PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION &

Contemporary Social Issues

PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD AMIN

`

In Collaboration With

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION & RESEARCH UNIVERSITY OF

PESHAWAR

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PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION &

Contemporary Social Issues

PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD AMINEx. Asstt: Educational Advisor

Ex. Director/ Member K.P.K.P. Text Book BoardDirector Planning & Development

Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan

In Collaboration With

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION & RESEARCH UNIVERSITY OF

PESHAWAR

4

All rights reserved with the Author

Authors: Prof. Dr. Muhammad Amin

Book: Perspectives of Education and Contemporary Social Issues

1st Edition: March, 2000

2nd Edition: August, 2001

3rd Edition: December, 2003

4th Edition: April, 2006

5th Edition: November, 2009

6th Edition: February, 2013

Composer: M. Nawaz Khan Abbasi

0345-9100738

Printers: Ijaz Printers, Peshawar

Quantity: 1000

Price: 200/-

Available at all leading book shops

FOREWORD

“Perspectives of Education and Contemporary Social Issues” is,

no doubt a very important discipline in the galaxies of the prominent

subjects of Education. As a matter of fact utmost priority is given to this

besides being highly focused upon approximately, in all centers of research

and seats of learning. Furthermore, it plays significant role in the polishing

and brain washing of all learners as well as the aspirant researchers who

subsequently, attain the position of perfect educators. Being an important

subject, several books have been written on this topic, but by the grace of

Allah, the one that I have written, duly published for the first time in 2000

AD, is a unique one. The book under reference has got extreme popularity

since the first day of its coming into light.

This aim in view, the teachers and students of “Education” have

been persistently demanding this book of mine since its first publication,

several copies of which have been consumed during the last decade.

However, the edition before hand took comparatively longer span of time

to come to the surface. The reason was that I remained awfully engaged in

multifarious public duties, due to which I could not find time to get it

published. Just, recently, I found some time to pay attention to its revising

and reprinting in befitting manner. Since its last edition, in 2009 a large

number of its copies have been consumed and now we are proudly

presenting its 7th edition with minor changes (additions and alterations).

The most important additions & alterations made so far, are related to the

topics as given below:

1. Education, Instruction and Curriculum. (old Unit (I) 1.4 in reference to

“Instruction” and “Method of Herbart.”)

2. Influential Educators (Old Unit -3 )

3. Education Policies (Old unit-4)

4. Gender and Development (old Unit-9 No:9.2)

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5. Peace Education (Old Unit-9 No: 9.4)

6. Media and Advertising.(Old Unit-9 No: 9..5)

The following some more topics with revised version have been added in

the Units and places as mentioned above, respectively:

1. Herbart Unit 2 Page

2. Froebel Unit-2 Page

3. Maria Montessori, Unit-2 Page

4. Education Poli, 2009 Unit 4 Page

5. Education and Conflict Resolution Unit 5 Page

6. Gender Equality in Pakistan. Unit-5 Page

7. Media and Education Unit 5 Page

The changes made this time are the rectifications of the past errors

as well as addition/alterations of some more points. We can say that these

are not only changes for the sake of change, but these rectifications were

very much essential and unavoidable. It is hoped that the book, after the

said changes would accomplish its desired goals and the readers would

benefit from it in all respects. It is possible that there might be still some

short comings in this humble but important work of mine, but with the

appreciation and co-operation of the learned readers we would be able to

get it further refined.

The book before you is the result of year’s long research, hard

work and exhaustive educational/academic pursuits, which has now

reached to your hands. But, still we do not claim that all its contents are

final and authentically correct. Academic pursuits are nothing but

continuous processes and un-ending efforts. There may be some fruitful

and beneficial ideas in remote part of your mind which can further refine

this book. You are, therefore, requested to make it convenient to

communicate the same for further improvement.

Thanks Prof Dr. Muhammad Amin (Author)

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PREFACE

It was March the 6th, 2000 AD, when the first edition of my book i.e. Perspectives

of Education and Contemporary Social issues was published. At that time it was

very difficult to guess as to how many people or students would willingly accept

this as their favorite textbook for B.Ed. course, but within one year its second

edition was published which was again consumed with in the next one year.

My dear readers! All this became possible due to your appreciation and

encouragement. Now I am proud to issue the 3rd edition of this book that contains

improved contents and well research topics. This book will serve students, as well

as teachers. You will find it as a new dimension towards Social Issues.

There are certain groups of people, who are involved in Piracy. Those people also

damaged my books, I found many books that were copied, with a minor change

from my books. I was shocked to see and find that they are not afraid of law to print

fake books. I consulted the authorities and they advised me to take action against

them, so I gave them legal notice. After my legal notice, they gave me written

apology and I accepted that. But they did it again and published the fake book,

which was copied from my book with minor change.

I am sure and confident that my well wishers and reading lovers will read my book

and avoid to buy the Piracy books. Piracy books will not give you the real taste of

knowledge, which you can find in my book. Also I appeal to the Government of

Pakistan to protect the Rights of Author and Stop the Piracy Culture by punishing

the people who are involved in Piracy.

I hope that this book in your hand shall be appreciated by all of you and you would

convey your comments to the undersigned for further improvement.

The Author

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD I

PREFACE III

TABLE OF CONTENTS IV

UNIT-1: 1

PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE 1

1.1 PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION: 1

1.2 EPISTEMOLOGY (THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE): 10

1.3 THE GENERALLY KNOWN ‘EDUCATIONAL THEORIES’ 15

1.4 NATURE VERSUS NURTURE: 29

1.5 EDUCATION AND CULTURE: 37

1.6 INDOCTRINATION, TRAINING AND EDUCATION: 40

1.7 ANDRAGOGY VERSUS PEDAGOGY: 44

UNIT-2 47

PIONEERS IN EDUCATION 47

2.1 ROUSSEAU (JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU): 47

2.2 FROEBEL (1782 TO 1852) 58

2.3 HERBART 74

2.4 MARIA MONTESSORI: 96

UNIT-3 124

INFLUENTIAL EDUCATORS 124

3.1 IMAM GHAZALI: 124

3.2 JOHN DEWEY: 129

3.3 PAULO FREIRE: 140

3.5 ALLAMA IQBAL: 145

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UNIT-4 156

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN 156

4.1 EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCE 1947: 156

4.2 REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON NATIONAL EDUCATION, 1959-60 158

4.3 THE EDUCATION POLICY 1972-80 167

4.6 NEW EDUCATION POLICY 2009: 189

UNIT-5 202

CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL ISSUES 202

5.1 GLOBALIZATION AND ITS CHALLENGES: 202

5.2 POPULATION GROWTH: 205

5.3 EDUCATION AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION 224

5.4 GENDER EQUALITY IN PAKISTAN 228

5.5 MEDIA AND EDUCATION 238

BIBLIOGRAPHY 244

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UNIT-1:

PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.1 PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION:

The Perspective and Philosophy of Education:

To know the past, present and the future problems of a teacher, the

study of the history of education in general and that of the contemporary

issues in particular is very much essential. Not only it plays an important

role to make him a successful teacher, but it gives courage and a moral

support to him. When he is aware of the odds and hardships faced by those

preceding personalities who were involved in the teaching/ learning

profession, he compares and contrasts his own atmosphere with that of

them; hence he learns more and more. Each system of education sets its

own aims and objectives which vary from time to time, environment to

environment and from nation to nation.

The following descriptions would further elaborate the proposition

as stated above.

1. Apparently not of immediate importance or priority in the

teaching/ learning process in a class room, the acquisition of a

grounding of knowledge about the perspectives of education is

undoubtedly of great importance for everyone involved in work in

schools, as this helps in envisaging the future plans. The collective

memory of the past is vital for a teacher. By the very nature of his

work, the teacher will have a significant impact on the future.

2. Without recapitulation of the past theories, events, struggles,

movements and changes, it is difficult for anyone, including

teachers and educators of all kinds, to make sense of the

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contemporary content in which they practice their profession. In

addition to that accurate comprehension of the education itself and

its allied complexes, could easily be attained with the help of this

study.

3. Research, experimentation, procuring feedback and further

progress become more difficult for a teacher in the absence of the

knowledge of past histories.

4. In the life of a teacher no improvement, development and

refinement tend to have a greater change of success if the

achievements and mistakes of the past are not acknowledged as

well as analyzed.

5. The collective memory of the past is vital enabling the reader to

conceive a picture of a harmoniously developed human being

especially, a teacher.

6. To reflect on the errors and the advancement made throughout the

world, so far, this study is much more essential for trainee

teachers.

7. This study makes one educative and aware of the aggregation of

facts and events. It also bears upon to study the past, to know the

present and to build the future.

8. This study further supplements the cognitive domain of the

teacher besides a lot more.

9. He is acquainted with numerous new and old pedagogical

experimentation which helps in the refinement of his skill/job.

10. This study enhances the performance of teachers, emancipates

them from the clutches of dependencies.

11. Information like this and some more could be obtained from the

study under reference, which equips a teacher to meet challenges.

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Education, its old and New Perceptions in reference to its Philosophical Perspective:

It is a well known fact that lexicographically “education” means to

enable one to know at least three R’s (as per old classic perception) i.e.

Reading Writing and Arithmetic. But idiomatically education is a

continuous social action/process, which depicts the society. As it has come

into being only to meet the social needs/requirements of the society, it is

made to correspond with its characteristics. The agriculturists society

would stress upon the study of agriculture and that of an industrialist one,

on the know-how of industry. Similar is the case with the ancient and

modem societies.

The old concept of education is very simple. In those days needs

of the society were very limited. It was depicting the traditional sentiments

of the society. Therefore, the concept of education was limited. To gain the

skills of writing, reading, arithmetic and adopt the customs of their fore-

fathers, were the main contents of their education. The teacher used to be

considered as the highly qualified individual and the student to be totally

ignorant. The students were never supposed to be able to make any

addition or alteration in the sayings of their teachers. So far the disciplines

are concerned firstly, they were extremely limited in number and secondly

their contents were confined to information and theories/ideas only. The

best form of education would be to memorize the facts/events and

reproduce (verbally) the same. Other academic activities i.e. co-curricular

activities were considered useless. The main task before them was to

replenish their brains with information only. However, the whole of the

education was restricted to the four walls of the school. It had quite a

separate world away from all the other environments. Employment would

never be the responsibility of education. Its nature was always purely

literary and the students/disciples would be nothing more than imitators.

The modern education is totally in contrast with the old theory.

This is quite comprehensive, useful and it is covering all aspects of a

student’s life. Education, hitherto is .not the name of only

teaching/learning. It is an indicator to and torch-bearer of the physical,

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psychological, aesthetic, financial, and social urgencies of students

personalities. Notwithstanding several other responsibilities, it is obligatory

on the educational institutions to take care of the physical health of the

students, arrange for the satisfaction of their aesthetic taste, fulfill their

psychological needs and teach them the manners of leading a social life.

Simultaneously, arrangements may also be made for innovative

and variable activities, so that the students with the help of their

experiments may gain sound comprehension of these principles or

concepts. It means that the school should be able to represent the society in

reality and they may come closer to each other.

In the fields of science, arts and educational methodology, the

nature of education has quite a distinct position. Here all sciences and

humanities are being given due importance and they are equally regarded

useful. None of the disciplines is considered to be superior to the others.

Handicraft is no less important than any mental and intellectual

engagement. The importance of professional and vocational education is

increasing day by day. Artisans, engineers, lawyers, philosophers, doctors,

traders, artists, and writers all are important and respectable.

The student is being considered a minor scholar in the modern

educational system. The teacher is only an advisor and guide. It means that

education has become a bilateral project where the students and teachers

move forward and undergo multifarious experiments together. Tremendous

stress is laid on comprehension and practical activities instead of learning

by heart and memorisation. Instead of exhausting their mental potentiality

on theoretical issues, stress is laid to solve them practically. The students

play an active part in this type of education. To nourish the creativity of

thought and flourish the balanced personality of the students,.. are the

foremost objectives of education.

Philosophy and its role in education:

Philosophy literally means thinking and idiomatically, it is the

pursuit of wisdom, the study of realities and general principles. It is

concerned with a search for eternal truth. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, the

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great Greek philosophers spent their lives in search of this eternal truth.

Any one who searches into the reasons and nature of things, who attempts

to reach at a certain general principles and applies these principles to his

daily life-conduct is consciously or unconsciously behaving like a

philosopher. It is often said that every one of us develops a philosophy for

his own life according to his reason and abilities. It is also said that every

teacher has a common-sense outlook. The philosophical method of

extending and refining common sense is quite different from the scientific

method. The scientific method aims at the solution of just a limited number

of factors and variables inherent in an educational problem and which can

be controlled experimentally. The philosophical method on the other hand,

aims at tackling every factor or variable which is either directly or remotely

relevant to the problem. The scope of philosophy is unlimited. It answers

many complicated and important questions. Such as what is life? What is

man? What are the aims of life? It does not only attempt the vital problems

of life but also seeks to synthesize all knowledge under some basic

principles. These principles are applied and practiced by them in their lives.

John Dewey says that philosophy signifies wisdom influencing the conduct

of life.

Educational Philosophy:

Educational philosophy is a branch of general philosophy.

Education to a large extent is dependent upon educational philosophy.

Philosophy forms the aims and objectives of education while in turn

influences the practice, the subjects of study and the methods of teaching.

A country first of all should evolve a philosophy of education in

conformity with its general philosophy.

Education:

Contrary to philosophy, education is defined by each thinker

according to his own observations and experiments of life. In their view

education originally is derived from Latin words, ‘Educare, Educatum or

Educere’. Educare and Educatum means to train, to bring up and to

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nourish, while “Educere’ means to lead out i.e. to lead out the inner

potentialities of an individual. The former implies that education is

something external to be imposed or put in from outside. The latter

indicates growth from within (education by Mrs. Tanveer Khalid page 3).

