Dr Yaojun LiReader in Sociological Analysis

Department of SociologyBirmingham University

Email: y.li.3@bham.ac.ukTel: 0121-4158625

[From 1 April]: Professor of SociologyInstitute for Social Change

Manchester UniversityEmail: Yaojun.Li@Manchester.ac.uk

Professor Anthony HeathDepartment of Sociology

Oxford UniversityEmail: anthony.heath@nuffield.ox.ac.uk

Period, life-cycle, cohort and generational effects on ethnic minority disadvantages

in British labour market (1972-2005) For UPTAP Conference, Leeds University, 21 March 2007

(ESRC RES-163-25-0003)Project website: http://www.uptap.net/project17.html

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Government Acts on racial discrimination

• The 1965 Race Relations Act, which made discrimination in public places unlawful, but excluding employment and housing

• The 1968 Race Relations Act, which made it unlawful to ‘discriminate on grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins in recruitment, training, promotions, dismissals, and terms and conditions of employment’ (Layton-Henry, 1985)

• The 1976 Race Relations Act, which extended the definition of discrimination to include indirect discrimination

• The 2000 Race Relations (Amendment) Act, placing a general duty on public authorities to eliminate unlawful discrimination

• It is a government objective to eliminate discrimination. ‘Though it is nearly 40 years since the first Race Relations Act, it is clear that racial discrimination in the labour market still persists,’ says Tony Blair and he sets the goal ‘that in ten years’ time, ethnic minority groups should no longer face disproportionate barriers to accessing and realising opportunities for achievement in the labour market’ (Cabinet Office, 2003).

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Political and historical contexts• Net immigration from 1960s onwards• Main ethnic groups coming at different times and for

different reasons• Main parties agree on ethnic policies• Increasingly tough regulations• Stricter restrictions on recruitment• Equal opportunities for those who are legally immigrants • Many of the ethnic groups now 2nd or even 3rd generation

(acculturation)• Increasing socio-economic integration as one might

expect?• Lack of research until 1991 Census (SARs); lack of

systematic research using full ethnic/generation information on employment, class, education, income etc until THIS ESRC project

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Academic interests in ethnic disadvantages

Human Capital(Mincer,Becker, Borjas)

Social Capital(Putnam)

(Bourdieu,Coleman, Granovetter&Lin)

Ethnic disadvantages(employment, class, income)

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Human capital assumptions• Investment in education, training etc to acquire skills, expertise and

know-how• Knowledge about the local labour market• Language fluencyDisadvantages faced by 1st generation:• Negative selection (people with poorer skills opt to immigrate (migrant

labourers, guess workers etc from poorer to richer countries)• Language deficiency• Lack of knowledge on local labour market• Poorer qualifications, and home qualifications unrecognised by by

employers• Sojourner orientation, hence unwillingness to invest in human capital• Hostility from the majority population, and from co-workers• Ethnic ghettos (enclaves) Disadvantages faced by 2nd generation• Class legacy (social ethnic mobility)• Lower qualifications and poorer quality of qualifications (lower % in

Russell group Universities, except Indians and Chinese)

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Social capital assumptions• Networks, information, co-ethnic capital• Immigration process by the 1st generation itself highly

disruptive of existing networks but also a symbol of drive and determination which might be lost in the 2nd generation?

• Ethnic geographic concentration builds bonding social capital, useful for working in co-ethnic businesses, setting up small businesses

• Ethnic capital externalities (community entrepreneurs, professionals/managers) provide role models, aspirations, inspirations for upward mobility, bridging social capital and to avoid the development of ‘opposition culture’, which has been especially true amongst successful groups such as Indians

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Empirical expectationsI: Optimistic scenario – liberal modernisation, globalisation, integration• Optimistic scenario applies more to 2nd generation than to the 1st;• Optimistic scenario applies more to certain groups such as Indians (or

Chinese);• Optimistic scenario applies under certain labour market conditions such as

buoyant labour market situations such as in the 1972-1980 and 1996-2005 but when there is high unemployment in society, there is more discrimination by employers, perhaps due to ‘statistical discrimination’ and/or indulgence in taste of direct discrimination.

