EcotourismTrainingManual Cbt

Training Manual for Community-based Tourism

Authors: Nicole Häusler & Wolfgang Strasdas

Addendum to “The Ecotourism Training Manual for Protected Area Managers”

DSE-ZEL Zschortau. DSE DOKU 1956, January 2002

InWEnt - Capacity Building International, Germany

A merger of Carl Duisberg Gesellschaft (CDG) and

the German Foundation for International Dvelopment (DSE)

Published by:

InWEnt - Capacity Building International, Germany, Zschortau (near Leipzig)

Division Environment, Natural Resources, Food (Berlin-Zschortau-Feldafing)

Leipziger Str. 15

D-04509 ZSCHORTAU - GERMANY

Authors:

Nicole Häusler & Wolfgang Strasdas Editing assistance: StephanieThullen Layout: Manfred Meier and Thomas Petermann

Contact:

Thomas Petermann, Project Manager: Regional Rural Development and Nature Conservation

InWEnt, Training Center Zschortau (near Leipzig) 04509 Zschortau/Germany

Leipziger Str. 15

℡ +49 – (0)34 202 – 845 202 +49 – (0)34 202 – 845 777

e-mail: [email protected] http://www.inwent.org

homepage: http://www.dse.de/zel/landinfo

January 2003

http://www.inwent.org/

Training Manual for

Community-based Tourism

Table of Contents

List of Figures ….. ........................................................................................................ 5 List of Tables ............................................................................................................... 5 List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................. 5

0. Introduction 0.1 Background …………………………………………………………………………………………… 1 0.2 Purpose of this manual ...................................................................................... 1 0.3 How to use this manual ..................................................................................... 2

1. Background Information 1.1 Concept of CBT ................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Tourism and Poverty Elimination ...................................................................... 5 1.3 Minimise the Cost-Maximise the Benefits ........................................................ 6 1.4 Addressing the Challenges ……………………………………………………………………… 7

2. Categories of Community-based Tourism 2.1 Categories of CBT................................................................................................ 10 2.2 Common Characteristics ................................................................................... 13

3. Community-based Tourism as a Business 3.1 Product Development and Marketing ............................................................. 15 3.2 Communities and the Private Sector ............................................................... 18 3.3 Fair Trade in Tourism ………………………………………………………………………... ... 19 3.4 Financing of CBT ……………………………………………………………………………….. .. 20

4. CBT Planning and Implementation 4.1 Community Involvement and Income Distrubution …………………………………25 4.2 Training Steps and Implementation ................................................................ 25 4.3 Panning and Management of CBT at the National Level ............................. 29 4.4 Carrying Capacity .............................................................................................. 35 4.5 Monitoring .......................................................................................................... 36 4.6 Code of Conduct for Visitors ........................................................................... 38

Annexes

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5

List of Figures

Figure 1: Interest Groups of Baan Huay Hee, Thailand .....................................31 Figure 2: Income distribution – Baan Huay Hee, Thailand ………………………….29 Figure 3: Example Community-Based Tourism Resource Map ..........................32 List of Tables

Table 1: Models of CBT .........................................................................................5 Table 2: Advantages and Limitations of CBT ......................................................9 Table 3: Checklist for Inventory of Tourism Resources and Infrastructure .....16 Table 4: Different Forms of Community Involvement in Tourism ...................26 Table 5: Priorities of Different Stakeholders in CBT ..........................................27 Table 6: Sample format for an Action Plan ........................................................31 Table 7: Interest Groups of Baan Huay Hee, Thailand ......................................31 Table 8: Seasonal Calendar – Seasonal Activities in a Village ...........................33 List of Abbreviations

BPP Business Promotion Programme CBT Community-based tourism CBET Community-based ecotourism CBMT Community-based mountain tourism CBST Community-based sustainable tourism CIT Community Involvement in Tourism IYE International Year of Ecotourism MCF Microcredit Fund NGO Non-government organisation PDA Population and Community Development Association PPT Pro-poor tourism SME Small and medium enterprises TIES The International Ecotourism Society UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development WTO World Tourism Organization

0. Introduction

0. Introduction The setting up of local enterprises, developing relevant skills, mobilising communities, build cooperation between all stakeholders and link-ing CBT into the international tourism market are neither easy for communities nor for devel-opment agents who support them. 0.1 Background The involvement and participation of communi-ties in tourism is a long-term process, which needs a great amount of patience and the full commitment from all stakeholders. However, the development of CBT is a rapidly growing phenomenon as communities respond to the opportunities of tourism, which can provide them with an enormous potential to influence their own development. CBT can, if carefully im-plemented, cause little or no harmful impact, and generate increasing benefits to communi-ties in terms of productivity, employment, im-proved distribution of wealth, conservation of the environment and culture, local people’s in-volvement, and a suitable way of adapting tra-ditional beliefs and values to modern times.

Due to the expansion of tourism devel-opment worldwide, more and more com-munities - whether voluntarily or invol-untarily - have been and will be involved in tourism. Tourism, perhaps more than any other industry, is especially affecting the lives of rural people in the South. It has been recognised in the past few years that tourism, if properly introduced, has the potential to provide some unique opportunities for communities by offering not only greater financial benefit, but also enhancing their involvement and participation in the planning and man-agement of tourism in their regions in innovative ways. The term community-based tourism (in short, CBT) has there-fore become an important keyword in this context of tourism development and planning.

0.2 Purpose of this manual While community-based tourism has been used to describe a variety of activities that seek to positively link conservation and local culture with economic development, many of the issues involved in the development of a community-based tourism area are not clearly understood. One of the reasons is the fact that development and conservation organisations have offered less capacity building and training in commu-nity-based tourism than in ecotourism.

The spectrum of community-based tour-ism projects ranges from village-based initiatives to small-scale joint ventures with the private sector to multi-million dollar private sector development. Some of the types of tourism that are particu-larly suitable to CBT are Ecotourism, Eth-nic/Indigenous Tourism, Agro/Rural Tour-ism and Cultural Tourism1 since they are open to community ownership and con-trol.

Since tourism will continue to affect rural communities in the decades ahead, this manual not only provides guidelines and practical ex-amples for the implementation of CBT, but also presents some ‘lessons learnt’ for communities based on both positive and negative experi-ences.

The experiences of the past have shown some limitations and many challenges in the implementation of CBT, which has led to the recognition that this type of tour-ism has to be carefully considered and sensitively introduced in order to avoid failures and ‘un-benefits’.

This manual identifies ways of addressing them in order to maximise the potential benefits and minimise the negative impacts of tourism. In some cases, the minimising of costs is probably all that can be done; in others, CBT can gener-ate significant local earnings, and encourage lo-cal participation and empowerment.

1 A detailed description of these types can be found in Chapter 2.

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0. Introduction

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The target group of this manual are mainly field-based professionals who work with communities or tourism or-ganisations to plan for and develop community-based tourism as a tool for achieving conservation and community development objectives. Professionals may be government staff from the departments of tourism, pro-tected areas, forestry, conservation, or community development; local govern-ment or community leaders; members of non-government organisations (NGOs); representatives of the private sector (e.g. tour operators, hotel/lodge owners, or guides); or community development and conservation project staff2. 0.3 How to use this manual This manual is an additional and supple-mentary publication to ‘The Ecotourism Training Manual for Protected Area Man-agers’. Several common topics of com-munity-based tourism and ecotourism are covered and described in more detail in the manual for ecotourism. It is therefore highly recommended to work with both editions. This manual focuses on the involvement of communities in tourism, but it should serve as a guide only. Facilitators do not have to follow the steps in the precise sequence employed here, and they should be aware that the guidelines are not “fixed” tools, but rather stand as a collec-tion of issues and topics to be considered and addressed. Furthermore, it is very im-portant to realise that the concept of CBT should always be adapted to the local culture and circumstances. What might work in a community in Peru might not work in a community in India due to the totally different local conditions!

2 The Mountain Institute 2000

This training manual wants to give not only an introduction to the several concepts and com-ponents of community-based tourism (Chapter 1 and 2) but also practical guidance in the planning and management of CBT (Chapter 4). It also covers another important issue, which is unfortunately not often taken into account: the aspects of Product Development and Marketing (Chapter 3). Many promising CBT projects have failed in the past due to a lack of business knowledge among the members of the commu-nities and their cooperating partners. The new concepts of Fair Trade in Tourism show an inter-esting approach, which might help to solve these problems. “Ecotourism has been chosen by thousands of local communities in Latin America as their preferred development alternative. There is much concern throughout Latin America that local communities are entering into the ecot-ourism market without understanding how to commercialise their product.”

Epler Wood 1998 Like the manual on ecotourism, this manual does not pretend to be a complete textbook for training course participants. It gives an overview of the different topics relevant to community-based tourism, including several case studies. At the end of each chapter a list of references for further reading is provided.

1. Background Information


Key topics (47) strengthen, nurture and encourage the community’s ability to maintain and use tra-ditional skills, particularly home-based arts and crafts, agricultural produce, traditional housing and landscaping that use local natu-ral resources in a sustainable manner.

1.1. Concept of CBT

1.2. Tourism and Poverty Elimina-tion

1.3. Minimise the Cost – Maximise the Benefits

1. 4. Addressing the Challenges 1.1. Concept of CBT

Tourism is among those economic branches that are directly dependent on sustainable management. It depends on the preservation of nature, landscapes, biodiversity and cul-tural heritage. The positive attitude of local people towards tourism plays an important role as well. Furthermore, there is an in-creasing demand for tourism in which tour-ists are permitted to observe and participate in local events and daily activities in a genu-ine way.

One of the best-practise types of tourism that can presently realise these qualities is Community-based Tourism (CBT). CBT2 is a form of tourism in which a significant num-ber of local people has substantial control over, and involvement in its development and management. The major proportion of the benefits remains within the local econ-omy. Members of the community, even those who are not directly involved in tourism enter-prises, gain some form of benefit as well (e.g. community fund, multiplier effect). CBT should never replace traditional economic ac-tivities by becoming the main or only source of income for a community. But it can cer-tainly be a helpful additional side-income.

For that reason one of the main topics in the international discussion of the International Year of Ecotourism (IYE) in 2002 has focused on the level of involvement of local people in tourism development. The Declaration of the World Ecotourism Summit in Québec City in May 2002 took these aspects into considera-tion1: “(Ecotourism) includes local and in-digenous communities in its planning, devel-opment and operation, and contributes to their well-being.”

Some further general characteristics of CBT are as follows: • Includes education and interpretation as

part of the tourism service; • Increases local and visitor awareness of

conservation; Furthermore, the Declaration states that lo-cal and indigenous communities themselves: (46) As part of a community vision for devel-opment, that may include ecotourism, define and implement a strategy for improving benefits for the community through ecotour-ism development including human, physical, financial, and social capital development, and improved access to technical informa-tion.

2 Additional terms like community based sustainable tourism (CBST), community based mountain tourism (CBMT) or community based ecotourism (CBET) focus with its extra word on the special local concept of the planners. But quite often these terms are just used without outlining its meaning. In order to avoid any misunderstandings, community-based tourism is used in this publication and integrates in its definition com-ponents like mountains, ecotourism and, of course, sustainability. 1 Further information at www.ecotourism2002.org

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• Is generally, but not exclusively, organ-ised for small groups by small, special-ised and locally owned businesses;

• Minimises negative impacts on the natural and socio-cultural environment;

• Supports the protection of natural areas by generating economic benefits for the management of these areas.

CBT creates opportunities for training and technical assistance, and should develop the community’s capability to manage market-ing, sales and financial income. Besides set-ting up educational facilities (e.g. museum, interpretive trails, botanical garden) and other attractions, the community should be able to develop and adjust its tourism pro-gramme independently after a few years. Furthermore, the following service activities can be offered by local communities:

• Guiding • Providing transport • Catering • Accommodation, homestays • Handicrafts • Cultural performances (dance, songs,

storytelling, etc.) • Cultural demonstrations and instruction

(weaving, agricultural practices, music, craft-making, cooking, etc.)

Surprisingly, it is quite common to use the term community-based tourism without giv-ing a clear definition of the expression ‘community’. This can cause, from the very beginning, many misinterpretations and mis-understandings since the term ‘community’ has dozens of different meanings worldwide due to the social and institutional structures in the area concerned. People living in the same village are defi-nitely members of a community, but the term itself is broader than that. A commu-nity who shares the same interests can be related to a geographic or to an administra-tive organisation. Community is defined by the context they share, like a field of knowl-edge, interests, activities, or experiences

bound by the community of people. The con-text is defined by the community that shares it. Therefore, not only can members of a village run CBT, but also individuals and initiatives with some form of organised structure for tourism in a particular area. Additionally, it must be noted that ‘communities’ are not automatically a homogenous unit. There are deep divisions within many communities with several sub-communities of interest. This needs to be taken into consideration when implementing CBT. Depending on the level of involvement of the whole community, the intensity of participa-tion in community-based tourism may be higher or lower. CBT projects can be fully owned and operated by the local community. Another model may include only members of the community only, such as village organi-sations, individuals or families. A third vari-ant is a joint venture with “outsiders” like tourism entrepreneurs (after Wesche/Drumm, no date). The level of participation (see ‘The Ecotour-ism Training Manual’, Chapter 5) depends very much on the local conditions and on the tourism market segment that is being tar-geted. Due to its high level of participation, many NGOs prefer mainly Model 1, but ex-perience has shown that Model 3 is more successful (see Chapter 3). In any case, par-ticipatory planning of tourism is the most di-rect way to ensure that local livelihood pri-orities influence tourism development, and therefore plays an important role within the concept of CBT.

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1.2. Tourism and Poverty Elimination

Quite often governments, development or-ganisations and donor agencies are still not aware of the potential of tourism, and are sceptical about the role it can play in allevi-ating poverty. It is common to hear that a donor agency does not support tourism be-cause tourism is seen to be a leisure activity for the wealthy only.

The concept of pro-poor tourism (PPT)3 aims to increase the net benefits for the poor from tourism, and to ensure that tourism growth contributes to poverty reduction.

PPT strategies aim to unlock opportunities for the poor – whether they are economic gains, other livelihood benefits, or participa-tion in decision-making.

The World Tourism Organization (WTO) and United Nations Conference on Trade and De-velopment (UNCTAD) have launched in 2003 a new initiative called ST-EP (Sustainable Tourism – Eliminating Poverty). Both organi-sations want to encourage sustainable tour-ism, which especially alleviates poverty, bringing development and jobs to people liv-

ing on less than a dollar a day. It will target the world’s poorest countries, particularly in Africa, and developing nations in general.

Table 1: Models of CBT Model 1: The whole community is in-volved in the project

Model 2: Parts of the community or families are involved in the project

Model 3: Joint Venture between the community or some of its members and business partner/s

3 http://www.propoortourism.org.uk

“It is important that government officials and others are educated about the potential role of tourism in economic development and poverty reduction.”

WTO/UNCTAD, 2002


1.3. Minimise the Cost –

Maximise the Benefits

Projects that promote CBT need to be aware that not all of the disadvantages caused by tourism can be avoided, and that CBT initia-tives can bring both costs and benefits. In most communities, the impacts are highly differentiated depending on the social, cul-tural and historical structures.

But all communities should have the aim that the benefits must outweigh the costs. For that reason the objectives, benefits, and distribution of the benefits from the project should be clearly defined in order to avoid misunderstandings and problems. It is impor-tant to get the balance right between the needs, wishes and potential of a community.