If all the definitions presented formerly by thinkers like Aristotle or by

latter thinkers and educationists like Dewey are analysed, one thing that is

‘To train’ is found to be common in its meaning. Aristotle had defined

education as “process necessary for the creation of a sound mind in a sound

body’, while John Dewey defined it as ‘Education is a process of living

through a continuous reconstruction of experiences”. It is the development

of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his

environment and fulfill responsibilities. The definition implies that a child

has some natural potentialities. These ought to be developed in conformity

with the demands of the society. Education is not something static, but it is

a continuous and life-long process contributing towards his mental and

physical maturity. Interestingly, the modern educational theories stress on

mental as well as physical development of a child only, while old

perspective includes in it the soul as well. Aristotle while defining

education says, “A process necessary for the creation of a sound mind in a

sound body”. That is why the importance of every subject included in the

Greek curriculum was a set in terms of its capacity to train body, mind and

soul. This proposition is also adopted by the latter thinkers of all the ethical

and Islamic nationalities. From Aristotle up to Ghazali and from Dante up

to Iqbal, all categorically asserted that the training of the body, mind and

soul is essential. Education void of any one of the said three components

would really be useless.

A child learns because somebody teaches him. Sometimes he

learns because he has seen or heard new things and sometimes because he

has tried to do something by himself. Every one tries to learn something

from other. In fact we all learn something from each other throughout our

lives. It continues “from the cradle to the grave”. But it is interesting to

note that such type of education, where no direct teacher is involved is

called informal education.

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Education in its limited sense; includes the influences deliberately

planned, chosen and employed by the community for the welfare of its

coming generation. The purpose is to modify the behaviour of the child and

to shape his personality in a more desirable form than the one he would

have been without formal education. Schools are the specialized

institutions for imparting formal and what is generally known as

“Academic education” to the learners. This process of Academic learning

involves two parties; i.e. the teacher and the taught. If an informal

procedure of teaching / learning is properly planned, that would also, then

become a formal type of education.

It goes without saying that each philosophy and education depicts

its society. The life of the primitive people was simple, hence the content

of their education was simple. They taught their children the necessary

skills required for the survival while keeping them in the company of

adults. With the passage of time and with the accumulation, of new

experiments by the mankind, need for rapid transmitting them to the new

generation increased. So education started in the form of “social groups’

and hence schools came into being. Today all types of educational

institutions, such as schools, colleges and universities exist in all parts of

the world.

Educational Philosophy and the Relationship between Philosophy and Education:

Philosophy is the contemplative procedure of the solution of the

important issues of life and the universal philosophy is based on the reason

and intellect. Its sphere is the sphere of logic. It evaluates the problems and

thoughts critically, presents its rationale and expresses its point of view. It

covers debating and finding of objects, facts as well as faiths and values. Its

world begins beyond the world of science. Its pursuit is purely intellectual

and contemplative. It bypasses the sphere of senses, but never disconnects

its relation with reason. It has concern, neither with revelations nor with the

traditionally reported sciences. It is in need of reason and proofs. This is

the reason that in the words of Russell, “philosophy is the second name of a

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contemplative effort and intellectual pursuit regarding the important basic

equation of life, universe and the human being. What is good? What is

evil? What is the nature of social justice and social equality? What is the

criterion for the truth and falsehood?. Dozens of questions like this are

being considered. What may be the issue, philosophy tries to cover all

aspects of the debatable issue and it is inclined towards generalisation

instead of specialization. Therefore, comprehensiveness and generality are

its two qualities. Reason and argument are its conscience and to visualize

the real manifestations of truth is its ultimate goal. The moon, apparently

appears what it in reality, is not. A philosopher is always in search of the

exact and factual spheres of things. Probably we may also be thinking like

him. This is called philosophical thinking but what is philosophy of

education?

Philosophy of Education:

When a thinker thinks about the problems of education and

presents his viewpoint about the same, he becomes a ‘philosopher’. It

means that whenever a philosophical thinking is executed in the

educational issues and concepts; and philosophical method is adopted

‘educational philosophy’ or “philosophy of education” comes into

existence. It is evident that when the general philosophies like Idealism and

Realism are followed in the educational system, so the same, after having

dived in the lake of education, shall be changed into the form of

‘educational philosophies’. It has been happening in this way. Though the

name of philosophy is changed, its spirit and nature remains the same. You

will see that an idealist philosopher having gone into the field of education

still remains by nature an idealist. He even here, is fond of educational

theories instead of educational process and learning activities. He never

takes any interest in practical life. He constantly remains busy in training

the brains of teachers and students as well as in their broadening and

refinement. He, however, must discuss educational problems, and may

carry out their analysis. Similarly, each thinker of a philosophical thought

manifests his specific way of thinking and action. He critically analyses all

of the educational traditions and educational affairs/issues, He, after

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rigorous pursuit, brings into public, the assumptions on which lie its

foundations. It, therefore, analyses the same properly and expresses its

viewpoint. Let us discuss philosophy and education in detail.

Relation between Philosophy and Education:

There is an extremely close relationship between education and

philosophy. Education is basically a practical performance, and philosophy

is a theory or thought. Education, as a matter of fact, is a continuous

infinite series of actions. Philosophy is providing theoretical foundation i.e.

rational proofs-and ideologies for it. It explores and interprets different

concepts. In this way it brings before us different viewpoints regarding a

thing; and having examined them critically, informs us of their fact and

usefulness. There is no aspect of education beyond the reach of philosophy.

Philosophy provides guidance about each aspect of education, e.g. what

should be the general aim of education? What values should be nourished,

and which of the social activities should be discouraged and why? For

practical use what means should be practised? Which educational source is

more authentic and dependable? What should be the nature of inter-relation

of education and life? What is discipline and administration and how it

should be maintained? Should or not a specific theory/concept be

inculcated in the minds of children and what is the justification of doing

so? Similarly, dozens of questions are to be faced in the process of

education. The answers to which are provided by philosophy. It is now up

to the nature of the question. The philosophy would be in conformity with

the question. The duty of the educationists is to provide the practical

manifestation of philosophy. It should not be taken for granted that the

teachers and educational administrators are engaged only in acting upon

theories/advices and they do not contemplate at all. They also think, to

some extent, but their contemplation is not as organized and

comprehensive as that of a philosopher of education.

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1.2 EPISTEMOLOGY (THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE):

“Epistemology” or “Theory of knowledge” as described by the

Encyclopedia of Britannica, are similar words. The study of the nature and

validity of human knowledge is called epistemology or theory of

knowledge. In the evolution of thought knowledge or epistemological

inquiry succeeds the speculations of the early thinkers, who concerned

themselves primarily with attempt to explain existence. A brief treatment

of epistemology/knowledge follows ( Theory of knowledge is the old name

of “epistemology”.)

The term epistemology was first used in the 19 th century, as a

synonym for the “theory of knowledge”; but Western philosophical thought

on the subject has a history reaching back to Plato and Aristotle.

Traditionally, the range of its problems has served to contrast it on the one

hand with metaphysics, related with the nature of reality, and on the other

hand with logic, related with the forms of valid arguments.

With modem recognition that much, that had actually, previously

been regarded as philosophy’s function, properly belonged to the natural

sciences, what was left of metaphysics tended to be absorbed into

epistemology. This process began with Descartes and was carried on by

Locke and the British empiricists and above all, by Kant, whose

investigations into the extent and conditions of the possibility of

knowledge by the same understanding were intended to determine the

boundaries between knowledge and rational beliefs on the one hand and

what he regarded as the illusions of metaphysics on the other.

Typically, experiments examine the ‘degrees of certainty and

probability in knowing (with certainty) and believing (without being

certain).” The epistemologist seeks to provide knowledge about

knowledge. Two competing epistemological orientations are Rationalism,

which stresses the role of reason in providing certainty, and empiricism,

which stresses that of sensory perception.

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From all this-statement, it could be derived that there are only two

theories regarding knowledge i.e. Rationalism and Empiricism.

1. Rationalism: What is “rationalism”? Rationalism, in Philosophy,

is a method of inquiry that regards reason as the chief source and

test of knowledge and in contrast to “empiricism” tends to

“discountenance” sensory experience. It holds that because reality

it self has an inherently rational structure, there are especially

logic and mathematics but also in ethics and metaphysics.... that

the intellect can grasp directly. In ethics, rationalism relies on

“natural light” and in theology it places supernatural revelation

with reason.

According to the extreme rationalist doctrine all the truth of

physical science and even history could in principle be discovered

by pure thinking and set forth as of consequences of self evident

premises. In this theory, stress is made to utilize reason and

intellect. Its followers consider reason to be superior to any thing

else. Most of the exponents of this theory are in favour of the use

of only mind and nothing else. Aristotle, therefore, seeks within

the objective facts of nature and social life. He used inductive and

deductive method for finding out knowledge. He was the first to

formulate the logic of these subjects. Aristotle is recognized as the

greatest of all other theorists.

2. Empiricism: It means believing in experimentation/learning by

experiences. “Try and error” has been one of the oldest methods

regarding learning and attaining knowledge. In this theory, stress

is made on using all the sense organs to achieve knowledge. The

latest and modern educationists especially the scientists have

supported this theory. All the later developments have supported

this theory. All the later developments have occurred due to the

propagation of this theory. This theory, as presumed by all

thinkers, whether Jewish, Muslim or Christian, was mostly

advocated by Aristotle. Aristotle was always in search of truth and

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truth could be achieved only through sensory method. But the

religious bodies are quite against this theory.

They say that it is defective in its metaphysic and limited to the

earthly life in its ethics; and. they have accused its followers of

being Rationalists or Empiricists. Basically, both of the above

mentioned theories are correlated and they are the two sides of a

coin. They are named differently, only to identify the nature of the

activity being carried out for attaining knowledge while the

objective of both the theories is one and the same.

Conclusions

Etymological Explanation of Education

The word education is derived from the Latin word “educare”

which means to bring up. There is yet another Latin word “educere”, which

means to bring forth. Education, therefore, means both to bring forth as

well as bring up. It was the Latin author Varro who said “Educit obstertrix,

educate, nutrix, institute, pedagogues, docet, magister” which means, “the

mid-wife brings forth, the nurse brings up, the tutor trains, and the master

teaches”. Accordingly education does not merely mean the acquisition of

knowledge or experience but it means the development of habits, attitudes

and skills which help a man to lead a full and worthwhile life.

Some theorists give a different explanation of the word “educate”.

They say ‘e’ means out of and duco means to lead’ i.e. to educate means to

lead forth or “to extract out” the best in man. This explanation presumes

that all knowledge is inherent in children. Only methods are to be found

out to tap their brains and the knowledge will automatically flow. Addison

supports this view believing that education, “when it works upon a noble

mind draws out to view every latent virtue and perfection”. We also

support this theory, I mean an all round drawing out of the best in the child

and man---body, mind and spirit”. These two views of education can be

accepted with a pinch of salt. We cannot ‘draw out’ anything unless we put

in something before. The child is not like an artesian well, where we put a

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funnel and water will gush out. He is like a bank, where something must be

put before, we expect to draw out. It may be that once or twice a bright and

quick child may give a promise of talents, but is not always true. “Unless

knowledge and experience is given to the child we cannot draw out the best

in him.”

Historically, Philosophers have, from ancient times, given their

views on education. Socrates (470-399 B.C.) was one of the first to do so.

His father was a sculptor and his mother was a midwife. Socrates preferred

to describe education by comparing it with his mother’s profession.

Education is Midwifery. A teacher, like a midwife, only helps the mother

to give birth. The teacher is not the mother. So also, the pupil himself

“conceives” the idea, (Called concept”) and the teacher only helps.

But a teacher is not like a Sculptor, who carves out a block of

stone entirely by himself, leaving the stone passive. The student is not

passive, like a stone, so teacher cannot be compared to a sculptor.

This idea was repeated by Aquinas (1225-1274 A.D.) who, in

reply to famous question: ‘Can one man teach another?” answered: yes,

provided that the student goes through a process of thought which is

similar (analogical) to that of his teacher.

Other thinkers are divided over the problem of whether the mind

contains “Innate ideas” which the teacher must help to bring out, or

whether the mind is a blank Slate (“Tabula Rasa”) upon which the teacher

writes, while the student remains passive. Or, in other words (as Socrates

would say) whether a Teacher is a Midwife or a Sculptor.

The truth is in the middle: there must be, in Education, an internal

element (Mind) and an external element (data form the senses) and both

play an indispensable part in education.

(“Modern Phito-Brubacher Philosophies of Education”, New

York, 1969, p. 309-312) divides education into three kinds, depending on

which approach is used to acquire it. The common Sense Approach is that

idea of education which every teacher has, is based on observation,

13

experience and practice. But when disputes arise between persons

something more objective may be required, and hence we have:

Epistemology/Theory of Knowledge

Epistemology is the study of the origin, nature, and limits of

human knowledge. The name is derived from the Greek words episteme

“Knowledge” and logos “reason”. Epistemology has had a long history

spanning the time of the pre-Socratic Greeks up to the present. Along with

metaphysics, logic, and ethics, it is one of the four main fields of

philosophy, and nearly every great Philosopher has contributed to the

literature on this topic.

The major issue with respect to the origins of knowledge is

whether all knowledge is derived from experience. There are two sharply

opposed traditions, that which affirms this view, and that which rejects it.

Rationalitsts believe there are innate ideas (i.e. concepts man has

independent of experience) such as the notion of equality, which are not

found in experience. Some rationalists contend that these notions are

derived form the structure of the human mind, others say that they exist

independently of the mind and are apprehended by the mind when it

reaches a certain degree of sophistication. Empiricists, by contrast, deny

that there are any concepts that exists prior to experience, and accordingly

they assert that all knowledge is a product of human learning in which

perception plays the main role. Perception itself is problematic, however,

since visual illusions and hallucinations show that perception cannot

always depict the world as it actually is. Another problem for empiricists

whose truth conditions do not depend on experience and seem to be known

a priori (i.e. prior to experience). The empiricist response to this claim is

that mathematical theorems are empty of cognitive content and merely

express the relationship of certain concepts to one another.

The great achievement of the 18th century German philosopher

was to have worked out a compromise between these competing views. He

argued that human beings do have knowledge that is prior to experience

and yet is not devoid of cognitive significance, the principle of casualty

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being one such example. Kant’s view can be summarized in the maxim that

there are a priori synthetic concepts.

The issues about the origins of knowledge are connected with

questions about its limits. Many empiricists such as, Descartes, Aristotle

and Locke and non empiricist, such as Kant, agree that the human mind has

the capacity to generate questions that no possible appeal to experience

could answer, such as whether there is a God, whether the world has a first

cause or is uncaused, and whether there is a reality behind that

apprehended by the sense. Kant labeled such questions transcendental (i.e.

going beyond the limits of rational inquiry), and in the 20th century; so-

called logical, such as Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, and A.J Ayer, have

declared such questions to be metaphysical and void of cognitive

significance.