II: Pessimistic scenario – does not apply to new, especially visible, poorly qualified, negatively selected minoritiesIs there life cycle improvement?

A1 Did the early arrivals gradually catch up with the reference category, over their life cycle in the UK (Borjas etc)?

A2 Is this ‘catching up’ process repeated for mid-arrivals, who arrived during the recession or did these mid-arrivals (especially Pakistani-Bangladeshi) suffer disproportionately in the longer term too?

B1 Is there generational improvement? How does the 2nd generation compare with their parent’s generation at a similar stage of the life cycle?

C1 Period effects – negative impacts of increased competition of Threat Hypothesis?

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Late-arrivals

Mid arrivals

Early arrivals

Ref (W British)

Occupational attainment

Life cycle

9

010

20

30

40

50

Perc

ent

1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005Year

W British W Irish W Other B CaribbeanB African Indian Pak/Bang Chinese

Probablity of being unemployed for men

Note: Data for Chinese and Pakistani/Bangladeshi not presented before 1983 due to small samples.

Source: Pooled data of GHS/LFS (1972-2005).

10

010

20

30

40

50

Perc

ent

1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005Year

W British W Irish W Other B CaribbeanB African Indian Pak/Bang Chinese

Probablity of being unemployed for women

Note: Data for Chinese and Pakistani/Bangladeshi not presented before 1983 due to small samples.

Source: Pooled data of GHS/LFS (1972-2005).

11

010

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Perc

ent

1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005Year

W British W Irish W Other B CaribbeanB African Indian Pak/Bang Chinese

Probability of being in the salariat for men

Note: Data for Chinese and Pakistani/Bangladeshi not presented before 1983 due to small samples.

Source: Pooled data of GHS/LFS (1972-2005).

12

010

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Perc

ent

1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005Year

W British W Irish W Other B CaribbeanB African Indian Pak/Bang Chinese

Probability of being in the salariat for women

Note: Data for Chinese and Pakistani/Bangladeshi not presented before 1983 due to small samples.

Source: Pooled data of GHS/LFS (1972-2005).

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Framework of analysisTable 1 Age, period and cohort (mean age rounded) Men Women 1972-80 1981-96 1997-05 1972-80 1981-96 1997-05 Born 40-9, 1stg arrival bf 1971 31 44 56 31 44 55

(N) 20,274 167,430 68,327 20,885 170,941 57,497

Born 50-9, 1stg arrival 1972-80 22 34 46 22 34 46 (N) 17,468 166,680 69,944 17,329 173,325 73,147

Born 60-9, 1stg arrival 1981-96 17 25 36 17 25 36

(N) 3,512 178,709 80,288 3,397 186,854 88,066

Born 70-9, 1stg arrival 1997-05 - 19 27 - 19 27 (N) - 65,522 46,037 - 65,795 48,350

Age (life cycle) effect (same cohort, different periods or time of survey) Cohort effect (different age, different cohort, same period); Period effect (same age, different cohort, different period); (Heath and Yu, 2005: 197)

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Table 2 Unemployed rates (%) by cohort, ethnicity, generation, sex and period Men Women 1972-80 1981-96 1997-05 1972-80 1981-96 1997-05 Born 40-9, 1stg arrival bf 1971

White British (ref) 3.9 7.1 4.0 4.4 5.9 2.8 1st generation BME 3.6 13.4*** 10.3*** 4.8 9.8*** 6.6*** 2nd generation BME 3.9 13.7*** 6.9** 3.8 10.7*** 6.1**

Born 50-9, 1stg arrival 1972-80 White British (ref) 6.7 8.9 3.6 6.5 8.4 2.8 1st generation BME 12.2† 13.4*** 5.4** 10.3 11.1*** 5.2*** 2nd generation BME 7.6 16.3*** 7.9*** 9.7*** 13.1*** 6.8***