Experiences to date have clearly shown that, for example, the development of inter-pretative trails by the local community has raised their interest and awareness of biodi-versity’s richness. Participation in tourism has encouraged clearance of rubbish, local landscape improvements and a forest reha-bilitation programme, sometimes involving

visitors themselves.

Another theme linked to the development of CBT is the growth of employment opportuni-ties, particularly for women, young people and ethnic groups. Skills earned through tourism can be transferred to other industries.

One more important factor is the social sus-tainability of CBT. Community involvement in tourism can result in increased pride in, and recognition of, the cultural tradition and heritage that are attractive to tourists. It can strengthen cultural and social traditions (e.g. through the development of cultural centres, the reappearance of traditional arts, crafts and dancing, etc.).

Further benefits, as well as costs, are sum-marised in Table 2. Many of the disadvan-tages covered in Table 2 can be attributed to any new economic activity in a rural area, and are not specific to tourism. The men-tioned costs are all a reason to invest even more effort in community involvement in or-der to mitigate them.

Case Study No. 1: Voice from the community (Thailand)

“Before we started with our tourism project some years ago we already received tourists, but we had no idea how to manage the situation regarding income, program, guiding etc. After receiving several trainings we are now able to explain and show our culture and traditional knowledge to our visitors - and we are proud of our management and guiding skills. In the past our youth was not very interested in our traditional culture and was planning to migrate to big, modern cities like Bangkok. But the village became much more attractive to them since tourists have stayed here for some days. They are now also keen to learn about our traditions from the elders in order to become one of our village guides.

Since our village does not want to depend financially on tourism we have decided to welcome no more than two groups per month. This amount of guests will not interrupt us in our daily activities but will instead liven it up sometimes. 80% of the income made by tourism goes directly to the families who offer accommodation and meals for the tourists. We have developed a rotation system to avoid jealousy among our members. 15% of the money goes to the Ecotourism Club who manages the project and 5% to the Village Community Fund. “

Khun Anee Kwantu, Headman of Karen Village Huai Hee, Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand

Contact: Jor Koe Eco Trek, 1/1Khunlumprapat, Soi 3, Tambon Jonkam, Amphur Munag, Mae Hong Son 58000, Thailand, Ph./Fax: +66 (53) 612307, [email protected], www.jket.org

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1. 4. Addressing the Challenges Ideally, in any CBT project there should be direct and indirect participants, and direct and indirect beneficiaries. But in reality, the opposite unfortunately happens. Local elites, particularly men, often control community-based development and can easily monopo-lise the benefits of tourism. Those with most authority, influence, education, and lan-guage skills are most likely to get the new jobs, set up enterprises, make deals with outsiders, or control collective income earned by the community. Since these power structures must be faced worldwide, it is necessary to always keep this issue in mind. In order to avoid, or at least minimise, these inequitable structures, it is worth trying to actively involve as many community members as possible in the deci-sion-making process of the CBT project. There should be no ‘power plays’ between groups, neither within the community, nor between the government and the commu-nity, nor between businesses and NGOs. In many cases, NGOs have been the source of start-up funding, training, and technical assistance of CBT projects. But there are sev-eral examples of inappropriate NGO assis-tance in the field of CBT. These organisations usually operate all kinds of social development projects and are ex-perts in community development; unfortu-nately many lack the skills required for run-ning a tourism project. One of the main reasons for this failure has been the lack of cooperation between NGOs and experienced private businesses, who al-ready offer, or are interested in supporting, CBT in the country. In most cases, business and tourism planning occurs too late, lead-ing to disappointment and business collapse.

CBT requires a combination of business-oriented mentality and social development affinity and knowledge. This combination re-quires a high level of cooperation (see Chap-ters 3 and 4). The best NGOs provide diagnostics, feasibility studies, and support from planning to im-plementation to evaluation. They ensure that these projects develop to their potential and have the chance to survive independently over the long-term while establishing from the very beginning a good relationship with the business sector. The government should help to implement and promote CBT in its country. CBT is interaction between different interest groups and should certainly not be planned in isolation from other sectors and stake-holders. But all stakeholders should be aware that the community has to take a leadership role in this process and should not depend on the activities of one or more stakeholders.

Suggested textbook material ASHLEY / ROE 1998; ASHLEY/ROE/GOODWIN 2001; BORNEO ECOTOURS: www.borneoecotours.com; CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES CONSORTIUM URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROJECT (no date); EPLER WOOD (1998); TOURISM KWAZULU-NATAL (no date); UNESCO NAM HA ECOTOURISM PROJECT (2001); WESCHE / DRUMM (no date), p.15; WORLD TOURISM ORGANISATION (www.world-tourism.org); WORLD TRAVEL AND TOURISM COUNCIL (www.wttc.org); WWF 2001, p. 2-4;

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http://www.borneoecotours.com/

http://www.world-tourism.org/

http://www.wttc.org/


Proposed Learning Process

1. Introductory keynote followed by plenary discussion on tourism impacts in

local communities ⇓

2. Participants discuss their own community and community-based tourism definitions in work groups and present the results in the plenary

⇓

3. Participants present their own CBT project, based on criteria given to them by instructors prior to attending the course. The case studies may already

exist or are to be set up in the near future

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Table 2: Advantages and Limitations of CBT

Advantages – the positive scenario Limitations and disadvantages – the negative scenario

Concerning local development

• Provision of a significant number of jobs for local people especially for young people and women, which can alleviate rural poverty

• Community income • Business opportunities • Acquisition of practical skills • Provision of associated infrastructure (roads,

telephone, water, power) • Institutional development • Pride • Stemming the out-migration from rural areas to

the cities • Local control and responsibility for what is done

in village homelands and what happens to re-sources used by the communities

• Education of younger people in both traditional knowledge and western science, and education of the outside world about community goals and ways of living

• A ‘bad deal’ for communities • Limited investment in training • Risky investment • Infrastructure only for tourists, not residents • Control by outsiders (Government, Business sector,

NGOs) • Local conflicts exacerbated, especially with

neighbouring villages who do not benefit from CBT in the same region

Concerning economic growth

• Greater local income • Stimulation of local economy, with a strong mul-

tiplier effect into agriculture and other local ac-tivities

• Economic diversification, particularly in rural ar-eas, where agricultural employment is insuffi-cient

• Encouraging SME rooted within the local com-munity

• Stressing the importance of responsible business

• Unstable demand • Over-dependence • Conflict among members of the community regard-

ing income distribution • Increase in the cost of local goods

Concerning conservation and culture

• Promotion of natural resource management • Education of travellers and locals on the impor-

tance of conservation • Improved waste management • Increased/improved conservation of biological di-

versity, water, forests, cultural landscapes, monuments, etc.

• Preservation and enhancement of cultural values • Revival of local traditions and crafts • Sharing of cultural knowledge and experience

can be beneficial for hosts and guests • Enhanced income to help pay for the preserva-

tion of archaeological sites, historic buildings, and districts

• Over-use of natural resources • Insufficient benefits, narrowly-distributed, and not

visibly linked to conservation of the resource base • Rapid development, over-development, and over-

crowding can forever change the physical environ-ment and ecosystems of an area; sensitive areas and habitat may be lost

• Litter and water problems • Capacity and other prerequisites lacking • Sexual exploitation and drug abuse • Breakdown of social values, culture and norms

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2. Categories of CBT

2. Categories of Community-based Tourism

Key topics

2.1 Categories of CBT

2.2 Common Characteristics

The following types of tourism are par-ticularly appropriate to CBT as they are open to community ownership and con-trol: Ecotourism, Agrotourism, Rural Tourism, Village-based Tourism, Ethnic or Indigenous Tourism, and Cultural Tour-ism. In addition, the promotion of local arts and crafts can be an important com-ponent in CBT Projects and in more mainstream forms of tourism.

CBT is based upon the curiosity or desire of tourists to learn more about the daily life of people from different cultures, es-pecially those with an exotic image. CBT is typically associated with urban people visiting the countryside while enjoying, for a certain period of time, the “simple way of life”. However, CBT could also include tourism to cities by integrating urban communities (schools, local arts and crafts organisations, dancing clubs, etc.) into the programme. But due to lim-ited space the emphasis of this manual is on tourism in rural areas. 2.1 Categories of CBT Ecotourism In addition to culture, the natural envi-ronment is a key theme for many com-munity-based tourism activities.

The arrival of tourists has actually in-creased environmental protection and conservation in many cases. Local com-

munities have come to recognise that en-vironmental destruction and misman-agement will lead to less tourist arrivals, which subsequently means less revenue.

Ecotourism is therefore a form of tourism that occurs in natural areas (esp. in pro-tected areas and their surroundings) and integrates the local socio-cultural identity with environmental considerations. It promotes a sustainable ecosystem through a participatory environmental management process involving all stake-holders.

‘The Ecotourism Training Manual for Pro-tected Area Managers’ gives detailed ex-planations of the term ‘Ecotourism’ in Chapter 1. One of the most accepted defi-nitions of ecotourism is from the Interna-tional Ecotourism Society: “(Ecotourism is)…responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environ-ment and sustains the well-being of local people.” This definition is used as part of the concep-tual framework for both manuals. Cultural Tourism Cultural Tourism is one of the most im-portant components of community-based tourism since the attraction of local communities is mainly their culture, his-tory and archaeology.

Community involvement in the planning of social activities focused on cultural monuments can enrich the cultural calen-dar with fairs, festivals and theatrical per-formances for the education of not only tourists, but for local residents as well.

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When local people are active participants in these activities, they will develop a per-sonal stake in development of long-term sustainable tourism through conservation and maintenance of the authentic cultural heritage of a site.

B. Kaldun, UNESCO 2001 The local community participates in the management of this form of tourism, which is based on the principle of pre-serving or even revitalising local culture. Examples of culture-based tourism in-clude visiting archaeological sites, fa-mous religious places or experiencing lo-cal life in an ethnic village.

So called “study tours” are a growing market. During a two-week trip (mini-mum), tourists acquire a deep insight into the culture and history of the destination, and also aspire to have a direct exchange with locals. Rural Tourism Rural areas, despite their diversity around the world, face a common challenge of economic regeneration and employment, especially for young people. Often, these areas can no longer rely on agriculture only.

Many rural areas, especially in Europe, already benefit from tourism. But inter-estingly, the term rural tourism has different meanings in different European countries. In Finland, for example, it usu-ally means renting out cottages to visitors or providing catering services in the countryside. In Slovenia, the most important form of rural tourism is tourism on family farms,

where guests stay either with the farm family or in a guesthouse; however, visit-ing farms to have a meal and explore the farmyard are also popular. In the Nether-lands, rural tourism means camping on the farm, with most farm services being linked to activities such as cycling, walk-ing or horseback riding.

Rural tourism is a segment of the tourism industry that is particularly important in Hungary, a country with no spectacular at-tractions, without a seaside, high moun-tains, rainforest or herds of exotic animals. However, its attractive cultural landscape with small villages, thermal springs, rivers and lakes, combined with traditional hos-pitality, are able to offer pleasant experi-ences to the kind of tourist who is looking for relaxation and recreation in a calm set-ting. www.ratztamara.com

Agrotourism Agrotourism is a form of tourism in agri-cultural areas such as orchards, agrofor-estry farms, herbal farms and animal farms, which have been prepared in some way for tourists. Tourists watch or take part in agricultural practices such as working with animals or harvesting crops without disturbing the ecosystem or the productivity of host areas.

A special new product is holidays on or-ganic farms, where visitors can learn more about natural, non-pesticide farm-ing methods.

Other names for agrotourism are agri-tourism or farm-based tourism.

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The Demand for Agrotourism in Europe

• Medium to high educational level

• Middle-aged persons and children

• Experienced & demanding travellers

• Key criteria: conviviality, authenticity, serenity

• Ideal farm: traditional, with animals, rural/natural setting near coast, lake or in mountains

Activities that can be offered to guests on a farm

• Opportunities for interaction between hosts and guests

• Horseback riding

• Swimming, playing (children)

• Demonstrating and participating in daily farm work

• Courses in organic farming and gardening

• Demonstrating or offering classes in traditional local crafts

• Demonstrating food processing, serving typical local dishes and offering cooking lessons

• Organising cultural events

• Offering excursions to natural and cultural attractions in the surroundings

• or just relaxation …. Based on AGÖL 2001

Ethnic / Indigenous Tourism Ethnic / Indigenous Tourism refers to a kind of tourism where ethnic minorities or indigenous people are directly in-volved, either through control and/or by having their culture serve as the essence of the tourist attraction.

The promotion of ethnic heritage as a tourist attraction does not necessarily have to be linked to minorities or native people in the South: like many other American communities settled by German immigrants, the town of New Braunfels, for example, employs predominantly Ba-varian themes and images to convey its heritage, despite the fact that it was set-tled by immigrants from the northern and western provinces of Germany.

Village-based Tourism Tourists share activities in village life, and rural villages gain economic and other benefits from tourist activities. Quite often villagers provide accommodation like the often-used homestays. Homestays are en-terprises in which tourists stay overnight in village houses, often together with a family.

Another option are guesthouses, run by a village cooperative or by individuals, which sometimes offer more comfort and espe-cially more privacy for the guests – and sometimes for the hosts as well.

Arts and Crafts

The production of local arts and handi-crafts has a long history in tourist desti-nations. As such, it is not an independent form of tourism, but rather a component

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of different types of tourism, including not only CBT but also “mainstream” tour-ism (e.g. large-scale beach resorts).

Tourism brings not only better business opportunities for the region’s handicraft industry; sales of handicrafts can also help locals to learn more about their rich cultural heritage and arts.

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Supporting organisations (governmental and NGOs) should therefore specialise in the promotion of handicraft products at the national level, helping to open new markets for handicraft communities.

Crafts can provide new job opportunities for the poorest segment of the population in many countries. Arts and crafts can have not only indigenous/ethnic designs, but also elements of newly introduced crafts or western art forms. Just as tradition and culture are never fixed and perma-

nently integrate new elements, the design of arts and crafts is changeable; however, it is important to keep the balance of new and old elements.

Basketry, pottery, weaving, woodcarving, leatherwork, jewellery, musical instru-ments, paper, tools, and clothing are im-portant components in the industry of arts and crafts (see Annex 3 for more details).

2.2 Common Characteristics It is difficult to distinctly delineate these categories since each of them can share characteristics of the others. For example, the visit of an ethnic group in its village located in a natural area can be termed village, ethnic, rural or eco tourism. The portrayal of the culture, history and relig-ion of the hosts can be called cultural tourism.

Case Study 2: The CBT Project in Baan Lorcha, Thailand The Akha village Baan Lorcha was chosen in 2000 by the ‘Population and Community Development Association’ (PDA) as a pilot village of CBT in villages of various ethnic groups in Northern Thailand. Even before the project started, Baan Lorcha already re-ceived many tourists. Like all other villages, however, the community was unorganised and unable to benefit or participate in the tourism activities in their own village.

Since the start of the project, several major changes in the villagers’ attitudes have been perceived. For example, the villagers are no longer embarrassed to wear their traditional attire. Activities such as weaving had almost been lost since it is easier to purchase mod-ern cloth from the market than to produce one’s own textile. Through the project, one elderly Akha villager suggested a demonstration of Akha weaving. Her daughter has taken up the skill, and for now, this art has been revived and passed along to the next genera-tion.

