Early Church to the Reformation

11

Early Church to the Early Church to the ReformationReformation

Part IIPart II

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B. Theologians Become B. Theologians Become ActivistsActivists

The 2The 2ndnd half of the 4 half of the 4thth c. witnessed c. witnessed the flowering of the golden age of the flowering of the golden age of the Church Fathers.the Church Fathers.

This was the period of the greatest This was the period of the greatest writers & thinkers of Xtian antiquity.writers & thinkers of Xtian antiquity.

But they were not just thinkers & But they were not just thinkers & writers; they were actively involved writers; they were actively involved in shaping the destiny of both state in shaping the destiny of both state and church.and church.

They considered practically every They considered practically every issue, local or universal.issue, local or universal.

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Theological issues & scriptural Theological issues & scriptural expositions were brought into the expositions were brought into the midst of social, political and midst of social, political and ecclesiastical controversies.ecclesiastical controversies.

These great theologians were These great theologians were contemporaries & many had direct contemporaries & many had direct relations with others or exercised relations with others or exercised mutual influence wielded by this mutual influence wielded by this group.group.

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1. Athanasius (c. 296-373)1. Athanasius (c. 296-373)A. was the outstanding obstacle to the A. was the outstanding obstacle to the

triumph of Arianism in the East.triumph of Arianism in the East.His career began when, as secretary to His career began when, as secretary to

Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, he Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, he attended the Council of Nicaea in 325.attended the Council of Nicaea in 325.

He succeeded Alexander as bishop in 328 He succeeded Alexander as bishop in 328 & refused to compromise with Arianism.& refused to compromise with Arianism.

He was deposed & exiled to Trier in 336.He was deposed & exiled to Trier in 336.He returned on the death of Constantine He returned on the death of Constantine

in 337, but in 339 was forced to flee to in 337, but in 339 was forced to flee to Rome.Rome.

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Athanasius

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1. Athanasius (c. 296-373)1. Athanasius (c. 296-373)He was restored in 346 by Constans, but He was restored in 346 by Constans, but

Constantius drove him out again in 356.Constantius drove him out again in 356.He remained in hiding until the accession of He remained in hiding until the accession of

Julian (361), who exiled him again in 362.Julian (361), who exiled him again in 362.He returned on Julian’s death in 363, & after He returned on Julian’s death in 363, & after

another brief exile (356-66), he worked the another brief exile (356-66), he worked the rest of his life to build up the new Nicene rest of his life to build up the new Nicene party, which triumphed over Arianism at the party, which triumphed over Arianism at the Council of Constantinople in 381.Council of Constantinople in 381.

He died in Alexandria in May 373.He died in Alexandria in May 373.

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1. Athanasius (c. 296-373)1. Athanasius (c. 296-373)A. is remembered for his role in preserving A. is remembered for his role in preserving

orthodoxy in the ch’s trinitarian theology.orthodoxy in the ch’s trinitarian theology.While in his 20s he wrote While in his 20s he wrote De IncarnationeDe Incarnatione, ,

in which he showed how God the Word, by in which he showed how God the Word, by his union with manhood, restored fallen his union with manhood, restored fallen man to the image of God, & by his death & man to the image of God, & by his death & resurrection met & overcame death, the resurrection met & overcame death, the consequence of sin.consequence of sin.

He was the greatest & most consistent He was the greatest & most consistent opponent of Arianism, against which he opponent of Arianism, against which he wrote a series of works from 339-359.wrote a series of works from 339-359.

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1. Athanasius (c. 296-373)1. Athanasius (c. 296-373)He also upheld the deity of the HS and He also upheld the deity of the HS and

the full manhood of X against the full manhood of X against Macedonian & Apollinarian tendencies.Macedonian & Apollinarian tendencies.

He aided the ascetic movement of He aided the ascetic movement of monasticism, & generally strengthened monasticism, & generally strengthened the spirituality as well as the orthodoxy the spirituality as well as the orthodoxy of the church.of the church.

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2. Ambrose (c. 339-97)2. Ambrose (c. 339-97)A. was a practicing lawyer when he was A. was a practicing lawyer when he was

appointed governor of Aemiloia-Liguria, appointed governor of Aemiloia-Liguria, with his seat at Milan.with his seat at Milan.

When Auxentius, the Arian bishop of When Auxentius, the Arian bishop of Milan, died in 374, the laity demanded Milan, died in 374, the laity demanded that Ambrose succeed him.that Ambrose succeed him.

As bishop, he was famous as preacher & As bishop, he was famous as preacher & renowned as an upholder of orthodoxy.renowned as an upholder of orthodoxy.

He is credited mainly with the He is credited mainly with the conversion of Augustine (386).conversion of Augustine (386).

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Ambrose(c. 339-397)

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2. Ambrose (c. 339-97)2. Ambrose (c. 339-97)Political & ch events involved him Political & ch events involved him

personally with the rulers of the western personally with the rulers of the western empire, & he had great influence with empire, & he had great influence with Gratian, Maximus, Justina, & Theodosius I.Gratian, Maximus, Justina, & Theodosius I.

He fought paganism & Arianism, He fought paganism & Arianism, maintained the independence of the ch maintained the independence of the ch from civil power, & championed morality.from civil power, & championed morality.

His most notable work was His most notable work was De Officiis De Officiis MinistorrumMinistorrum, a work on Xtian ethics with , a work on Xtian ethics with special reference to the clergy.special reference to the clergy.

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2. Ambrose (c. 339-97)2. Ambrose (c. 339-97)He wrote on ascetic subjects, He wrote on ascetic subjects,

encouraged monasticism, wrote several encouraged monasticism, wrote several well-known Latin hymns, & through his well-known Latin hymns, & through his knowledge of Gk, introduced much knowledge of Gk, introduced much eastern theology into the West.eastern theology into the West.

Ambrose is one of the 4 traditional Ambrose is one of the 4 traditional doctors of the Latin church, the other 3 doctors of the Latin church, the other 3 being Jerome, Augustine and Gregory being Jerome, Augustine and Gregory the Great.the Great.

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3. Jerome (c. 342-420)3. Jerome (c. 342-420)J. was one of the greatest biblical J. was one of the greatest biblical

scholars of the early ch.scholars of the early ch.He originally devoted himself to an He originally devoted himself to an

ascetic life, settled as a hermit into the ascetic life, settled as a hermit into the Syrian desert, & learned Hebrew.Syrian desert, & learned Hebrew.

On his return to Antioch, he was On his return to Antioch, he was ordained a priest, spent some time in ordained a priest, spent some time in Constantinople, & eventually became Constantinople, & eventually became secretary to Pope (Bishop) Damasus.secretary to Pope (Bishop) Damasus.

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Jerome(c. 342-420)

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Jerome in his studyFrench, c. 1495-1515

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The Penitence of St. JeromeAlbrecht Altdorfer

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3. Jerome (c. 342-420)3. Jerome (c. 342-420)After Damasus’ death, he visited Antioch, After Damasus’ death, he visited Antioch,

Egypt, & Palestine.Egypt, & Palestine.In 386 he finally settled in Bethlehem, In 386 he finally settled in Bethlehem,

where he ruled the men’s monastery & where he ruled the men’s monastery & devoted the rest of his life to study & devoted the rest of his life to study & writing.writing.

His greatest achievement was his His greatest achievement was his translation of the Bible into Latin from the translation of the Bible into Latin from the original languages.original languages.

Known as the Known as the VulgateVulgate, it was finished , it was finished around 404.around 404.

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3. Jerome (c. 342-420)3. Jerome (c. 342-420)The The VulgateVulgate was established by the was established by the

Council of Trent in the mid 1500s as the Council of Trent in the mid 1500s as the official Roman Catholic version of the official Roman Catholic version of the Bible—remains so today.Bible—remains so today.

J. also wrote 3 revisions of the psalter, J. also wrote 3 revisions of the psalter, many biblical commentaries, a many biblical commentaries, a bibliography of ecclesiastical writers, bibliography of ecclesiastical writers, translated the works of Origen & translated the works of Origen & Didymus into Latin, developed the Didymus into Latin, developed the relationship of the Apocrypha to the relationship of the Apocrypha to the Hebrew canon, & translated & continued Hebrew canon, & translated & continued Eusebius’ Eusebius’ Chronicle of Church HistoryChronicle of Church History..

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3. Jerome (c. 342-420)3. Jerome (c. 342-420)Although he advocated extreme Although he advocated extreme

asceticism, he was personally involved asceticism, he was personally involved in many passionate attacks against in many passionate attacks against Arianism, Pelagianism and Origenism.Arianism, Pelagianism and Origenism.

Jerome’s scholarship & dedication were Jerome’s scholarship & dedication were unsurpassed in the early church & set unsurpassed in the early church & set models for all succeeding theological models for all succeeding theological writers.writers.

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4. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407)4. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407)C. was bishop of Constantinople & a C. was bishop of Constantinople & a

renowned preacher.renowned preacher.His powers of oratory earned him the His powers of oratory earned him the

name of Chrysostom, “the golden-name of Chrysostom, “the golden-mouth.”mouth.”

He combined his preaching ability with He combined his preaching ability with dedicated scholarship & his series of dedicated scholarship & his series of “homilies” on various books of the Bible “homilies” on various books of the Bible established him as the greatest Xtian established him as the greatest Xtian expositor of his day.expositor of his day.

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John Chrysostom(c. 347-407)

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4. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407)4. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407)He saw the meaning of scripture & at the He saw the meaning of scripture & at the

same time was able to make practical same time was able to make practical application.application.

He was made patriarch of Constantinople He was made patriarch of Constantinople in 398, & set about reforming the city in 398, & set about reforming the city from its corruption of court, clergy and from its corruption of court, clergy and society.society.

His honesty, asceticism, & tactlessness His honesty, asceticism, & tactlessness won him many enemies; chief among won him many enemies; chief among them were Theophilus, the unworthy them were Theophilus, the unworthy patriarch of Alexandria & the Empress patriarch of Alexandria & the Empress Eudoxia, who took all attempts at moral Eudoxia, who took all attempts at moral reform as a censure of herself.reform as a censure of herself.

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4. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407)4. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407)They succeeded in having him removed They succeeded in having him removed

from his post and banished.from his post and banished.Although he was supported by the people Although he was supported by the people

of Constantinople, Pope Innocent I, & the of Constantinople, Pope Innocent I, & the entire Western ch, he was exiled to entire Western ch, he was exiled to Antioch, moved to Pontus, & finally Antioch, moved to Pontus, & finally deliberately killed by enforced travel on deliberately killed by enforced travel on foot in severe weather.foot in severe weather.