Born 60-9, 1stg arrival 1981-96 White British (ref) 13.2 14.0 3.9 12.8 11.5 3.6 1st generation BME - 25.0*** 9.9*** - 22.8*** 10.4*** 2nd generation BME 12.9 22.4*** 7.5*** 9.4 19.8*** 6.5***

Born 70-9, 1stg arrival 1997-05 White British (ref) - 17.5 6.8 - 12.7 5.2 1st generation BME - - 10.5*** - - 11.6*** 2nd generation BME - 31.9*** 12.7*** - 25.5*** 11.4***

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Table 3 Unemployed rates (%) by cohort, full ethnicity/generation, sex and period Men Women 1972-80 1981-96 1997-05 1972-80 1981-96 1997-05 Born 40-9, 1stg arrival bf 1971

White British (ref) 3.9 7.1 4.0 4.4 5.9 2.8 1st gen White Irish 6.4 14.1*** 5.8 0.0 8.2** 1.2 1st gen White Other 2.8 6.1 3.4 1.5 6.5 3.7 1st gen Black Caribbean 7.7† 13.1*** 12.3*** 2.9 8.9** 1.3 1st gen Black African 0.0 16.9*** 11.3** 4.2 13.8*** 11.1** 1st gen Indian 2.5 11.9*** 7.1** 9.6* 9.4*** 9.0*** 1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi 4.3 22.5*** 19.8*** - 19.1*** - 1st gen Chinese - 1.4* 7.0 - 6.6 6.1 1st gen Other/Mixed 6.7 8.3 7.6* - 8.5† 7.3** 2nd gen White Irish 6.4 14.0*** 8.0*** 2.6 7.7* 4.3 2nd gen White Other 1.1 5.4* 4.4 4.1 5.2 1.8 2nd gen Black Caribbean 2.1 19.1*** 6.4 7.4 10.1** 9.6*** 2nd gen Black African 2.5 18.5** - - 14.6* - 2nd gen Indian 3.9 14.1*** 8.3* 3.6 9.5† 2.6 2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 22.0*** 9.8† - - - 2nd gen Chinese - 9.5 - - - - 2nd gen Other/Mixed 4.2 8.0 5.0 2.6 10.2** 5.6

Born 50-9, 1stg arrival 1972-80 White British (ref) 6.7 8.9 3.6 6.5 8.4 2.8 1st gen White Irish - 19.4*** 5.9 - 8.3 4.2 1st gen White Other - 10.0 4.4 8.7 9.1 3.3 1st gen Black Caribbean - 15.6† - - 10.1 2.8 1st gen Black African - 14.7* 8.3* - 10.5 10.8*** 1st gen Indian 23.8*** 9.9 3.0 4.9 11.1** 4.3† 1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 23.9*** 10.4*** - 17.1*** 8.6** 1st gen Chinese - 9.3 5.8 - 6.3 6.3 1st gen Other/Mixed - 15.7*** 5.4 - 11.9* 3.4 2nd gen White Irish 13.0* 15.6*** 4.7 7.3 10.5† 2.7 2nd gen White Other 6.0 8.3 3.7 11.5† 8.8 2.9 2nd gen Black Caribbean 17.4*** 19.4*** 7.2*** 14.4*** 15.2*** 6.8*** 2nd gen Black African 2.1† 21.5*** 10.9* 13.9* 15.8** 10.8** 2nd gen Indian 8.3 11.3** 4.2 8.2 11.2*** 4.8* 2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi 10.3 25.8*** 15.0*** - 17.5*** 16.0*** 2nd gen Chinese - 3.8* 0.0 - 3.3† 2.4 2nd gen Other/Mixed 6.3 11.8** 7.2*** 7.8 11.6** 7.0***

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Born 60-9, 1stg arrival 1981-96