An entrance fee of 40 Baht/1 US-$ entitles visitors to a tour around the village with a vil-lage chaperone. During the tours, visitors have the opportunity to observe rarely seen events such as a village dances, metalworking, weaving, rice pounding and traditional Akha games. Some villagers who are not directly involved in the project benefit from sell-ing bracelets, belts and shoulder bags, which they embroider for sale to tourists.

Contact: Population and Community Development Association (PDA), 620/25 Thanalai Rd., Muang District, Chiang Rai 57000, Thailand. Phone/Fax: +66-53-740088, [email protected]


14

If the villagers go with their guests to the fields, telling them about agriculture and even encouraging them to work in the fields, it can be called agrotourism. Be-fore leaving the village, the tourists hope-fully buy some arts and crafts directly from the villagers.

Suggested textbook material

GODDE 1998b, LEDERMAN 2001; TOURISM AUTHORITY OF THAILAND (no date); All these components are part of Com-

munity-based Tourism if some part of the community is involved in these tourism activities. It helps them not only to gen-erate income but also to respect and value their own culture. The concept of learning from other cultures to broaden one's own perspective is a core value of all these categories of CBT.

WWF 2001; www.ratztamara.com; www.wttc.org

Proposed learning process

1. Structural introduction by facilitator (Categories of CBT).

⇓

2. Guest speakers (tour companies, organisers/promoters of rural and agrotourism, members of village tourism, representatives of ethnic/indigenous tourism) present

case studies relating to key themes.

⇓

3. Field trips (especially important for this topic since infrastructure and information/ interpretation media are visible in the field and allow a hands-on approach).

⇓

4. Group work on the following issues: classify the case studies of the participants in the categories of CBT and discuss if they have the potential to add one or more

categories.

http://www.ratztamara.com/

http://www.wttc.org/

3. CBT as a Business

3. Community-based Tourism as a Business

Key topics

3.1 Product Development and Marketing

3.2 Communities and the Private Sector

3.3 Fair Trade in Tourism

3.4 Financing of CBT

In the concept of CBT, issues like partici-pation, empowerment, cultural revitalisa-tion, and natural resource management play an important role. But it must also be taken into consideration that CBT must be commercially profitable if it is to be sustainable. That does not mean to re-duce CBT to a business activity only. If taken seriously, CBT has to provide visi-tors with socially and environmentally responsible products; however these have to be viable within a very competitive in-dustry. Besides giving a brief introduction into product development, marketing and the financing of CBT, this chapter analyses the critical but essential relationship be-tween communities and the private sec-tor. Fair Trade in Tourism is a concept that may help to build bridges between these two stakeholders. 3.1 Product Development and

Marketing The Ecotourism Training Manual for Pro-tected Area Managers (Chapter 2: Ecot-ourism as a Business) gives an introduc-

tion to product development and market-ing of ecotourism. Most of these aspects and criteria can be also used for market-ing CBT, but other issues have to be taken into account in order to avoid false expectations in the communities. Communities are not the same all over the world, which consequently means that not all communities have the poten-tial for CBT. Some have the capacity to take charge of running a project; some do not. Some communities simply are not situated in locations that are appropriate for tourism development. Even the best marketing strategy might not help if the community is difficult to reach or far from a tourist area. Most tourists simply do not have the time during their two-week holiday to travel for two days to a community, stay there for two nights and spend two more days for the return trip. There may be some exceptions1, but communities should be situated near a tourism hotspot or on the way to it. If so, community members should discuss if they have any particular or unique at-traction. This could include natural or cultural landscapes, cultural traditions (architecture, handicrafts, art, music, dancing) or an opportunity for specific activities like fishing, hiking, cooking, etc.

1 Exceptions are, for example, indigenous areas or markets in Ecuador or Guatemala, where the com-munities themselves are a well-known tourism “at-traction”.

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Table 3: Checklist for Inventory of Tourism Resources and Infrastructure Tourism Resources & Infrastructure Existing Non-

existing (or not yet)

Cultural Resources: • Ethnic and/or multicultural character • Local performances (e.g. theatre, dances) • Festivals • Historic sites • Arts & crafts • Cultural landscapes (e.g. rice terraces) • Special crops and agricultural practices • Food specialities • Everyday activities of the community (e.g. rice thrash-

ing) • Hospitality/friendliness of residents

Environmental Resources: • Parks/natural areas • Trails • Flora and fauna • Special attractions (waterfalls) • Sport facilities (boating, trekking)

Accommodation: • Adequacy in terms of numbers of

beds/rooms/homestays • Type, quality, and price related to anticipated market

segment demand (lodges, hotels, guest houses, camp-sites, hostels, homestays)

Access and Transportation: • Adequacy of routes and ports for all modes of trans-

port to and within the area (air, train, car) • Distance from main cities • Potential pollution problems

Information/Visitor Services in the CBT area or nearby: • Availability of guides and interpreters • Information booths, visitor centres, museum, exhibition • Brochures, maps and other materials for visitors • Availability of public toilets • Rest and picnic areas • Telephone, fax and internet communication • Banking, money exchange

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Health and Safety in the CBT area or nearby: • Access to medical services and emergency response • (Tourism) Police adequacy

Human Resources: • Labour supply • Attitudes towards tourism and related jobs • Training facilities and programs

Shopping: • Promotion of local arts and crafts • Hours, locations and days of operation

Travel Services: • Local tour or bus companies • Outfitters and equipment rentals • Guides and interpreters

Water, Energy and Sewerage: • Adequacy • Environmental impacts of potential overuse • Alternative fuel (kerosene depots, solar energy) • Access to clean water supply

Financial Resources: • Private funding (community, investor) • Public sources (loans, grants)

In this context a tourism infrastructure in-ventory (see Table 3) helps to find out not only about the particular attractions but also to answer the following questions:

Without effective promotion tourists are not able to get information about the project, and due to a lack of tourists the failure of the CBT project is likely to oc-cur within the first three years. Unfortu-nately this has happened quite often in the past.

• What is the infrastructural capacity? (related to visitor numbers)

• Is it suitable? (related to visitor types and their needs) In reality, most CBT communities do not

have any access to or communication with the market. Generally, they do not have modern communication equipment like PCs, laser printers, or fax machines, or even sufficient and efficient telephone lines.

• What kind of quality is being of-fered? (high profile or rather low standard)

• What improvements or management strategies are required?

At the same time, it is necessary to set up a marketing plan that addresses issues such as local information networking, internet promotion, media and guidebook coverage, linkages with other projects, and promotion through national tourism campaigns.

Even the organised networks of CBT communities with offices in local cities regularly experience technical failures and often keep irregular office hours. In the future, it is therefore necessary that donor agencies support not only training

18


Therefore, it is highly recommended to work from an early stage with local (eco) tourism companies who can provide not only investment but also skills, such as foreign languages and specialised knowl-edge. They can establish linkages be-tween communities and the national and international tourism market.

sessions on CBT, but also marketing ac-tivities, at least initially.

Furthermore, assistance at the govern-mental level to supply good, reliable, and up-to-date information on community tourism on the Internet and in printed form, for visitors at major gateways, and through tourism boards, is essential to further CBT marketing. Visitors to CBT projects are mainly tourists from western countries, but the market potential of domestic tourists, expatriates and tourists from neighbouring countries should be not ignored and underestimated. This huge number of potential CBT clients must be reached by special domestic and regional marketing campaigns.

“A market research analysis is needed to look at the market for Ecotourism (and CBT). Research on a macro scale throughout the region will give local community tourism developers access to reliable data. This will enable more accu-rate market planning and feasibility stud-ies to be developed, even for the smallest enterprises, by giving them access to world-class data”. When launching a campaign, it should

always be kept in mind that the interests of tourists have to be raised in a way that shows that CBT holidays are not only connected to negative issues like poverty and migration, but also to positive ones. Tourists want to enjoy their few holidays in a pleasant, socially and environmen-tally friendly surrounding.

Epler Wood (1998)

From the very beginning the private sec-tor and the community should build up structures that enable the community to benefit and have decision-making power over the level and nature of tourism in its area. It should be possible for both sides to make adjustments at any point of the business partnership Brochures which promote “Community-

based ecotourism tours in XY – help to empower our community” act as a deter-rent because tourists find the term too complicated and it may scare them away. CBT projects should be marketed in an easy, understandable and pleasurable way without complicated words. Not all tour-ists are familiar with the technical terms of development workers and NGOs!

The understanding of commercial realities by the community and transparency from both sides are important preconditions for a trustful partnership. Expectations should also be realistic. For example, in some joint venture negotiations, the lack of understanding of revenue, costs and profit has caused some communities and NGOs to expect 50 per cent of the money that is being earned. But even for an es-tablished enterprise, operating costs are likely to consume around 70% of the revenue (or more), and profit may be around 30%. Thus, in this case, a 50% share of profit would be around 15% of the revenue. To avoid this problem, it should be clear for each partner what the respective costs are and what amount of profit actually remains to be shared.

3.2 Communities and the Pri-vate Sector – a sometimes diffi-cult but necessary partnership Marketing is expensive and most com-munities are neither able to afford press tours, attend trade fairs or publish a cata-logue, nor do they have the skills to run a costly marketing campaign on their own.

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Case Study 4: Kapawi Lodge, Ecuador Kapawi Lodge is located in the remotest area of southeastern Ecuador and it is the most expensive ecotourism project in the Ecuadorian Amazon Basin. The local people, the Achuar, had practically no contact with westerners before the arrival of missionaries in the late 1960s.

CANODROS S.A., the operator of Kapawi, implemented the $2 million project in the territory of the Achuar by leasing their land, sharing benefits, and passing the know-how and installations to the Achuar. At the end of a 15-year period the project will be owned and managed by the Achuar. Meanwhile Kapawi seeks to recover the investment and to obtain a profit.

The lodge has twenty houses and incorporates low impact technologies such as solar energy. The rates vary between 130 to 320 US$ per night/per person. The owner pays $2000 per month to the Achuar for the rent of the land, with a yearly increment of seven percent. At the end of the 15-year period, the amount paid as rent will total over $600,000. In addition, a $10 fee is charged to every visitor for the exclusive benefit of the community.

Before Kapawi, most of the Achuar based their external economy on cattle ranching. Today, members of the 52 Achuar communities base a significant percentage of their economy on ecotourism. Up to 45% of their total income comes from direct employment, supplying products to the ecotourism project and handicraft sales that represent 21%.

In order to minimise social and cultural impacts, visitors are advised not to take photographs of people, not to give away presents or money, to respect their traditions, and to preserve the local environment, among other things.

Contact: CANODROS S.A., Urbanización Santa Leonor, Manzana 5 Solar #10, P.O. Box 09-01-8442, Guayaquil, Ecuador. Ph.: +593 (4) 2285711, Fax: +593 (4) 2287651, [email protected], www.kapawi.com

In order to avoid conflicts it is recom-mended to establish a committee involving local people, private operators, government agencies, and NGOs to ensure understand-ing and smooth operation of agreements, and to aid in local communication.

The main principles of Fair trade in Tour-ism indicate the following points (after A. Kalisch, Tourism Concern, 2001):

• The people who live in places that tourists visit should be consulted and in control of the process. There are various ways in which the

community can relate to private enter-prise. The degree of community involve-ment and benefit can develop over time.

• The tourism operation and develop-ment should create partnerships be-tween government, investors and communities (as essential interest groups) based on mutual respect and equitable sharing of the costs and benefits of the investment.

3.3 Fair Trade in Tourism

The concept of Fair Trade in Tourism means fairly traded tourism that helps host communities to participate as equal stakeholders and beneficiaries in the tourism development process.

• The only way in which local people and domestic businesses can hope to

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Case Study 5: Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FTTSA)

Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) is an independent non-profit programme of IUCN South Africa, which aims for Fair Trade in the tourism industry. This means:

Involving disadvantaged communities and population groups in tourism and securing their access to the tourism market Fair share for those involved in the tourism industry Respect for human rights, culture and the environment (by both hosts and visitors) Transparency throughout the industry

FTTSA is a marketing organisation that promotes and strengthens the Fair Trade in Tourism principles in South Africa, and establishes partnerships and business linkages nationally and in-ternationally. Besides that, it supports disadvantaged communities and population groups by facilitating marketing, tourism awareness and business skills training. Contact: Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FTTSA), The Kutlwanong Democracy Centre, P.O. Box 11536, Hatfield, Pretoria, South Africa. Ph. +27 (0) 12 322 2106, Fax: +27 (0) 12 320 2414, [email protected], www.fairtourismsa.org.za

•

• • •

3.4 Financing of CBT benefit from foreign investment is if companies commit themselves to ethical trading practices as part of corporate social and environmental responsibility and accountability.

Communities and NGOs in the South who are interested in running CBT quite often expect that investment (e.g. training, in-frastructure, marketing, etc.) will be fully sponsored by donor agencies or the gov-ernment. However, experiences in all kinds of development work have shown that projects fully financed or run by do-nors fail at the moment the donor leaves the project.

Fair Trade in Tourism provides practical alternatives for changing the terms of trade and positively influencing main-stream practice. However, it is definitely a long-term process towards a global shift in favour of more equitable tourism trade policy and stakeholder behaviour. The local community becomes used to the

idea that the money will just keep coming in – somehow from somewhere - regard-less of how well the project performs commercially. In contrast, in projects that are run successfully, local partners had to invest something into the project them-selves.

But more and more organisations in the North and South promote Fair Trade in Tourism like “akte” in Switzerland, re-spect in Austria, Tourism Concern in Great Britain, Action for Fair Trade in Af-rica (based in The Gambia) or Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa. The establish-ment of regional networks in Fair Trade in Tourism would definitely assist to ex-pedite this concept and help to market CBT in a sustainable manner.

The same should be done with CBT. Most communities are able to contribute to a development project, if they really are interested in it. The amount of the contri-bution depends on the local situation. It does not even have to be a cash contribu-

21


tion – it could also be in non-monetary terms, like constructing a guesthouse. This can also be a sign that the commu-nity is willing to invest energy and time in the project.

“It is fundamental to avoid charity, since it destroys the indigenous gift economy. Giv-ing a gift without expecting a favour in re-turn can damage the entire social network of indigenous groups in Amazonia. Re-spect for indigenous traditions requires continual interactions between the tourism enterprise and the communities.” Daniel Koupermann (in Epler Wood 1998)

“If we are looking for one single action which will enable the poor to overcome their poverty, I would focus on credit.”

Dr. Muhammad Yunus, Founder of Grameen Bank (provides credit to the poorest of the poor in Bangladesh) At the same time outside initiators must ensure that the project has the potential to be implemented in a successful way, otherwise the community invests a lot of hope, money and time in a project which has a high probability to fail due to the poor local conditions.

The private business sector and National Tourism Board should also be willing to invest into CBT since they will also profit from developing a unique product. Quite often private business partners have shown interest in the concept, but usually they step in only after the training and implementation phase (fully paid by do-nor agencies) is completed, thus only “harvesting” the benefits.

