multiple choice questionswithout argument. However, they foughtbitterly with the instructor tor fractions ofpoints for their short answers and essay.The hostility of the exchange caused theinstructor never to include short answerand essay questions again. She adaptedto the Requirement Meeters by requiringonly bitting of information; the Require-ment Meeters were not forced to adapt.

The challenge in recognizing the dif-ferent motivations of students is to meetstudents where they are, to know whatthey expect, and to work with them tochange those expectations. Thus, stu-dents leaving the Maricopa CommunityColleges will have assimilated literacy andcritical thinking skills essential for the restof 1.1eir lives.

ReferencesAttinasi, LC., V.V. Stahl. & M.O. Okun 982). A

preliminary typology of motivational onenta.tions of community college students. Commu-nity,Junior College, 6 (4), 371-490,

Morrill, W.T.. & D.M. Stetf (1980), The ethnographyof collegiate teaching: brdging the student andacademic cultures. Journal of Thought. 15 (3).46-76.

Richardson. RC...Jr., E.C. Fisk, & M O. Okun (1993)Literacy In The Open-Access College, SanFrancisco: Jossey- Bass.

Virginia Stahl ts Associate Dean of Instructionat Scottsdale Community College. She began workmg in the Mancopa Community Colleges in 1984 asInstructional Services Coordinator in the Office of theVice Chancellor for Educational Development. Afterreceiving her bachelor's degree in English at IllinoisState University. Virginia Stahl taught in high schooland community colleges in Illinois and Arkansas.She received her master's degree from ArizonaState University in 1982, and is currently a doctoralcandidate at Arizona State University.

Electronic ForumContinued from page 21

a topic of much debate on the forums.Although numerous students have com-plained, most acknowledge that resourc-es are finite and a fee would be justified.

As "Pixie Dust" (entry #35867 fromAugust 30, 1990) says, "When V 3t cameto GCC. I was completely computer illiter-ate. Now, I can use both the Mac and theIBM compatible for writing papers andgraphing. That may not seem like a bigdeal to some, but it has helped me a lot inmany of my classes. I have also madefriends through the forum, friends I wouldhate to lose. Yet, if they discontinue theforum, lose them I would because this isthe only link I have with them....We all usethe same font on this computer but ourfeelings and personalities come out inwhat we write and how we write it. Someforumers are not very talkative in personbut bloom on the computer....most of theforumers wouldn't mind paying a luserl feeas long as it's reasonable."

When the dust settles over the feeissue, one truth will remain regarding elec-tronic journals and public forums. Com-munity colleges have encountered a re-source that improves a number of studentskills and may help them stay in school,linking them to a brighter future.

Cyndi Greening is a staff writer forVision. As afreelance writer, she has published numerous arti-cles on writing, electronic communication, desktoppublishing, and electronic design. She completedher undergraduate work at the University of Wiscon-sin at Eau Claire in Telecommunications and Writing.She teaches courses in writing, desktop publishing,and advertising arts.

Writer's GuidelinesVision is the bi-annual journal of theMaricopa Community Colleges, dedicatedto all aspects of teaching and learning.Although distributed nationally, Vision iswritten and reviewed by the faculty andstaff of the colleges and centers in theMaricopa Community College District.Vision is a 24 to 40 page magazine-stylepublication.

EDITORIAL PHILOSOPHY: Visionprovides a forum for faculty and staff toexchange information about effectiveteaching and learning strategies. Articlesfor practical application, as well as moretheoretical treatments of educationalissues, are encouraged. Vision reflects thetremendous diversity of our district'scollegiate communities and our unifiedcommitment to excellence in education.

CONTENT AND AUDIENCE: Faculty andstaff are encouraged to submit articles onteaching, learning, and classroom researchactivities across the curriculum at thecommunity college level. Articles may beresearch- based or result from practicalexperience in the classroom. The primaryreaders of Visior are employees of theMaricopa Community Colleges; however,the journal is distributed nationally, so allarticles should be appropriate for anyoneinvolved in highereducation. The languageof all articles should also be accessible toindividuals outside the author's discipline.

STYLE AND STANDARDS: Manuscriptsshould be typewritten and double-spacedon 81/2 x 11 inch paper. The author'sname, title, professional affiliation.complete address and phone numbershould be ri icluded in a cover letter. Sincethe review process is anonymous (seebelow), the manuscript itself must notidentify the author or any affiliation in anyway. Manuscripts should be between 500and 2500 words in length.

The article's thesis must besubstantiated by current references fromthe literature and/or the authors ownevidence. Manuscripts should be of a

scholarly nature, but written in a stylewhich is easily accessible by college facultyand staff regardless of discipline. The titleshould catcn the readers' interest anclreflect the article's content. The division ofthe manuscript into a few major sectionsby meaningful two- to four-wordsubheadings is also encouraged.

The Publication Manual of theAmerican Psychological Association (3rdedition) is the guide used for style andformat. Any references included in thebody of the text should be cited by authorand date, e.g., (Rodgers, 1986). Analphabetical reference list, containingcomplete bibliographic information for allreferences and conforming to the formatspecified by APA, should follow the article.Standards for punctuation, abbreviations,and capitalization should also be inaccordance with the APA manual.

REVIEW PROCESS: ManuscriptS areanonymously reviewed by members ofthe journal's editorial board and disciplinereviewers on the basis of content and stylerelative to the journal's statement ofpurpose. On the basis of this review, eachmanuscript is either accepted forpublication in a future issw of the journal,accepted with minor/major revisions(publication is contingent on the author'sacceptable revision of the manuscript), ornot accepted.

When published, all articles will includea biographical note about the author of100 words or less. At the discretion of theeditorial board, graphics will be created forsome articles to enhance the visualaesthetics of the journal.

SUBMISSION: Manuscripts are acceptedon a continuous basis at the followingaddress:

Editor, VisionMaricopa Center for Learning and

InstructionMaricopa Community Colleges3910 East Washington Street

Phoenix, Arizona 85034

oThe Mark:op. Commenfty Colleges Journal of Teaching and Learning

3910 E. Washington StreetPhoenix, AZ 85034

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