White British (ref) 13.2 14.0 3.9 12.8 11.5 3.6 1st gen White Irish - 16.3* 4.2 - 8.9† 2.1 1st gen White Other - 8.7*** 5.2† - 11.1*** 4.6† 1st gen Black Caribbean - 14.3 12.5** - 30.0*** 15.0*** 1st gen Black African - 35.3*** 13.1*** - 32.0*** 14.5*** 1st gen Indian - 17.4 6.6* - 18.5*** 6.5** 1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 32.6*** 8.4*** - 38.6*** 16.7*** 1st gen Chinese - 9.1 6.1 - 9.3 6.0 1st gen Other/Mixed - 21.2*** 11.5*** - 20.4*** 8.7*** 2nd gen White Irish - 17.3† 3.5 - 10.6 3.9 2nd gen White Other - 14.5 3.4 - 10.8 4.8* 2nd gen Black Caribbean 25.0* 28.8*** 9.8*** 11.8 22.0*** 6.0*** 2nd gen Black African - 27.7*** 8.0** - 22.8*** 9.2*** 2nd gen Indian 22.5† 14.5 4.6 - 16.6*** 3.6 2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 25.3*** 8.6*** - 33.9*** 8.4*** 2nd gen Chinese - 9.9 5.3 - 8.4 3.1 2nd gen Other/Mixed 8.3† 23.0*** 8.6*** 10.4 17.2*** 9.4***

Born 70-9, 1stg arrival 1997-05 White British (ref) - 17.4 6.8 - 12.7 5.2 1st gen White Irish - - 2.9 - - 5.6 1st gen White Other - - 6.6 - - 6.4† 1st gen Black Caribbean - - 11.4 - - 14.3* 1st gen Black African - - 16.6*** - - 14.4*** 1st gen Indian - - 5.2 - - 13.2*** 1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - - 10.0* - - 24.2*** 1st gen Chinese - - 4.1 - - 8.0 1st gen Other/Mixed - - 11.2*** - - 9.2*** 2nd gen White Irish - 17.0 11.9 - 24.5** 5.1 2nd gen White Other - 16.5 7.9 - 12.8 5.6 2nd gen Black Caribbean - 38.5*** 15.0*** - 33.4*** 13.0*** 2nd gen Black African - 46.9*** 15.7*** - 32.1*** 16.3*** 2nd gen Indian - 28.7*** 9.3** - 19.1*** 7.4** 2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 35.2*** 14.3*** - 27.4*** 13.7*** 2nd gen Chinese - 22.2 6.9 - 17.5 6.9 2nd gen Other/Mixed - 25.6*** 14.7*** - 25.3*** 13.0***

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Table 4 Access to salariat (%) by cohort, ethnicity, generation, sex and period Men Women 1972-80 1981-96 1997-05 1972-80 1981-96 1997-05 Born 40-9, 1stg arrival bf 1971

White British (ref) 27.0 39.5 39.7 17.8 30.3 31.5 1st generation BME 24.1 29.0*** 31.7*** 29.0*** 33.6*** 37.6** 2nd generation BME 30.4* 28.3*** 31.8** 25.7*** 36.1*** 40.7**

Born 50-9, 1stg arrival 1972-80 White British (ref) 16.0 37.7 44.4 15.3 34.5 38.2 1st generation BME 28.4*** 31.7*** 37.3*** 15.4 28.8*** 31.5*** 2nd generation BME 14.3 31.9*** 40.6† 16.3 34.6 43.9*

Born 60-9, 1stg arrival 1981-96 White British (ref) 3.8 26.3 42.4 4.8 30.4 38.8 1st generation BME - 31.7*** 34.5*** - 24.5*** 31.5*** 2nd generation BME 7.0* 25.2 43.1 6.1 28.9† 46.0***