Even with support from the community and other stakeholders, most CBT projects have to be partly financed by donor agencies. A mixed contribution of a soft loan/microcredit and a donation is rec-ommended. Microcredit Fund (MCF)3 is

the extension of small loans to entrepre-neurs too poor to qualify for traditional bank loans. It has proven an effective and popular measure in the ongoing struggle against poverty, enabling those without access to lending institutions to borrow at bank rates, and start small businesses. The necessary condition of funding is that the government of a particular coun-try should commit its own resources. Some degree of autonomy and flexibility in the criteria for the funds, quick and cost-effective implementation systems, good management and reporting systems, and evaluation of partner organisations based on performance are also needed.

Moreover, strong criteria of positive ap-proval of MCFs, loans and/or donations by donor agencies and financial institu-tions should include a well-elaborated business plan in addition to a general project proposal.

A business plan should contain the fol-lowing: • Summary (business concept, current

situation, key success factors, finan-cial situation/needs)

• Overview of the project (history, loca-tion, shareholders, vision, time frame, legal form)

• Market opportunity (overall market, development of the market, primary competitors, customer characteristics, customer buying decisions)

• Marketing and sales (marketing strat-egy, advertisement, references, pric-ing)

• Production and marketing costs • Operations (Key personnel, organisa-

tional structure, partnerships, facili-ties)

3 Microcredit has been used as an ‘inducer’ in many other community development activities, serving as

an entry point into a community organising pro-gramme or as an ingredient in a larger educa-tion/training exercise.

22


Suggested textbook material • Financial plan (capital stock, invest-ment, expenditure, expected profit-ability, liquidity, expected grants)

ASHLEY/ROE 1998;

CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES CONSORTIUM URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROJECT TRAINING AND TECHNO-LOGY TRANSFER PROGRAMM (no date);

It is recommended that the community and/or NGO contact a business consultant to help them set up such a plan, and to check if the project has the chance to be not only socially and ecologically sus-tainable, but also financially viable after a period of time.

EPLER WOOD 1998; GODDE 1998a; KALISCH 2001; RODRÍGUEZ 1999;

Unfortunately, most donor agencies are still not willing to support tourism pro-jects, although the situation is slowly changing. There is a tendency among do-nors to be interested in subsidising train-ing, monitoring and evaluation of CBT, but not marketing activities. Furthermore, the agencies should support projects within a time frame of three to five years. Due to the reality of the market, tourists will not regularly visit a CBT project be-fore the third or fourth year of implementation.

TOURISM KWAZULU-NATAL (no date); WWF International 2001; www.gdrc.org (The Virtual Library on Mi-crocredit); www.microcreditsummit.org; www.grameen-info.org

The following internet discussion in 2002 gives a good overview about this issue and also presents some donor agencies who might be a good source for financial support:

http://www.planeta.com/ecotravel/tour/ ecotourism_fspot.html

Proposed learning process

1. Introduction by facilitator ⇓

2. Guest speakers (business consultant, marketing experts, tour operators in-vesting - or interested in investing in CBT; NGOs or communities present-

ing their marketing and business plans ⇓

3. Group work: evaluate the tourism attractiveness of a given CBT project or choose one from a participant; conduct a comprehensive SWOT analysis

(see as well ‘The Ecotourism Manual’, Table 4) of an area’s tourism poten-tial; set up a marketing plan; develop a business plan including financial strategy; discuss advantages and disadvantages of cooperation with the

private sector; examine the possibilities of establishing a regional/inbound network of Fair Trade in Tourism

23


Case Study 6: The Community-based tourism support project – The Kyrgyz Republic

The Helvetas Business Promotion Project (BPP) was started in 1995 as the ”Women Promotion Project” with the objective of increasing the income and social competence of women living in remote rural areas in two Kyrgyz regions. The focus was on basic business training and credit to encourage small entrepreneurs to start and improve their business. The project was restructured in 1999 and its focus was shifted to tourism, supporting rural tourism providers and offering them professional training in tourism (B & B, drivers, restau-rants, handicrafts, trekking). To date, the BPP has assisted local stakeholders (mostly family-run enterprises, conservation or-ganisations and local authorities) in their efforts to develop tourism at local and regional levels. The CBT approach helps local communities to promote cultural and adventure tourism and fo-cuses on: • Marketing support and access to western markets through partner tour operators in Bish-

kek. • Setting quality standards for tourism products by training service providers in planning,

marketing (product development, pricing and promotion), and tourism-related services. • Inter-regional tourism development: joining tourism providers and promoting their tourism

products at the national level. Due to a deteriorating infrastructure and the lack of access to markets, the BPP is investing primarily in marketing support and the capacity-building of tourism development groups in four locations in Kyrgyzstan, where local stakeholders plan and implement tourism development concepts. Emphasis is on strengthening the established tourism organisations and giving them institutional and organisational support. Business Services: Consultations and Networking If required, individual tourism enterprises are coached by BPP consultants. Consultations cover business plan development, business management, marketing planning, enterprise registration, taxation and investment strategy. The project has brochures on credit and training organisa-tions working in the SME sector. The BPP actively cooperates with NoviNomad, a local tour operator initiated by Helvetas and set up by a former BPP consultant. The company promotes high quality adventure and ecotourism in Kyrgyzstan and has its own marketing channels in Western Europe. The partnership between NoviNomad and the BPP guarantees a market linkage of the CBT groups to external tourism markets, making the services available to package holidaymakers as well as individual tourists. Contact: HELVETAS Swiss Association for International Cooperation, Business Promotion Pro-ject, 503 Frunze Str., Bishkek, The Kyrgyz Republic. Phone: +996 (312) 210503, 224637, 220395, Fax: +996 (312) 660652, [email protected], www.helvetas.kg

25

4. CBT Planning & Implementations

4. CBT Planning & Implementation

Key topics 4.1 Community Involvement and

Income Distribution

4.2 Training Steps and Implemen-tation

4.3 Planning and Management of CBT at the National Level

4.4 Carrying Capacity

4.5 Monitoring

4.6 Code of Conduct for Visitors

4.1 Community Involvement and Income Distribution

The level of participation in a CBT project by the community can differ enormously from place to place. Options for commu-nity involvement in CBT include the following:1

1. Local individuals selling produce and

handicrafts to visitors directly or through tourism businesses. This has often proved to be a good way of spreading benefits within a commu-nity.

2. Private tourism businesses (usually owned by outsiders) being granted a concession to operate in the commu-nity, in return for a fee and/or a share of revenue.

3. Individuals, with links to the broader community, running their own small

tourism businesses in the informal sector. Success can vary and lack of skills and tourism knowledge has of-ten proved a weakness.

4. Communally owned and run enter-prises. Sometimes these suffer from lack of organisation and incentives, but this can be overcome with time.

5. Joint ventures between community and a private operator. This includes shared ownership of, or tight contrac-tual agreements concerning guest-house and/or tour operations.

If the whole or part of the community chooses one of these options, it is neces-sary to develop a clear strategy that is understood not only by the members of the local community but also by other stakeholders with an interest in CBT. This is especially necessary if option 4 is cho-sen. Establishing a tourism planning body with community members should be a prerequisite for any kind of CBT.

The strategy should be community-led and community-focused. However, CBT is also an interaction between different in-terest groups and should not be planned in isolation from other sectors and stake-holders. People with experience and knowledge of tourism, conservation and community/rural development have to be involved in its preparation. In this con-text the common goals to be achieved have to be clarified from the very begin-ning since not all stakeholders have the same priorities (see Table 5).

Dialogues that aim to achieve a solution that is accepted by all, and is therefore more effective and realistic, should base cooperation among these shareholders on a “win-win” solution. Understanding the decision-making process of a community

1 Adapted from WWF 2001, S. 11

26


is highly important for the other stake-holders in this context. Many communi-ties may decide by consensus, which of-ten means a long decision-making proc-ess lasting several meetings.

All stakeholders should be aware that the community has to take a leadership role in this process and should not depend on the activities of one or more stakeholders. In this context the role of NGOs is not only to provide technical assistance, but

also to offer support as a mediator and perhaps act as an advocate for the com-munity. Furthermore, they can help to ensure that the community’s power is ac-tually exercised on behalf of the majority.

Table 4: Different Forms of Community Involvement in Tourism

Type of enter-prise/institution

Nature of local involve-ment

Examples

Private business run by out-siders

Employment Supply of goods and ser-

vices

Kitchen staff in a lodge Sale of food, building

materials, etc. Enterprise or informal sector operation run by local indi-viduals

Enterprise ownership Self-employment Supply of goods and ser-

vices

Craft sales, food kiosk, campsite, home stays

Guiding services Hawking, sale of fuel

wood, food Community enterprise Collective ownership

Collective or individual management

Supply of goods and ser-vices

Employment or contrib-uted labour

Community campsite Craft centre Cultural centre Guesthouse

Joint venture between com-munity and private operator

Contractual commitments or shared ownership

Share in revenue Lease/investment of re-

sources Participation in decision-

making

Revenue-sharing from lodge and/or tour opera-tion to local community on agreed terms

Community leases land/resources/concession to lodge/tour opera-tion

Community holds equity in lodge/tour operation

Tourism planning body Consultation Representation Participation

Local consultation in re-gional tourism planning

Community representa-tives on tourism board and in planning fora

Source: Adapted from Ashley/Roe 1998

27

4. CBT Planning and Implementation

Table 5: Priorities of Different Stakeholders in CBT

Perspective Rural /Community

Development Conservation Industry Devel-

opment Stakeholder Local residents XX X (X) Local NGOs XX X (X) Conservationists X XX Tourism industry (X) XX Donors XX XX X Source: Adapted from Ashley/Roe 1998

Another challenging process is income distribution. In order to avoid any ro-mantic and unrealistic expectations, it must be realised that income from tour-ism will probably never be shared equally within a community.

The more powerful and active members usually have a larger share, but this is a normal development in all economic sec-tors worldwide – be it in a village in Nicaragua or in Norway. Nevertheless, one of the main objectives of CBT is col-lective income and equitable distribution. Collective income can be used for a pro-ductive investment used by the commu-nity (e.g. wells, solar energy, water sup-ply, health or education programmes) or for the poorest households of the village.

It is absolutely necessary to inform the tourists about income distribution sys-tems, community funds and their pur-pose. The transparency of this social as-pect can help the consumer in his/her de-cision to book a tour.

The information of this type of income distribution should not only be provided in leaflets and other marketing tools of the CBT project but should be repeated on appropriate occasions during the trip.

The method for distributing the income earned by communities to individual

members needs careful attention. In order to achieve this it is recommended to set up a community tourism committee as a representative body2. Every year the community should elect a committee of not more than ten persons. Traditional leadership, local government, as well as community institutions (e.g., women and youth groups, handicraft group) should be represented within this body. The committee has to handle finance and management issues such as:

• Managing the finances of the com-munity income earned by CBT: open-ing a bank account, keeping records, etc.

• Representing the community on any meetings and discussions with stake-holders and other institutions.

• Monitoring tourism development to ensure that it meets the policy goals in its operation.

Good financial record-keeping systems provide information vital for managing finances efficiently. They also help to create transparency among community members and, thus, to prevent distrust over what happens to CBT revenue. The

2 Further information can be found in ‘The Ecotour-ism Training Manual for Protected Area Managers’, Chapter 5

28


key items necessary for good record-keeping include3:

• Original records (e.g. sales slips, re-ceipts, invoices etc.)

• Journals (which record the details of every transaction in chronological order, e.g. the cash book)

• Ledger (information obtained from journals)

• Trial balance (a list of all ledger ac-counts balances taken out to prepare financial statements)

• Financial statements • Income statement • Balance sheet The minimum requirements for a small business operation are a cash book, cash control systems, assets register, debtor re-cords and creditor records.

Many CBT projects set up a rotation sys-tem among service providers so that every household who is interested in CBT has a chance to participate and earn in-come. The rotation system can be applied for homestays, cooking, guiding, trans-portation, cultural programmes, etc. In order to avoid too much pressure on one village only, it is recommended to in-volve neighbouring villages in a rotation system as well. This way, jealousy among the villages of an area might not arise as a side effect, since all would benefit from the project in some way.

It must be taken into consideration, how-ever, that rotation systems have a major disadvantage: not all households or ser-vice providers can offer the same stan-dards and quality.

Quite often the poorest households are not willing to join the CBT project be-cause they feel too poor and embarrassed to allow guests to stay in their homes. As a consequence the tourists stay in the

wealthier houses of the village, with the effect that the richer families become even more affluent through CBT and the poor families only benefit from CBT via the community fund.

On the other hand, the integration of the poorest households or unskilled service providers may result in a lower quality tourism product. If, for example, some members of a tour group have to stay – for the same rate - in houses with much poorer conditions than other members of the group staying in new houses with better bathroom standards, complaints and conflicts may occur.

In order to avoid this problem, villagers should discuss the possibility of building, maintaining and managing a guesthouse in or near the village that offers the same standard to all visitors.

3 KwaZulu-Natal Tourism Authority 1999

29


Figure 1: Income distribution – Baan Huay Hee, Thailand

The villagers of Baan Huay Hee (see Case Study 1, Chapter 1) have established a plan to spread the benefits equally among each other: each family or household who offers a service to the tourist (home-stay, guiding, etc.) does not keep the entire amount of the income earned. A part of it goes to the community and tourism fund. Homestays cost US$ 5 per person per night, a meal US$ 2.50 and a local guide US$ 5 per day. From the income received from the homestays and local guides, 15% goes to the tourism fund, and another 5% to the community fund. 80% remains in the family. From food earnings, 5% is paid to the commu-nity fund. 15% of the income made by the sale of handmade clothes goes to the women’s group, and 5% to the community fund. The tourism fund is used to develop activities for the visitors in and around the village. The commu-nity fund enables the village to buy and install facilities like a telephone, solar cells or to support fami-lies in distress. Source: Burger (2002)

4.2 Training Steps and Imple-mentation

Training and development of professional skills are vital and necessary in order to implement CBT in a successful way. The whole community, or at least its inter-ested members, should be integrated in training sessions, although it is recommended to offer pre-courses for se-lected members of the community and

associated NGOs or tour operators in or-der to lay the groundwork for the CBT training. These members can then act as multipliers or even trainers themselves within the community and thus reduce the overall cost of training. Pre-Course Training in CBT: This “class-room” phase should be carried out for se-lected members in an isolated environ-ment that allows for intensive training

FOOD 2.50 US-$ per meal

Homestay 5 US-$ per night

Local Guide 5 US-$ per

Tou-rism

15 % 5 %

15 %

5 %

Hand-made Community

Fund 5 % 5 %

15 %

Women Group

30


and practise. It provides an introduction to participatory planning, micro-enterprise development, and CBT techni-cal skills such as product development, writing simple business and marketing plans, establishing guidelines for visitors and guide behaviours, etc. Practical Analysis: After the classroom phase, the trainees return to their com-munities and carry out a feasibility study in close cooperation with the community. An action plan can help to identify ac-tivities, time scale, indicators of success and resources required. Once the action plan is completed, it should be discussed among all the participants to get their agreement on any issues about which they may differ. An important tool is to work with exist-ing social and community structures, such as interest groups and to identify potential leaders and people who show enthusiasm and initiative. By creating different interest groups (di-rectly or indirectly connected to CBT) vil-lagers can authenticate their interest and become more and more confident about their skills and resources. Women are advised to form a Women’s Group as they usually initiate the produc-tion and sale of handicrafts. This helps to increase their employment opportunities and broadens income distribution. Quite often, women also play a central role in CBT by taking care of B&Bs/guesthouses and cooking traditional meals for tourists, thus offering them additional sources of income.