Questions about the nature of knowledge span of knowing a wide

range, including, inquiries as to whether knowledge is a type of belief or is

different from belief, and whether knowledge is a special faculty in the

mind or is a disposition to act in certain ways. There is some measure of

agreement in dealing with such questions. Thus it is generally accepted that

any analysis of knowledge must satisfy the conditions that if a person “A”

can truly be said to know that “p’ where “p’ is a proposition, “p” must be

true, and “A” cannot be mistaken. This characterization connects

knowledge with certitude and thus with issues raised by ancient and

modern Skeptics, such as whether a person can achieve certitude about the

world, about the past, the mind of another person, or about oneself.

1.3 THE GENERALLY KNOWN ‘EDUCATIONAL THEORIES’

Though with changing values and introduction of innovative

ideas, it is a fact that so many new theories are coming in to existence since

long, yet the most commonly known theories are the following:

1. Perennialism

2. Essentialism

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3. Progressivism

4. Reconstructionism

5. Existentialism

1. Perennialism or Idealism:

Perennialism is the oldest philosophy or say theory. This is a

philosophy founded on the pillars of the past. This theory is fond of the

Educational masterpieces of the Great philosophers, the oldest concepts

and trends. Generally it is called a regressive theory. The perennialist

philosophers say that truth is that which is not variable and basic realities

never change. These basic realities were first discovered by great

philosophers. We should benefit from their great discoveries. We should

establish our education on concrete foundations and not to raise it on new

and unripe thoughts, as the Progressives think. This is why the perennialists

have deep faith in the great philosophical and literary masterpieces of the

philosophers of the past. They are afraid of variation and modernization.

They die after the thoughts of special personalities instead of the great ones

They use the intellectual and logical reasoning for this approach to the

reality. Further more, they prefer the concepts and theories to practice.

According to them, the aim of education is to shine the wisdom and

reasoning and not to make it practically useful’. They are of the view that if

an individual could sharpen the nail of his reason, he would be able to find

solution to any of the problems faced by him somewhere in future.

Therefore, neither there is any need of including practical problems in the

curriculum nor to waste time in their solution. That is why, the

perennialists are concerned with theoretical problems of the educational

institutions. Here, the students and the teachers discuss the special

problems of their atmosphere.

The basic principles of Perennialism: -

If we understand the basic principles of Perennialism, we can

prepare, in their light a perennial curriculum and issue special instructions

16

for the students and teachers. The basic examples of this school of thought

are given below.

1. The human nature never changes, hence there should be

uniformed education everywhere for each nation of the world. The

local atmosphere and the contemporary needs should not influence

the educational process. They agree that the fundamental

components of the soul are intention, reason and aesthetic sense.

Till this day, there has neither occurred any change in them, nor

seems possible to be there in future. It means that the human

nature has permanent qualities and the education should take care

of the same.

2. Education is preparation for life and it is not totally copying it.

The duty of the school is to prepare children for the future life.

Such methods may be arranged to enable the students to settle

their affair successfully, when they enter the field of practical life,

but during education there is no need of making them see the real

life or its glimpses.

3. To impart knowledge of eternal realities is the most important

obligation of education. Realities of temporary nature and that of

eternal nature were never considered to be equally important. A

sensible person shall try to procure eternal and invariable realities

during his learning process and all such realities are available in

masterpieces of the great philosophers.

4. Reason and argumentation are the distinct features of mankind

and it should use it for its own guidance. Reason is to decide the

wrong and right, legal and illegal. The human reason and

conscience are the most valuable things. A person must fully use

his reason in identifying the goals.

5. Discipline provides freedom of thought (liberal arts) and is

comparatively studied more. In this theory stress is always being

laid on the study of those subjects which are causing aspiration for

free thinking.

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2. Essentialism:

Definition:

A school of thought deeply related to Perennialism is called

Essentialism. The movement based on this point of view was started in the

third decade of the 20th century. Masson, Bagley and Kandel were its

enthusiastic exponents. If over all analyses of all countries through out the

world including Pakistan is done, probably the people upholding this

theory would be in greater number. When Russia superseded America in

sending an object to the space (for the first time), there was a great hue and

cry in the political, educational and defence circles of America. They were

crying with sorrow that they were left behind. The analysts were of the

view that it happened because standard of science and Arithmetic was very

high in Russia. The students are made to work more, while in America the

situation is quite changed. However, despite all this, a team of educational

critics led by Mr. Rickover, the inventor of atomic submarine came

forward. These people again succeeded in proving the superiority of

knowledge and arts on the like and dislike of the children. It was said that

though sciences and Arts have their own urgencies (importunities), yet in

selecting the instructional material, the discipline (subject matter) must be

preferred to the liking and disliking of the students. It meant that contrary

to the philosophy of interest of John Dewey, now, discussion on the

concept of necessity (essentialism) and the subject matter started. Hence

enthusiasm and interest in essentialism again erupted.

Similar to Perennialism, the Essentialistic school of thought, seeks

guidance from the past. But there is a vast difference between their

behaviours. The exponent of essentialism are not so conservative to die for

each tradition of ancient era and consider the oldest instructions only to be

mentionable. But rather, they love the useful and time tested cultural

heritage of the near past. They do not mean by the near past forty or fifty

years but generally they mean two three centuries. Any how, they are of the

view that all those educational traditions which could not go along with

time and were rejected and remained unheard after the passage of a long

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span, they should be ignored. How ever, those educational traditions which

are still existing and in spite of having undergone several tests/hardsbips’

they are surviving and making progress, they deserve to be followed.

Furthermore, those ones the position of which is stable and universally

accepted, they are worthy of being adopted and they are worthy to be

managed to be taught. It means that only the useful and stable cultural

heritage may be adopted.

As a matter of fact this school of thought focuses on the social

stability and on permanent institution. It means that the things which are

sustaining and surviving after having undergone the buffet and gush of the

time, also those which are still regarded by the people very useful and

beneficial, there is a need of adopting and preserving them. This is a

precious cultural heritage which has proved its existence, fruitfulness and

importance. This heritage is very widely known with the name of

Educational Essentials, the knowledge of which is very direly needed for

every student.

It is necessary to explain that essentialism is not confined to the

century old experimented educational heritage only, but it includes the

tested and useful sciences and Arts, traits and behaviours, principles and

skills of the modern civilisation. How ever, unless an educational

innovation is tested (experimented) and witnessed by the world, it cannot

be admitted into the Essentialism. That is why, Brameld has called the

theory of -Essentialism “the traditionalist (Perennialist) highway of the

culture.”

It is now quite evident that the philosophy of essentialism is a

composite of the idealism and realism. It plays the role of a bridge between

the ancient and modern theories. Neither this is the interpreter of the elite

class, nor exponent of the modernists. This appears to be the philosophy of

the middle class. What so ever may be its name, central importance in it is

given to the selection and “exploitation of authentic, useful and

experimented educational materials”.

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The basic principles of Essentialism:

The theories of essentialism become crystal clear during the study

of its principles. Let us cast a look at these principles and find as to how

much they could be benefited.

Principles of Essentialism:

1. Consistent hard work and diligence: If knowledge is to be sought

the students will have to undergo consistent labour and hard work.

The knowledge deemed essential must be taught to the students,

whether they take interest in it or not. Education and knowledge is

not a sweet drink, it could be bitter, as well.

2. During the educational process instead of student, the teacher

should take steps and perform: The teacher has the knowledge of

his own subject and it is his obligation to impart education to the

children. It is the duty of the students to benefit from the teachers

and collect, as much as possible, the educational facts and hints

from them.

3. Gaining solid educational material is the spirit of educational

process: It is the urgency of the life that the students should be

aware of the solid educational facts and the same may be

preserved in their mind as well, so that they are exploited when

needed.

4. To adapt the traditional methods to sharpen the mind and make it

brilliantly shine: To make the mind shine brilliantly and get it

polished is the foremost obligation of education. The traditional

methods are very suitable for strengthening the mind (mental

discipline). Command over the educational material is gained,

comparatively, in better form through the traditional methods.

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3. Progressivism

Definition:

The Americans are very practical people and a nation of

experimentation. They learn from their experiences and move forward.

Therefore, their philosophy of life is called Progressivism. Here instead of

past, the ‘present’ is loved. All new things are adopted very happily and are

tested experimentally; and the good/useful things are further promoted. The

cost and value of each thing is its usefulness. Though the roots of this

philosophy are as old as the ancient era, yet it gained fame in the 3rd and 4th

decades of the 20th century. Peterson and William James were its pioneers.

They were of the opinion that life is ever variable. It moves forward

constantly we should, therefore, remain every time ready for a new solution

and re-framing. In this philosophy, variation, evolution, freedom (liberty),

experimentation, fruitfulness and continuous diligence hold very important

position.

Progressivism is the instructional/educational shape of

Pragmatism. This is called the Progressive philosophy of education.

Brameld names it as a free high way of culture because an individual

enjoys (in this system) the maximum freedom. One can realise that this

philosophy is very liberal, flexible and progressive. It always looks to the

forward. Here variation, development, endless hard work and the zeal for

moving forward are highly respected. In the teaching methods, examination

and their standard but even in each thing variations are possible. The

teachers and students are, therefore, urged to remain ready for the changes

but rather bring about the same by themselves. The students are trained to

solve the practical problems. So that they may be able to lead a successful

life and not to remain a strayed only in simple theoretical and educational

things. The central importance in the education is the student. All the

educational curriculum is revolving around his interests and urgencies.

Curriculum is developed after knowing the interests and needs of the

student. Any curriculum prepared prior to knowing the said things is

considered useless. John Dewey and Kilpatrick have expressed their

21

assertions with great enthusiasm and they are the torch-bearers of the

progressive school of thought. Once, John Dewey established the fame of

his philosophy through out the educational world and even today its effects

are visible. How ever in 1955, Progressivism, as a movement came to an

end. The Russian stepping in the space inflicted badly upon the doctrine of

interest. In spite of this, the factual position is that the spirit of this

philosophy is still running in the modem educational institutions.

The Principles of Progressivism:

1. Education in itself is a life and it is not a preparation for life. This

principle means to make the students do, during learning such

works which are related to the practical life. They should not be

made to do all those practical and useful jobs which are faced by

the individuals in their practical life.

2. The interests and trends of the children are the real basis of

learning. This principle means if anything is intended to be taught

to the children. then the areas of student’s interests as well as, this

inclination must be ascertained. If they have no interest in any

thing at all, so nothing could be expected to be learnt by them.

3. Problems-learning oriented program maintains supremacy on

cramming the subject matter only. When students are learning

through problems and their solution method, this is called

‘Problem-oriented” education or learning. If the educational or

instructional materials are presented in the shape of problems and

they are simultaneously taught the ways to solve them, so the

knowledge attained thus would be far better than that which is

restricted to facts, events or principles, rules and educational

concepts etc or to cramming.

4. Teacher is the guide and leader. The teacher should guide and lead

the students whenever the need arises. He should not, in person,

dominate each thing every time. His right and suitable role is to

act as a consultant advisor but he himself should remain behind

the curtain as much as possible during the educational process. He

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should forward the students to play an active part and show

dynamism, all the time.

5. The school should emphasise on co-operation and association.

Healthy competition is a good thing, but educational and social

co-operation is always preferred to over co-operation. The

Progressives believe that for the prosperity or stability of

democracy, co-operation and unity are more useful/important than

personal benefit and enthusiasm of competition.

6. The school should be run on the principles of Democracy.

Democracy is the religion and faith of the Progressives. The real

nourishment of the students is possible only in a Democratic

atmosphere. The students should be provided with comparatively

more opportunities to know the democratic perception and

democratic way of life, even during the process of learning.

4. Reconstructionism.

Introduction:

The philosophy of reconstructionism is the claimant of the fact

that there is a dire need of bringing about basic and revolutionary changes

in the different societies of the world, because neither the minor

reformative steps work in the present day conditions nor the old

prescription or tips could deliver goods (could benefit). In addition to that it

is also a fact that there is a dire need of reconstruction in all fields of life,

which could best be done by education. It is an obligation of the teachers to

provide leadership to the nation and produce such youths who could adopt

themselves according to the urgencies of the new era. This era is the era of

different turmoils (crises) i.e. we are faced with political, economical,

educational, industrial say with several kinds of crises. To meet all these

crises we are to bring about fundamental changes in the field of education.

These changes should not be less, if not more than explosions, because

they are unavoidable and indispensable. If there is any negligence in this

respect, the collective and social lives of the nations would become bitter

23

and so many disturbances would take place. In 1932 Mr. George, S. Counts

supporting/encouraging the American schools, had presented his

proposition and program in America. The topic was “The school should

come forward to lay the foundation of new system”. Harold Rugg

promoted it further and Brameld presented it in a more organised and

comprehensive form. Anyhow, there are such educationists in different

nations of the world, who are the claimant of re-founding education on

revolutionary foundations. But it is true that they see it in the light of their

own society and environment. The presence of differences of viewpoint is

quite credible.

It is pertinent to note that philosophy of re-constructionism is a

social philosophy, which prefers to group and nation instead of an

individual. In this theory, preference is given to collective interests,

problems and needs. This philosophy is the torch bearer of collectivism

instead of progressivism. In its curriculum the central figures are the

collective problems and the collective affairs of the society. In a way it is a

collective revolutionary model of education. Not only the objectives and

goals of education need to be changed, but even all of the instructional

material, its organization/composition, teaching methodologies and

evaluation techniques must also be reconstructed. Anyhow, it is necessary

to bring about all these changes in consultation with all the social groups,

adopting a democratic attitude. This is also necessary to bring about great

meaningful changes and not to do only plastering and mud washing. It

means to demolish the old building completely and reconstruct purely a

new one on fresh foundations.

The basic principles of Reconstructionism:

1. The education should undertake the experimentation of new social

system immediately. The running century is the century of huge

problems and severe crisis. Now, there is a danger of getting the

civilisation and culture to become obsolete things (there is the

danger of the civilisation and culture to obliterate).

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2. The new society must be a democratic one in the real sense. This

is the second principle of Reconstructionism. To bring changes is

unavoidable and they must be brought, but not in a socialistic or

dictatorial manner. They must be brought by the mutual

consultation with different groups of the society.