Born 70-9, 1stg arrival 1997-05 White British (ref) - 14.1 36.2 - 17.1 37.9 1st generation BME - - 33.5† - - 43.2*** 2nd generation BME - 18.1*** 43.0*** - 15.6 42.8***

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Table 5 Access to salariat (%) by cohort, full ethnicity/generation, sex and period Men Women 1972-80 1981-96 1997-05 1972-80 1981-96 1997-05 Born 40-9, 1stg arrival bf 1971

White British (ref) 27.0 39.5 39.7 17.8 30.3 31.5 1st gen White Irish 12.6*** 25.3*** 29.3*** 27.3** 33.1† 39.0** 1st gen White Other 32.5 41.0 38.2 31.2*** 43.6*** 43.3*** 1st gen Black Caribbean 11.5** 16.6*** 12.7*** 33.6*** 45.2*** 45.2*** 1st gen Black African 42.4** 45.0 37.0 46.9*** 40.9** 44.7† 1st gen Indian 26.5 30.6*** 32.6** 12.6 18.6*** 24.9** 1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi 12.3** 20.5*** 23.3*** - 37.7† - 1st gen Chinese - 27.3** 38.5 - 39.7* 43.2 1st gen Other/Mixed 31.3 45.4* 53.3*** - 43.2*** 42.1* 2nd gen White Irish 16.9** 25.2*** 28.9*** 18.3 27.5† 30.8 2nd gen White Other 36.4* 48.6*** 54.6*** 27.5* 39.9*** 39.7*** 2nd gen Black Caribbean 20.8 14.7*** 20.7*** 46.2*** 42.9*** 37.0 2nd gen Black African 61.0*** 51.0 - 41.7*** 32.5 - 2nd gen Indian 42.6*** 32.0** 27.7* 26.6* 23.1† 35.7 2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 12.4*** 18.0** - - - 2nd gen Chinese - 14.6** - - - - 2nd gen Other/Mixed 27.3 34.8* 44.5 19.6 36.5* 49.4***

Born 50-9, 1stg arrival 1972-80 White British (ref) 16.0 37.7 44.4 15.3 34.5 38.2 1st gen White Irish - 37.3 43.6 - 49.2*** 47.9* 1st gen White Other - 47.2*** 48.6 39.2*** 49.5*** 51.2*** 1st gen Black Caribbean - 41.1 - - 56.4*** 40.5 1st gen Black African 43.2*** 50.7*** 65.7*** 28.1* 38.9 42.3 1st gen Indian 13.6 23.6*** 32.4*** 5.6† 16.8*** 21.2*** 1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 16.5*** 14.8*** - 27.3† 16.5*** 1st gen Chinese - 34.5 36.9 - 42.9* 44.6 1st gen Other/Mixed - 50.5*** 51.1* - 38.8† 46.1* 2nd gen White Irish - 30.1* - 9.7 35.3 - 2nd gen White Other - 44.3** 37.4 11.8 43.6*** 52.3* 2nd gen Black Caribbean 6.5* 27.9*** 38.3 15.9 40.9* 45.6† 2nd gen Black African 35.3** 52.3* 41.9 26.5† 40.7 - 2nd gen Indian 21.0 33.8 43.9 16.9 25.6** 29.9 2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 18.7*** 19.4*** - 27.3 - 2nd gen Chinese - 29.2 46.2 - 33.3 - 2nd gen Other/Mixed 13.6* 34.3 47.5 15.2 35.3 52.7***

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Born 60-9, 1stg arrival 1981-96