The output of strategy development sessions should be an agreed vision for CBT over a specified period of time, along with an identification of objectives and strategic priorities. The community has to be aware of the potential opportunities, risks and changes involved, and – after discussing these aspects – to decide whether it is still interested in receiving visitors.

If they are, the trainees design and im-plement a series of participatory planning and training workshops for their commu-nities. Follow up phase in cooperation with community: All workshops should be conducted in the native (ethnic) language of the community since all members who are interested in CBT, including women and elders, should be able to actively par-ticipate in the training. In case the facili-tators are not able to speak or write the local language, it is necessary to cooper-ate with translators, even if this increases the duration and expenses of the training. Like CBT itself, planning and training are a long-term process. Fifteen days is the minimum time frame for community members to begin to fully understand the concept of CBT and develop the skills needed to deliver tourism services. It is suggested to split the workshop in four or five units of 2-4 days each, as commu-nity members normally do not have the time necessary to attend a two-week training workshop.

31


Table 6: Sample Format for an Action Plan Activities Purpose Who? Where? When? Success

Indicator Re-sources Local

Re-sources Other

Handi-craft

Botanical Garden

etc. Source: Adapted from The Mountain Institute 2000

Figure 2: Interest Groups of Baan Huay Hee, Thailand

The Karen Village Baan Huay Hee (see Case Study 1, Chapter 1) in Northern Thailand has clear objec-tives for CBT development: • Visitors understand the culture and tradition of the village • Additional income • Provide visitors some knowledge about conservation and natural resource management • Teach children and future generations how to manage natural resources Baan Huay Hee has several interest groups. The orchid group takes care of the orchid nursery and grows orchids. The women’s group prepares, dyes and weaves cotton, and sells some of these products to the tourists.

Committee Group

Women‘s Group

Source: Burger 2002

Baan Huay Hee

Information Center Group

Local Guides

Orchid Group

Fern Group

Tourist Group

Youth Group Bird Watching Group

32


Table 7: Seasonal Calendar – Seasonal Activities in a Village

Activity Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Tourist Season

XXX XXX XX XXX X X X X X XX XXX XXX

Availabil-ity of fish or vege-tables

XX XX X X XX XX XX XXX XXX XXX XXX XX

Busy month in agricul-tural work

XX XX X X XXX XX XX XX XX XXX XXX XX

Source: Fictional Calendar, based on The Mountain Institute 2000

Mapping is a helpful tool for CBT plan-ning. It can be used as the basis for de-veloping a CBT plan, including land own-ership and the number of households that are (or wish to be) involved in tourism activities.

Participants can illustrate how resources, features and assets are located; learn how to link them with each other; and can even show new perspectives.

It is recommended to divide participants into groups of 5-7 people to facilitate the production of CBT maps. Participants should embody a cross-section of the vil-lage in terms of gender, age, livelihoods, etc. in order to bring different perspec-tives onto the map (e.g. farmers, village guides, religious leaders, women, youth group).

Another supportive instrument is the sea-sonal calendar, which generates informa-tion about seasonal trends and identifies periods of particular stress for the com-munity, e.g. harvesting. During this pe-riod, receiving tourists should be avoided in order not to disturb the routine agri-cultural activities of the community.

If tourists stay and eat at a village that is fairly self-sustaining, it is important to find out the periods when food supply

shortages occur. The locals might have sufficient food during this time for them-selves, but not enough for tourists. In this case they have to go to the market in or-der to buy some extra food, a situation that causes additional expenses (transpor-tation, food, time investment) and there-fore must be taken into consideration for tour price calculations.

Beside discussing issues like product de-velopment, income distribution, man-agement skills and marketing, it is neces-sary during the training to deal with ser-vice-oriented issues like accommodation, food preparation, language skills, first aid and customer care. Accommodation: Households can offer homestays or bed & breakfast (B&B), which is an informal, ac-commodation operation undertaken from a private residence. The maximum num-ber of guest bedrooms in a B&B is nor-mally 3. The minimum facilities that should be provided to all guests are a bedroom, access to a bathroom and toilet and an area where meals can be served.

The residential character of the home has to be maintained. The standards of home-stays/B&Bs may differ, but cleanliness

33


and the respect of privacy for both guests and hosts are valid worldwide.

Alternatively or additionally, the whole community, or certain members, may want to set up a guesthouse (2-16 bed-rooms) in or near the village. The archi-tecture, interior decoration and furnish-ings of the guesthouse should be in the local style, including an exemplary model of waste management and the use of al-ternative energy (e.g. solar cells) where available. Breakfast and dinner should be offered to guests, particularly where food is not readily found in the vicinity of the guesthouse.

The location of the guesthouse should be discussed by the villagers. If the guest-house is to be located right in the centre of the village to give guests the possibil-ity to participate very closely with the daily activities of the hosts, it should be

taken in consideration that this may re-sult in a certain disruption of habitual village life.

Fig. 3: Example Community-based Tourism Resource Map

Another option is setting up a guesthouse outside or on the edge of the village, in such a way that it can be easily reached by a 10- to 30-minute walk. This gives both hosts and guests enough space for retreat. The maintenance and manage-ment of the guesthouse can be performed by local staff, paid by the community, or in a rotation system of interested house-holds.

Accommodation standards for homestays and guesthouses may be simple, but should ensure basic comfort and well-being. Besides a mattress, pillow and blankets, mosquito nets should be pro-vided if the village is located in a malar-ial area.

34


Food preparation: Normally women have the task to prepare the meals not only for their families but also for the guests. In an extra training session, traditional recipes should be listed and discussed for the appropriate-ness for tourists. Generally, tourists who are interested in CBT want to try the local cuisine, but sometimes have a problem with special local tastes. Therefore, it is recommended to offer a mixture of local cooking and basic foods like fried, boiled or cooked vegetables; chicken; or even a simple omelette. During this training session, the women should get an introduction in hy-gienic cooking, which in the long-term helps not only the tourists but also the women’s families.

At the end of this workshop women should cook and serve their chosen meals to the training team in order to get feed-back, becoming more confident regarding their important responsibilities within the concept of CBT. Even if the village offers a fantastic programme to the tourists, they may not completely enjoy their stay if they have to eat food that they are not used to three times a day. Language Training: Members of the community, especially those who offer services to the tourists, should continuously attend language training in order to communicate with the tourist, at least in a basic way.

Helpful tools could be handouts provided for hosts and guests that include 200 im-portant words or sentences in the local and a western language, like English or Spanish.

As language training is a long-term and therefore expensive process, it is recom-mended to look for foreign students who are interested in staying for at least two weeks in a community, teaching a foreign

language every day for one or two hours, while having the possibility to stay in the village free of charge during this time. The expenses of his/her stay (including meals) should be shared by the members of the community or be paid through the tourism community fund.

First Aid: A few members of the community, but especially the local guides, should attend first aid training every two or three years. During the training with the local (west-ern or traditional) doctor or nurse, the medical standards, equipment and skills necessary in case of emergency must be clarified, including the fastest possible way of transportation to the nearest hos-pital. Customer Care: It is important that visitors always feel safe and secure. The welcoming ceremony plays an important role. If the welcome is warm and well organised by the villagers, the visitors may feel comfortable and soon loose their anxiety and irritability. If a customer starts to complain, it is always necessary to listen to him/her seriously, while trying to improve the situation af-terwards. If this is not possible due to certain circumstances, the reasons have to be explained in a polite and friendly way to the guest. Another extremely important task is guide training. Guides should be trained in the following areas4:

35

4 Based on Nam Ha Ecotourism Project 2001


General information: If there are handicrafts for sale: • Remind your guests that the villagers

benefit from selling handicrafts • Provide information to tourists on the

local cultures, history and the natural environment that they can expect to ex-perience or see in the village or nearby.

• Facilitate the sale

• Provide advice to tourists on how to minimise their impact on local cultures and the environment. Make them aware of the rules and codes of conduct (see Chapter 4.6) that they need to abide by.

On-the-job training is also important. An initial step may be to test the pro-gramme with one or two groups com-prised of staff, relatives and friends of the local tourism board, business enterprises and/or NGOs. Some tour operators design special “pioneering” tours for their cus-tomers. This has the advantage of ac-quainting the community with the ex-perience of handling guests, without the fear of getting harsh complaints.

• Itinerary and time frame. • Health and safety information. Before entering a village: • While travelling to a village, take the op-

portunity to chat with the tourists and ask them if they have any questions about the trip. Give them information about the neighbouring villages and ethnic groups in the area.

Representatives of the local ecotourism industry should also be included as ex-perts or guest speakers in the training process, with the intention of giving the community a deeper insight into the tourism business (see Chapter 3). Another useful way of generating ideas and get-ting the information of ‘lessons learnt’ are visits to other projects which already have experience in CBT.

• Just before entering a village, stop and remind the group again of the important cultural considerations specific to the vil-lage you are entering; remind them how to say hello in a culturally appropriate fashion.

Staying in the village: • Visit the chief and introduce the guests. In order to avoid frustration, it is very

important not to be too ambitious in the implementation phase in terms of targets and timing. Always remember - CBT is a long-term process! Setting up a fully marketable programme can take at least one year, more often three to four years.

• Orient the guests in the village. • Conduct briefings before stopping at

points of interest (e.g. a village, or natu-ral areas of interest such as a cave or spirit gate).

• Encourage interaction with local people whilst overseeing contact to avoid cul-tural misunderstandings.

4.3 Planning and Management of CBT at the National Level

• Encourage villagers to join the tourist group and to ask questions. Try to make the number of questions asked by the villagers equal to the number of ques-tions asked by the tourists

Ecotourism planning and management at the national level, along with its tools, goals and policy formulation, are de-scribed in a detailed and comprehensive way in Chapter 7 of the Ecotourism Training Manual. More or less the same criteria are applicable for planning and management of CBT at the national level.

• If a question seems to be culturally in-sensitive, you may decline to translate the question. Simply inform your guest that his or her question is inappropriate and ask him or her if he/she would like rephrase it

36


However, the following goals and criteria should also be taken into consideration: For example, if there are too many

people going to a village or walking through a trail, there may be too much garbage or trails will be damaged. Wild-life may also be affected through distur-bance and may leave the area5. Often, the quantity of visitors at any one time is a more critical factor than the overall level of visitation. There is also a qualita-tive factor to carrying capacity, e.g. the behaviour of visitors.

• Marketing: a national register of all CBT projects should be developed to improve awareness and promotion of CBT.

• Guide Licences: a special category needs to be created for local guides, especially for those belonging to an indigenous or ethnic group. In several countries only those with sufficient language skills and a high school de-gree can apply for a guide licence.

It is much easier to establish indicators for carrying capacity in the fields of ecol-ogy and economics than for carrying ca-pacity regarding social and cultural changes. Some communities, or some of its members, are able to tolerate more visitors than others. However, when the culture of a group starts to experience so-cial problems, and if these problems can clearly be attributed to tourism (and not to television, for example, or other influ-ences), then it is clear that the carrying capacity has been exceeded. Indicators for this can include hostility towards tourists from locals, black markets, drug dealing and prostitution catering to tour-ists only.

As a consequence only urban guides or those from middle class families have the possibility to work as a guide in a CBT project, often without having any deep understanding of (or interest in) the specific local culture and environment.

• Planning: regulations that oblige tourism operators to gain community approval of planning decisions should be developed.

An overview of the various aspects of government policies that can facilitate or hinder community involvement in tour-ism is summarised in The Ecotourism Training Manual for Protected Area Man-agers, Annex 2

During the implementation phase com-munities are generally not able to esti-mate the limit of the number of visitors they would like to have, but can gauge it after a few years. It is therefore recom-mended to set a lower figure at the be-ginning, and then raise it slowly without increasing the amount of environmental, social or economic damage at the loca-tion.

4.4. Carrying Capacity Carrying capacity refers to the maximum load or amount that can be borne by something before it becomes unsustain-able. For example, the carrying capacity of a fishpond is determined by the maxi-mum number of fish that can survive in the pond before they start to die off from lack of food and oxygen. In the tourism context the carrying capacity is deter-mined by how many people can visit the tourist site before there are problems.

However, culture and tradition are not static and communities may wish to see changes towards a more modern lifestyle. In this context, it is very important to discuss the level of change they strive for within the next several years, and the

5 UNESCO NAM HA ECOTOURISM PROJECT 2001b

37


kinds of changes that might be viewed positively or negatively, in order to set up guidelines regarding the level of tourism they wish to have.

Cultural and Social Impacts:

• Contribution to the preservation of the cultural heritage of participating communities

• The amount of time some families in the village spend on other important and traditional economic activities

At the same time, communities should be aware that tourists prefer to visit “au-thentic” villages. If a community, espe-cially an ethnic or indigenous village, looks too “modern" (paved road, concrete houses, electricity) tourists might no longer be interested in visiting that vil-lage. In this case communities who are interested in CBT should not start to “re-develop” their lifestyle and culture the way it was decades ago, but look for a middle way, like setting up traditional houses for visitors, performing traditional songs and music, and wearing ethnic clothes (at least staff and guides).

Conservation:

• Contribution to conservation: nega-tive environmental impacts, including trail erosion, improper waste dump-ing, littering, water pollution, illegal collection of plants and animals, feeding of wildlife

Community Participation:

• Training of local village people to ef-fectively manage CBT

When monitoring slowly changing situa-

tions, such as the way CBT may be affect-ing culture and traditional life, it is not necessary to collect data more often than every year or every two years. But when dealing with quicker changes or arising problems, like tourist safety along the trails, indicators should be monitored more often (every 2 to 6 months) in order to solve or even avoid problems.

4.5 Monitoring Monitoring is defined as the periodic su-pervision of a process that checks to see if progress is being made towards its de-fined goals and, if this is not the case, the use of revised strategies to change or im-prove the process.

The following are examples of objectives that should be monitored in a CBT pro-ject6:

Anyone with adequate training and background information can collect in-formation that is useful for monitoring CBT. The monitoring team can include guides, staff from the NGO and local tourism board, as well as the community itself. Several methods exist to collect data, such as:

Income Generation:

• Equal and fair distribution within the village

• Contribution to positive village de-velopment

• Improved standard of living through income generation in a way that does not harm the environment or culture, or that causes social problems

• Household questionnaires and inter-views

• Visitor feedback questionnaires • Regular surveys • Forms for recording observations of

local guides

• Photographs – for example taking photos of trails at regular intervals over time for comparison to monitor

6 Ibid.

38


• Don’t take someone’s photo unless you have asked his/her permission first. Do not be offended if they refuse.

changes in the level of erosion caused by trekking tourists

• Workshops and discussions with par-ticipating communities • Avoid nudity and intimate displays of

affection in public. It is recommended to collect the informa-

tion in a systematic and permanent way in order to compare the change of devel-opment after 5, 10 or even 20 or 30 years

Economic contribution: • Be aware of the social consequences of

your travel choices. Dealing directly with CBT enterprises assures maximum retention and spread of income.

• Realise that private operators may un-

dercut CBT enterprises by cutting cor-ners and reducing benefits to others.

4.6 Code of Conduct for Visitors The following guidelines for tourists should help to make the visit of a CBT community a constructive and rewarding experience for hosts and guests. These guidelines should not be seen as patronis-ing or discouraging for the tourists, but more as a guide to help them feel better prepared and more comfortable while vis-iting local people.