He has been remembered for his personal He has been remembered for his personal holiness, his matchless preaching, his holiness, his matchless preaching, his scholarly exegesis, & his liturgical reforms.scholarly exegesis, & his liturgical reforms.

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4. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407)4. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407)His work His work On the PriesthoodOn the Priesthood is a good is a good

description of the responsibilities of the description of the responsibilities of the Christian minister.Christian minister.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)The theological development of this The theological development of this

period reached its zenith in the person period reached its zenith in the person of Aurelius Augustine, bishop of Hippo, of Aurelius Augustine, bishop of Hippo, whom many rank as second only to the whom many rank as second only to the Apostle Paul in the development of Apostle Paul in the development of western Christian theology.western Christian theology.

Aquinas, Luther, Calvin and Pascal drew Aquinas, Luther, Calvin and Pascal drew heavily on him.heavily on him.

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Augustine of Hippo

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Augustine(from Andre Thevet)

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)a. The Conversion of Augustine.a. The Conversion of Augustine.He was born in North Africa of a pagan He was born in North Africa of a pagan

father & a Xtian mother, Monica.father & a Xtian mother, Monica.He received a Xtian education, studied He received a Xtian education, studied

to become a lawyer, but decided instead to become a lawyer, but decided instead on literary pursuits.on literary pursuits.

He left Xtianity and took a mistress, to He left Xtianity and took a mistress, to whom he was faithful for 15 yrs, having whom he was faithful for 15 yrs, having a son by her.a son by her.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)a. The Conversion of Augustine.a. The Conversion of Augustine.Writings of Cicero awakened an intense Writings of Cicero awakened an intense

interest in philosophy & he soon became interest in philosophy & he soon became a Manichaean, which he remained for 9 a Manichaean, which he remained for 9 yrs.yrs.

Disillusioned by the all-too-simple Disillusioned by the all-too-simple Manichaean explanation of evil in terms Manichaean explanation of evil in terms of matter, he left them & Africa.of matter, he left them & Africa.

He went to Rome & opened a school of He went to Rome & opened a school of rhetoric, where he became disgusted by rhetoric, where he became disgusted by the behavior of his pupils, & left for a the behavior of his pupils, & left for a professorship at Milan.professorship at Milan.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)a. The Conversion of Augustine.a. The Conversion of Augustine.By the time he arrived in Milan, he was By the time he arrived in Milan, he was

embracing the philosophy of the embracing the philosophy of the “Academics,” which denied the “Academics,” which denied the possibility of attaining absolute truths.possibility of attaining absolute truths.

A little later he became a Neo-Platonist A little later he became a Neo-Platonist & drew nearer to Xtianity.& drew nearer to Xtianity.

He was attracted to the preaching of He was attracted to the preaching of Ambrose, bishop of Milan, for the literary Ambrose, bishop of Milan, for the literary quality of his sermons & for the biblical quality of his sermons & for the biblical answers given to many of his objections.answers given to many of his objections.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)a. The Conversion of Augustine.a. The Conversion of Augustine.When he heard of the conversion of the When he heard of the conversion of the

Neo-Platonist philosopher Victorinus to Neo-Platonist philosopher Victorinus to Xtianity, A. turned in earnest to search Xtianity, A. turned in earnest to search the NT.the NT.

A major obstacle to becoming a Xtian A major obstacle to becoming a Xtian was his moral incontinence.was his moral incontinence.

Although he had dismissed his Although he had dismissed his concubine at his mother’s insistence, he concubine at his mother’s insistence, he had entered another illicit affair.had entered another illicit affair.

Another obstacle was his concern about Another obstacle was his concern about “inconsistencies” in the Bible.“inconsistencies” in the Bible.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)a. The Conversion of Augustine.a. The Conversion of Augustine.With great heaviness of heart (a “sickness With great heaviness of heart (a “sickness

unto death”) A. went alone one day to a unto death”) A. went alone one day to a garden, where he tore his hair & beat his garden, where he tore his hair & beat his breast.breast.

He had been deeply moved and shamed He had been deeply moved and shamed by the story of Anthony & the Egyptians by the story of Anthony & the Egyptians hermits, & how they withstood temptation.hermits, & how they withstood temptation.

From next door he heard a child crooning, From next door he heard a child crooning, Tolle, lege”Tolle, lege” (“take up and read”). (“take up and read”).

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)a. The Conversion of Augustine.a. The Conversion of Augustine.He then saw a copy of the NT on a He then saw a copy of the NT on a

bench, & opening it to Romans 13:13, bench, & opening it to Romans 13:13, he read: “Not in reveling and he read: “Not in reveling and drunkenness, not in debauchery and drunkenness, not in debauchery and licentiousness, not in quarreling and licentiousness, not in quarreling and jealousy. But put on the Lord Jesus jealousy. But put on the Lord Jesus Christ and make no provision for the Christ and make no provision for the flesh to gratify its desires.”flesh to gratify its desires.”

The verse enabled him to surrender The verse enabled him to surrender himself completely to X.himself completely to X.

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This version of Augustine’s gardenconversion comesfrom Gozzoli (1424-1497). He is readingfrom Romans 13:14.

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In the Garden in Milan (Augustine’s Conversion)In the Garden in Milan (Augustine’s Conversion)

In the artist’s mystical interpretation, Augustine, In the artist’s mystical interpretation, Augustine, seated in the garden in Milan, sees childlike angelic seated in the garden in Milan, sees childlike angelic beings calling him to “Tolle lege, tolle lege” (Take beings calling him to “Tolle lege, tolle lege” (Take up and read, take up an read) the Scriptures. The up and read, take up an read) the Scriptures. The Bible is open to Romans 13:13-14, “Not in rioting Bible is open to Romans 13:13-14, “Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying; but put ye on wantonness, not in strife and envying; but put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for the flesh, in concupiscence.”the flesh, in concupiscence.”

“ “No further would I read; nor needed I: for No further would I read; nor needed I: for instantly at the end of this sentence, by a light as it instantly at the end of this sentence, by a light as it were of serenity infused into my heart, all the were of serenity infused into my heart, all the darkness of doubt vanished away.”darkness of doubt vanished away.”

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This picture, taken from a fresco on a wall

of the Lateran Palace, is thought to be the

oldest known portrait of Augustine—perhaps

based on an image taken from his own signet

ring. A. is dressed in a tunic, mantle and

sandals,thus being depicted as a scholar rather

thanas a bishop. In his left hand he holds ascroll; with his right hand he makes an

orator-ical gesture toward the great book open

on the lectern. The scroll alludes to his ownworks; the great book to the greatest ofbooks, the Bible. The Latin inscription at the bottom

reads:“The different fathers said different

things, but with Roman eloquence this man said

allthings, thundering forth the sense of themysteries.” The painter did not think it necessary to

useAugustine’s name in the painting. The

lauda-tory inscription was thought sufficient to identify Augustine.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)a. The Conversion of Augustine.a. The Conversion of Augustine.He viewed the conversion experience as He viewed the conversion experience as

comparable to that of Paul on the road comparable to that of Paul on the road to Damascus.to Damascus.

Several months later he & his son Several months later he & his son Adeodatus were baptized by Ambrose.Adeodatus were baptized by Ambrose.

With his mother & son he set out for With his mother & son he set out for Africa, but his mother died in route & his Africa, but his mother died in route & his son died shortly after arriving in Africa.son died shortly after arriving in Africa.

A. entered the monastery at Tagaste.A. entered the monastery at Tagaste.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)a. The Conversion of Augustine.a. The Conversion of Augustine.He became a priest in 391, but He became a priest in 391, but

continued to live the monastic life until continued to live the monastic life until he was consecrated coadjutor bishop to he was consecrated coadjutor bishop to Valerius, bishop of Hippo, & after 396 Valerius, bishop of Hippo, & after 396 served as the sole bishop of Hippo.served as the sole bishop of Hippo.

At Hippo he commenced his outstanding At Hippo he commenced his outstanding career as administrator, pastor, and career as administrator, pastor, and theologian.theologian.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.A. was confronted with 4 major A. was confronted with 4 major

controversial issues & it was mainly controversial issues & it was mainly through his struggles with these issues through his struggles with these issues that his own theology was formed.that his own theology was formed.

Manichaeism was the 1Manichaeism was the 1stst & least & least dangerous.dangerous.

A. embraced M. for 9 yrs before his A. embraced M. for 9 yrs before his conversion & later strongly opposed its conversion & later strongly opposed its simplistic concepts of light & dark & simplistic concepts of light & dark & good & evil.good & evil.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.Now he opposed the Manichaean Now he opposed the Manichaean

attempt to solve the problem of evil by attempt to solve the problem of evil by positing an evil agency eternally positing an evil agency eternally opposed to the good God.opposed to the good God.

A. maintained that God was the sole A. maintained that God was the sole creator & sustainer of all things, that evil creator & sustainer of all things, that evil is the privation of some good which is the privation of some good which ought to be had, & that moral evil ought to be had, & that moral evil springs from free will.springs from free will.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.The Donatist controversy was more The Donatist controversy was more

urgent because of the deep divisions it urgent because of the deep divisions it had caused in the African church.had caused in the African church.

The D. issue was almost a century old, The D. issue was almost a century old, dating from the dating from the traditoretraditore controversy of controversy of the persecution era.the persecution era.

The issue was whether or not the The issue was whether or not the sacraments were valid if administered sacraments were valid if administered by unholy men.by unholy men.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.The D. insisted that sacraments The D. insisted that sacraments

administered by administered by traditorestraditores (those who (those who had given up the Scriptures in the had given up the Scriptures in the Diocletian persecution), unholy men, or Diocletian persecution), unholy men, or heretics, were invalid.heretics, were invalid.

And since theirs was the only ch which And since theirs was the only ch which maintained its purity on this issue, the D. maintained its purity on this issue, the D. claimed to be the one true ch.claimed to be the one true ch.

A. refuted this claim & taught that the A. refuted this claim & taught that the sacraments are X’s, & the validity of the sacraments are X’s, & the validity of the sacraments rests in the sacrament itself & sacraments rests in the sacrament itself & not the administrator.not the administrator.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.He acknowledged that unholy persons He acknowledged that unholy persons

were in the ch, as the parable of the were in the ch, as the parable of the wheat & tares indicated, but the D. were wheat & tares indicated, but the D. were wrong in trying to claim final wrong in trying to claim final blessedness now.blessedness now.