3. Social and cultural factors are bound to influence/affect the child,

school and educational process. The torch bearers of the social

revolution say that the over all atmosphere of the society

extremely influences the individuals. All the individuals depict

their societies (The individuals would definitely, be similar to

their society). The thoughts and actions of an individual bear the

colour of the society. An agriculturist, an industrialist, capitalistic,

socialistic societies and the Islamic society are to colour the

individuals in their own nature.

4. The teacher may convince the students about the need of the

reconstruction. It is obligatory for a teacher to present honestly all

aspects of the problems faced by the society and should not hide

any one of them. Similarly, he may express, his own point of view

to the students, if need be, but should never intentionally try to

impose it on them.

5. There is due need of the reconstruction of the educational

objectives and resources. It is imperative to review the educational

objectives and resources. The society is faced with so much

complicated and perplexed problems that, now, neither the old

objectives of education are effective nor the ancient ways,

methodologies and resources are sufficient. The modem

contemporary demands are urging the new educational goals and

similar resources, it means that reorganisation of education is

extremely needed.

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5. Existentialism:

Definition:

The philosophy of Existentialism has quite distinct splendour

among all the traditional philosophies. It gives quite a new meaning to the

old philosophical terms of the soul and body. It, setting the old

philosophical procedure, to a side, presents totally a new way of thinking.

Here, instead of soul, reason and thought, the human existence and

sentiments/feelings respectively are discussed more. “Existentialism”, as a

matter of fact, is a protest against the conceptual and analytical philosophy

of Plato and Haigal. This theory is allergic to dried logical discourses and

void of the rapture of objective reasoning. In this theory it is tried to go

along with enthusiasm and reason, the explicit and intrinsic or latent

together. The exciting enthusiastic argumentation is not considered only

pleasant and agreeable but rather it is extremely essential. This is not an

emotional argumentation but rather a complete and natural one. Because

the excitement and reason are to discover the reality together. Mankind is

the bearer of “emotions” and a personality to do deliberations and thinking

too. To express abstract thoughts without any enthusiasm and sentiments,

is like pinching the dead bones. The existentialists claim that solution of

the problems of the modern man is not existing in the old theories. Only

Existentialism can present their satisfactory solution.

The philosophy of Existentialism came to existence, when a well

known philosopher of Denmark, Mr. Kierke’Garrel, strongly advocated

and expressed this theory in his books. Therefore, several kinds of people

began to advocate it. This is the reason that ssExistentialism has so many

colours/aspects i.e. religious, half religious, secular, literary etc. Martin

Hedgar, Zan Paul Safter, Karl Jaspers, Marshall and Beuber are the great

exponents of this school of thought. Sarter was the famous writer and

novelist of France. He was an enthusiastic commentator of Existentialism,

but he was a secular minded man, while Marshall was Christian and

Beuber was a Jew. Everyone presented and found his own fancy in

(through) Existentialism. However, all found place in it. The philosophy of

26

Existentialism is critical of both the Metaphysical as well as skeptical

philosophies and refutes them as well. It claims that man can discover the

fundamental realities of his existence and the reality is that which is a

living and dynamic fact. An imaginary fact is only an illusion having no

reality or existence. While narrating reality, we must mention the human

particulars and personal feelings. We should express exactly what we

experience. To contemplate with out sentiments is an unrealistic and

incomplete action. The correct thought or reflection is the mixture of the

objective and subjective (form), where in the basic importance is given to

the subject i.e. his own person. impartiality’ and cold objective

contemplation are not so much valuable things. The philosopher should do

argumentation full of emotions. Because it is only the emotion that unveils

in the conditions of the elevated feelings, the highest realities. Without

feelings/emotions, the realities cannot be discovered by reason only.

According to Existentialism, “the Universe has no meaning

without human being”. It is the presence of mankind which creates

meaningfulness in the Universe and life. The mankind is not indebted to

nature but rather it is under obligation to its own person. All of its hustle

and bustle and activities are due to the “Existence of life” “but

Existentialism is to come first and all other things are counted later on.

First of all, the mankind comes into life, then he is moulded in a special

materice and makes appearance. Thereafter, a personal identity is attained

by him. Anyhow, a mankind develops his character with his own

deeds/performances in life. He, himself is the creator of his fate No one

else can do this. Personality cannot develop with the help of the

combination of sense, action, contemplation and the freedom of selection.

If there is an impression of one’s own person on one’s personality, then it

is the negation of one’s ego and life. All my wishes, my aspirations, my

ambitions, my affections, my worries, my successes and failures are mine.

The honour and prestige of my innerself is due to the fact as mentioned

earlier. “To be shy of one’s own person is an inhuman act”. According to

Sarter man makes his person himself. Each individual has the right to build

and form his personality himself. The majority has no right to oppress and

27

impose their will on the minority, killing in this way, the personal

ambitions and aspirations of individuals. Existence is the central point of

Existentialism. Dekart was quoted to have said that as he was thinking,

hence he was existing. The Existentialism, contrary to that, says “I am

existing hence I am doing contemplation”. It means that the first

philosopher had acknowledged his existence after the act of thinking; while

the second one recognised his existence first and there after contemplation

came into being. In existentialism the human existence is the greatest

reality. The person and its existence are the main spring of all realities. The

person and existence come first into being and thereafter the thought and

concepts shoot up from them. Consequently, existence has preference over

thought, concepts and mind; and it proves dependable in the real sense.

Every person is always aware of his existence, intuitively, for which no

rational argument is needed.

Principles of Existentialism:

1. First existence and then the essence or soul. The body is the most

favourable thing while the soul is its essence. The actual reality is

the body and the soul retains secondary position. Most of the

Existentialists negate the presence of soul. To them, the real soul

is that man should be completely free in his will and choice. He

may do what ever he likes. Complete liberty is the real essence (of

the life and universe).

2. The life and Universe are aimless: The life in itself, has no aim.

Every person himself should specify the aim for himself. He

should, completely, be free in gaining the aim. The society should

avoid to impose the collective objectives and goats or aims, on

individuals.

3. Human being is free and he himself is answerable to his own

deeds: Complete freedom is natural right of human being.

Whatever, he may like, he may contemplate and take to finality

his freedom, in the way he likes. To lay social, religious and

political restrictions on him are illegal.

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4. Man himself is the builder of his future: Life comes to existence

because of action. On account of continuous struggle and effort

man can build his personality. Simply gossiping and talking are

not to make a success flourish. Those who want identification of

their personality, they should demonstrate their practical deeds.

5. Mankind is the mixture of Reason and enthusiasm and there must

be unity between them while taking any decision: Those decisions

which are based merely on reason and there is no role of

emotions/enthusiasm in it they are incomplete and unrealistic.

Man possesses emotions beside reason. Rather the best exposure

of the humanity of a man is best made on account of his

demonstration of emotions.

6. Mankind should be concerned with the long lasting Problems:

General problems are not worth focusing. More attention should

be focused on those problems/issues which are extremely

important and which retain equal importance for all the humanity.

An individual should try to know the mystery of death and life,

they should know the grief (depth of feeling) of love and affection

of separation.

1.4 NATURE VERSUS NURTURE:

Definition:

Prior to presenting complete deliberation on the subject matter, I

would like to probe first into the definition of Nature and Nurture with

reference to certain educational theories as well as some renowned

educators.

“Nature”, literally means ‘thing’s essential qualities’. According

to Oxford Advanced Learners dictionary, ‘Nature, is the inherent or

essential quality or constitution of a thing, the innate disposition or

character of a person or animal or of a human kind, generally. Also an

individual element of character, disposition, etc; a thing or person of a

29

particular quality or character; a kind, a sort, a class. Idiomatically, it is

used for the whole phenomenon of the universe, in its original form. In

addition to that, Nature is also used to denote the instinct of a thing or a

person. The physical and biological constitution of the body is also called

“Nature”. Similarly, the role of heredity with out environment in education

is named “Nature”. Also it is used in denoting positive and a good state of

affairs, negating the adverse or negative approaches. From the origin of

Nature words like ‘Natural’ by ‘Natural’ ‘Naturalist’ and ‘Naturalism’ are

made. The essence of the same meaning is denoted by all the forms of

Nature. When we say that this thing or action is quite natural, we mean by

that to be an original and positive one. Similarly, when we say “Naturally”

in response to some body’s question, it means “as expected” or “of course”

besides using it as a verb i.e. Naturalise, which means to make a person

‘co-citizen and make him free from all formal limitations and barriers.

“Naturalism” is one of the educational theories, the basis of which

is the word “nature”. In this theory, teaching learning process is usually

considered to be based on “Naturalism”. This theory in a formal shape was

first introduced by the French Psychologist, Rousseau. But it is also found

present, though in an un-organised form, in the teaching of Aristotle and

his early followers. But in the modern era, it got much popularity among

the philosophic cum educational circles. In the recent past Rousseau was

the first educator who upheld this philosophy in the 18th century and

revived it again. To him (a) The state of time (b) Extremely varied

experiences of his life and (c) His impulsive as well as emotional nature

(these three items) are the real factors that have influenced him and his

thoughts. His philosophy is usually designed by the term “Naturalism”.

The key note of his philosophy is to have “a state of Nature”, “Natural

man” and “Natural civilisation”. He contends that all the ills and miseries

of civilisation are due to a departure from a “State of Nature”. “Return to

Nature” was his method to cure the work of ills and miseries. In the

opening sentence of his book “Emile”, Rousseau gives the indication of his

philosophy and says “Every thing is good as it comes from hands of the

author of nature but every thing degenerates in the hands of man”.

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Wordsworth, a renown English poet has also followed Rousseau’s theory

of Naturalism for education and said that one should throw the book and

learn from the Great Book of Nature because Nature is the best teacher.

Again Rousseau has observed, ‘Civilised man is born, lives and dies in a

state of slavery at his birth, he is stitched in swaddling (bandage, bind with

clothe) at his death he is nailed in his coffin and as long as he preserves the

human form, he is fettered by our institutions. Leave him alone.

The theory of liberalism, to some extent in the modern theories,

resembles with ‘Naturalism”. But their principles differ from each other. In

‘Naturalism”, the following three are the main sources of education.

(a) Education of Nature: ‘The constitutional exertion of our organs

and faculties is the education of Nature’. The role of heredity in

education is also called “Nature”.

(b) Education from Circumstances: ‘And in the acquisitions made by

our own experience, on the objects that surround us, consists of

our education from circumstances’ e.g. learning from

environment.

Nurture:

Lexicographically, Nurture means ‘To bring up’, “To nourish’,

and “To “nurse” a person. Idiomatically, it means the overall brought up of

a child. To use all possible techniques to fulfill the needs of a man kind i:e.

the needs of his body, mind and soul. As is evident from its lexicographic

meaning apparently Nurture is understood to be confined only to feeding a

child, but this food would not be only for the stomach, but while doing

nourishment of a child or a student, we would have to arrange it for all of

his three potentials e.g. body, mind and soul.

Nurturing or nourishing a student or helping youngsters in their

nourishment etc. is not only restricted to the environment of a home or a

family. In the larger sense, this is now being used and understood as a

teaching methodology. To some it may appear to be a strange assertion, but

it is a fact that neither leaving a child only to the nature can solve the

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problem of better education nor nurture can do it alone. It is a reality that

both i.e. providing a natural atmosphere and standardised nurture to the

students, would help to improve the quality of education. This is also a fact

that the exponents of Naturalism are also not totally against nurture, but

they only object to some of the extreme forms of limitations and

confinements. There is a delicate difference between an unbridled liberal

form of naturalistic teaching techniques and that of useful as well as liberal

but not unethical system. The whole assertion of Rousseau advocates free

as well as slightly man guided education.

The main stress is laid by Rousseau on how to handle a child. Man

making education, Rousseau has observed, “it matters little to me, whether

any pupil be designed for army, the bar, or the pulpit. Nature has destined

us to offices of human life. To live in the profession I would teach him.

When I have done with him, it is true, he will either be a lawyer, a soldier

or a driver. Let him first be a man, he will on occasion as soon become any

thing else, that a man ought to be, as any other person what ever fortune

may remove him from one rank to another as she pleases he will be always

sound in his place”. It is true that education by nature will restore

unsophisticated man, whose sole function is to be a man. In the natural

order of things, all men being equal their common vocation is manhood,

and who ever is well trained for that, cannot fail to perform any vocation

connected with it.

Characteristics of Rousseau’s Naturalism:

Rousseau believes in freedom of the child. To develop his inborn

and innate capabilities, a child may be provided a free atmosphere. That

free atmosphere (free form all hindrances) is the main factor in making his

theory of Naturalism. He does not believe in punishing the child so as to

correct his future behaviour. The reason behind this assumption, according

to Rousseau is very simple. The child is not able to link up the punishment

administered and the mischief done by him. Children therefore, should be

left alone to experience the consequences of the nature. If children commit

mistakes and violate the principles of nature, they naturally invite the

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retribution of nature. This conception in the filed of education is known as

‘Discipline by natural consequences’.

Secondly, in the field of natural education, Rousseau starts with

the assumption that the nature of child is essentially good, hence he should

have freedom in his actions. This notion seems to have been taken by him

from Islam. Not his all assertions could be claimed to be based on the

Islamic theory about children, but the half of it. i.e. ‘the nature of child is

essentially good” is truly based on it. Islam (the prophet of Islam--- SAW)

says that each baby is born on Nature’. Thereafter, they are the parents to

make him a Jewish, a Christian or Zoroastrian (Magus). But Islam does

impose restriction and supports light punishment to the children after

having attained the age of ten years and above. While Rousseau, does not

agree to this. Firstly he believes that the child will not commit any immoral

act and secondly even if he commits any, he will learn morality by the

natural consequences of the action done

The main source, through which his teachings and educational

concepts could be understood is Rousseau’s own book namely “Emile”. He

has given an idea as derived from his assertion, of Natural Negative

Education.

Natural and Negative Education

The approach of Rousseau in the filed of education is through out

naturalistic. He had no faith in the established and set order of the society.

When he talks of negative education, he means that the child should be

subject to a natural order and free from a social order. Negative education

means to allow the child to move freely in nature, so that he is able to

perfect the organs of his body, which are the instruments of acquiring

knowledge. This free movement will not mean teaching virtue or truth, but

protecting the heart of child from the evil ways of the society.