• Pay your hosts a fair price. • Buy local supplies from food and craft

vendors. • Buy handicrafts in the community. • Consider a donation for community

projects. • If you want to bring gifts for your

community, think of education and usefulness. A contribution to the vil-lage school (pens, exercise books) is in most cases a very helpful gift. Ask your guide if you are not sure what to give (e.g. money, T-shirts, shoes?).

Respect for Local Customs: • Be aware of your actions and appear-

ance, and how they may be perceived by your hosts. Learn about the cus-toms of your host community and don’t judge your hosts based on your own cultural background – perceptions of punctuality, manners, formality, etc. often vary.

• Gifts are often presented to a group through village elders, headman, and community leaders who can distribute them as needed.

Environmental Practice: • Lead by example. Do not leave trash,

and pick up the trash of others. Always carry a plastic bag and keep it easily accessible for putting trash in.

• Follow guidelines given by your hosts; if in doubt ask your guide.

• Dress conservatively. • Recognise that you are much wealthier

than your hosts; don’t flaunt your af-fluence.

• Stay on trails and do not disturb wild-life.

• Don’t use soap or detergents in natural water bodies.

• It is generally ill-advised to initiate dis-cussions on local politics, religion, or economics. Be careful not to offend your hosts by criticising their govern-ment or religious practices.

• If you observe poor environmental practices among your hosts or fellow travellers, politely suggest improve-ments. • Respect the privacy of others. Seek op-

portunities to enhance your under-standing of the local culture, but use discretion to avoid intruding on the private lives of others.

• Consider the implications of buying plant and animal products. Find out if they are rare or endangered, taken

39


from the wild (e.g. animals skins, tor-toise, shells, ivory, and coral).

Sources of the above mentioned guide-lines: adapted from Center for Biodiversity and Conservation (1998); Wesche/Drumm (no date)

• Do not introduce any plants or animals to the local environment. This can dis-rupt the delicate balance of the eco-system you are visiting.

• Keep pollutants out of water sources. All camping activities should take place at least 70 meters (200 feet ) away from streams or lakes.

Suggested textbook material ASHLEY/ROE 1998, p. 29; MACLAREN 2002; UNESCO NAM HA ECOTOURISM PROJECT 2001b;

General aspects: • Inform your tour operator if you ob-

serve any management problems dur-ing the trip.

TOURISM KWAZULU-NATAL (no year); THE INTERNATIONAL ECOTOURISM SOCIETY 1993;

• Should your local guide or tour opera-tor violate regulations or act disre-spectfully towards the environment in an effort to make your visit more ex-citing or interesting, express your con-cern in a polite way!

THE MOUNTAIN INSTITUTE 2000; WESCHE/DRUMM, p. 61-62, p. 184-185 (no date); WWF 2001; www.rarecenter.org; www.bigvolcano.com.au/ercentre/codes.htm

40


Implementation of Community Based Tourism: From A to Z

Summary of steps for communities, groups & individuals seeking to es-tablish community tourism ventures in their areas:

a. Set up a community meeting to launch the idea of community-based tourism in your area

b. Identify current involvement of the community and region in tourism and com-pare it with other existing economic sectors

c. Present the potential positive and negative changes in the community due to tourism.

d. If the community is still interested in CBT, go to the next step e. Initiate a community structure to participate in the tourism venture f. Identify person(s) in structure to “drive” the process (formal and informal key

stakeholders and groups, e.g. youth group, women’s group, handicraft group) g. Identify what support is required for your tourism venture h. Identify appropriate support agencies/individuals i. Assess your local attractions; incorporate what the community holds important

(beliefs, values, sense of place, tourism resources, etc.) j. Prioritise your attractions and your capacities by performing a SWOT (strengths,

weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis k. Decide on the type of tourism you feel will suit your area l. Conduct a market analysis (current and potential tourist demand, activities de-

sired) m. Conduct a competitor analysis (identify competing destinations, assess their

strengths and weaknesses, market shares, identify competitive advantages for your destination)

n. "Basic decision”: Does CBT appear to be feasible and desirable in your area? Should it be pursued? If so, go to the next step

o. Prepare a draft work plan for tourism development (including a map and sea-sonal calendar)

p. Check that the draft plan meets legal, environmental and other requirements q. Obtain broad community support for the draft plan r. Prepare a detailed business plan for tourism development – including detailed

plans for each of the elements of the plan partners. s. Conclude agreements with any outside parties – government and regulatory bod-

ies and possible joint-venture partners

41


t. Conduct several training sessions with interested members of the community: - Service: Homestay (accommodation, toilet facilities), food supply, transportation - Handling visitors, customer care and hospitality skills - Product development issues, including nature & cultural programme - Income distribution and rotation system - Handicrafts - First aid - Management skills, legal issues and financial control - Marketing and communication (in cooperation with tourist boards and/or tourism companies) - Basic language training - Special training sessions for local guides

u. Election of a community tourism committee v. Launch a marketing campaign in cooperation with tourism enterprises and/or

tourism board w. 2 to 3 pilot tours with associated friends and relatives of stakeholders including an evaluation of pilot tours and, if necessary, changes in the program or goal x. Arrival of first tourists groups y. Carry out regular monitoring and evaluation of CBT z. If successfully implemented, phase-out of outside consultants and supporters,

like NGOs and donor organisations

42

Annex 1: References and further reading 1. Arbeitsgemeinschaft Ökologischer Landbau - AGÖL (Ed.) (2001): Training Model for Sustainable

Tourism on Organic Farms. Publ. by: baerens & fuss, Schwerin/Germany. 2. ASHRA, N., LOOKWOOD, R., AKPINAR, S. & M. STA ANA (Eds.) (2000): Conference-Workshop on

Ecotourism, Conservation & Community Development. Tagbilaran City, Bohol, Philippines, November 7-12, 1999. Publ. by: VSO, Philippines

3. ASHLEY, C. & D. ROE (1998): Enhancing involvement in Wildlife Tourism: Issues and challenges.

IIED Wildlife and Development Series No. 11, London 4. ASHLEY, C., ROE, D. & H. GOODWIN (2001): Pro-Poor Tourism Strategies: Making Tourism

Work for the Poor. A review of experience. Pro-Poor Tourism Report No.1. Publ. by: Overseas Development Institute, London

5. BARKIN, D.: Social Tourism in Rural Communities: An instrument for promoting sustainable

resource management. Prepared for the delivery at the 2000 meeting of the Latin American Studies Association, Miami, March 16-18, 2000

6. BENAVIDES, D. D. & E. PÉREZ-DUCY (2001): Tourism in the least developed countries. Publ. by:

World Tourism Organisation, Madrid, Spain 7. BEYER, MATTHIAS (2003): Partizipation als Herausforderung für Tourismusprojekte in der

Entwicklungszusammenarbeit (Participation as a challenge for ourism projects in development cooperation). Handlungsempfehlungen für eine partizipative Projektarbeit.

tPubl. by: Studienkreis

für Tourismus und Entwicklung e.V., Schriftenreihe für Tourismus und Entwicklung, Ammerland/ Starnberger See, Germany

8. BURGER, S. (2002): Community-Based Ecotourism in Mae Hong Son. Thailand’s most north-

western province in the International Year of Ecotourism 2002. University of Hertfordshire/Cologne Business School, Dissertation (unpublished)

9. CAALDERS, J. & ST. COTTRELL (2001): SNV and sustainable tourism. Background paper. The

Hague/Netherlands 10. CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES CONSORTIUM URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROJECT

(2001a): Conference Summary. International Conference on “Sustainable Community Tourism Destination Management”. November 27-29, 2000 at the Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand

11. CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES CONSORTIUM URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROJECT

AT AIT (Complied) (2001b): Key Resource Material for Seminar on Tourism and Poverty Reduction. Bangkok, Thailand, December 3, 2001 (unpublished)

12. CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES CONSORTIUM URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROJECT

(no date): Planning for Local Level Sustainable Tourism Development 13. CENTER FOR BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION (1998): Guidelines for the Ecotraveler. Publ.

by: American Museum of Natural History 14. CULTURAL SURVIVAL QUARTERLY (1999): Protecting Indigenous Culture and Land through

Ecotourism. Vol.23, Issue 2 15. ECO AGRO TOURISM IN SOUTH CAUCASUS (2002): Earth paradise in the south-east of Europe.

Publ. by: Ecotourism Association (Armenia), Tbilisi, Georgia, www.EATSC.com

1

16. EPLER WOOD, M. (1998): Meeting the Global Challenge of Community Participation in

Ecotourism: Case Studies and Lessons from Ecuador. In: America Verde Publications, Working Paper No. 2, Latin America and Caribbean Division, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, USA

17. ESCAP & CUC UEM PROJECT (2002): Summary Report. Seminar on Tourism and Poverty

Reduction, Bangkok, December 3, 2001. Bangkok/Thailand (unpublished) 18. GOODE, P. (Ed.) (1998a): Community-Based Mountain Tourism: Practices for Linking

Conservation with Enterprise. Synthesis of an Electronic Conference of the Mountain Forum, April 13 - May 18, 1998. Publ. by: The Mountain Forum & The Mountain Institute

19. GODDE, P. (1998b): Women’s Roles in Community-Based Mountain Ecotourism. In: The

Ecotourism Society Newsletter, Third Quarter 1998 20. GOODWIN, H., KENT, I., PARKER, K. & M. WALPOLE (1998): Tourism Conservation and

sustainable development. IIED Wildlife and Development Series, No. 12, London 21. HATTON, M. J. (1999): Community-Based Tourism in the Asia-Pacific. Publ. by: School of Media

Studies at Humber College, Toronto, Canada; www.community-tourism.org 22. JAMIESON, W. (ed.) (2001): Community Tourism Destination Management: Principles and

Practices. Publ. by: CUC UEM Project, Pathumthani/Thailand 23. JONG, A. DE (1999): SNV - Cultural Tourism in Tanzania. Experiences of a tourism development

project. Publ. by: SNV, The Haag, Netherlands 24. KALISCH, A. (2002): "Corporate futures”. Consultation on good practice. Social responsibility in

the tourism industry. Publ. by: Tourism Concern, London, Great Britain 25. KALISCH, A. (2001): Tourism as Fair Trade. NGO Perspective. Publ. by: Tourism Concern,

London 26. KALDUN, B. (UNESCO) (2001): Tourism & Culture: The Challenge of Maintaining the Balance.

In: Canadian Universities Consortium Urban Environmental Management Project (2001a) 27. KWAZULU-NATAL TOURISM AUTHORITY (1999): Guides on how to start a tourism related

business. Durban, South Africa 28. LEDERMANN, V.: Handcrafts increase the success of ecotourism sites. In: The International

Ecotourism Society Newsletter, Third Quarter 2001 29. LUGER, K. (no year): Sustainability and Quality Tourism. Setting the agenda for another

marketing perspective. University of Salzburg 30. MACLAREN, F. T. (2002): A Strategic Approach for Community-Based Ecotourism Development.

The International Ecotourism Society (unpublished) 31. MÄSCHER, M. (2000): Community Tourism for Development and Sustainable Land Use in the

Hill Areas of Nepal. International Conference: Sustainable Management of Natural and Human Resources for a Better Quality of Life in South Asia. Kathmandu, Nepal, October 14-17, 2000

32. MANN, M. (2002): The Good Alternative Travel Guide. Publ. by: Tourism Concern, Earthscan,

London

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33. MITCHELL, R. E. & D. G. REID (2001): Community Integration. Island Tourism in Peru. In: Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 28, No.1, pp. 113-139

34. Nam Ha Ecotourism Project (2001): Ecoguiding in Luang Namtha. A Guide Training Manual for

Community-Based Ecotourism. Draft Copy, Luang Namtha, Lao PDR 35. NOAKES, S. / KODHYAT, H. / HAEUSLER, N. / FREEMANN, D. / SEMONE, P. / SIM, K. C. (2002):

PATA TASK FORCE: Values – Benefits – Impacts: Planning for sustainable tourism in the Provinces of Indonesia in a time of de-centralisation of the national Government. Publ. by: Pacific Asia Travel Association, Bangkok/Thailand

36. NORRIS, R., WILBER, J. S. & L. O. MORALES MARÍN (1997): Community-Based Ecotourism in

the Maya Forest: Problems and Potentials 37. RICHARDS, G. & D. HALL (2000): Tourism and Sustainable Community Development. London,

Great Britain 38. RECOFTC & THE MOUNTAIN INSTITUTE (2001): Training Report. Community Based for

Conservation and Development. 19 February – 16 March 2001, Thailand. RECOFTC Training and Workshop Report Series 2001/5 (unpublished)

39. RECOFTC & THE MOUNTAIN INSTITUTE (2002): Training Report. Community Based for

Conservation and Development. 4 February – 1 March 2002, Thailand (unpublished) 40. RESPECT – ZENTRUM FÜR TOURISMUS UND ENTWICKLUNG & IITF - INSTITUT FÜR

INTEGRATIVEN TOURISMUS & FREIZEITFORSCHUNG (Eds.) (2002): Von der Käsestraße zu den Amazon Headwaters: Über 60 Ziele für respektvolles Reisen (From „Cheese-Road“ to Amazon Headwaters. More than 60 destinations for a Respect ul Way of Travelling). München, Wien f

41. RODRÍGUEZ, A (1999): Kapawi: A Model of Sustainable Development in Ecuadorean Amazonia.

In: CULTURAL SURVIVAL QUARTERLY, Summer 1999, Vol.23, Issue 2 42. ROZEMEIJER, N. (ed.), GUJADHUR, T., MOTSHUBI, C. & E. VAN DER BERG (2001): Community-

Based Tourism in Botswana. The SNV experience in three community-tourism projects. Botswana

43. SEIFERT-GRANZIN, J. & D. S. JESUPATHAM (1999): Tourism at the Crossroads. Challenges to

Developing Countries by the New World Trade Order. Materialien, No. VI/99. Publ. by: epd-Entwicklungspolitik, Equations, Tourism Watch (ZEB). Frankfurt/Germany

44. SHARMA, P. (ed.) (2000): Tourism as Development. Case Studies from the Himalaya. Publ. by:

Himal Books and STUDIENVerlag Innsbruck-Wien-München 45. SNV NEPAL, BDB, BBA (SNV THE HAGUE) (2000): SNV and sustainable Tourism Development.