This led A. to define a sacrament as a This led A. to define a sacrament as a sign of the invisible grace of God in sign of the invisible grace of God in which God forgives sin.which God forgives sin.

He finally urged the state to force the D. He finally urged the state to force the D. back into the fold of orthodoxy, quoting back into the fold of orthodoxy, quoting Lk 14:23, “Compel them to come in.”Lk 14:23, “Compel them to come in.”

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.Since he believed the ch is superior to Since he believed the ch is superior to

the state, he believed that the state the state, he believed that the state should execute the commandments of should execute the commandments of God, as instructed by the church.God, as instructed by the church.

A’s later yrs were taken up with the A’s later yrs were taken up with the Pelagian controversy.Pelagian controversy.

Pelagius was a very moral & learned lay Pelagius was a very moral & learned lay monk who came to Rome from the monk who came to Rome from the British Isles about 385.British Isles about 385.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.Shocked by the low morality of Rome, Shocked by the low morality of Rome,

Pelagius devoted his preaching & writing Pelagius devoted his preaching & writing to the issues of morality and sin.to the issues of morality and sin.

He denied the idea of inherited sin, He denied the idea of inherited sin, stating that Adam’s sin was a bad stating that Adam’s sin was a bad example which men have chosen to example which men have chosen to follow, that sin is really self-generated.follow, that sin is really self-generated.

Actually, man could be sinless if he so Actually, man could be sinless if he so desired, thus placing salvation in the desired, thus placing salvation in the hands of man himself.hands of man himself.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.P. was condemned for his teaching by P. was condemned for his teaching by

two African councils & then two African councils & then excommunicated by Pope Innocent in excommunicated by Pope Innocent in 417.417.

The chief heresies with which P. was The chief heresies with which P. was charged was:charged was:1) that Adam would have died even if he 1) that Adam would have died even if he

had not sinned.had not sinned.2) that the sin of Adam injured himself alone 2) that the sin of Adam injured himself alone

& not the whole human racel.& not the whole human racel.3) that newborn children are in the same 3) that newborn children are in the same

condition as Adam was before he fell.condition as Adam was before he fell.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.The chief heresies with which P. was The chief heresies with which P. was

charged was:charged was:4) that the whole human race does not die 4) that the whole human race does not die

because of Adam’s death or sin, nor will it because of Adam’s death or sin, nor will it rise again because of X’s resurrection.rise again because of X’s resurrection.

5) that the law as well as the gospel offers 5) that the law as well as the gospel offers entrance to heaven.entrance to heaven.

6) that even before the coming of X there 6) that even before the coming of X there were men wholly without sin.were men wholly without sin.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.P. developed much of his theology as a P. developed much of his theology as a

reaction to Augustine’s often quoted reaction to Augustine’s often quoted prayer in his prayer in his ConfessionsConfessions: “Grant what : “Grant what Thou commandes and command what Thou commandes and command what Thou wilt.”Thou wilt.”

P. inferred this to means that man is not P. inferred this to means that man is not responsible for good or evil deeds, that responsible for good or evil deeds, that it is all in the hands of God.it is all in the hands of God.

If this is so, man’s entire moral structure If this is so, man’s entire moral structure was imperiled, for it served as an was imperiled, for it served as an invitation to indulge in sin.invitation to indulge in sin.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.Refuting P., A. maintained that man was Refuting P., A. maintained that man was

created with certain supernatural gifts created with certain supernatural gifts which were lost by the fall of Adam; and, which were lost by the fall of Adam; and, as a result, man suffers from a as a result, man suffers from a hereditary moral disease, is subject to hereditary moral disease, is subject to the inherited legal liability of Adam’s sin, the inherited legal liability of Adam’s sin, and can be saved from these evils solely and can be saved from these evils solely by the grace of God.by the grace of God.

P. drove A. to a belief in predestination, P. drove A. to a belief in predestination, irresistible grace, & divine control of all irresistible grace, & divine control of all that happens.that happens.

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5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.Most of A’s theology on sin & salvation Most of A’s theology on sin & salvation

was worked out as a reaction to P., was worked out as a reaction to P., which he refuted with minute exegesis which he refuted with minute exegesis of the biblical text.of the biblical text.

Paganism became another major Paganism became another major adversary for A. with the fall of Rome to adversary for A. with the fall of Rome to Alaric in 410.Alaric in 410.

This even caused great consternation This even caused great consternation throughout the civilized world, & pagans throughout the civilized world, & pagans blamed the fall on Xtians who had blamed the fall on Xtians who had abolished heathen worship.abolished heathen worship.

5555


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.They contended that the pagan gods They contended that the pagan gods

were at last venting their wrath.were at last venting their wrath.A. took it upon himself to reply to the A. took it upon himself to reply to the

pagan charge, producing in his reply the pagan charge, producing in his reply the monumental 22-book work, monumental 22-book work, The City of The City of GodGod..

For A., there were 2 major questions For A., there were 2 major questions concerning the fall of Rome:concerning the fall of Rome:

1) Why had God allowed this to happen?1) Why had God allowed this to happen?2) Should Xtians have recourse to war to 2) Should Xtians have recourse to war to

repulse the barbarians?repulse the barbarians?

5656


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.In answer to the 1In answer to the 1stst question, A. question, A.

emphatically rejected the notion that emphatically rejected the notion that Xtians were to blame, & demonstrated Xtians were to blame, & demonstrated how Rome, through the sovereign will of how Rome, through the sovereign will of God, had fallen because of her own God, had fallen because of her own crimes.crimes.

To the 2To the 2ndnd q., he was emphatic again in q., he was emphatic again in justifying the right of Xtians to take justifying the right of Xtians to take arms against the barbarians under these arms against the barbarians under these conditions:conditions:

5757


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)b. Augustine’s Controversies.b. Augustine’s Controversies.1) if the object is to vindicate justice & 1) if the object is to vindicate justice &

restore peace.restore peace.2) if the motive is love.2) if the motive is love.3) if the war is just (which means that 3) if the war is just (which means that

one side must be unjust).one side must be unjust).A. envisioned a world in which the state, A. envisioned a world in which the state,

through its power of government (even through its power of government (even war if necessary), made society a safe & war if necessary), made society a safe & stable place where the ch could apply its stable place where the ch could apply its teachings & principles.teachings & principles.

5858

5959


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)c. Augustine’s Contributions.c. Augustine’s Contributions.The literary contributions of A. are The literary contributions of A. are

overwhelming in their volume alone.overwhelming in their volume alone.His best known works are His best known works are The The

Confessions, The City of God, Confessions, The City of God, and and The The EnchiridionEnchiridion, but he also wrote 14 , but he also wrote 14 treatises against the Manichaeans, 6 treatises against the Manichaeans, 6 against the Donatists, & 14 against the against the Donatists, & 14 against the Pelagians, in addition to a number of Pelagians, in addition to a number of philosophical works, & numerous philosophical works, & numerous sermons, letters, and commentaries.sermons, letters, and commentaries.

6060


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)c. Augustine’s Contributions.c. Augustine’s Contributions.The City of GodThe City of God volumes follow a clear & volumes follow a clear &

purposeful outline.purposeful outline.The 1The 1stst 5 books refute the charge that 5 books refute the charge that

Rome was destroyed because of the Rome was destroyed because of the Xtian ban on pagan worship.Xtian ban on pagan worship.

The next 5 demonstrate the The next 5 demonstrate the worthlessness of worshipping pagan worthlessness of worshipping pagan deities.deities.

Books 11-14 trace the rise of the divine & Books 11-14 trace the rise of the divine & earthly cities.earthly cities.

6161


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)c. Augustine’s Contributions.c. Augustine’s Contributions.Books 15-18 show the growth of these Books 15-18 show the growth of these

cities.cities.Books 19-22 demonstrate their proper Books 19-22 demonstrate their proper

ends.ends.The analysis of the 2 cities is always set The analysis of the 2 cities is always set

against the backdrop of God’s action in against the backdrop of God’s action in history.history.

For A., history had its beginning in For A., history had its beginning in creation, its climax in the coming of X, & creation, its climax in the coming of X, & its conclusion in the day of judgment.its conclusion in the day of judgment.

6262


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)c. Augustine’s Contributions.c. Augustine’s Contributions.The ConfessionsThe Confessions was written shortly was written shortly

before 400 & is the story of A’s life before 400 & is the story of A’s life before & including his conversion.before & including his conversion.

It is the world’s 1It is the world’s 1stst spiritual spiritual autobiography, tracing his tortuous autobiography, tracing his tortuous course in searching for meaning & course in searching for meaning & happiness.happiness.

In describing his search, he sees himself In describing his search, he sees himself as representing all mankiind, as an as representing all mankiind, as an example of man’s corruption, example of man’s corruption, redemption and continuing imperfection.redemption and continuing imperfection.

6363


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)c. Augustine’s Contributions.c. Augustine’s Contributions.the culmination of his search is the famous the culmination of his search is the famous

conclusion that man is restless & cannot find conclusion that man is restless & cannot find rest until he rests in God.rest until he rests in God.

A’s formative theological contributions are A’s formative theological contributions are influential to this day.influential to this day.

His doctrines of original sin & salvation by His doctrines of original sin & salvation by grace alone were highly influential on grace alone were highly influential on Luther.Luther.

His conclusions about predestination led His conclusions about predestination led Calvin in further elaborations on this theme.Calvin in further elaborations on this theme.

6464


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)c. Augustine’s Contributions.c. Augustine’s Contributions.A’s concepts of society, especially the A’s concepts of society, especially the

relationship of ch & state, continue to relationship of ch & state, continue to influence politics and ecclesiology.influence politics and ecclesiology.

His support of just wars stamped him as His support of just wars stamped him as the father of the war-guilt theory.the father of the war-guilt theory.

He is credited with giving definitive He is credited with giving definitive shape to the Catholic teaching against shape to the Catholic teaching against birth control, maintaining that the birth control, maintaining that the primary purpose of marriage is primary purpose of marriage is procreation.procreation.

6565


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)c. Augustine’s Contributions.c. Augustine’s Contributions.He firmly entrenched infant baptism by He firmly entrenched infant baptism by

insisting that babies who die unbaptized insisting that babies who die unbaptized go into everlasting perdition.go into everlasting perdition.

He drew guidelines for ecclesiastical & He drew guidelines for ecclesiastical & theological authority which are still in theological authority which are still in use.use.