The negative education of Rousseau has the following implications.

1. To lose the time wisely: Rousseau was of the opinion that

childhood was meant only for losing and gaining nothing.

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However, a child may be provided the opportunity to lose time

wisely and freely. It is not a period when time is to be saved for an

intensive study of books. The child should be given plenty of

opportunities to run, jump, play all a long. Thus developing his

organs which will enable him to acquire knowledge when the right

occasion comes for it.

2. No Normal or Formal Lesson: According to Rousseau, the child

is not in need of formal teaching in the class. He believes that

verbal lessons are useless burden on the memory of the child and a

sheer waste from the educational point of view. The child is not

able to interpret and assimilate on the basis of cause and effect

theory, hence it is easily forgotten.

3. No Place for Book Learning: To Rousseau formal education has

no importance. He is totally against imparting education with the

help of books. He holds that reading is a curse and books have no

place in the education of the child. He advocated that the child

should think for himself and learn with his own efforts, as the first

ever born person did in the world

4. No Need of Moral Education: Rousseau is extremely opposed to

imparting moral education to a child. He advocates non-moral

type of education. In his view the child is the purest thing in

nature and therefore, there is no need for his moral teaching.

‘Morality” is something which is beyond the understanding power

of children. The reason behind this assumption is that to him

morality and reasoning do not go together. The child, therefore,

should be left to learn form the lessons of nature. If he commits a

mistake, he will suffer and learn in a natural way as it is said that a

burnt child dreads the fire.

5. No Habit Formation: Rousseau is not in favour of any habit

formation during childhood. He however, favours natural habits

and holds that the child should be left alone to have natural habits.

He does not believe in any habit formation at this stage and is

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believed to have said, “the only habit a child is to form is not to

form any habit”. He believes that every body is a slave to his

habits and the same may be true about the child.

6. Back to Nature: Rousseau is of the view that the state of nature

in which man lived long ago was a blissful state. Modern

civilisation is the main cause of the misery of mankind. The

alternative before mankind is “back to nature”. The customary

procedures of the civilised society should be done away with and

the natural state may, be accepted again. He is against the formal

shape of discipline. He says that the nature is the best retributer.

This theory of his is known as ‘Discipline by Natural

consequences’.

Contribution of Rousseau Naturalism to Education

Nurture:

Rousseau does not allow strict discipline in nurturing or

nourishing. So far the rest of educationists are of the view that discipline is

very much essential for education. John Dewey, Froebel, Pestelozi and

other so many educators uphold this. Dewey, is also the follower of nature

and nurture simultaneously. However, in view of all the educationists, the

influence of Nurture would be more as compared to Nature in the

education of a child. Rousseau, though advocating negative education, yet

we see him while educating ‘Sophy” he himself frames rules for her

education. Also he applies some different method for her teaching. Also

tries to make her follow a sort of discipline in her life i.e. ‘the woman is

made specially to please man’. She is, therefore, to suffer and bear the

wrongs of her husband without complaint. From all his similar assertions it

is evident that he also indirectly keeps himself involved in ‘teaching” as

well as nurturing. His love for simplicity in all things is misconceived as if

he does not support discipline. He permits discipline to some extent even in

childhood. In his view the nature of a woman’s duty towards man is to train

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him in childhood, to tend him in manhood and to counsel him throughout

his life. ‘However, he is not favouring the children more intellectual than,

being natural and simple. He says, “I would hundred times prefer a simple

girl, rudely brought up to a girl of learning”.

Such types of traditional concepts have misled several critics to

think that ‘Nature and Nurture’ are two opposite theories, but the real

contents of Rousseau’s teaching and that of the remaining experts of social

sciences are that both of these methods are supplementary as well as

complementary to each other to some extent. In the brought up of a child

observance of the principles of nature as well as nurture are equally

essential. However, the extreme forms of both are to be neglected as they

are impracticable.

Demerits of Naturalism/or Negative Education: (all demerits of Naturalism are the merits of Nurture)

1. Naturalism in its extreme form neglects books and other media. It

is very difficult to assume that we can neglect the vast quantities

of printed materials.

2. Physical nature alone is not sufficient for providing education still

we need some more things to provide. Absolute freedom to child

is a myth. It cannot exist and practise. Child cannot be allowed the

freedom to hang himself.

3. Naturalism ignores higher ends in the educational process (but

nurture gives importance to them).

4. It is very difficult to find naturalistic surroundings for locating

educational institutions.

5. Naturalism assigns very little importance to the teacher in the

educational process, hence no new thoughts and developmental

tasks could be promoted.

6. Rousseau does not allow habit formation but a set of good habits

is also essential for good character.

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7. His doctrine of discipline by natural consequences is also

doubtful. The child at his tender age without foresight, without

reason and without developing his correct understanding cannot

correct or improve his character. At such stages he requires

guidance i.e. nurturing.

1.5 EDUCATION AND CULTURE:

Definition:

Education means “To train, to bring up and to nourish”. In the

view of Aristotle, education is “a process necessary for the creation of a

sound mind in a sound body”. As assumed by Mrs. Tanveer Khalid by

saying, “the importance of every subject included in the Greek curriculum

was assessed in terms of its capacity to train body, mind and soul”. The

definition of education, presented by John Dewey is more closely related to

the above captioned topic. He says, “education is a process of living

through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development

of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his

environment and fulfill his possibilities”. On the other hand -culture means

a blend of a nation’s rituals, customs, historical heritage and social norms.

To analyse the components of education and that of culture, it is concluded

that they are inter depended. Furthermore, both of them are very closely

related.

It is well said that if education is not some thing static, but it is a

continuous and life long process. Culture and its conservation is also one of

its aims. Education and culture are complementary to each other. The

former definition of education implies that a child has some natural

potentialities. These ought to be developed in conformity with the

‘demands of the society’. From here the creation, preservation and

conservation of culture take place. It means that in framing the aims of

education as well as in its progress, culture plays an important role. While

on the other hand education provides new ways and means for

strengthening culture. Both of them are supporting each other.

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Background:

Soon after the birth of a man and through out his life he under

goes varied experiences and continuously learns one way of behaviour or

another, finally becoming a part of the prevailing culture. The human

culture is as old as man himself. Same is the case with education.

Education and philosophy are very difficult to be separated and similarly

culture and education are, too. Due to the external, social and cultural

pressures, an individual is subjected to varying and changing conditions of

life and circumstances. During the learning stage of his life, a child learns

so many things from others. Certain habits and attitudes are adhered by him

as well. All this is called culture. In fact we all learn from each other,

through out lives. Having learnt from their elders, the contemporary

personalities pass their values and culture to the coming generations. This

exercise is possible only through education. People learn how to get along

with their fellow beings just by living among them.

The relation between education and culture:

Teachers take the responsibility of educating the youth of a nation.

They have to look after their all round development. Teachers are the

ultimate builders of a nation. While a nation with out a culture cannot be

differentiated from other nations, hence, it is proved that the process of

teaching, learning is a much strong way/mean of the culture to flourish.

The teachers are also supposed to translate and to practise a country’s

educational theories and policies by implementing them in a real and

practical situation.

Above all, as in the process of education, History is being studied

which is the main and basic record of culture, hence it cannot be denied

that it is being nourished by education. Similarly, the purposeful and

befitting education helps in the strength and spread of culture. The needs of

the society, whether religious, social, cultural or psychological - all are

fulfilled only by education. Mrs. Tanveer Khalid while narrating the

interdependence of education and Culture says that one of the important

functions of education is the conservation of culture. Continuity in man’s

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social life is possible through this process. The valuable cultural heritage,

which has accumulated a vast store of human knowledge and experience, is

transmitted to coming generations through this process. The valuable

cultural heritage, which has accumulated a vast store of human knowledge

and experience, is transmitted to the coming generations through education,

other wise each generation would have to go over them again. Culture

includes arts, sciences, religions and the social customs developed

gradually by many people contributing to it. It has to be conserved and

transmitted to the youth for their own benefits because past benefits are

useful in learning the new ones.

It is the oriental type of education which is, simply, aimed at the

recapitulation on the past. In the education system of the primitives, the

educational aims were identical to those of their parents. The youth aimed

to learn what they expected to do as adults. What they expected to do as

adults was exactly the same that their parents have been doing. Thus the

aim of education was to conserve their culture or to enhance further the

amount of their social experiences. In fact group survival was not only the

group aim but the individual aim as well.

It is generally believed that even those early civilisations which

had advanced far beyond the primitive level were distinctly conservative in

their educational aims. So far the ancient Chinese is concerned, it had an

educational system which aimed at the perpetuation of a static social order.

The early Occidental civilisation of Greece also reflected some of the

conservative perceptions of the Orient. The aim of Spartan education, for

example, was conservative. In Sparta, social survival depended largely

upon the military ability of the Spartans. Consequently the chief aim of

their education was identical with the military virtues, such as courage,

respect and obedience for superiors, patriotism and loyalty to the state etc.

To conclude, it is advisable to say that whether it was the

education of the old or new Greek period or Homeric or Spartan period, it

has been a main instrument of conserving as well as nurturing human

culture. Similarly, “may it be a very barbarian culture and civilisation but

still the process of education is visible there”. All activities, according to

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the prevailing conditions have been seen through out all these ages, which

supported education. Neither culture nor education can survive in isolation.

They will have to go along with each other for so many years to come.

1.6 INDOCTRINATION, TRAINING AND EDUCATION:

Definition:

“Indoctrination” is derived form the word “sDoctrine”. Doctrine

means “a body of instruction”. While idiomatically it is used in the

meaning of ‘faith”, “theory” or ideology”. This refers to the introduction of

ideology, whether religious or otherwise in the instructional process and

the educational system. ‘Indoctrinate’ means “to imbue with an idea or

doctrine’ or ‘to teach systematically to accept ideas uncritically”. The word

‘Brain wash” is also used in the same sense. As such ‘indoctrination’

means ‘the use of formal instruction in the process of learning’ or ‘the

inclusion of religious or political education in the curriculum”. In the

ancient days, education and knowledge were sought for the sake of

education and knowledge respectively. With the passage of time several

factors and multifarious considerations emerged which influenced the

educational process through out the world. So far indoctrination is

concerned, it stresses on the inclusion of ideological materials in education,

which is not recommended by other group of educators. In other words

they mean to purify the educational theories, principles, texts, models and

methodology from the influence of all other factors except educational as

well as humane.

In most of the countries, the theory of nationalism was, once

prevailing very commonly. Similarly, certain other considerations were

dominating. For example, the Germans, the Arabs and the English along

with the people of the sub-continent were very much fanatic nationalists.

They would pay no heed to any other factor except that of the nationalistic

one. The effect of nationalism would even prevail in their educational

system. They would teach, hand in hand with the subject matter, the sense

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for their nationalism, as in the pre-Islamic period was the condition of

Arabia as well. Before, the advent of Islam, the followers of Judaism and

Christianity would emphasise on their rituals to be included in the

curriculum etc. This perception in mind the followers of Islam, due to deep

regard for it, liked their teaching/learning process, from the core of their

heart to be adorned with the glory of their -religion. However, contrary to

other religions, Islam did not stress upon man to keep himself purely

restricted to religious education. As Christianity, in the earlier period

would not allow its followers to study philosophy, logic and science. But

Islam advocates their learning. The difference is that Islam would like first

to make those subjects Islamised or study them in such a way to ensure that

the learner would not become an infidel etc.

Simultaneously, with the emergence of certain other philosophies

and issues in the world, education also began representing the same. In

capitalistic countries, the overall picture of each and every field turned to

be wearing that colour. The educational courses and text books would

present materials based on capitalistic approaches. While the education

system in the socialistic countries would represent their notion about life,

even if they restricted all of their activities to the promotion of dialectical

materialism, it was the centre of their education. However, it is very

difficult to identify as to how far inclusion of such doctrine in the

educational process is useful and permissible. If we make resort to the

theory of Aristotle and Rousseau then there would be no place for this type

of indoctrination in education. Because, the real philosophers and genuine

educationists are totally against indoctrination.

Though the exponents of nationalism, communism and religion

are of the view that such inspirations are very much essential for the

training of a person, yet the humanistic group does not agree with them.

They advocate keeping of the educational process free from all such trends

which hampers human beings form developing their personalities properly.

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Situation In Pakistan

In view of the conditions prevailing in our country, Pakistan, the review of

the curricula and ecucational system had become imperative. All the

countries of the sub-continent in general and that of Pakistan in particular

had quite a different story. They had been freed after more than 200 years

of foreign domination. The British rulers had been running this country and

all its departments according to their own objectives. Most of the

inhabitants of this country were made (in the words of Lord Maccaulay)

“to be Indian in blood and colour but English in taste and opinion, in moral

and intellect.”

Furthermore, purely secular education was being imparted in the sub-

contenent in addition to their missionary designs, in the pre-independence

era which had developed adverse effects, the repucussions of which being

felt till the eve of independence.

Circumstances like this necessiated this change in our educational

mythology, plus the view of bridging the gapes so left, since long, in the

brought up of this Muslim nation. Islamic faith and ideology of Pakistan

was ever being Emphasised. There was another good reason for including

the faith of Islam in the curricula and that was the fact that this country had

come into existence on the basis of the same faith.

Islamic Ideology and the Role of Education in an Islamic Country:

The pre-independence history of education in our country is replenished

with such incidents and events which show that the inhabitants of this area

were, forcefully deprived of the right of exhibiting their religious as well as

ideiological relationship with their religion “Islam”. The rulers like

“Maculay” had prepared such a scheme of studies for the people of sub-

continent which would make them subservient to the English rulers,

besides making them Indians in colour but English in opinion and

behaviour. Just after having attained self rule in our country Pakistan, our

elders and leaders felt the need to review the education system. The first

and the foremost task before them was to reconstruct the basic foundations

42

of all the compulsory pillars of society. Simultaneously, work was started

on improving the education system of the country . First of all stress was

laid on providing Islamic sand indigenous system to go along with the

prevailing conditions.

While framing the objectives of education several seminars, workshops and

conferences were held intermittently which ended at the conclusion that

Islam must be the back bone of all of our systems.