White British (ref) 3.8 26.3 42.4 4.8 30.4 38.8 1st gen White Irish - 41.2*** 52.6** - 55.3*** 60.6*** 1st gen White Other - 45.4*** 59.7*** - 42.7*** 58.9*** 1st gen Black Caribbean - 26.5 34.9 - 30.8 30.2 1st gen Black African - 37.1** 46.2 - 31.5 36.5 1st gen Indian - 30.4 31.7*** - 14.6*** 26.2*** 1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 14.2*** 16.8*** - 12.8* 14.6*** 1st gen Chinese - 53.1*** 46.2 - 26.1 40.7 1st gen Other/Mixed - 39.4*** 42.3 - 33.2 33.4* 2nd gen White Irish - 39.4* 30.8 - 39.7† - 2nd gen White Other - 30.1 44.2 - 29.3 40.3 2nd gen Black Caribbean - 20.2*** 37.9* 5.7 27.9* 44.0** 2nd gen Black African - 32.3† 55.5*** - 28.2 55.8*** 2nd gen Indian - 32.6*** 47.3* - 31.4 42.8 2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 21.9 34.5* - 26.9 42.1 2nd gen Chinese - 42.9** 38.8 - 31.6 59.1** 2nd gen Other/Mixed 8.2** 25.8 46.5† 6.2 29.4 47.4***

Born 70-9, 1stg arrival 1997-05 White British (ref) - 14.1 36.2 - 17.1 37.9 1st gen White Irish - - 76.8*** - - 60.2*** 1st gen White Other - - 48.5*** - - 45.8*** 1st gen Black Caribbean - - 15.6* - - 30.0 1st gen Black African - - 24.5** - - 28.5* 1st gen Indian - - 66.8*** - - 51.7*** 1st gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - - 8.1*** - - 16.2** 1st gen Chinese - - 63.9*** - - 41.3 1st gen Other/Mixed - - 34.7 - - 48.3*** 2nd gen White Irish - - - - - - 2nd gen White Other - 20.0 29.0 - 10.9 39.1 2nd gen Black Caribbean - 14.8 33.5 - 15.1 39.6 2nd gen Black African - 26.1* 50.5** - 9.1 41.8 2nd gen Indian - 21.2*** 51.1*** - 15.2 49.9*** 2nd gen Pakistani/Bangladeshi - 15.1 32.2† - 14.6 34.2 2nd gen Chinese - 24.3† 45.2 - - 43.5 2nd gen Other/Mixed - 16.7 45.6*** - 18.2 43.1*

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Modeling results: too complicated to present here

Main findings:

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My writings on the labour market• Li, Y. and Heath, A. (2007) ‘Decomposing ethnic disadvantages’, for NEP.• Li, Y. and Heath, A. (2006) ‘Generation, education and labour market attainment of minority ethnic

groups in Britain: A tale of 35 years’, ESRC: Britain Today.• Li, Y. and Heath, A.(2006) ‘Ethnic minority men in British labour market (1972-2005)’, International

Journal of Sociology and Social Policy. Li, Y. (2006) Assessing Data Needs and Gaps for Researching Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship, for the

ESRC/DTI/CRE• O’Leary, R. and Li, Y. (2006) ‘Beyond Unemployment: Further differences in Catholic and Protestant

performance in the Northern Ireland labour market’, Belfast: Conference Proceedings on Equality and Social Inclusion, Working Paper 10.

• Li, Y. and Pollert, A. (2006) ‘The unorganized worker in WERS 2004: socio-demographic attributes, workplace characteristics and work-life experience’, research paper commissioned by DTI and RSS.

• Li, Y. (2005) ‘Exploring income differentials: a comparison between human and social capital approaches’, presentation at the ESDS Government Research Conference, British Academy, 4 Nov. 2005: http://www.ccsr.ac.uk/esds/events/2005-11-04/li.doc

• Li, Y. (2005) ‘Social capital, ethnicity and the labour market’, Proceedings of International Conference on Engaging Community, http://engagingcommunities2005.org/abstracts/Li-Yaojun-final.pdf

• Garrat, D. and Li, Y. (2005) ‘The foundations of experimental/empirical research methods’, in B. Somekh and C. Lewin (eds). Research Methods in the Social Sciences, London: Sage, pp: 198-206.

• Li, Y. and R. O’Leary (2004) ‘Progress in reducing Catholic disadvantages in Northern Ireland’, in Anthony Heath and Sin Yi Cheung (eds), Ethnic Differences across Countries, Oxford: OUP.