His infoluence on the sacraments and His infoluence on the sacraments and ecclesiology of the Roman Catholic ecclesiology of the Roman Catholic Church has been profound & lasting.Church has been profound & lasting.

6666


5. Augustine (354-430)5. Augustine (354-430)c. Augustine’s Contributions.c. Augustine’s Contributions.A’s views on grace & predestination, ch A’s views on grace & predestination, ch

& state, war & peace, sex & marriage, & & state, war & peace, sex & marriage, & tolerance & constraint, continue to tolerance & constraint, continue to make their impact on each succeeding make their impact on each succeeding generation in the western ch, whether generation in the western ch, whether Catholic or Protestant.Catholic or Protestant.

6767

C. Bishops Become PopesC. Bishops Become Popes In addition to the rise of the state-In addition to the rise of the state-

church & the development of formative church & the development of formative theology, this extremely important theology, this extremely important period of history also produced the period of history also produced the unmistakable patterns of ecclesiastical unmistakable patterns of ecclesiastical organization, including the papal organization, including the papal hierarchy.hierarchy.

1. Political and Church Organization1. Political and Church OrganizationAfter Theodosius made Xtianity the After Theodosius made Xtianity the

official religion of the state, the bishops official religion of the state, the bishops organized the ch on the basis of the organized the ch on the basis of the political organization of the empire.political organization of the empire.

6868

C. Bishops Become PopesC. Bishops Become Popes1. Political and Church Organization1. Political and Church Organization

City territory the smallest unit in the City territory the smallest unit in the political administration; and the diocese, political administration; and the diocese, embracing the city territory, was the embracing the city territory, was the smallest unit in ch administration.smallest unit in ch administration.

It was headed by a bishop.It was headed by a bishop.Over the city territory was the province Over the city territory was the province

with its provincial governor; and the with its provincial governor; and the corresponding ch office was that of the corresponding ch office was that of the metropolitan (archbishop), led by the metropolitan (archbishop), led by the provincial city.provincial city.

6969


Several provinces were governed by an Several provinces were governed by an imperial governor (vicarius); the ch’s imperial governor (vicarius); the ch’s corresponding officer was the patriarch corresponding officer was the patriarch (cardinal).(cardinal).

The imperial council (senate) had its The imperial council (senate) had its counterpart in the assembly of counterpart in the assembly of patriarchs (college of cardinals).patriarchs (college of cardinals).

Eventually the emperor found his Eventually the emperor found his ecclesiastical counterpart in the pope.ecclesiastical counterpart in the pope.

7070


When the 1When the 1stst Catholic (universal or Catholic (universal or ecumenical) Council met in Nicaea in ecumenical) Council met in Nicaea in 325, very distinct characteristics 325, very distinct characteristics surfaced which permanently shaped a surfaced which permanently shaped a great portion of Christendom.great portion of Christendom.

These included:These included:1) the idea of a visible universal ch 1) the idea of a visible universal ch

composed of the bishops.composed of the bishops.2) the belief that the sacraments (as 2) the belief that the sacraments (as

they now were called) carries a they now were called) carries a supernatural power of transforming supernatural power of transforming grace.grace.

7171


3) the employment of a special 3) the employment of a special priesthood, the clergy, which had sole priesthood, the clergy, which had sole authority to administer the sacraments.authority to administer the sacraments.

4) the recognition of the bishops as the 4) the recognition of the bishops as the ruling officers (episcopal government).ruling officers (episcopal government).

All of these characteristics are still All of these characteristics are still observed by Roman Catholics, Greek observed by Roman Catholics, Greek Catholics, and Anglo-Catholics.Catholics, and Anglo-Catholics.

7272

C. Bishops Become PopesC. Bishops Become Popes 2. Presumed Basis For The Papacy2. Presumed Basis For The Papacy

It is impossible to document a precise date for It is impossible to document a precise date for the beg. of the papacy.the beg. of the papacy.

While the Catholic Ch insists that Peter was the While the Catholic Ch insists that Peter was the 11stst pope, others look to Leo the Great or pope, others look to Leo the Great or perhaps Damasus, but hardly ever anyone perhaps Damasus, but hardly ever anyone earlier than Stephen of Rome.earlier than Stephen of Rome.

Toward the end of the 2Toward the end of the 2ndnd c., Irenaeus stated c., Irenaeus stated the case for apostolic succession clearly & the case for apostolic succession clearly & forcefully.forcefully.

I. had known Polycarp, b. of Smyrna, who I. had known Polycarp, b. of Smyrna, who claimed to have been instructed by the claimed to have been instructed by the apostles & to have talked with many who had apostles & to have talked with many who had seen X.seen X.

7373

C. Bishops Become PopesC. Bishops Become Popes2. Presumed Basis For The Papacy2. Presumed Basis For The Papacy

I. was convinced that the apostles had I. was convinced that the apostles had transmitted faithfully & accurately what transmitted faithfully & accurately what had been taught by X.had been taught by X.

And furthermore, he believed they had And furthermore, he believed they had appointed as their successors bishops to appointed as their successors bishops to whom they had committed the churches.whom they had committed the churches.

The bishops had been followed by others The bishops had been followed by others in unbroken line.in unbroken line.

In the 1In the 1stst quarter of the 4 quarter of the 4thth c., Eusebius c., Eusebius gave the lists of the bishops of the chs, gave the lists of the bishops of the chs, indicating the importance of the indicating the importance of the succession theory.succession theory.

7474

EusebiusOf

Caesarea(from Andre

Thevet)

7575


When Xtianity was troubled by heresy & When Xtianity was troubled by heresy & schism, the bishops began meeting schism, the bishops began meeting together for consultation & common together for consultation & common action.action.

In this fashion it dealt with the heresies In this fashion it dealt with the heresies of Gnosticism, Marcionism, & Montanism, of Gnosticism, Marcionism, & Montanism, & in the process developed an & in the process developed an administrative system centered around administrative system centered around its bishops.its bishops.

Thus, the idea of papal primacy—among Thus, the idea of papal primacy—among other things—evolved from the notion of other things—evolved from the notion of apostolic succession, which applied to all apostolic succession, which applied to all bishops.bishops.

7676


Tertullian also strengthened the concept Tertullian also strengthened the concept of apostolic succession by insisting that of apostolic succession by insisting that only those chs were valid which agreed only those chs were valid which agreed in their teaching with those founded by in their teaching with those founded by the apostles & where faith had been the apostles & where faith had been kept pure by a succession of bishops kept pure by a succession of bishops going back to the apostles.going back to the apostles.

Cyprian, bishop of Carthage in the 3Cyprian, bishop of Carthage in the 3rdrd c., c., held that there was only one true ch, held that there was only one true ch, authenticated by the presence of the authenticated by the presence of the bishop, & that anyone who was not with bishop, & that anyone who was not with the bishop was not in the ch, & the bishop was not in the ch, & therefore not a Xtian.therefore not a Xtian.

7777

Cyprian of

Carthage

7878


Cyprian regarded all bishops as equal, Cyprian regarded all bishops as equal, but esteemed the bishop of Rome as the but esteemed the bishop of Rome as the first among equals.first among equals.

7979

C. Bishops Become PopesC. Bishops Become Popes3. The Preeminence of Rome3. The Preeminence of Rome

The Council of Nicaea in 325 had designated The Council of Nicaea in 325 had designated the bishops of Rome, Alexandria, & Antioch the bishops of Rome, Alexandria, & Antioch as “superior” metropolitans (patriarchs), but as “superior” metropolitans (patriarchs), but the bishop of Rome refused to be listed as the bishop of Rome refused to be listed as equal, insisting that it had always held equal, insisting that it had always held primacy.primacy.

Between this 1Between this 1stst council & the 4 council & the 4thth held in held in Chalcedon in 451, the Roman bishops laid Chalcedon in 451, the Roman bishops laid the foundation for the ecclesiastical the foundation for the ecclesiastical monarchy, which exists to this day. monarchy, which exists to this day.

The Roman ch claimed not only human but The Roman ch claimed not only human but divine right for supremacy—that X gave divine right for supremacy—that X gave Peter the eminent position in founding the Peter the eminent position in founding the church.church.

8080


It was claimed that he Peter a It was claimed that he Peter a supremacy of authority over the other supremacy of authority over the other apostles, that this supremacy was apostles, that this supremacy was official, hereditary, & transferable.official, hereditary, & transferable.

It was believed that P. was bishop of It was believed that P. was bishop of Rome until his martyrdom, that he Rome until his martyrdom, that he appointed his successor, & that all appointed his successor, & that all bishops of Rome, as successors of Peter, bishops of Rome, as successors of Peter, have enjoyed & exercised universal have enjoyed & exercised universal jurisdiction over all other churches.jurisdiction over all other churches.

Though disputed, the practical & Though disputed, the practical & political supremacy of Rome prevailed.political supremacy of Rome prevailed.

8181


Some claim the 1Some claim the 1stst e.g. of a papal attitude e.g. of a papal attitude is found in Clement (d.102) (in the is found in Clement (d.102) (in the Apostolic Fathers collection).Apostolic Fathers collection).

Dealing with the issue of deposed Dealing with the issue of deposed presbyters in the Corinthian ch, Clement presbyters in the Corinthian ch, Clement called for repentance & insisted that God called for repentance & insisted that God required the deposed presbyters be required the deposed presbyters be reinstated & legitimate superiors obeyed.reinstated & legitimate superiors obeyed.

Ignatius (c. 35-107), bishop of Antioch, in Ignatius (c. 35-107), bishop of Antioch, in Ep. to the Romans, ascribes laudatory Ep. to the Romans, ascribes laudatory titles to the Roman ch, but does not titles to the Roman ch, but does not mention Clement or any other bishop.mention Clement or any other bishop.

8282


Irenaeus (c. 130-220), bishop of Lyons, Irenaeus (c. 130-220), bishop of Lyons, called Rome the greatest ch, called Rome the greatest ch, acknowledged by all & founded by Peter & acknowledged by all & founded by Peter & Paul.Paul.

However, I. rebuked Victor, b. of Rome, in However, I. rebuked Victor, b. of Rome, in 190 for forcing uniformity on the chs of 190 for forcing uniformity on the chs of Asia Minor.Asia Minor.

Tertullian (c. 160-220), in confrontation Tertullian (c. 160-220), in confrontation with the heretics, pointed to the apostolic with the heretics, pointed to the apostolic mother chs as the repositories of true mother chs as the repositories of true doctrine, with special commendation for doctrine, with special commendation for the ch of Rome.the ch of Rome.

