Dynamics- Dynamics refers to the loudness/softness of sound. Very common indications for dynamics are as follows:

Piano (abrev. p) from Italian for soft. Forte (abrev. f) from Italian for loud/strong. Mezzo (abrev. m) from Italian for medium.

These terms are usually used in their abbreviated forms to show dynamic contrast in music. The following chart shows a range of dynamics from very soft to very loud:

Notice that piano (p) and forte (f) are used alone or in combination to show increase or decrease in volume, but mezzo (m) is only used to modify piano or forte.

There are also indications for gradual change in dynamics:

Crescendo (abrev. cresc.) gradually louder from Italian for increasing. Decrescendo (abrev. decresc.) gradually softer from Italian for decreasing. Diminuendo (abrev. dim.) gradually softer from Italian for diminishing.

Crescendo is also shown as a wedge shape growing from left to right:

Decresc./dim. are also shown by a wedge shape growing smaller from left to right:

Dynamic marks are used by a composer to show changes of loudness and softness in music, but they do not indicate exact levels of volume. Dynamics are intrepreted by the performer based on many factors including the performance situation. For example, if you were playing for some friends in a small room you could make your soft dynamics a barely audible whisper, but if you were playing in a very large room for a large crowd your soft dynamics would need to be loud enough to be audible at the edges of the room.

ppp pp p mp mf f ff fff

pianississimo pianissimo piano mezzo piano mezzo forte forte fortissimo fortisssimo(very very (very soft) (soft) (medium soft) (medium loud) (loud) (very loud) (very verysoft) loud)

Tempo markings: Tempo refers to the speed of the beat, and tempo markings are directions for tempo. Follow-ing are some very common tempo indications from Italian arranged from slow to fast:

Lento- Slow Largo- Slow (literally: large, a big beat)Adagio- Slow (literally: at leisure)Andante- Medium speed (literally: a walking speed)Moderato- Medium speedAllegro- Fast (literally: cheerful)Presto- very fast

Tempo markings often give more of a character than an exact speed. With andante, for example, most people have their own speed for walking, but a walking speed is not to fast, or it would by jogging or running. As with dynamics, these kinds of terms are interpreted by the performer based on a variety of factors. Although the Italian tempo markings are very common, it is not unusual for composers to give tempo markings in their own language. There are also tempo markings that are less subjective, which describe how many beats there are per minute.

Tonic- The tonic is the main letter of a major or minor key or scale. For example, in the key of D major, the tonic is D.

Leading Tone- A leading tone is the 7th letter of a major or minor key, if it is a half step to the tonic. [More cor-rectly, it is the 7th letter of a diatonic scale, if 1/2 step to the tonic. Diatonic scales create a one octave pattern by using only one type of each of the 7 pitch names. For example, Bb C D Eb F G A Bb uses all 7 letter names, and does not use two types of any letter: there are not both Bb and B]

Subtonic- A subtonic is the 7th letter of a major or minor scale when it is a whole step from the tonic [More cor-rectly true of all diatonic scales].

Minor Scale- The minor scale is a scale that creates this pattern of steps: 1, 1/2, 1, 1, 1/2, 1, 1. The simplest minor scale begins from the letter A:

A B C D E F G A

Notice that the A minor scale creates the minor pattern without any sharps or flats, the same as C major creates the major scale pattern with no sharps or flats.

Relative keys- Relative keys are keys which have the same key signature but different tonics.

The following chart of keys will include both major and minor keys for each key signature.

1 1/2 1 1 1/2 1 1

The order of sharps for key signatures: F# C# G# D# A# E# B#.

The order of flats for key signatures: Bb Eb Ab Db Gb Cb Fb.

Here are all the Major and minor keys arranged by key signature:

minor key/Major Key Key signature

Aminor/C Major 0#/b

E minor/G Major 1# (F#)

B minor/D Major 2# (F# C#)

F# minor/A Major 3# (F# C# G#)

C# minor/E Major 4# (F# C# G# D#)

G# minor/B Major 5# (F# C# G# D# A#)

D# minor/F# Major 6# (F# C# G# D# A# E#)

A# minor/C# Major 7# (F# C# G# D# A# E# B#)

Ab minor/Cb Major 7b (Bb Eb Ab Db Gb Cb Fb)

Eb minor/Gb Major 6b (Bb Eb Ab Db Gb Cb)

Bb minor/Db Major 5b (Bb Eb Ab Db Gb)

F minor/Ab Major 4b (Bb Eb Ab Db)

C minor/Eb Major 3b (Bb Eb Ab)

G minor/Bb Major 2b (Bb Eb)

D minor/F Major 1b (Bb)

Forms of Minor- Unlike the Major scale, the minor scale has a subtonic (whole step from 7th to 8th letter of key). Because of this the minor scale can is often modified when a composer wishes to create a leading tone for a stronger connection to the tonic. The three common forms of minor are as follows:

Natural Minor- Natural minor is the form of minor which is created by the key signature.

Harmonic Minor- In harmonic minor the 7th letter of the key is raised 1/2 step.

Melodic Minor- In melodic minor the 6th and 7th letters of the key are raised 1/2 step.