• Purdam, K. and Li, Y. with Brown, M. and Wathan, J. (2003) A profile of the housing and socio-economic circumstances of black and minority ethnic people in Wales, Cardiff: National Assembly of Wales.

• Li, Y. (2002) ‘Falling off the ladder? Professional and managerial career trajectories and unemployment experiences’, European Sociological Review, 18(3): 253-70.

• Li, Y., Bechhofer, F., McCrone, D., Anderson, M. and Stewart, R. (2002) ‘A Divided Working Class? Planning and Career Perception in the Service and Working Classes’, Work, Employment and Society, 16(4): 617-636.

22

My other writings on social capital• Li, Y. and D. Marsh (2006) ‘New forms of political participation: searching for expert

citizens and everyday makers’, forthcoming, BJPS.• Li, Y., Savage, M. and Warde, A. (2006) ‘Civic engagement, social network and

social stratification in the UK: a random effects analysis’, under review.• Savage, M., Li, Y. and Tampubolon, G. (2006) ‘Rethinking the politics of social

capital: challenging Tocquevillian perspectives’, in Edwards, R. Franklin, J. and Holland, J. (eds), Social Capital: Concepts, policy and practice, London: Sage.

• Li, Y. (2006) ‘Social capital, social exclusion and wellbeing’, in Angela Scriven and Sebastian Garman (eds), Public Health: Social context and action, London: Sage.

• Li, Y. (2005) ‘Social capital, ethnicity and the labour market’, Proceedings of International Conference on Engaging Community, jointly organized by the United Nations and the Government of the State of Queensland in Australia. http://engagingcommunities2005.org/abstracts/Li-Yaojun-final.pdf

• Li, Y., Pickles, A. and Savage, M. (2005) ‘Social Capital and Social Trust in Britain’, European Sociological Review, 21(2): 109-23.

• Li, Y., Savage, M. and Pickles, A. (2003) ‘Social Capital and Social Exclusion in England and Wales (1972-1999)’, British Journal of Sociology, 54(4): 497-526.

• Li, Y., Savage, M. and Pickles, A. (2003) ‘Social Change, Friendship and Civic Participation’, Sociology Research Online

• Li, Y., Savage, M., Tampubolon, G., Warde, A. and Tomlinson, M. (2002) ‘Dynamics of social capital: trends and turnover in associational membership in England and Wales: 1972-1999’, Sociological Research Online, Vol. 7, No. 3.

23

A Comparison between the GHS/LFS and SARs in 1991 and 2001 (for men aged 16-64 and women aged 16-59 resident in England and Wales) 1991 2001 GHS/LFS SARs GHS/LFS SARs Sex Male 51.4 51.7 50.6 51.5 Female 48.6 48.3 49.4 48.5 Marital status Married 68.0 61.4 53.3 49.1 Once married 7.3 8.3 12.1 12.8 Never married 24.7 31.3 34.7 38.1 Ethnicity White 94.5 93.9 91.5 91.1 Black Caribbean 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.2 Black African 0.3 0.4 1.0 1.0 Indian 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.2 Pakistani/Bangladeshi 1.1 1.1 1.9 1.9 Chinese 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 Other 1.2 1.2 2.0 2.2 Employment status Working 72.6 69.1 73.5 71.9 Unemployed 6.9 8.3 2.7 4.2 Non-employed 20.7 22.6 22.7 23.9 Class Salariat 33.7 29.8 36.2 38.5 Routine non-manual 19.1 22.4 13.3 13.1 Petty bourgeoisie 10.4 9.0 9.1 9.6 Skilled manual 16.4 15.9 27.8 16.3 Semi-unskilled manual 20.3 22.9 13.7 12.6 Mean hours of work per week 35.7 36.3 36.8 37.5 N 93,561 560,650 74,444 1,003,205