8383


Later, however, T. opposed R. for its Later, however, T. opposed R. for its loose penitential discipline.loose penitential discipline.

Cyprian (d. 258) called the R. ch the Cyprian (d. 258) called the R. ch the chair of Peter, the foundation of priestly chair of Peter, the foundation of priestly unity, & mother of the Catholic Church.unity, & mother of the Catholic Church.

He still insisted, however, on the He still insisted, however, on the equality of other bishops & opposed equality of other bishops & opposed Stephen of R. in the controversy over Stephen of R. in the controversy over heretical baptism.heretical baptism.

The growing influence of the Roman ch The growing influence of the Roman ch & bishop seems to have been rooted in & bishop seems to have been rooted in the need for unity in the early church.the need for unity in the early church.

8484


Historical & practical reasons also Historical & practical reasons also contributed to the ascendancy of Rome.contributed to the ascendancy of Rome.

Located in the geographical & political Located in the geographical & political center of the world, the R. bishop center of the world, the R. bishop enjoyed a unique prestige.enjoyed a unique prestige.

Since AD 100, the congregation in R. was Since AD 100, the congregation in R. was probably the largest in Christendom.probably the largest in Christendom.

It was wealthy, hospitable to strangers, & It was wealthy, hospitable to strangers, & generous to the poor.generous to the poor.

Successful opposition to Gnosticism, Successful opposition to Gnosticism, Arianism & Montanism gave it added Arianism & Montanism gave it added prestige.prestige.

8585


That Paul wrote the longest & most That Paul wrote the longest & most profound of his epistles to Rome, & the profound of his epistles to Rome, & the tradition that he was martyred there, tradition that he was martyred there, had given additional apostolic weight, had given additional apostolic weight, along with the traditions of Peter’s along with the traditions of Peter’s ministry & death there.ministry & death there.

The many missionaries sent out by R. The many missionaries sent out by R. caused new chs to feel affection & caused new chs to feel affection & loyalty to the mother ch.loyalty to the mother ch.

During the barbarian invasions, when the During the barbarian invasions, when the emperors failed to defend R., the popes emperors failed to defend R., the popes saved the city through their intercession.saved the city through their intercession.

8686


Pope Leo the Great is credited with Pope Leo the Great is credited with stopping both Attila (452) & Gaiseric (455).stopping both Attila (452) & Gaiseric (455).

When Constantine moved to C., the R. When Constantine moved to C., the R. bishop became the most imp person in R., bishop became the most imp person in R., & when the western empire fell in 476, the & when the western empire fell in 476, the Roman popes became the most imp Roman popes became the most imp figures of western Europe, gradually taking figures of western Europe, gradually taking over the power of the state.over the power of the state.

During the later Mohammedan conquests, During the later Mohammedan conquests, the cities of Antioch, Jerusalem & the cities of Antioch, Jerusalem & Alexandria fell to the Moslems, eliminating Alexandria fell to the Moslems, eliminating them forever as candidates for ch them forever as candidates for ch supremacy.supremacy.

8787

Leo the Great (440-461)When Atila the Hun was sacking northern Italy and closing in on Rome during the fifth century,Pope Leo traveled to Mantua and, as this Raphael mural tells it, personally fought Atila in sword-to-sword combat. Pope Leo also expanded the authority of the papacy by declaring commandover bishops and secular matters.

8888


Whether it can be supported by Whether it can be supported by scriptural injunction (it can’t) or scriptural injunction (it can’t) or accepted by universal allegiance, the accepted by universal allegiance, the ascendancy of Rome to papal primacy ascendancy of Rome to papal primacy has been an obvious & permanent fact has been an obvious & permanent fact of history.of history.

8989

C. Bishops Become PopesC. Bishops Become Popes4. The Earliest Popes4. The Earliest Popes

Without question, the ch at R. has Without question, the ch at R. has always maintained a list of her bishops always maintained a list of her bishops which surpasses the list of any other ch which surpasses the list of any other ch in age, completeness, integrity of in age, completeness, integrity of succession & consistency of doctrine & succession & consistency of doctrine & policy.policy.

While the Protestant world recognizes While the Protestant world recognizes the historical worth of such a list, it does the historical worth of such a list, it does not accept the RC tradition of calling not accept the RC tradition of calling each of these bishops a pope.each of these bishops a pope.

9090


Most Protestants have difficulty in Most Protestants have difficulty in accepting at face value the claim of accepting at face value the claim of Peter’s episcopate in Rome, which has no Peter’s episcopate in Rome, which has no verifiable evidence in Scripture or history.verifiable evidence in Scripture or history.

The successor, according to the claim, is The successor, according to the claim, is Clement (according to Tertullian) or Linus Clement (according to Tertullian) or Linus (according to Irenaeus, Eusebius).(according to Irenaeus, Eusebius).

Then follows Anacletus, Alexander, Sixtus Then follows Anacletus, Alexander, Sixtus I, etc.I, etc.

Several “popes” in 1Several “popes” in 1stst 5 c. exercised 5 c. exercised authority & wielded influence in secular authority & wielded influence in secular history.history.

9191


a. a. Victor I.Victor I.A step toward papal supremacy A step toward papal supremacy

occurred when Victor, bishop at Rome occurred when Victor, bishop at Rome 189-198, assembled a council at Rome 189-198, assembled a council at Rome to excommunicate chs which did not to excommunicate chs which did not subscribe to the Roman ch’s dating of subscribe to the Roman ch’s dating of Easter.Easter.

He later excommunicated Theodotus for He later excommunicated Theodotus for denying the divinity of Christ.denying the divinity of Christ.

9292

Victor(189-199)

9393


b.b. Stephen I (254-257). Stephen I (254-257). Intervened in theological disputes in Intervened in theological disputes in

South Gaul & Spain, & became involved South Gaul & Spain, & became involved in a long & bitter controversy with in a long & bitter controversy with Cyprian over the validity of baptism by Cyprian over the validity of baptism by heretics.heretics.

During the controversy he invoked Matt. During the controversy he invoked Matt. 16:18, implying his supremacy as 16:18, implying his supremacy as Peter’s successor.Peter’s successor.

9494

Stephen(254-257)

9595


c.c. Sylvester (314-335). Sylvester (314-335). Baptized Emperor Constantine & Baptized Emperor Constantine &

established the Lateran ch as the established the Lateran ch as the cathedral of Rome on territory give him cathedral of Rome on territory give him by the emperor.by the emperor.

It was claimed that he received the It was claimed that he received the Donation of Constantine, which provided Donation of Constantine, which provided him with wide temporal rights over the him with wide temporal rights over the ch.ch.

The Donation of Constantine was The Donation of Constantine was exposed as a forgery in the 15th c.exposed as a forgery in the 15th c.

9696

Sylvester I(314-335)

9797


d.d. Damasus (366-384). Damasus (366-384). Was the 1Was the 1stst to seriously & staunchly to seriously & staunchly

employ the Petrine passage of Matt. employ the Petrine passage of Matt. 16:18 as biblical basis for primacy.16:18 as biblical basis for primacy.

He also commissioned Jerome to He also commissioned Jerome to prepare the Vulgate version of the Bible, prepare the Vulgate version of the Bible, promulgated a canon of scriptural promulgated a canon of scriptural books, & indicated that the Council of books, & indicated that the Council of Nicaea was valid only because it had Nicaea was valid only because it had been approved by his predecessor, been approved by his predecessor, Sylvester.Sylvester.

9898

Damasus(366-384)

9999


e.e. Innocent I (402-417). Innocent I (402-417). Made more substantial claims for the Made more substantial claims for the

papacy than any of his predecessors at papacy than any of his predecessors at Rome.Rome.

He insisted that major cases of dispute He insisted that major cases of dispute should be brought to the judgment of should be brought to the judgment of the Roman see.the Roman see.

Innocent claimed that the R. ch had sole Innocent claimed that the R. ch had sole custody of apostolic tradition & primacy custody of apostolic tradition & primacy over all bishops because of Peter’s over all bishops because of Peter’s primacy among the apostles.primacy among the apostles.

100100


e.e. Innocent I (402-417). Innocent I (402-417). He also exhibited determination & He also exhibited determination &

ability to exercise authority in the East ability to exercise authority in the East as well as the West.as well as the West.

He was a powerful influence with the He was a powerful influence with the civil powers, & it was through his civil powers, & it was through his influence that Emperor Honorius issued influence that Emperor Honorius issued his decree against the Donatists in 404.his decree against the Donatists in 404.

101101


f.f. Leo I (440-461). Leo I (440-461). Leo would receive wide support among Leo would receive wide support among

historians as “the first pope.”historians as “the first pope.”He claimed that his see was of divine & He claimed that his see was of divine &

scriptural authority.scriptural authority.He pressed his claims to jurisdiction He pressed his claims to jurisdiction

over all the western provinces.over all the western provinces.Without reservation or hesitation, Leo Without reservation or hesitation, Leo

proclaimed that anyone who does not proclaimed that anyone who does not acknowledge the R. bishop as the head acknowledge the R. bishop as the head of the ch is not of the body of the ch.of the ch is not of the body of the ch.

102102

Leo the Great(440-461)

103103


f.f. Leo I (440-461). Leo I (440-461). His legates presided over the Council of His legates presided over the Council of

Chalcedon (451) where his personal Chalcedon (451) where his personal Tome to Chalcedon was accepted as the Tome to Chalcedon was accepted as the standard for Christology. (Orthodox standard for Christology. (Orthodox Christians dispute this decision).Christians dispute this decision).

In the political arena, he increased papal In the political arena, he increased papal prestige by persuading the Huns to prestige by persuading the Huns to withdraw beyond the Danube (452) & withdraw beyond the Danube (452) & secured concessions when the Vandals secured concessions when the Vandals took Rome (455).took Rome (455).

104104


f.f. Leo I (440-461). Leo I (440-461). History has named him “Leo the Great”.History has named him “Leo the Great”.For his unparalleled contributions to the For his unparalleled contributions to the

strength & permanence of the papacy, strength & permanence of the papacy, he has deserved the name.he has deserved the name.

105105


g.g. Gelasius (492-96). Gelasius (492-96). Must be mentioned in the list of early Must be mentioned in the list of early

popes for his effectiveness in popes for his effectiveness in establishing claims that priestly power is establishing claims that priestly power is above kingly power & that there can be above kingly power & that there can be no legitimate appeal from the chair of no legitimate appeal from the chair of Peter.Peter.