To go through the reports of different policy makers and commissions it is

found that approximately all of them have been unanimous in putting

Islamic values at the top, while selecting the objectives. The first

conference of 1947, indicated several objectives including Islam for

education. There after, in 1951, a conference was held under the

supervision of the central ministry of education which was attended by the

provincial ministers, secretaries of education, Vice Chancellors and the

directors of public instructions who determined the basis of national plan

the development of education in Pakistan. They also recommended that the

deficiency in the courses and that curriculum should be recovered. Further

more, the report of another commission on national education framed in

1959, is also a valueable document. In this report the need of national unity

was much stressed. At that time unity could only be retained by adopting

Islamic system of education.

With the passage of time, the masses were reawakened. Emphasis on

adopting purely Islamic system of education or at least including Islamic

values as an objective in the course of study was made. By that time in

1972, an education policy was framed which has categorically supported

the Islamic value to be included in the courses. In those days extreme

pressure was developed by the public the introduction of Islamic system,

which compelled the people at the helm of the affairs to announce the

Islam to be the official religion of Pakistan i.e the constitution of 1973,

clearly contains these words.

Last but not the least, the education policy of 1979 was totally based on

Islamic teachings and the ideology of Pakistan. According to this policy all

43

the curricula were revised and reframed in the light of said policy though,

there were some elements against the introduction of certain subjects in the

schools i.e Arabic as a compulsory subject, yet still it was widely

welcomed. In this way Islamic ideology and Islamic values gained

popularity in Pakistan. Adoption of Islamic ideology in fields of our life is

now the dire need of the time. Therefore, it must be retained and followed

in our education system. Because the generations to come would be the real

builders of the nation. While the nation could be kept intact only through

adopting Islamic values and Islamic ideology. If we follow and act upon

Islamic ideology, regionalism, provincialism and sectarianism would come

to an end. The life would also become peaceful and prosperity would

prevail every where.

Based on the above mentioned significances, all the education policies

have specifically made Islamic education as the back bone of all curricula.

We shall study all the education policies in chapter titled “The

Development of Education in Pakistan”. After the policy of 1979 two more

policies namely 1998-2010 and 2009 policies have been framed by the then

and the current governements respectively.

1.7 ANDRAGOGY VERSUS PEDAGOGY:

Definition:

If pedagogy, literally means the science of teaching “Andragogy”

is the science of self directed learning. Both are usually used to stand for

the ‘science of teaching”. However, their models and instances are

definitely different from each other. Usually, Andragogy and Pedagogy are

used for ‘the principles of training and educating adults”. This term is also

used for the principles of teaching and learning, based mostly on the

psychological grounds of education.

Background.

In the educational psychology, constant developments have been

taking place since long. Towards the middle of the 20th century, a very

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common feeling was found, among the educationists, influenced by

Aristotle, Rousseau and John Dewey, that pupils centred curriculum should

be introduced. Several experiments were carried out and so many schools

were established where each educator, would test his own pedagogy. The

stress was always laid to let the pupil feel free and give him contents based

on “psychomotor skills”, to comprehend the same on his own, with out

depending much on the teacher.

However, this shift from ages long system based on pedagogy,

cannot be made over night. It will take time. But still there are several

educators who advocate “Andragogical contents’, instead of depending on

stereo type pedagogical ones. While there is an enough number of those

opting for a third procedure i.e. Malcoims Knowles writes, “if a learner is

entering in particular, into a totally strange content area, he or she will be

dependent on a teacher until enough content has been acquired to enable

self-directed inquiry to begin”. This means, that the observance of teachers

is required but not his stereo-typed guidance and extremely constant

interference to the limits to negate the self dependence of the learner.

Being mostly standing for the principles and theories learning and

educating adults, this has to be experimented in comparatively higher

classes, where the cognitive domain of a learner has expanded. It is

observed by an educator, (name not yet known), “I too, wondered after

reading (this theory), in what instances the pedagogical model would be

more appropriate than the andragogical. Our text offers the example of a

leaner who is introduced to content that is ‘totally’ strange and involves

“precise psychological skills’. A text I bought for another class frames it in

a similar content.

To be realistic, none of us can do away with pedagogy, but it is

sure that to some extent its unwanted influence could be minimized.

Interestingly, the above quoted educator further says, “overall I am getting

the impression that most consider pedagogy to be the least desirable model

to practice and for obvious reasons. This type of model encourages the

students not to depend on themselves or trust their own thinking. A

personal example that comes to mind is a literature class that I took as an

45

undergraduate. The instructor wanted us to keep journals as we read our

books to record our thoughts, feelings (and so on and so forth) etc. I

distinctly remember being very frustrated and kept producing (pricking)

her into divulging ‘what she wanted up to write’. She always responded

with, “that is up to you”. At that time, it was truly a ‘process’ for me to

trust my own judgment and thinking. No one had really ever expected or

required it before. In retrospect, I laugh because I was so dependent on her

thinking and not my own. However, at the time, it was not funny”.

Though, this theory is yet under process and it has not been totally

implemented, yet the desires for its introduction in our teaching

institutions, is growing day by day. Time is yet to come to increase the

creativity and I.Q. of the people of this part of the land i.e. Pakistan, so as

to be able to go along with such practices. However, in the developed

countries and those ambitious one which are influenced by the teaching of

Aristotle, Rousseau and John Dewey very rapid approach is being made to

it. It is said, “self directed learning, models andragogical models should be

implemented as early as possible. I know that personally, (had it been

adopted earlier) it would have drastically changed my personal and

academic achievement”.

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UNIT-2

PIONEERS IN EDUCATION

2.1 ROUSSEAU (JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU):

His Life History:

According to the narration of historians like Mrs. Tanveer Khalid,

Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva (Switzerland), in 1712, in the

house of a poor watch maker. It is the consensus opinion of all the

educators that if Voltaire was the leader of the “Naturalistic movement” in

the earlier stages, Rousseau was that of the later stages. Due to his family’s

poverty he could not get proper education. He had no literacy training or

knowledge. However, it was only for sometime that he received a little

education from his father informally at home. Form the age of 12 to 29

years, he remained a vagabond and during this period be traveled from

place to place and developed sympathy for the poor and the miserable.

Thus, he learnt to love nature and to dislike the conventional rules of the

society. During his interaction with the family of M.Dc. Malby, as tutor of

his two sons, he was motivated to get higher education.

For the first time, he participated in an essay writing competition,

in 1750, held under the auspices of the Academy of Dijon. The topic of the

essay was, “Has the restriction of the Arts and Sciences. contributed to the

purification of morals”? This opportunity marked the beginning of his

literacy fame and of his anti-social bias’. To him the main cause of the

existing operation and corruption of the society is the advancement of the

civilization. Again, on a similar topic, he wrote his second book “The

Origin of Inequality Among Men” in 1753. To him civilization is the chief

cause of bringing inequality and differences among men. In this way,

gradually, Rousseau emerged totally an ‘anti-social’ and revolutionary’

47

moded man. He produced his other two important works, ‘The social

contract’ and ‘Emile’. in 1762. These two have very perfectly, classified

his educational philosophy, besides his theory about the existence of a

society.

Once Rousseau had to leave Paris. His anti-social and anti-state

thoughts were the real cause of his desertion. The Arch Bishop of Paris,

just after the publication of ‘Emile’, had condemned it as an irreligious

book and ordered it to be burnt by the public prosecution. However, in the

latter stages of his life, he came back to Paris and after few years died

there. He was a genuine educator.

His Contributions:

As earlier stated, Rousseau wrote several books. The prominent

among them were:

(1) His essay on, ‘Has the restoration of the arts and sciences

contributed to the purification of morals?”

(2) His second book is, “The origin of inequality among men”

(3) His third book is, “The social contract.”

(4) His fourth and the last book is, “Emile” duly published in 1762.

His Philosophy and Principles of Education:

(1) His philosophical as well as educational concept revolves around

‘the Naturalistic Movement’. More than philosophy, his concept

of education is Naturalistic. He is totally against the traditional or

formal education. To him such type of education is undesirable, as

it is man made instead of being natural.

(2) The main sources of knowledge/education are three i.e. (i) nature

(ii) man and (iii) things. In addition to this, he regards nature,

equivalent to “endowment”. Education according to nature is

frequently interpreted to mean nothing more than the spontaneous

development of the innate disposition, of the child. To him

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education does not mean merely imparting of information or

seeking knowledge but it is the development of the child under

disposition.

The impact of social relations and various social groups constitutes

education from men. The child has to live in a society, wrong or

right but he has to get impressions and influences from it. He

believed that education from ‘man’ and ‘things’ should, however, be

sub ordinate to that from ‘nature’. He himself preferred the latter one

because to him emotions were more trust worthy experiences which

are received in a society. To him the aim of education was the

development of the abilities of the learning, besides the liberty and

happiness of the child. While another aim according to him is “not

only preparation for life, but participation in it”.

3) Child is always born good: during the Christian era, the child was

considered as the product of sin of the man, hence was treated,

previously, very harsh , but to Rousseau, a child is born good. He

might have borrowed this idea from Islam. Child is not a grown

up ‘man’; hence we should not expect him to behave like matured

people. He says, “Beware of anticipating teaching which desired

more maturity of mind”.

4) Nature: To him, “before our innate tendencies are wrapped by our

prejudices they are called, “nature”. Furthermore “To Rousseau

that which is natural is good and anything that is conventional or

artificial is evil”. Nature and society thus become opposed to each

other. “Nature is an ‘endowment’ lastly; he sees ‘nature of

universe is governed by a divine authority”. Its one other

interpretation is “to live according to nature” .... He should live

according to reason.

49

5) Three phrases of Rousseau’s process of education: Rousseau has

discussed three different phrases of education “the natural or

negative”, “the social or moral”, “the civic or political”, in his

book ‘Emile’. In this book, he like the Greeks, recognized the

importance of physical exercises in the education of the child. He

recommended the inclusion of these activities in the curriculum of

the child, as moral values and the social training can be derived

from participation in these.

In this treatise, Rousseau has introduced a new method of

education and a new type of curriculum. He has also outlined the education

of women, while prescribing it for Sophy whom Emile intends to marry. In

this book, he has also presented different stages in the development of

human life. While writing Emile, Rousseau was aware of his services in

bringing a revolution in education. Lord Morley recognized Emile as, ‘the

character of youthful deliverance” Frederika Macdonald wrote:

“Throughout Europe Rousseau’s voice went proclaiming with even more

resistless eloquence than it had proclaimed the Rights of man, the Rights of

childhood”. Before Pestalozzi and Froebel, the author of Emile laid the

foundation of our new theory and practice of education.

‘Emile’ was a revolutionary publication in the field of education,

thoughts of Rousseau upon education were strikingly different from the

previous educators. Kant started reading ‘Emile’ as soon as he got it, and

read it to the end with out a break. The popular reception of his book was

just the reverse. It was condemned by the Archbishop of Paris immediately

after its publication as an irreligious book and ordered it to be burnt in

Paris by the public executioners.

In the ‘Emile’, Rousseau distinguishes various stages of

development in the life of the pupil, like infancy, childhood, boyhood and

adolescence. He has also given the plans of education for these different

phases of life. A detailed description of these is being laid in the following

pages. Rousseau recommended that the possibilities of each stage of life

should be fully exploited before proceeding to the next stage this principle

was followed later by Frooebel and Montessori.

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Infancy was characterized by habit and the training of emotions.

This stage remains till the age of six. The aim of’ education at this stage is

to devèlop a well regulated sense of liberty and happiness. Education at

this stage should be according to the nature of the child. Common subjects

of ordinary curriculum should not be taught here, because they do not

fulfill the needs of childhood. Children are not capable of learning things

which the adults can learn. Their ways of seeing thinking and feeling are

different from those of adults. Education at this stage should be the

responsibility of parents. They should pay little attention to positive

instruction in the common subject but should see that the child develops

physically strong and healthy, his senses are properly exercised and he gets

a chance of cultivating natural habits. At this stage he allows co-education

with girl cousins.

Childhood consists of six years from the age of six to twelve. The

aim of education at this stage is to perfect the organs and the senses that are

the instruments of knowledge and the development of his natural powers

before knowledge is actually received. Emile, during childhood, should be

trained in gymnastic and• other exercises. This will help him in the

development of his senses. If the senses are not developed properly,

reasoning and judgment are impossible. In Rousseau’s opinion, the power

of reasoning can be developed through sense experiences. “Our first

teachers are our feet, hands and eyes”. To substitute books for them do not

teach us to reason; it teaches us to use the reason of others rather than our

own, it teaches us to believe much and know little”. According to

Rousseau, the training of senses does not consist of practicing formal

exercises only, but they are developed by using them in concrete and real

life situations. For example, the measurement of length could be taught in

real life situations, such as whether a ladder is big enough to reach a mongo

tree, whether a plank is long enough to bridge a stream or how much rope

is required to make a swing? etc.

In correspondence to Rousseau’s negative education, there will be

no verbal lessons for him. He will not be taught any lesson in History or

Geography. He has to learn by his own experiences and no book should be

51

used for him because reading is the curse of childhood’. Moral and positive

instruction in different subjects should not be given at this stage, because

this learning demands reasoning and this is not present in a child in an

active form. He says , “Childhood is the sleep of reason”.

“The art of teaching”, Rousseau says, “At this stage, is to lose

time and save it.” “Give nature time to work”, he advises, “Before you take

over her business. You assert that you know the value of time and that you

are afraid to waste it. You fail to perceive that it is a greater waste of time

to use it ill than to do nothing, and that a child ill-taught is further from

virtue than a child who has learnt nothing at all. Do not be afraid, therefore,

of this so-called idleness. What would you think of a man who refused to

sleep lest he should waste part of his life. To avoid sleep, he is hastening

his death. Remember that these two cases are a like and that childhood is

the sleep of reason”.

Boyhood is characterized by ‘utility’ and the training of the

intellect. This is a period of transition between childhood and adolescence.

Boyhood remains from twelve to fifteen years of age. During this stage, he

is ready to receive knowledge. The lost ground during childhood must be

recovered now, and education accordingly should be speeded up.

The aim of education at this stage is to gain useful knowledge,

which would satisfy his wants and desires and stand the test of practical

needs. At this stage Rousseau restricts Emile’s training to what is useful.