Economical Benefits for Local Poor. Proceedings of a world-wide SNV tourism advisors workshop and field-visit, October 4-14, 1999. Kathmandu, Nepal

46. STECK, B., STRASDAS, W. & E. GUSTEDT (1999): Tourism in Technical Co-operation – A guide

to the conception, planning and implementation of project-accompanying measures in regional rural development and nature conservation. Publ. by: GTZ BIODIV/Tropical Ecology Support Programme, Eschborn/Germany (also available in German, French and Spanish)

47. RATTANASUWONGCHAI, N. (no date): Rural Tourism - The impact on rural communities; II.

Thailand. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

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48. THE INTERNATIONAL ECOTOURISM SOCIETY (1993): Ecotourism Guidelines for Nature Tour Operators. Vermont, USA

49. THE MOUNTAIN INSTITUTE (2000). Community Based Tourism Conservation and Development:

A Resource Kit. Kathmandu, Nepal 50. TOURISM AUTHORITY OF THAILAND (no date): Sustainable Tourism. Bangkok/Thailand 51. TOURISM KWAZULU-NATAL (no date): An introduction to community centred Tourism – A

Training Manual. Durban, South Africa 52. TUCKER, H. (2003): Living with Tourism. London, Great Britain 53. UNEP Industry and Environment (2001): Ecotourism and sustainability. Publ. by: United Nations

Environment Programme, Divisions of Technology, Industry and Economics (UNEP DTIE), July-December 2001, Paris, France

54. UNESCO NAM HA ECOTOURISM PROJECT (2001a): Ecoguiding in Luang Namtha. A Guide

Training Manual for Community-Based Ecotourism. Draft Copy, unpublished. Luang Namtha, Lao PDR

55. UNESCO NAM HA ECOTOURISM PROJECT (2001b): Monitoring the success and Impacts of

Community-Based Eco-Tourism. A Manual for Eco-Tourism Guides and Managers. Draft Copy, unpublished. Luang Namtha, Lao PDR

56. URQUICO, C. T. (1998): Community Based Sustainable Tourism – A Handbook. ASSET,

Manila/Philippines 57. URQUICO, C. T. (1998): Community Based Sustainable Tourism – A Reader. ASSET,

Manila/Philippines 58. WESCHE, R. & A. DRUMM (no date): Defending our Rainforest - A guide to Community-Based

Ecotourism in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Publ. by: Accion Amazonia 59. WORLD TOURISM ORGANISATION (2002): Tourism and Poverty Alleviation. Madrid, Spain 60. WORLD TOURISM ORGANISATION and UNCTAD Paper (7/2002): Sustainable Tourism –

Eliminating Poverty. Madrid, Spain 61. WWF (Worldwide Fund for Nature) INTERNATIONAL (2001): Guidelines for community-based

ecotourism development. Prepared by: Dr. R. Denman, The Tourism Company, Ledbury/UK

ANNEX 2: Useful Addresses

You can find additional addresses at ‘The Ecotourism Training Manual for Protected Area Managers, Annex 4 !

Arbeitskreis Tourismus & Entwicklung (akte) (Working group on tourism & development – Campaigner of “Fair Trade on holiday”), Missionsstr. 21, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland. Ph. +41 (0) 61 261 47 42, Fax: +41 (0) 61 261 47 21, [email protected], www.akte.ch

Association of small-scale tourism ventures (ASSET), Gambia Tourism Concern, c/o Bungalow Beach Hotel, P.O. Box 2637, Serrekunda, The Gambia. Ph.: +220 465288/465623, Fax: +220 466180, [email protected], www.subrosa.uk.com

European Center for Eco-Agro Tourism, PO Box 10899, NL-1001 EW Amsterdam, Netherlands. Ph. +31 (20) 668-1030, Fax: +31 (20) 463-0594, [email protected], www.eceat.nl

Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FTTSA), The Kutlwanong Democracy Centre, P.O. Box 11536, Hatfield, Pretoria, South Africa. Ph. +27 (0) 12 322 2106, Fax: +27 (0) 12 320 2414, [email protected], www.fairtourismsa.org.za

IUCN - The World Conservation Union, Task Force on Tourism and Protected Areas, Chair: Dr. Paul Eagles, Department of Recreation & Leisure Studies, University of Waterloo, Faculty of Applied Health Sciences, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada. Ph. +1(519) 888-4567 (ext. 2716), Fax: +1 (519) 746-6776, [email protected]

KwaZulu-Natal Tourism Authority (KZNTA), P.O. Box 2516, Durban, 4000, South Africa. [email protected]; www.tourism-kzn.org

www.propoortourism.org.uk

RARE Center for Tropical Conservation, 1840 Wilson Blvd., Suite 402, Arlington, VA 22201-3000, USA. Ph.: +1 (703) 522-5070, Fax: +1 (703) 522-5027, [email protected], www.rarecenter.org

Regional Community Forestry Training Center (RECOFTC), Kasetsart University, P.O 1111, Bangkok 10903, Thailand. Contact: Mr. Ronnakorn Triraganon, Ph.: +66 (02) 940 5700 (ext. 1246), Fax: +66 (02) 5614880, [email protected], www.recoftc.org

www.responsibletravel.com

Rethinking Tourism Project, 366 North Prior Avenue, Suite 203, Saint Paul, MN 55104, USA. Ph. +1 (651) 644-9984, Fax: +1 (651) 644-2720, [email protected], www.rethinkingtourism.org

SNV Netherlands development organisation (SNV supports several CBT projects in Africa and Asia), Information department, Bezuidenhoutseweg 161, 2494 Den Haag. Ph. +31 (70) 3440139, Fax: +31-70-3855531, [email protected], www.snv.nl

The International Ecotourism Society (TIES), P.O. Box 668, Burlington, VT 05402, USA. Ph. +1 (802) 651-9818, Fax: +1 (802) 651-9819, [email protected], www.ecotourism.org

The Mountain Institute, 1828 L Street NW, Suite 725, Washington, DC 20036, USA. Ph. +1 (202) 452-1636, Fax: +1 (202) 452-1635, [email protected], www.mountain.org

The Nature Conservancy, Compatible Economic Development Department, International Conservation Program, Andy Drumm (Ecotourism Director), 4245 North Fairfax Dr., Suite 100, Arlington, VA 22203-1606, USA. Ph. +1 (703) 841-4860, Fax: +1 (703) 841-4880, [email protected], www.tnc.org or www.nature.org/ecotourism

Tourism Concern, Stapleton House, 277-281 Holloway Road, London N7 8HN, UK. Ph.: +44 (020) 7753-3330, Fax: +44 (020) 7753-3331, [email protected], www.tourismconcern.org.uk

World Wildlife Fund (WWF) US, Center for Conservation Finance, 1250 24th St. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20037, USA. Ph. +1 (202) 778-9559, Fax: +1 (202) 293-9211, www.worldwildlife.or

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mailto:[email protected]

Annex 3: WOMEN'S ROLES IN COMMUNITY-BASED MOUNTAIN ECOTOURISM By Pam Godde, The Ecotourism Society Newsletter, Third Quarter 1998 Women in mountain communities have been the traditional caretakers of the natural environment, but also of tourists and travellers. Through their roles in the household and in village life, women also often have considerable interaction with and responsibility for tourists. In some mountain communities, men must frequently be absent or even seasonally migrate for wage labour, leaving women in charge. Yet the degree to which women are involved in decision-making or leadership roles in community-based mountain tourism has, to date, been given insufficient attention. Women in mountain regions play a primary role in the sustainable management of the environment and natural resource base. Mountain populations, and women in particular, practice a stewardship of the land, which builds on an intimate understanding of the fragile, dynamic, high-risk mountain envi-ronment. Although the role of women as actors in conservation management and in decision and policy making is increasingly recognized at the international level, the extent to which women have been involved in the sustainable management and decision-making of community-based mountain tourism is not well known. The following case studies depict the importance women play and the responsibilities they have in ecotourism. More importantly, however, they show the degree to which ecotourism can improve the general standard of living among women worldwide. Further, they provide useful implications for institutional building among women potentially involved in community-based mountain tourism in developing countries. The first of these case studies comes from the work of Georgia Valaoras on ecotourism as a means of alternative development and biodiversity conservation in the Dadia - Kefkimi - Soufli Forest Re-serve of Greece, a rich ecosystem known for its variety and density of birds of prey and herpeto-fauna. When they first learned that the forest was to be turned into a conservation area, the people of Dadia were concerned that their livelihood-earning lumber activities were to be stemmed. The community, however, later made steps toward accepting and working with the reserve, and women made a significant contribution to this. The community formed an independent company to manage a variety of ecotourism activities in the region. One of these activities was the creation of a women's co-operative. The cooperative started in 1994 when the forestry service allowed the women to use the canteen in a recreation area. The village of Dadia soon donated a piece of land to the cooperative for a food kitchen. In this early phase of development, the women used credit to purchase necessary raw ma-terials in the nearby town of Soufli, and this was repaid once they began to make money. Today, the women operate from a small, rented building preparing traditional dishes, such as pasticcio, mous-saka, chicken with bulgahar rice, and charcoal cooked pies. Through the visitor center, the women also sell traditional products, including filo dough village style, tomato paste, knitted socks for adults and babies, cloth and lace table coverings and wall hangings made from silkworm pupae, through the visitor center. Although outside loan schemes have been made available, the women have chosen to run a self-funding enterprise. Immediately, the ecotourism cooperative produced supplemental income for the women and created a heightened awareness and pride in local ecological and cultural knowledge. Women were able to maintain their traditional skills while incorporating them into a new and innovative enterprise. The cooperative has also had a positive impact on the community's social life and has been partly responsible for reducing the rate of emigration of young people from the village by giving them more opportunity. A second example comes from Scott Walker's work with the people of the Alta Cima ejido, or land-owning group, in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve, a mountain cloud forest in Northeastern Mexico.

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As with many people whose livelihood depends on a region declared a conservation zone, the com-munity of Alta Cima, encompassing about twenty families, found alternatives with the help of a lo-cal NGO that conducted a grass-roots, capacity-building program. The community organized meet-ings and workshops through which they developed action plans. One of the results was the forma-tion of a women's co-op called El Grupo de Mujeres de Alta Cima. Working with the funding of a small international grant, the cooperative started with a small store selling sodas, embroidered T-shirts, and homemade wine and preserves. They also operated a restaurant out of a dirt-floored pavilion, with a wood stove and running water, serving local food such as tortillas, beans, rice, eggs and coffee. With the money they have earned the women have been able to improve the restaurant by adding a screen, concrete floor, gas stove, rest rooms, photovoltaic DC lights, and a CB radio. According to the results of Scott Walker's economic impact study, the benefits from the cooperative are impressive. First, nearly all women of the town who want to work are employed by the coopera-tive. Second, the incomes of the women have increased, affording greater independence in some cases. Scott Walker points to the example of one single mother with two daughters who was able to build her family a small house with the earnings from the co-op. The third example comes from C.D. Langoya and Cath Long's work on the Budongo Forest Ecotour-ism Project. Prior to the establishment of this project, the community of Budongo, Uganda faced se-vere crop destruction by local wildlife. With the help of an NGO, the wildlife became the primary re-source for ecotourism development. Although the people of Budongo were sceptical at first, they accepted the project once a portion of tourist revenues was reinvested into the community. Many community members are involved, including the local women. As with the women of Dadia and Alta Cima, the production of handicrafts and the preparation of tourist meals as micro-enterprises are central to women's roles in the Budongo project. The women of Budongo now produce handicrafts for sale and two women's groups are gearing up to run the catering at the local tourist sites. Another interesting aspect of the Budongo Forest Ecotourism Project is the role women play in deci-sion-making related to local ecotourism revenue reinvestment. How funds are allocated depends on the consensus reached during community meetings in which women are well represented. In one discussion concerning revenue reinvestment, all women present at the meeting voted for clean, safe and conveniently located drinking water as the most urgent need for funding. As a result, water along with education, received the greatest proportion of benefits. There are common themes in each of these case studies and in other communities in the mountain world. First, community based ecotourism initiatives allow women not only to make a significant contribution to tourism enterprises but also help support the general infrastructure through food service, lodging and handicraft sales. These contributions are even more apparent when part of an organized women's cooperative. Second, not only can ecotourism benefit from women's innovation, enterprise skills and traditional knowledge, but conversely, women's ecotourism activities can generate higher incomes and increase financial independence among women. Third, women's involvement in ecotourism enterprises can raise status levels and strengthen women's voice in community decision-making. The formation of women's groups and ultimate suc-cess in ecotourism therefore work toward a gender balance. Women play a valuable role in community-based mountain ecotourism as they hold tremendous knowledge and skills in relation to mountain environments. In addition, it is clear that the inclusion of women in community decision-making and leadership roles provides broad-based benefits to communities and tourists alike, and is essential to the overall the success of the general ecotourism program.

Annex 4: Québec Declaration on Ecotourism In the framework of the UN International Year of Ecotourism, 2002, under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Tourism Organization (WTO), over one thousand participants coming from 132 countries, from the public, private and non-governmental sectors met at the World Ecotourism Summit, hosted in Québec City, Canada, by Tourisme Québec and the Canadian Tourism Commission, between 19 and 22 May 2002. The Québec Summit represented the culmination of 18 preparatory meetings held in 2001 and 2002, involving over 3,000 representatives from national and local governments including the tourism, en-vironment and other administrations, private ecotourism businesses and their trade associations, non-governmental organizations, academic institutions and consultants, intergovernmental organi-zations, and indigenous and local communities. This document takes into account the preparatory process, as well as the discussions held during the Summit. It is the result of a multi-stakeholder dialogue, although it is not a negotiated document. Its main purpose is the setting of a preliminary agenda and a set of recommendations for the devel-opment of ecotourism activities in the context of sustainable development. The participants at the Summit acknowledge the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, August/September 2002, as the ground-setting event for international policy in the next 10 years, and emphasize that, as a leading industry, the sustainability of tourism should be a priority at WSSD due to its potential contribution to poverty alleviation and environmental protec-tion in endangered ecosystems. Participants therefore request the UN, its organizations and member governments represented at this Summit to disseminate the following Declaration and other results from the World Ecotourism Summit at the WSSD. The participants to the World Ecotourism Summit, aware of the limitations of this consultative proc-ess to incorporate the input of the large variety of ecotourism stakeholders, particularly non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local and indigenous communities, Recognize that ecotourism embraces the principles of sustainable tourism, concerning the economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism. It also embraces the following specific principles which distinguish it from the wider concept of sustainable tourism: Contributes actively to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage, Includes local and indigenous communities in its planning, development and operation, and con-tributing to their well-being, Interprets the natural and cultural heritage of the destination to visitors, Lends itself better to independent travellers, as well as to organized tours for small size groups.