In civil affairs, he declared, clergy are to In civil affairs, he declared, clergy are to submit to the emperor, but in submit to the emperor, but in ecclesiastical affairs, the emperor is to ecclesiastical affairs, the emperor is to submit to the pope.submit to the pope.

106106

Gelasius(492-496)

107107


g.g. Gelasius (492-96). Gelasius (492-96). He personally & tenaciously upheld the He personally & tenaciously upheld the

primacy of the Roman see against primacy of the Roman see against Constantinople during the Acacian Schism.Constantinople during the Acacian Schism.

The conquests of Justin & Justinian reversed The conquests of Justin & Justinian reversed things & rendered the papacy subservient to things & rendered the papacy subservient to the eastern emperor for a short time.the eastern emperor for a short time.

However, Leo & Gelasius had already laid However, Leo & Gelasius had already laid the unshakable foundations for the the unshakable foundations for the expansion of the papacy in the Middle Ages.expansion of the papacy in the Middle Ages.

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g.g. Gelasius (492-96). Gelasius (492-96). The popes had a firm grasp on the keys The popes had a firm grasp on the keys

which they claimed had been given which they claimed had been given them by Christ himself.them by Christ himself.

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D. Monks Become MissionariesD. Monks Become Missionaries While the politically minded bishops were While the politically minded bishops were

debating supremacy & consolidating debating supremacy & consolidating power, another segment of Xtianity was power, another segment of Xtianity was proceeding down an entirely different path.proceeding down an entirely different path.

The humble & selfless monks were keeping The humble & selfless monks were keeping their vows of poverty, chastity & obedience their vows of poverty, chastity & obedience & going about their daily activities of & going about their daily activities of prayer & work.prayer & work.

Their quiet influence thoroughly Their quiet influence thoroughly penetrated the ch, & some of them left the penetrated the ch, & some of them left the monasteries for evangelistic preaching and monasteries for evangelistic preaching and foreign missions.foreign missions.

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D. Monks Become MissionariesD. Monks Become Missionaries1. Monasticism1. Monasticism

Constantine confronted the challenge of Constantine confronted the challenge of monasticism, believing that the retreat monasticism, believing that the retreat from society reflected on the society he from society reflected on the society he was building.was building.

Thanks to Basil, the movement was Thanks to Basil, the movement was brought into line with normative Xtianity brought into line with normative Xtianity & ch organization.& ch organization.

Jerome united the movement with Jerome united the movement with scholarship & service.scholarship & service.

M. became a massive movement that M. became a massive movement that attracted 1000s in the 4attracted 1000s in the 4thth & 5 & 5thth c. c.

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It was essentially a lay counterculture of It was essentially a lay counterculture of withdrawal that developed into a withdrawal that developed into a powerful social force within a century.powerful social force within a century.

a. a. UlphilasUlphilas (311-383) was known as the (311-383) was known as the Apostle of the Goths because of his Apostle of the Goths because of his ministry among his people.ministry among his people.

He had been consecrated bishop at He had been consecrated bishop at Constantinople, but retreated to his Constantinople, but retreated to his native Cappadocia where he spent native Cappadocia where he spent isolated years translating the Bible into isolated years translating the Bible into the Gothic language.the Gothic language.

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a. a. UlphilasUlphilas (311-383) (311-383) He spent much of his of his life as a He spent much of his of his life as a

dedicated missionary beyond the dedicated missionary beyond the confines of the empire.confines of the empire.

Although never identified with Although never identified with monasticism as such, his personal monasticism as such, his personal spiritual habits certainly anticipated the spiritual habits certainly anticipated the rudiments of monasticism to come.rudiments of monasticism to come.

Because he was an Arian, U’s influence Because he was an Arian, U’s influence on the Goths caused them to embrace on the Goths caused them to embrace Arianism for several centuries.Arianism for several centuries.

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D. Monks Become MissionariesD. Monks Become Missionaries 1. Monasticism1. Monasticism

b. b. Martin of ToursMartin of Tours (335-397) (335-397) Was the son of a pagan & served in the Was the son of a pagan & served in the

Roman army.Roman army.After becoming a Xtian founded the After becoming a Xtian founded the

monastery of Liguge, the first in Gaul monastery of Liguge, the first in Gaul (France).(France).

Becoming bishop of Tours in 372, he Becoming bishop of Tours in 372, he encouraged the spread of monasticism encouraged the spread of monasticism in Gaul. in Gaul.

He himself set out to evangelize the He himself set out to evangelize the hitherto neglected countryside, & hitherto neglected countryside, & introduced a rudimentary parochial introduced a rudimentary parochial system.system.

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Martin of Tours(Dividing his cloak

in half with a beggar)(by El Greco)

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c. c. Patrick (389-461) Patrick (389-461) The “Apostle of the Irish” was born in Roman The “Apostle of the Irish” was born in Roman

Britain, the son of a deacon & magistrate.Britain, the son of a deacon & magistrate.At age 16 he was kidnapped on his father’s At age 16 he was kidnapped on his father’s

farm by raiders & sold as a slave in Ireland.farm by raiders & sold as a slave in Ireland.After 6 yrs of service as a shepherd, he After 6 yrs of service as a shepherd, he

escaped & eventually reached home again.escaped & eventually reached home again.During his captivity his faith had deepened, During his captivity his faith had deepened,

& he felt compelled to return to evangelize & he felt compelled to return to evangelize Ireland.Ireland.

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St. Patrick(Currier & Ives)

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SSt. Patrick casting out the serpents

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c. c. Patrick (389-461) Patrick (389-461) He studied in the monastery of Lerins & He studied in the monastery of Lerins &

was ordained a deacon in 417.was ordained a deacon in 417.He was sent to Palladius in Ireland & upon He was sent to Palladius in Ireland & upon

the bishop’s death he was made bishop in the bishop’s death he was made bishop in 432432

At the court of High King Laoghaire he At the court of High King Laoghaire he gained toleration for Xtianity & converted gained toleration for Xtianity & converted several members of the royal family.several members of the royal family.

He preached extensively & established He preached extensively & established numerous chs.numerous chs.

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c. c. Patrick (389-461) Patrick (389-461) He founded the Cathedral Church of He founded the Cathedral Church of

Armagh, which became the educational Armagh, which became the educational & administrative center of the Irish ch.& administrative center of the Irish ch.

He emphasized the ascetic life & He emphasized the ascetic life & monasticism throughout his ministry, monasticism throughout his ministry, but continued his evangelistic efforts.but continued his evangelistic efforts.

He taught the priority of mission to He taught the priority of mission to Celtic Xtianity, which produced great Celtic Xtianity, which produced great numbers of monks who evangelized numbers of monks who evangelized western Europe during the 6western Europe during the 6thth & 7 & 7thth c. c.

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c. c. Patrick (389-461) Patrick (389-461) P. organized the scattered Xtian P. organized the scattered Xtian

communities in Northern Ireland & communities in Northern Ireland & brought the country into much closer brought the country into much closer relations with the rest of the western ch.relations with the rest of the western ch.

He encouraged the study of Latin, & He encouraged the study of Latin, & tried to raise the general standards of tried to raise the general standards of scholarship.scholarship.

P. is a classic e.g. of spiritual P. is a classic e.g. of spiritual monasticism going forth to the world in monasticism going forth to the world in love and dedication.love and dedication.

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d. d. Columba (521-597) Columba (521-597) C. is credited with turning the religious, C. is credited with turning the religious,

political & social life of Scotland to political & social life of Scotland to Xtianity.Xtianity.

He came from a noble Irish family, was He came from a noble Irish family, was trained in Irish monasteries, & founded trained in Irish monasteries, & founded several chs & monasteries in his country.several chs & monasteries in his country.

Compelled by missionary zeal, he left his Compelled by missionary zeal, he left his home in 563 & settled with 12 home in 563 & settled with 12 companions on the island of Iona on the companions on the island of Iona on the west coast of Scotland.west coast of Scotland.

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Columba Landing on Iona

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d. d. Columba (521-597) Columba (521-597) There he established a monastery which There he established a monastery which

served as a base for evangelism among served as a base for evangelism among the Scots & Picts.the Scots & Picts.

He preached forcefully to people who He preached forcefully to people who were under the influence of the Druids, were under the influence of the Druids, dread opponents of Xtianity.dread opponents of Xtianity.

Brude, king of the Picts, was converted Brude, king of the Picts, was converted under his preaching, many chs were under his preaching, many chs were founded, & practically all of Scotland founded, & practically all of Scotland was Xtianized.was Xtianized.

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d. d. Columba (521-597) Columba (521-597) He was a man of deep visionary piety, He was a man of deep visionary piety,

who practiced effective involvement in who practiced effective involvement in the affairs of kings & chiefs and had the affairs of kings & chiefs and had concern for Xtian scholarship.concern for Xtian scholarship.

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e. e. Benedict of Nursia (480-542) Benedict of Nursia (480-542) B. is known as the “Patriarch of western B. is known as the “Patriarch of western

monasticism.”monasticism.”He was educated in Rome, where the He was educated in Rome, where the

immorality of society led him to withdraw immorality of society led him to withdraw from the world & retire to a cave at from the world & retire to a cave at Subiaco.Subiaco.

A community grew up around him & he A community grew up around him & he established 12 monasteries with 12 monks established 12 monasteries with 12 monks each, with abbots appointed by himself.each, with abbots appointed by himself.

In 525 he established the famous In 525 he established the famous monastery at Monte Cassino, south of monastery at Monte Cassino, south of Rome.Rome.

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Benedict of Nursia(480-542)

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Monte Cassino

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Bombardment of Monte Cassino

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Battle of Monte Cassino 1943

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e. e. Benedict of Nursia (480-542) Benedict of Nursia (480-542) Here he elaborated his plans for the Here he elaborated his plans for the

reform of monasticism & composed his reform of monasticism & composed his celebrated Rule of St. Benedict, which celebrated Rule of St. Benedict, which became the universal monastic rule in became the universal monastic rule in the Middle Ages.the Middle Ages.

B. did not stress poverty, nor discourage B. did not stress poverty, nor discourage possessions, which enabled his monks possessions, which enabled his monks to do works of mercy.to do works of mercy.

The sick & guests received special The sick & guests received special treatment in Benedictine monasteries.treatment in Benedictine monasteries.

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e. e. Benedict of Nursia (480-542) Benedict of Nursia (480-542) B. monasteries became centers of B. monasteries became centers of

hospitality, learning, worship, & hospitality, learning, worship, & liturgical art.liturgical art.