“What is the use of that? This is the sacred formula”. The occupation

rejected at the previous stage must now be reviewed in the light of the

principle of utility. They comprise practical science, Geography and

manual work. Rousseau, accordingly, provides Emile with concrete

problems and puts him in challenging situations.

Rousseau advocates the method of discovery for learning which

practically resembles the ‘Heuristic method’ it is formulated in this way.

“Let him know nothing because you have told him, but because he has

learnt it for himself. You have not to teach truths so much as to show him

how to set about discovering them for himself.” Geography should be

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learnt by observation of natural phenomenon. He should begin geography

with the town he lives in and his father’s country house then the places

between them and the rivers near them etc.

Rousseau requires Emile to learn a trade to make him independent

economically, and to teach him to recognize the dignity of labour. The

basic principle governing Emile’s education during transitional period is

that of learning by doing. No book was prescribed for the education of

Emile, except one book Robinson Crusoe. Emile’s knowledge is still

restricted to nature and things. History was not being taught to him.

Rousseau says. “Our child is ready, now to cease to be a child. We have

made him a worker and a thinker, we have now to make him loving and

tender-hearted to perfect reason through feelings”.

Adolescence is the stage of morality, and of moral, aesthetic and

social education. Rousseau was the first educator who paid special

attention to adolescence, He refers to it as ‘the crown and coping-stone of

education’. He says “works on education are framed with wordy and

unnecessary accounts of the imaginary duties of children, but there is not a

word about the most important and most difficult part of their education,

the crises which forms the bridge between the child and the man. The

period when education is usually finished is just the time to begin; it is our

second birth for we are born, so to speak, twice over, born into existence,

and born a man”.

The aim of education changes as “Emile “enters the fourth period

of life. During this period should shape his heart. It should make Emile

loving and tender-hearted. He must learn to live for others and to live

together in social relationships. Education at this stage should prepare him

for the moral and social order in which he must live and play his part.

Previously he was studying himself in relation to his fellow men. This is

the fit age for the study of the ways of the world. “We have reached the

moral order at last; we have just taken the second step towards manhood.

What then is required for the proper study of men? A great wish to know

men, great impartiality of judgement, a heart sufficiently sensitive to

understand every human passion.

53

The moral training was given indirectly through history and

fables. The realistic subjects of transitional period were now replaced by

the humanistic subjects. Till now, Emile has scarcely heard the name of

God, but now he is ready to learn about Him. For this purpose Rousseau

presented the ‘creed of a Savoyard Priest’ In addition to instruction in

ethics and religion, he will now study aesthetics- the philosophy of the

principles of taste. During this period Emile’s physical training was not

neglected. He was supposed to be engaged in an occupation which keeps

him busy and hard at work. Besides this, physical culture should be given

indirectly by the explanation of plant and animal life mysteries.

While giving a detailed account of the education of Emile,

Rousseau has described what should be taught at the different

developmental stages. However, the summary of the views of Rousseau

upon curriculum is presented below:

The main concern of earlier educators was to assist pupils to

acquire the contents of a prescribed course of study. The outstanding nature

of Rousseau’s thoughts is the complete abandonment of a predetermined

curriculum. Ernile was to be educated entirely through activities and first

hand experiences.

“In the infantile period which extends to six years of age, books or

common subject matter should not be taught, because they do not fulfill the

needs of infants. During this period parents should look after their health,

and help them in proper physical development”.

At the second stage still, no lesson will be taught in language,

history and geography etc. even moral instruction will not be given at this

stage. He will be given great freedom to learn things by himself and to

develop his senses in contact with different objects of life. The School must

be considered primarily not as a place where certain knowledge is obtained

but as a place where the young are disciplined in certain forms of activity

which will be useful and significant in his later life situations.

In the third stage, i.e boyhood, Emile is ready to receive

education. His organs are developed and his senses are trained. He can be

54

taught physical sciences, language, maps, manual work, trade, skills for

establishing social relations, music and drawing etc. he can be taught

carpentry and making of scientific instruments. Rousseau has emphasized

the utility of learned subject matter. He has also emphasized the need of

learning a trade at this stage to enable the boy to live independently. “Man

in a society is bound to work; rich or poor, weak or strong, every idler is a

thief. I demand no talent, but only a trade, a mere mechanical art, in which

the hands work harder than the head, a trade which does not lead to

fortune, but makes you independent of her”.

During the adolescence-the forth stage-Emile can be taught in

moral and religious education. This should be given through activities and

occupations and not through lectures on religion and morality. Besides

moral education, history, physical culture and instruction of gender

problems are to constitute the curriculum at this stage. Education about

gender problems can be given indirectly by the explanation of plant and

animal life.

Rousseau attached great importance to learning by doing, by

direct experiences. He did not like verbal instructions because young

people pay little attention to it. They do not understand by this method,

therefore, they cannot retain much. “We lay too much stress upon words,

we teach babble, and our scholars follow our examples”, and he sums up,

“Never substitute the symbol for the thing signified unless it is impossible

to show the thing it self”. “Teach by doing when ever you can and only

fall back on words when doing is out of question”.

He pointed out the heuristic method of discovery. “Let him know

nothing because you have told him, but because he has learnt it for himself.

You have not got to teach him truths so much as to show him how to set

about discovering them for himself” .

Here lies the reflection of his naturalistic philosophy of education.

He takes care of the natural desires of the child, for example those of

activity, inquiry and curiosity. He has rejected the use of books in the

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childhood and boyhood. He advocates that the position of the learner

should be like a discoverer.

Emile should learn science in a practical fashion with the help of

apparatus. The same principle should be followed in the teaching of

mathematics, history, geography, social studies and morality. Practice of

virtue is to count for more than lectures on ethics.

Rousseau recommends freedom, and absence of restriction upon

the child. According to him children should never be given punishment. It

should always come as a natural consequence of their faults. About the

nourishment of Sophy he is very much worried. Sophy is a girl whom

Emile is going to marry. While Rousseau has used unconventional and

natural education for Emile, on the other hand he suggested conventional

and orthodox education for Sophy. Contrary to Plato, Rousseau has

separate system of education for women.

Earlier Rousseau was influenced by the dictum “the hand that

rocks the cradle rule the world”. But latter on in the “Discourse on the

Origin of inequality” addressing women he says, “it will always be the lot

of your sex to govern ours”. Unfortunately being disillusioned due to the

experiences having occurred with the female sex, he came to modify his

views about women. Hence he said that the aim of woman’s education is

the training of her heart rather than of the head. His views can be summed

up in the following lines:

He says, “Be good, sweet maid and let who will be clever. God

made woman for marriage but marriage for man. Husband and wife were

designed to live together but not to live in the same manner”. In the

“Emile” he repeats “the man should be strong and active, the woman

should be weak and passive. A man seeks to serve, a woman seeks to

please; the one needs knowledge the other tastes. What is most wanted in a

woman is gentleness; formed to obey a creature so imperfect as man, she

should early learn to submit to injustice and to suffer the wrongs inflicted

on her by her husband without complaint; she must be gentle for her own

sake, not his”. He further says, “Women’s education is to be planned in

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reference to the above instructions. Her education must be different than

that of a man. Its aim is to be pleasing in the sight, to win his respect and

love, to train him in childhood, to tend him in manhood, to counsel and

console, to make his life pleasant and happy. These are the duties of

woman for all time, and that is what she should be taught while she is

young. Sophy’s physical training should be different from that of Emile. It

should aim at grace, while in the case of Emile it should aim at strength”.

Regarding religious education Rousseau is of the view that it

should be given to Sophy from the beginning unlike Emile. He should be

taught some reasonable, simple and few doctrines and fewer observances....

Sophy is to learn a little reading, writing, cutting and embroidery. The art

of house decorating and house-keeping, and elementary kow1edge of

drawing and arithmetic would be an additional qua1ification for her.

So far his views regarding teaching profession are concerned he

says, “the art of teaching consists in making the pupil wish to learn and not

in mere imparting of knowledge. He encourages him (teacher) to provide

concrete experiences (instead of verbal teaching)”. On the qualification of

the teacher he says, “I preferred to call the man who has this knowledge

master rather than a teacher, since it is a question of guidance rather than

instruction”. He further says, “The ordinary teacher teaches him every

thing except self knowledge and self control, the art of life and happiness”.

Rousseau is no doubt as important to the modern educators as

Plato was for the ancient ones. He was the first to demand respect for the

common man and recognized the dignity of labour. Furthermore, before

Pestalozi and Froebel, Rousseau laid the foundation of our new theory of

education which takes into consideration the different stages of the

development of the child. He says, “treat the child as a child”. He further

says, “love the childhood, indulge, in its sports, its pleasure and its

delightful instincts”. In addition to that in the method of education and in

the conception of the role of the teacher, again he has given psychological

lead. His play way method has been now introduced by John Dewey and

Froebel. This method was emphasized by Rousseau long long ago. He

says, “work and play are all one to him (Emile), his games are his work”

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He also recommended methods of discovery in education. These methods

advocated by him appear to be very much modern. In short, he was, no

doubt the torch bearer of the educationists of the modern era.

2.2 FROEBEL (1782 TO 1852)

As per assertion of Dr. S.A. Ghaffar, Friedrich August Froebel

was born on April 21, 1782, in the village of Oberweisback in South

Germany. He was neglected in his youth and the memories of his early

sufferings made him in later life more eager in promoting the, happiness of

children. He lost his mother when he was only of nine months. His father

got remarried. His father was not very affectionate to him. The unfair

treatment of his step-mother made his childhood all the more miserable.

Deprived of parental affection, the poor chap was left at the mercy of God.

Froebel grew moody and subjective. He naturally turned towards the

natural phenomena eg hills, trees, flowers and clouds etc., for

companionship. His father, who was a clergyman, influenced him

indirectly. Since Froebel’s own childhood was neglected he developed an

intensive sympathy for children and spent his life promoting their life.

Education:

Froebel did not receive much education at school he was

considered as a dull. At the age of 15 he was appointed as an apprentice to

a forester. Froebel spent there two years. Thus the neglected child came

into intimate contact with nature. He spent a good deal of his time all alone

in the forest and perhaps it was here that he received his real education and

his love for nature grew. Two factors influenced him very much. The

religious influence of his father and the contact with nature cultivated in

him a spirit of mysticism and idealism. He discovered the uniformity and

unity of nature’s laws. The new idea developed in him a love for the study

of natural sciences. So he joined the University of Jena where he was

profoundly influenced by the idealistic philosophy of Fitche and Schelling.

Unfortunately he could study for about two years only. The varsity doors

were closed for him on account of his bad financial position. Again for four

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years he remained on ‘career wandering’. He, more or less, wandered from

place to place, picking up professions of different nature and failing

miserably in them, one after the other.

Turning Point in Froebel’s Life:

This is narrated by approximately all historians that a stage came

in his life which proved a turning point for him. They say, “ At Frankfurt,

Froebel began to study architecture. There he developed some intimacy

with Dr. Gruner who was the Director of a model school. The Director

discovered the Froebel could become an excellent teacher and he persuaded

him to join his school. This marked a turning point in his life. Froebel was

greatly satisfied and he found his ‘long missed life element’ and was

‘inexpressibly happy’. He declared, “from the first I found something I had

always longed for, but always missed, as if my life had at last discovered

its native element, I felt as happy as a fish in the water or a bird in the air”.

Froebel in Yverdum. After spending three years at Frankfurt,

Froebel paid a visit to Pestalozzi’s institute at Yverdum. There Froebel’

learnt in detail the principles and method of PestaIozi. Froebel disagreed

with some of the Ideas of Pestalozzi and he found the following defects in

the school founded by him..

1. The school lacked organization.

2. There was no unity in the whole work.

3. The subject of studies lacked integration

4. In the early education of children co-operation of mothers was not

forthcoming.

However, it must be admitted that this contact with Pestalozzi

prepared him for his own educational reforms.

His desire for knowledge, of Natural Sciences carried him in 1811

to university where he studied and spent some time at Gottimgen and then

at Berlin. Two years later he left his studies and joined military against the

aggression of Napoleon. Froebel spent about three years in military and

59

this service gave him an understanding in the true spirit of discipline and

united action. After returning from military he was appointed as a curator

in a Berlin Museum. But he had no liking for this profession as he was

interested in education

Publication of the “Education of Man”:

It is said that in 1816, Froebel established a small school at Grie

Sheim. Later on this was transferred to Keihan. Froebel incorporated his

principle of elementary education. After, passing through many

vicissitudes, this became a successful institution in 10years. Instead of

“impression”, “expression” through play and art work was his chief

consideration at this place. In 1826, Froebel published his famous book

THE EDUCATION OF MAN. In this he says “the true method of

education consists of considering the mind of the child as living while in

which all the parts work together to produce harmonious unity”. After this

he started many schools in Germany. The government suspected the

revolutionary ideas of Froebel and an enquiry was conducted. The

inspector gave a favourable report. “I found here a closely united family of

some sixty members held together in mutual confidence and every member

seeking the good of the whole. The aim of institution is by no means

knowledge and science merely, but free self-active development of the

mind from within”.

But due to some financial difficulties, Froebel shifted his work to

Switzerland in 1830. The Swiss Government appreciated his work and sent

their teachers for training. He then moved to Burg Dorf. There he became

superintendent of an orphanage. He continued his work of training

teachers. There he realized that due to non-availability of education in the

pre-school age, the school suffered and did not get good raw material for

education.

Froebel returned to Germany in 1836 and founded his first

“kinder-garten” in 1849. He spent his whole time in the founding and

devising his apparatus for kindergarters.

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The end of his life was very sad. As per narration of Dr.

S.A.Ghaffar, “His views were not accepted by the German Government

and forbade him from establishing any school. This was a great shock for

the good teacher and he could not long survive it. Froebel died in 1852, in

poverty, misery and agony. His grave is marked with a cube, a cylinder and

a sphere on it”.

Main Principles of his Philosophy

Mrs. Tanveer Khalid has discussed the principles of Froebel’s Philosophy

and says that, “ his philosophy is the outcome of the great influence of

German philosophers like Fitche, Kant and Schelling on him. The

following are the main principles of his philosophy”.