Acknowledge that tourism has significant and complex social, economic and environmental implica-tions, which can bring both benefits and costs to the environment and local communities, Consider the growing interest of people in travelling to natural areas, both on land and sea, Recognize that ecotourism has provided a leadership role in introducing sustainability practices to the tourism sector, Emphasize that ecotourism should continue to contribute to make the overall tourism industry more sustainable, by increasing economic and social benefits for host communities, actively contributing to the conservation of natural resources and the cultural integrity of host communities, and by in-creasing awareness of all travellers towards the conservation of natural and cultural heritage,

Recognize the cultural diversity associated with many natural areas, particularly because of the his-torical presence of local and indigenous communities, of which some have maintained their tradi-tional knowledge, uses and practices many of which have proven to be sustainable over the centu-ries,

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Reiterate that funding for the conservation and management of biodiverse and culturally rich pro-tected areas has been documented to be inadequate worldwide, Recognize further that many of these areas are home to peoples often living in poverty, who fre-quently lack adequate health care, education facilities, communications systems, and other infra-structure required for genuine development opportunity,

Affirm that different forms of tourism, especially ecotourism, if managed in a sustainable manner can represent a valuable economic opportunity for local and indigenous populations and their cul-tures and for the conservation and sustainable use of nature for future generations and can be a leading source of revenues for protected areas,

Emphasize that at the same time, wherever and whenever tourism in natural and rural areas is not properly planned, developed and managed, it contributes to the deterioration of natural landscapes, threats to wildlife and biodiversity, marine and coastal pollution, poor water quality, poverty, dis-placement of indigenous and local communities, and the erosion of cultural traditions,

Acknowledge that ecotourism development must consider and respect the land and property rights, and, where recognized, the right to self-determination and cultural sovereignty of indigenous and local communities, including their protected, sensitive and sacred sites as well as their traditional knowledge,

Stress that to achieve equitable social, economic and environmental benefits from ecotourism and other forms of tourism in natural areas, and to minimize or avoid potential negative impacts, par-ticipative planning mechanisms are needed that allow local and indigenous communities, in a trans-parent way, to define and regulate the use of their areas at the local level, including the right to opt out of tourism development,

Understand that small and micro businesses seeking to meet social and environmental objectives are key partners in ecotourism and are often operating in a development climate that does not provide suitable financial and marketing support for ecotourism,

Recognize that to improve the chances of survival of small-, medium-, and micro enterprises further understanding of the ecotourism market will be required through market research, specialized credit instruments for tourism businesses, grants for external costs, incentives for the use of sustainable energy and innovative technical solutions, and an emphasis on developing skills not only in business but within government and those seeking to support business solutions,

Accept the need to avoid discrimination between people, whether by race, gender or other personal circumstances, with respect to their involvement in ecotourism as consumers or suppliers,

Recognize that visitors have a responsibility to the sustainability of the destination and the global environment through their travel choice, behaviour and activities, and that therefore it is important to communicate to them the qualities and sensitivities of destinations, In light of the above, the participants to the World Ecotourism Summit, having met in Québec City, from 19 to 22 May 2002, produced a series of recommendations, which they propose to govern-ments, the private sector, non-governmental organizations, community-based associations, academic and research institutions, inter-governmental organizations, international financial institutions, de-velopment assistance agencies, and indigenous and local communities, as follows:

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A. To national, regional and local governments 1. formulate national, regional and local ecotourism policies and development strategies that are consistent with the overall objectives of sustainable development, and to do so through a wide con-sultation process with those who are likely to become involved in, affect, or be affected by ecotour-ism activities; 2. guarantee -in conjunction with local and indigenous communities, the private sector, NGOs and all ecotourism stakeholders- the protection of nature, local and indigenous cultures and specially traditional knowledge, genetic resources, rights to land and property, as well as rights to water; 3. ensure the involvement, appropriate participation and necessary coordination of all the relevant public institutions at the national, provincial and local level, (including the establishment of inter-ministerial working groups as appropriate) at different stages in the ecotourism process, while at the same time opening and facilitating the participation of other stakeholders in ecotourism-related de-cisions. Furthermore, adequate budgetary mechanisms and appropriate legislative frameworks need to be set up to allow implementation of the objectives and goals set up by these multi-stakeholder bodies; 4. include in the above framework the necessary regulatory and monitoring mechanisms at the na-tional, regional and local levels, including objective sustainability indicators jointly agreed with all stakeholders and environmental impact assessment studies to be used as feedback mechanism. Re-sults of monitoring should be made available to the general public; 5. develop regulatory mechanisms for internalization of environmental costs in all aspects of the tourism product, including international transport; 6. develop the local and municipal capacity to implement growth management tools such as zoning, and participatory land-use planning not only in protected areas but in buffer zones and other ecot-ourism development zones; 7. use internationally approved and reviewed guidelines to develop certification schemes, ecolabels and other voluntary initiatives geared towards sustainability in ecotourism, encouraging private op-erators to join such schemes and promoting their recognition by consumers. However, certification systems should reflect regional and local criteria. Build capacity and provide financial support to make these schemes accessible to small and medium enterprises (SMEs). In addition, monitoring and a regulatory framework are necessary to support effective implementation of these schemes; 8. ensure the provision of technical, financial and human resources development support to micro, small and medium-sized firms, which are the core of ecotourism, with a view to enable them to start, grow and develop their businesses in a sustainable manner; 9. define appropriate policies, management plans, and interpretation programmes for visitors, and earmark adequate sources of funding for natural areas to manage visitor numbers, protect vulnerable ecosystems, and the sustainable use of sensitive habitats. Such plans should include clear norms, di-rect and indirect management strategies, and regulations with the funds to ensure monitoring of so-cial and environmental impacts for all ecotourism businesses operating in the area, as well as for tourists wishing to visit them; 10. include micro, small and medium-sized ecotourism companies, as well as community-based and NGO-based ecotourism operations in the overall promotional strategies and programmes carried out by the National Tourism Administration, both in the international and domestic markets; 11. encourage and support the creation of regional networks and cooperation for promotion and marketing of ecotourism products at the international and national levels;

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12. provide incentives to tourism operators and other service providers (such as marketing and pro-motion advantages) for them to adopt ecotourism principles and make their operations more envi-ronmentally, socially and culturally responsible; 13. ensure that basic environmental and health standards are identified and met by all ecotourism development even in the most rural areas. This should include aspects such as site selection, plan-ning, design, the treatment of solid waste, sewage, and the protection of watersheds, etc., and en-sure also that ecotourism development strategies are not undertaken by governments without in-vestment in sustainable infrastructure and the reinforcement of local/municipal capabilities to regu-late and monitor such aspects; 14. institute baseline environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies and surveys that record the so-cial environmental state of destinations, with special attention to endangered species, and invest, or support institutions that invest in research programmes on ecotourism and sustainable tourism; 15. support the further implementation of the international principles, guidelines and codes of ethics for sustainable tourism (e.g. such as those proposed by UNEP, WTO, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the UN Commission on Sustainable Development and the International Labor Organization) for the enhancement of international and national legal frameworks, policies and master plans to implement the concept of sustainable development into tourism; 16. consider as one option the reallocation of tenure and management of public lands, from extrac-tive or intensive productive sectors to tourism combined with conservation, wherever this is likely to improve the net social, economic and environmental benefit for the community concerned; 17. promote and develop educational programmes addressed to children and young people to en-hance awareness about nature conservation and sustainable use, local and indigenous cultures and their relationship with ecotourism; 18. promote collaboration between outbound tour operators and incoming operators and other ser-vice providers and NGOs at the destination to further educate tourists and influence their behaviour at destinations, especially those in developing countries; 19. incorporate sustainable transportation principles in the planning and design of access and trans-portation systems, and encourage tour operators and the travelling public to make soft mobility choices. B. To the private sector 20. bear in mind that for ecotourism businesses to be sustainable, they need to be profitable for all stakeholders involved, including the projects' owners, investors, managers and employees, as well as the communities and the conservation organizations of natural areas where it takes place; 21. conceive, develop and conduct their businesses minimizing negative effects on, and positively contributing to, the conservation of sensitive ecosystems and the environment in general, and di-rectly benefiting and including local and indigenous communities; 22. ensure that the design, planning, development and operation of ecotourism facilities incorpo-rates sustainability principles, such as sensitive site design and community sense of place, as well as conservation of water, energy and materials, and accessibility to all categories of population without discrimination; 23. adopt as appropriate a reliable certification or other systems of voluntary regulation, such as

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ecolabels, in order to demonstrate to their potential clients their adherence to sustainability princi-ples and the soundness of the products and services they offer; 24. cooperate with governmental and non-governmental organizations in charge of protected natu-ral areas and conservation of biodiversity, ensuring that ecotourism operations are practised accord-ing to the management plans and other regulations prevailing in those areas, so as to minimize any negative impacts upon them while enhancing the quality of the tourism experience and contribute financially to the conservation of natural resources; 25. make inc easing use of local materials and products, as well as local logistical and human re-source inputs in their operations, in order to maintain the overall authenticity of the ecotourism product and increase the proportion of financial and other benefits that remain at the destination. To achieve this, private operators should invest in the training of the local workforce;

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26. ensure that the supply chain used in building up an ecotourism operation is thoroughly sustain-able and consistent with the level of sustainability aimed at in the final product or service to be of-fered to the customer; 27. work actively with indigenous leadership and local communities to ensure that indigenous cul-tures and communities are depicted accurately and with respect, and that their staff and guests are well and accurately informed regarding local and indigenous sites, customs and history; 28. promote among their clients an ethical and environmentally conscious behaviour vis-à-vis the ecotourism destinations visited, such as by environmental education or by encouraging voluntary contributions to support local community or conservation initiatives; 29. generate awareness among all management and staff of local, national and global environmental and cultural issues through ongoing environmental education, and support the contribution that they and their families can make to conservation, community economic development and poverty al-leviation; 30. diversify their offer by developing a wide range of tourist activities at a given destination and by extending their operations to different destinations in order to spread the potential benefits of ecot-ourism and to avoid overcrowding some selected ecotourism sites, thus threatening their long-term sustainability. In this regard, private operators are urged to respect, and contribute to, established visitor impact management systems of ecotourism destinations; 31. create and develop funding mechanisms for the operation of business associations or coopera-tives that can assist with ecotourism training, marketing, product development, research and financ-ing; 32. ensure an equitable distribution of financial benefits from ecotourism revenues between interna-tional, outbound and incoming tour operators, local service providers and local communities through appropriate instruments and strategic alliances; 33. formulate and implement company policies for sustainability with a view to applying them in each part of their operations. C. To non-governmental organizations, community-based associations, academic and research institutions. 34. provide technical, financial, educational, capacity building and other support to ecotourism des-tinations, host community organizations, small businesses and the corresponding local authorities in order to ensure that appropriate policies, development and management guidelines, and monitoring

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mechanisms are being applied towards sustainability; 35. monitor and conduct research on the actual impacts of ecotourism activities upon ecosystems, biodiversity, local and indigenous cultures and the socio-economic fabric of the ecotourism destina-tions; 36. cooperate with public and private organizations ensuring that the data and information gener-ated through research is channeled to support decision-making processes in ecotourism development and management; 37. cooperate with research institutions to develop the most adequate and practical solutions to ecotourism development issues. D. To inter-governmental organizations, international financial institutions and development assistance agencies 38. develop and assist in the implementation of national and local policy and planning guidelines and evaluation frameworks for ecotourism and its relationships with biodiversity conservation, socio-economic development, respect of human rights, poverty alleviation, nature conservation and other objectives of sustainable development, and to intensify the transfer of such know-how to all coun-tries. Special attention should be paid to countries in a developing stage or least developed status, to small island developing States and to countries with mountain areas, considering that 2002 is also designated as the International Year of Mountains by the UN; 39. build capacity for regional, national and local organizations for the formulation and application of ecotourism policies and plans, based on international guidelines; 40. develop or adopt, as appropriate, international standards and financial mechanisms for ecotour-ism certification systems that take into account the needs of small and medium enterprises and fa-cilitates their access to those procedures, and support their implementation; 41. incorporate multi-stakeholder dialogue processes into policies, guidelines and projects at the global, regional and national levels for the exchange of experiences between countries and sectors involved in ecotourism; 42. strengthen efforts in identifying the factors that determine the success or failure of ecotourism ventures throughout the world, in order to transfer such experiences and best practices to other na-tions, by means of publications, field missions, training seminars and technical assistance projects; UNEP, WTO and other international organizations should continue and expand the international dialogue after the Summit on sustainable tourism and ecotourism issues, for example by conducting periodical reviews of ecotourism development through international and regional forums; 43. adapt as necessary their financial facilities and lending conditions and procedures to suit the needs of micro-, small- and medium-sized ecotourism firms that are the core of this industry, as a condition to ensure its long term economic sustainability; 44. develop the internal human resource capacity to support sustainable tourism and ecotourism as a development sub-sector in itself and to ensure that internal expertise, research, and documenta-tion are in place to oversee the use of ecotourism as a sustainable development tool; 45. develop financial mechanisms for training and capacity building, that takes into account the time and resources required to successfully enable local communities and indigenous peoples to par-ticipate equitably in ecotourism development.

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E. To local and indigenous communities In addition to all the references to local and indigenous communities made in the preceding para-graphs of this Declaration, (in particular para. 5, 8, 9 and 10 on page 2; para. 1 on page 3; in A 2 and 17; B 21 and 27; C 35; D 45) participants addressed the following recommendations to the local and indigenous communities themselves: 46. As part of a community vision for development, that may include ecotourism, define and imple-ment a strategy for improving collective benefits for the community through ecotourism develop-ment including human, physical, financial, and social capital development, and improved access to technical information; 47. strengthen, nurture and encourage the community's ability to maintain and use traditional skills, particularly home-based arts and crafts, agricultural produce, traditional housing and landscaping that use local natural resources in a sustainable manner. F. To the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) 48. recognize the need to apply the principles of sustainable development to tourism, and the exem-plary role of ecotourism in generating economic, social and environmental benefits; 49. integrate the role of tourism, including ecotourism, in the outcomes expected at WSSD. Québec City, Canada, 22 May 2002

Annex 5: Exercise for Community-Based Tourism Guides Dealing with difficult cross-cultural situations Below are some cross-cultural situations that CBT-Guides might encounter on their tours. Discuss each situation in groups and identify:

a. the problem b. a possible plan of action and c. what could be done next time to avoid the problem

• A tourist couple is bathing in the river. While they are swimming, they start kissing

each other

• After taking a bath in the river, everybody gets out to dry off. One of the guests does not have a towel and decides to change behind a bush in the nude.

• It is evening in the village and the village chief is pouring glasses of local whiskey

for your guests. One of your guests refuses the alcohol, but the villager insists that she/he drinks the whiskey, thinking that the guest is only being shy.

• One of your guests likes that local whiskey very much. He/she had had a lot to drink.

He/she is very drunk and is talking very loudly. The villagers are not longer enjoying the party because your guest is too loud and drunk.

• Your guests are receiving traditional massages from some local women. One of your

male guests starts caressing his masseuse. She does not smile but does not say anything for fear of doing the wrong thing.

• While on a short break, one of your guests sees some people in the fields planting

rice and rushes to take pictures. Without asking, he/she starts taking pictures.

• The group is having a discussion with the villagers. One of your guests asks you to translate why the men in the village are so lazy and why the women do all the work.

Source: modified from Nam Ha Ecotourism Project 2001, p. 8-15

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Annex 6 – Do’s and Don’ts for CBT Training Teams Do

Pre-inform participants about the venue of the meeting, expected participation (male, female and children?) and the purpose of meeting. Inform key community members, village group leaders and government personnel about the possible duration of the meeting.

Prepare for the meeting and assign responsibilities among yourselves (facilitator,

note taker, and, if possible, an observer and a back-up facilitator when the discussion is being dominated by certain people, etc.)

Check the distribution of participants, start the meeting with an introduction and on

overview of the purpose and nature of process to be used.

Welcome and greet participants using the local language and acknowledge their contribution of time.

Make sure that not only a few people dominate the interaction. Ensure that as many

people have the chance to speak as possible – use mechanisms to ensure participation and no interruptions.

Respect local cultures and traditions, especially in rural settings.

Make sure that the information generated is also left for the community –

summarise the findings in a participatory manner and leave charts, maps, etc. with the community.

Do establish rapport and value the opinions of the participants; ask if the

participants have any questions for the team.

Be humble and honest. Don’t

Conduct meetings in private houses and same venue again and again.

Wait too long to start the meeting.

Make final summary based on one viewpoint.

Become angry in meetings; do avoid public arguments among the team members.

Put pressure on village people, especially women, to adjust meeting times to suit yours.

Ask personal questions or leading questions (those that result in a yes or no answer).

Raise expectations of what may follow.

Source: modified from The Mountain Institute, p. 81-82 (2000)

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Documents

EcotourismTrainingManual Cbt