The ch found the B. monasteries The ch found the B. monasteries especially effective in transmitting especially effective in transmitting culture to the barbarians during the culture to the barbarians during the Dark Ages.Dark Ages.

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E. Beliefs Become CreedsE. Beliefs Become CreedsThe joy of Xtianity’s victory over the The joy of Xtianity’s victory over the

Roman Empire had been shattered Roman Empire had been shattered by an internal Xtological dispute by an internal Xtological dispute which Constantine was determined which Constantine was determined to settle once & for all.to settle once & for all.

This issue was not settled, finally, This issue was not settled, finally, however, until a century & a quarter however, until a century & a quarter later.later.

4 ecumenical councils were called 4 ecumenical councils were called during this time as the controversy during this time as the controversy raged back & forth & threatened to raged back & forth & threatened to split Xtianity irreparably.split Xtianity irreparably.

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E. Beliefs Become CreedsE. Beliefs Become CreedsThe councils, their dates & the chief The councils, their dates & the chief

subjects dealt with were:subjects dealt with were:1) Nicaea, 325 Arianism1) Nicaea, 325 Arianism2) Constantinople, 381, 2) Constantinople, 381,

ApollinarianismApollinarianism3) Ephesus, 431, Nestorianism3) Ephesus, 431, Nestorianism4) Chalcedon, 451, Eutychianism4) Chalcedon, 451, Eutychianism

Although each of the councils dealt Although each of the councils dealt with many matters pertinent to the with many matters pertinent to the life of the ch, the main issue was life of the ch, the main issue was that of the doctrine of the person of that of the doctrine of the person of X.X.

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E. Beliefs Become CreedsE. Beliefs Become CreedsFrom the beginning the centrality of From the beginning the centrality of

Xtianity resided not in functions, Xtianity resided not in functions, liturgies, & mystical experiences, but liturgies, & mystical experiences, but in rationally held doctrines or beliefs, in rationally held doctrines or beliefs, which were expressed in worship & which were expressed in worship & witness.witness.

The beliefs about Jesus X were The beliefs about Jesus X were absolutely fundamental to the very absolutely fundamental to the very existence of the church. existence of the church.

The prolonged controversies of the 4The prolonged controversies of the 4thth & 5& 5thth c. were about the person of X. c. were about the person of X.

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E. Beliefs Become CreedsE. Beliefs Become CreedsThe controversies were about:The controversies were about:

How Christ, the Son of God, was How Christ, the Son of God, was actually himself God (the doctrine actually himself God (the doctrine of the Trinity), and how he was of the Trinity), and how he was both man and God (the doctrine of both man and God (the doctrine of Christology).Christology).

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E. Beliefs Become CreedsE. Beliefs Become Creeds1. Nicaea1. Nicaea

Constantine personally convened & opened Constantine personally convened & opened the 1the 1stst council at Nicaea in Bithynia in 325. council at Nicaea in Bithynia in 325.

His main interest was to secure unity His main interest was to secure unity rather than any predetermined theological rather than any predetermined theological verdict.verdict.

The controversy had begun in 319 when The controversy had begun in 319 when Arius, a priest in of the chs in Alexandria, Arius, a priest in of the chs in Alexandria, had clashed with his bishop, Alexander.had clashed with his bishop, Alexander.

Arius had been teaching that the Father Arius had been teaching that the Father alone was really God & that the Son was alone was really God & that the Son was essentially different from the Father.essentially different from the Father.

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He believed that the dignity of Jesus as He believed that the dignity of Jesus as the Son of God was bestowed upon him the Son of God was bestowed upon him by the Father on account of his foreseen by the Father on account of his foreseen righteousness.righteousness.

Arianism maintained that the Son was not Arianism maintained that the Son was not eternal but created by the Father as an eternal but created by the Father as an instrument for creating the world.instrument for creating the world.

For his subordinationist teachings, Arius For his subordinationist teachings, Arius was excommunicated by Alexander, but was excommunicated by Alexander, but not before he had gained a strong not before he had gained a strong following, including Eusebius of following, including Eusebius of Nicomedia (causing sympathizers to be Nicomedia (causing sympathizers to be known as Eusebians).known as Eusebians).

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When C. could not settle the issue When C. could not settle the issue through a personal envoy to Alexandria, through a personal envoy to Alexandria, he convened the council in 325 to settle he convened the council in 325 to settle the matter.the matter.

Arius was rather quickly condemned by Arius was rather quickly condemned by his own words, & Athanasius, assistant his own words, & Athanasius, assistant to Alexander, emerged as the champion to Alexander, emerged as the champion of orthodoxy.of orthodoxy.

Eusebius of Caesarea (the historian) was Eusebius of Caesarea (the historian) was present & laid before the council the present & laid before the council the baptismal creed of his own church.baptismal creed of his own church.

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This creed became known as the Nicene This creed became known as the Nicene Creed, & with 4 anti-Arian anathemas Creed, & with 4 anti-Arian anathemas attached, was subscribed to by all the attached, was subscribed to by all the bishops present, except for 2 who were bishops present, except for 2 who were deposed and banished.deposed and banished.

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E. Beliefs Become CreedsE. Beliefs Become Creeds2. Constantinople2. Constantinople

Nicaea was followed by more than ½ c. of Nicaea was followed by more than ½ c. of discord & disorder in the eastern ch, which discord & disorder in the eastern ch, which also affected the stability of the West.also affected the stability of the West.

Arianism both ascended & descended, Arianism both ascended & descended, Athanasius was alternately praised & Athanasius was alternately praised & banned.banned.

Councils called at Antioch (341) & Sardica Councils called at Antioch (341) & Sardica (342) did more harm than good toward (342) did more harm than good toward reconciliation.reconciliation.

The N. Creed remained officially in force The N. Creed remained officially in force until Constantine’s death.until Constantine’s death.

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But when his son Constantius died, Arianism But when his son Constantius died, Arianism was practically dominant in the East.was practically dominant in the East.

Constantius forced the western bishops to Constantius forced the western bishops to condemn & banish Athanasius, & condemn & banish Athanasius, & encouraged the writing of anti-Nicene encouraged the writing of anti-Nicene creeds.creeds.

The situation caused Jerome to write, “The The situation caused Jerome to write, “The whole world groaned in astonishment at whole world groaned in astonishment at finding itself Arian.”finding itself Arian.”

A decisive step toward repairing the A decisive step toward repairing the damage was taken by Basil the Great.damage was taken by Basil the Great.

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B. had so strongly influenced eastern B. had so strongly influenced eastern monasticism & other Cappadocians monasticism & other Cappadocians (Gregory of Nyssa & Gregory of Nazianzus).(Gregory of Nyssa & Gregory of Nazianzus).

Their complex doctrine of the Trinity Their complex doctrine of the Trinity served to demonstrate that it was possible served to demonstrate that it was possible to accept both Nicaea (to accept both Nicaea (homoousioshomoousios) & the ) & the distinct persons (distinct persons (hypostaseishypostaseis) of Father, ) of Father, Son, & Spirit at the same time.Son, & Spirit at the same time.

By giving precise meanings to the terms By giving precise meanings to the terms used in talking about the Trinity, Basil used in talking about the Trinity, Basil paved the way for the work of the Council paved the way for the work of the Council of Constantinople in 381.of Constantinople in 381.

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Theodosius, a westerner & strong Theodosius, a westerner & strong supporter of Nicaea, became eastern supporter of Nicaea, became eastern emperor in 379 & summoned the C. of emperor in 379 & summoned the C. of Con. To reaffirm the faith of Nicaea.Con. To reaffirm the faith of Nicaea.

The creed of N. was upheld & then The creed of N. was upheld & then became known as the Nicene-became known as the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.Constantinopolitan Creed.

This council marked the end of Arianism This council marked the end of Arianism within the empire.within the empire.

There was, however, another There was, however, another controversy raging.controversy raging.

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It raged over the Christological question It raged over the Christological question precipitated by Apollinarius, bishop of precipitated by Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea in Syria.Laodicea in Syria.

Thus, Apollinarianism became the central Thus, Apollinarianism became the central issue at Constantinople rather than issue at Constantinople rather than Arianism.Arianism.

Beg. with the N. doctine, A. had carried the Beg. with the N. doctine, A. had carried the unity of the Father & Son to such extremes unity of the Father & Son to such extremes as to deny the complete manhood of X, & as to deny the complete manhood of X, & thus to make Apollinarianism the 1thus to make Apollinarianism the 1stst great great Christological heresy.Christological heresy.

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In emphasizing the deity of X, In emphasizing the deity of X, Apollinarius rejected the idea of moral Apollinarius rejected the idea of moral development in X’s life, & asserted that development in X’s life, & asserted that while X had a human body & soul, the while X had a human body & soul, the human spirit, or rational soul, had been human spirit, or rational soul, had been replaced with the divine Logos.replaced with the divine Logos.

God in X was transmuted into flesh, & God in X was transmuted into flesh, & this flesh was then transmuted into this flesh was then transmuted into something by divine nature.something by divine nature.

X did not receive his human nature from X did not receive his human nature from Mary.Mary.

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He brought with him from heaven a He brought with him from heaven a heavenly kind of flesh.heavenly kind of flesh.

The womb of Mary simply served as a The womb of Mary simply served as a passageway.passageway.

The fundamental objection to The fundamental objection to Appollinarius’ teaching was that if there Appollinarius’ teaching was that if there is no complete manhood in X, he is not a is no complete manhood in X, he is not a perfect e.g. for us, nor does he redeem perfect e.g. for us, nor does he redeem the whole of human nature but only its the whole of human nature but only its spiritual elements.spiritual elements.

The C. of Con. explicity & conclusively The C. of Con. explicity & conclusively Apollinarianism.Apollinarianism.

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It struck down the possibility that It struck down the possibility that docetism would gain a foothold in Xtian docetism would gain a foothold in Xtian theology.theology.

Because of its imp. place in determining Because of its imp. place in determining the future of orthodoxy in Xtian teaching, the future of orthodoxy in Xtian teaching, it is useful to see the Nicene-it is useful to see the Nicene-Constantinople in its entirety:Constantinople in its entirety:

We believe in one God the Father all-We believe in one God the Father all-sovereign, maker of heaven and earth, sovereign, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible: And and of all things visible and invisible: And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God. begotten Son of God.

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Begotten of the Father before all ages, Begotten of the Father before all ages, Light of Light, true God of true God, Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten not made, of one substance with begotten not made, of one substance with the Father, through whom all things were the Father, through whom all things were made, who for us men and our salvation made, who for us men and our salvation came down from the heavens, and was came down from the heavens, and was made flesh of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin made flesh of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and became man, and was crucified Mary, and became man, and was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried, and rose again on the third and was buried, and rose again on the third day according to the Scriptures, and day according to the Scriptures, and ascended into the heavens, and sits on the ascended into the heavens, and sits on the right hand of the Father, and comesright hand of the Father, and comes

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Again with glory to judge the living and Again with glory to judge the living and dead, of whose kingdom there shall be no dead, of whose kingdom there shall be no end: And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and end: And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and the Life-giver, that proceeds from the the Life-giver, that proceeds from the Father, who with the Son is worshiped Father, who with the Son is worshiped together and glorified together, who together and glorified together, who spoke through the prophets: In one holy spoke through the prophets: In one holy catholic and apostolic church: We catholic and apostolic church: We acknowledge one baptism unto remission acknowledge one baptism unto remission of sins. We look for a resurrection of the of sins. We look for a resurrection of the dead and the life of the age to come.dead and the life of the age to come.

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E. Beliefs Become CreedsE. Beliefs Become Creeds3. Ephesus3. Ephesus

Following the C. of Con., Xtological Following the C. of Con., Xtological disputes continued to disrupt the East.disputes continued to disrupt the East.

The question of how one was to conceive The question of how one was to conceive of the human-divine in the historical X had of the human-divine in the historical X had obviously not been settled to everyone’s obviously not been settled to everyone’s satisfaction.satisfaction.

Adding to the controversy was a growing Adding to the controversy was a growing devotion to Mary, the mother of Jesus.devotion to Mary, the mother of Jesus.

If Jesus were truly God, did not this imply If Jesus were truly God, did not this imply that Mary was also the mother of God?that Mary was also the mother of God?

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Nestorius, bishop of Con., rejected & Nestorius, bishop of Con., rejected & attacked this notion which was expressed attacked this notion which was expressed in the term “Theotokos” (God bearer), & in the term “Theotokos” (God bearer), & proposed instead the term proposed instead the term “Christotokos.”“Christotokos.”

Strongly opposing both Apollinariansim & Strongly opposing both Apollinariansim & the growing popularity of “Theotokos,” N. the growing popularity of “Theotokos,” N. worked out a Xtology which came to be worked out a Xtology which came to be interpreted as saying that X was interpreted as saying that X was constituted of 2 natures.constituted of 2 natures.

He did not deny the deity of X, but he He did not deny the deity of X, but he spoke of a “conjunction” rather than a spoke of a “conjunction” rather than a union of the two natures.union of the two natures.

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He never divided X into 2 sons, the Son He never divided X into 2 sons, the Son of God & the Son of Mary (as he was of God & the Son of Mary (as he was accused of doing), but he refused to accused of doing), but he refused to attribute to the divine nature the human attribute to the divine nature the human acts & sufferings of the man Jesus.acts & sufferings of the man Jesus.

He insisted that to call Mary the mother He insisted that to call Mary the mother of God was to declare that the divine of God was to declare that the divine nature could be born of a woman, or nature could be born of a woman, or that God could be two days old.that God could be two days old.

Apparently N. believed in 2 different Apparently N. believed in 2 different natures & two different persons in natures & two different persons in Christ.Christ.

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This was directly opposed to the orthodox This was directly opposed to the orthodox doctrine that the incarnate X was a single doctrine that the incarnate X was a single person.person.

Cyril of Alexandria & Egyptian monks began Cyril of Alexandria & Egyptian monks began severe attacks on Nestorius in 428.severe attacks on Nestorius in 428.

Both sides appealed to Rome, where Pope Both sides appealed to Rome, where Pope Celestine decided against Nestorius.Celestine decided against Nestorius.

In 431, Emperor Theodosius II called the In 431, Emperor Theodosius II called the Council of Ephesus to dispose of the matter, Council of Ephesus to dispose of the matter, which it did by disposing of Nestorius.which it did by disposing of Nestorius.

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Defeated, N. was deposed from his see Defeated, N. was deposed from his see of Constantinople & excommunicated, of Constantinople & excommunicated, his doctrines condemned, and the Creed his doctrines condemned, and the Creed of Nicaea reaffirmed.of Nicaea reaffirmed.

In its rejection of Nestorianism, the In its rejection of Nestorianism, the council also gave formal approval to the council also gave formal approval to the concept of “Theotokos.”concept of “Theotokos.”

After the C. of Ephesus, the eastern After the C. of Ephesus, the eastern bishops who refused to accept the bishops who refused to accept the decision of the council, constituted decision of the council, constituted themselves into a separate Nestorian themselves into a separate Nestorian church.church.

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It had its center in Persia, & survived It had its center in Persia, & survived centuries of hostility, Moslem conquests, centuries of hostility, Moslem conquests, & pagan influences.& pagan influences.

A remnant still remains today, A remnant still remains today, sometimes called Assyrian Christians.sometimes called Assyrian Christians.

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E. Beliefs Become CreedsE. Beliefs Become Creeds4. Chalcedon4. Chalcedon

In the early 440s a new generation took over.In the early 440s a new generation took over.There was, however, an aged monastic There was, however, an aged monastic

superior in Con., named Eutyches, who superior in Con., named Eutyches, who continued to attack the doctrine of “two continued to attack the doctrine of “two natures after the union.”natures after the union.”

In the terms of a “single-nature” doctrine he In the terms of a “single-nature” doctrine he suggested that X’s humanity was absorbed suggested that X’s humanity was absorbed by his divinity like a drop of wine in the sea.by his divinity like a drop of wine in the sea.

In his zealous opposition to the Nestorian In his zealous opposition to the Nestorian heresy, he developed his own heresy of heresy, he developed his own heresy of maintaining that that there were “two maintaining that that there were “two natures before, but only one after, the natures before, but only one after, the union.”union.”

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Eutyches

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Eutyches was condemned by his Eutyches was condemned by his patriarch Flavian (Con.), but strangely patriarch Flavian (Con.), but strangely supported by Dioscorus (Alexandria).supported by Dioscorus (Alexandria).

Countercharges, intrigues, & disorder Countercharges, intrigues, & disorder caused Theodosius II to summon caused Theodosius II to summon another council at Ephesus in 449.another council at Ephesus in 449.

Leo, opposing Eutyches, sent a Leo, opposing Eutyches, sent a statement of doctrine (Tome) for the statement of doctrine (Tome) for the bishops to approve, but it was refused a bishops to approve, but it was refused a hearing.hearing.

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Dominated by Dioscorus, the council Dominated by Dioscorus, the council deposed Flavian, reinstated Eutyches, & deposed Flavian, reinstated Eutyches, & banned the two-nature doctrine of banned the two-nature doctrine of Constantinople.Constantinople.

Leo labeled the council, or synod, a “robber Leo labeled the council, or synod, a “robber band.”band.”

After the death of Theodosius II, his sister After the death of Theodosius II, his sister Pulcheria reigned with her husband Pulcheria reigned with her husband Marcian, & Leo persuaded them to call the Marcian, & Leo persuaded them to call the great Council at Chalcedon in late 451.great Council at Chalcedon in late 451.

Located across the Bosphorus from Con., Located across the Bosphorus from Con., Chalcedon became the site of the last Chalcedon became the site of the last major Christological council.major Christological council.

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The actions of the “robber synod” were The actions of the “robber synod” were rescinded, Dioscorus was deposed, & rescinded, Dioscorus was deposed, & Eutyches condemned.Eutyches condemned.

The council put out a composite The council put out a composite Definition which consisted of the Creeds Definition which consisted of the Creeds of 325 & 381, two letters of Cyril of 325 & 381, two letters of Cyril refuting Nestorius, Leo’s Tome, & a new refuting Nestorius, Leo’s Tome, & a new confession.confession.

The Xtological formula of the Definition The Xtological formula of the Definition of Chalcedon became and remains to of Chalcedon became and remains to this day the orthodox statement about this day the orthodox statement about the person of Jesus Christ---the person of Jesus Christ---

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Cyrilof

Alexandria

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Leo

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““We all with one voice confess our Lord We all with one voice confess our Lord Jesus Christ one and the same Son, at once Jesus Christ one and the same Son, at once complete in Godhead, and complete in complete in Godhead, and complete in manhood, manhood, truly God and truly mantruly God and truly man, , consisting of a reasonable soul and body; consisting of a reasonable soul and body; of one substance with the Father as of one substance with the Father as regards his Godhead, of one substance regards his Godhead, of one substance with us as regards his manhood, like us in with us as regards his manhood, like us in all things, apart from sin; begotten of the all things, apart from sin; begotten of the Father before the ages as regards his Father before the ages as regards his Godhead, the same in the last days, for us Godhead, the same in the last days, for us and for our salvation, born fromand for our salvation, born from

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E. Beliefs Become CreedsE. Beliefs Become Creeds 4. Chalcedon4. Chalcedon

the Virgin Mary, the God-bearer the Virgin Mary, the God-bearer ((TheotokosTheotokos), as regards his manhood; ), as regards his manhood; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, to be acknowledged in Only-begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, without confusion, without two natures, without confusion, without change, without division, or without change, without division, or without separation; the distinction of natures separation; the distinction of natures being in no way abolished because of being in no way abolished because of the union, but rather the characteristic the union, but rather the characteristic property of each nature being property of each nature being preserved, and coming together to form preserved, and coming together to form one person (one person (prosoponprosopon) and one entity ) and one entity ((hypostasishypostasis), not as if Christ were parted ), not as if Christ were parted or divided into two persons. . . .”or divided into two persons. . . .”

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It had been almost 500 yrs since Jesus of It had been almost 500 yrs since Jesus of Nazareth had walked on the earth; it Nazareth had walked on the earth; it seemed now that a consensus had been seemed now that a consensus had been reached as to who he really was.reached as to who he really was.

The ch rejected adoptionism, which The ch rejected adoptionism, which emphasized the humanity of X to the emphasized the humanity of X to the neglect (or denial) of his divinity, & it neglect (or denial) of his divinity, & it had rejected the opposite heresy of had rejected the opposite heresy of docetism, which emphasized the divinity docetism, which emphasized the divinity of X to the neglect of his humanity.of X to the neglect of his humanity.

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According to Chalcedon, Jesus was to be According to Chalcedon, Jesus was to be held to be both “truly God and truly held to be both “truly God and truly man.”man.”

Documents

Early Church to the Reformation