1. The law of Unity: According to Froebel there is one eternal law

the law of unity that governs all things men and nature. He said, “In

everything there works and stirs ‘one’ life because of all, one God has

given life.” God is the one ground of all things. God is the all

Comprehending, the all Sustaining. God is the essential nature, the

meaning of the world.” All things, animate or inanimate, originate from

God. Man and nature are one- They are simply the different forms of the

unit which is God. There is unity in diversity and diversity in unity. Each

of these is an individuality and also a unity. “All things, have come from

the Divine Unity (God) and have their origin in the Divine Unity. All

things live and have their beings in and through the Divine Unity .” The

unity is three-fold:

(i) Unity of Substance: There is only one substance the one from

which all things come.

(ii) Unity of Origin: There is one source, that is God, from which all

things come.

(iii) Unity of Purpose: All things strive towards perfection i.e. God.

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2. The Principle of Development

i. The principle of Development is based on the first principle of

his philosophy ie unity of substance. We are marching towards the same

unity. The movement is continuous and upward. Everything is, therefore,

changing, growing and marching towards the same unity. Froebel

maintained that mind evolves from within. All, that child is ever to be and

to become, can be attained only through development from within. By

‘Development’, he meant an increase in bulk or quantity increase in

complexity or structure, an improvement in powers skill and variety in the

performance of natural functions.

3. The principle of self-activity.

It is only through self-activity that the real growth and

development is possible. Forced activity is artificial and unnatural. An

acute observer can know what the child is or what he is to become. All this

lies in the child and can be attained through development from within.

4. Development through social institution:

According to Froebel, the school is a miniature society. He

remarked, “No community can progress while the individual remains

behind.” He believed that the individual is not apart from the life of the

society.

Meaning of Education presented by Froebel

Education consists of leading man, as a thinking, intellectual

being growing into self-consciousness, to a pure and unsullied, conscious

and free representation of the inner law of Divine unity, and in teaching

him means thereto.

Froebel’s Philosophy of Education

Creativeness of childhood: Froebel derives a new conception of

childhood. Childhood is not merely preparation for adult hood, it is a value

62

in itself and possesses its own creativeness. It participates in the divine

whole with the same rights of its own as adulthood, and therefore it can

claim the same respect on the part of the educator. The adult has no right to

feel himself superior and to interfere with the natural condition of

childhood; rather, he must combine guidance with the capacity of waiting

and understanding. Here Froebel falls into line with Rousseau and Herbart.

Inner relatedness of all education: Froebel’s second postulate is

also derived from his idea of unity. This is said to be “the inner relatedness

of all education”. This means that the educator ought to lead the child

through such situations as will help him to relate his experience organically

one with another only thus can he realise his own personal unity and the

unity inherent in the diversity of life.

Totality of educational endeavour: In order to realise the divine

character of the universe and his part in it, man needs his senses and

emotions as well as reasons for that. They all are windows of the soul.

Hence, Froebel emphasises the totality of educational endeavour. This can

be most clearly illustrated by a paragraph of , “The education of Man”, a

paragraph devoted to religious education. The right development of

religious feelings – not here Froebel’s nearness to Pestalozzi-depends on

the “loving soul-unity” between parents and child, “that clear oneness of

mind, which sees life as an unbroken whole in all of its operations and

phenomena.” Only through this first Instinctive feeling of a loving

communion of men can the child ascend to a later realization of a

metaphysical Unity of the universe. With out such an experience he will

always live in two different worlds opposed to each other. One “material”

the other “spiritual”. Nor can he ever understand what the concept of the

fatherhood of God” means in the history of mankind.

Concept of play. The finest expression of Froebel’s idea of

harmony in diversity is probably to be found in his concept of play. For

Froebel also, play is not merely a means of distraction; it is the most

important phase in the spontaneous development of the child, because it

allows him to exercise harmoniously all his physical, emotional, and

intellectual qualities. Play combines attention with relaxation, purpose with

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independence, and rule with freedom. Play is for the child as ethical as

devotion to his work is for the adult.

Education of the pre-school child: One might be right by asking

“why Froebel, with his comprehensive training in so many fields of

knowledge and his philosophical interests, finally concentrated his efforts

particularly on the education of the pre-school child. There are two reasons

for it. One is psychological. Froebel reveals an astounding insight into the

importance of the early experiences of childhood for the future

development of the personality. This anticipation of modern analytical

psychology, which he shares with Pestalozzi and Herbart, led him naturally

to emphasise the importance of pre-school education. The other reason is

of sociological nature. Froebel lived in the period of the Napoleonic wars,

with all their destructive influences, upon which followed the early period

of capitalism and a series of social revolutions. He saw that in all these

crises nobody was so imperiled as the children, therefore he went beyond

Pestalozzi, who considered the reform of the elementary school as basic for

the reconstruction of mankind, and fought for the establishment of

kindergarten.

Froebel’s Educational Principles

1. The aim of education, according to Froebel is to enable the child

to realize the unity in diversity: Froebel maintains that the aim of

education is not to make the mind of the child a jumble of words.

He writes, “The essential business of school is not so much to

communicate a variety and multiplicity of facts as to give

prominence to the ever living unity that is in all things.” Again he

writes, “Human education requires the knowledge and

appreciation of religion, nature and language in their intimate

living reciprocity and mutual interaction without the knowledge

and appreciation of the intimate unity of the three, the school and

we our selves are lost in the fallacies of bottom less self-

provoking diversity.” So the aim of education is to enable the

child to realize the unity in diversity.

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2. The chief means of education is the child’s own activity: Play is

an essential factor in the growth of the child. The free and

unfettered natural development of the child takes place through

play.

3. Education should be in conformity with Child’s nature and needs.

4. The child should be educated in free atmosphere: Freedom means

obedience to self-imposed law.

5. The teacher is like a gardener who carefully nurses and protects

children in order to secure their full and free development along

the most desirable lines. The educator by his efforts assists the

education who is developing according to the law of his nature to

attain levels that would be denied to him.

6. Froebel stressed the social aspect of education also: He believed

that all social institutions like the home, the school, the church and

the Stat, are the agencies of development of the individual

wherein he is to realise the unity in diversity.

7. He devised songs, gestures and construction the chief means of

stimulating the imagination of the child.

The function of education, according to Froebel, may be summed

up as “Education should lead and guide man to clearness, concerning

himself and in himself to peace, nature and to unity with God. It should lift

him to knowledge of himself, to mankind to a knowledge of God and of

nature and to the pure and holy life.”

Meaning of Kindergarten

In the form of Kindergarten, Froebel has made important

contribution to the theory and practice of education. He realised the

paramount importance of childhood and opened the first Kindergarten, an

institution of children of age 4 to 6, at Blankenberg in 1837. Kindergarten

is a German word which implies a “children’s garden”. Froebel conceived

the school as a garden, teacher as the gardener and the students as tender

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plants. The teacher like the gardener is to look after the little human plants

and water them to grow to beauty and perfection. Froebel discovered much

similarity between a child and plant. He believed that the process of growth

and development of the plant and the child is the same. The plant grows

from within according to the seed that is within, in the same way the child

grows from within. He unfolds his tendencies and impulses from within.

Objectives of Kindergarten

In the words of Froebel the object of a Kindergarten is “to give the

children employment in agreement with their whole nature, to strengthen

their bodies, to exercise their senses, to engage their awakening mind and

through their senses to make them acquainted with nature and their fellow

creatures. It is specially to guide rightly the heart and the affections, and to

lead them to the original ground of all life, to unity with themselves.

1. Self Activity: Froebel believed that the child was not to indulge in

an activity that was suggested by parents or teachers. The growth

of child is directed by inner force in the child and not by any

external force. “Education”, said Froebel, “should provide for

Free self activity and self determination -on the part of man — the

being created for freedom in the image of God.” He regarded self-

activity as a process by which the individual realises his own

nature and builds up his own world and then unites and

harmonises two. An inspector reported about this self-activity.

“Self- activity of the mind is the first law of this institution, the

kind of instruction given here does not make the young mind a

strong box into which, as early as possible kinds of coins of the

most different values and coinage, such as are now current in the

world that are stuffed, but slowly, continuously, and always

inwardly that is according to a connection found in nature of the

human mind, the instruction steadily goes on without any ticks,

from the simple to the complex, from the concrete to the abstract,

so well adapted to the child and his needs that he goes as easily to

his learning as to his play.”

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The following points should be noted regarding child’s activity:

(i) It should not be vague, but it should be clear.

(ii) It should be a sublimated or controlled activity.

(iii) Social atmosphere is essential in order to secure meaningful

activities.

(iv) Self-activity may take the form either of work or of play.

2. Play. According to Froebel, “Play is the purest, most spiritual

activity of man at this stage…. It gives, therefore, joy, freedom,

contentment, rest and peace with the world….”However, it should

be purposeful and enjoyable. It holds the source of all that is

good.” Froebel recognized that play needs to be organised and

controlled on definite materials so that it may not degenerate into

aimless play.

3. Songs, gestures and construction: Froebel saw an organic

relationship between songs, gestures and construction. He

regarded these as three co-ordinate forms of expression in the

child. What is to be learnt by the pupil is first expressed in a song,

then it is dramatised or expressed in gestures or movements and

lastly illustrated through some constructive work such as paper or

clay. Thus, a balanced development of the mind, the speech

organs and the hands is aimed at. These three activities provide

exercise to the senses, limbs and muscles of the child.

Selection of songs: He has given songs in his book. Mother and

Nursery Songs. These are fifty play songs. The idea of the introduction of

song is to enable the child to use his senses, limbs and muscles and also to

familiarise him with the surroundings. The child begins to use language

through these songs. Each song is accompanied by a game such as ‘Hide

and Seek’. The selection of the song is determined by the teacher in

accordance with the development of the child. There are three parts in a

song.

i) A motto for the guidance of mother or teacher.

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ii) A verse accompanied by music.

iii) A picture illustrating the song.

The song for drill is:

Let us have a drill to-day, March along grand array,

And whoever steps the best Shall be captain over the rest

And lead us on our way.

4. Gifts and occupations: We have already stressed the place of

activity and play. To provide activities, Froebel devised suitable

materials known as gifts. The gifts suggest some form of activity

and occupations are the acts/activities suggested by gifts. These

have been carefully graded. They possess all the novelty of play

things. The order of the gifts is devised in such a way as it leads

the child from the activities and thought of one stage to another.

First gift. The first gift consists of six coloured balls contained in a

box. The balls are of different colours. Child is to roll them about in play.

The occupation consists in rolling them. The balls are intended to give the

students an idea of colour, materials, motion and direction.

Second gift. It consists of a sphere, a cube, a cylinder made of

hard wood. These are contained in a box. The child, plays with them and

notices the difference between the stability of the cube and the mobility of

the sphere. He learns that the cylinder is both movable ‘stable and it

harmonises the qualities of both.

Third gift. It is a big wooden cube, subdivided into eight wooden

cubes. The child can have an elementary ideas of addition and subtraction

through these.

These gifts are to be effective basis of education.

5. The place of teacher: The teacher is not to remain passive. The

teacher has to suggest the idea of occupation when gifts are

offered to children. He is required to demonstrate certain activities

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to them. He also sings a song with a view to help the child to

form appropriate ideas.

6. Discipline: A teacher has important responsibilities to perform. He

has to inculcate in the children values related to sympathetical

feelings ‘like love, sympathy, humanity, co-operation and

obedience to elders. He has to avoid external restraint and bodily

punishment. The child should be made to realise that discipline

depends upon his love for order, good will and mutual

understanding. Froebel stressed that women should be trained for

training children at this stage.

7. Curriculum: The divisions of the curriculum are:

(i) Manual work. (ii) Religion and Religious Instructions (iii) Natural science and mathematics.

(iv) Language. (v) Arts and objects of arts.

Merits of Froebel’s kindergarten:

1. Froebel laid emphasis on pre-school or nursery education.

2. He stressede the importance of play in the early education.

3. He broadened the concept and scope of the school as an essential

social institution. He regarded school as a miniature society where

children get training in important things of life. They learn the

virtues of co-operation, sympathy, and responsibility etc.

4. Froebe1 stressed the necessity of the study of Child’s nature, his

instincts and impulses.

5. The gift and occupations of the kindergarten give a new method of

teaching.

6. The inclusion of productive work in the school m children

productive workers.

7. There is sufficient scope for activity in a kindergarten.

8. Various gifts provide sensory training.

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9. The inclusion of nature study in the curriculum helps to develop

love for nature and world in the mind of the students.

Limitations:

Though this system has got great popularity through the world, yet still

some more have criticised it as it follows:

1. Froebel expects too much of the child: It is not possible for the

child to be able to understand abstract ideas of organic unity while

playing with gifts.

2. In the kindergarten, too much stress has been laid on development

from within: The importance of environment has not been fully

recognised.

3. Songs as given by him are out of date: These cannot be used in

every school.

4. The gifts of Froebel are formal in nature: The order of

presentation of gifts is arbitrary. They do not serve much purpose

of sense training.

5. The kindergarten of Froebel does not provide for the study of the

individual child.

6. There is little of correlation in the teaching of various subjects.

7. It is not possible to accept his excessive emphasis on play in

education as it is likely to detract the child from serious learning.

Froebel’s Influence on Modern Education

Froebel invited us to live for our children and love them. The

Schools for young children are no more jails and children are no more

passive learners. There is no doubt that all the tendencies in the modern

educational thought and practice find their roots in Froebel’s conceptions.

He helped to make the society conscious of education for very young

children. The chief field in which he influenced the modern education are

as under:

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1. Emphasis on pre-primary or pre-basic education: The present

educator fully recognizes the importance of the education in the

early years. Today find a large number of schools catering to the

needs of such children. Froebel had also realized that until the

education of nursery years was reformed, nothing solid and

worthy could be achieved.

2. New conception of schoo1: Highes says “His kindergarten school

was a little world where responsibility was shared by all.

Individual rights respected by all, brotherly sympathy developed

and voluntary co-operation practiced by all. His school was a

society in miniature. A similar idea was earlier presented by John

Dewey as well.

3. Respect for the child’s Individuality: Froebel lived for children,

worked for children and died for children. He had profound love

and sympathy for children.

4. Stress on the study of the child: Froebel stressed the need for the

study of the nature of the child, instincts and impulses. Modern

educator is very careful to see that adequate scope is provided for

the free play of the impulses and instincts of children.

5. Education through play: Froebel believed that play is the highest

phase of self-development. He introduced play way in the

activities of the school. Today we find that the principle of play

way has been accepted by educator. We teach children through

songs, movements, gestures, dramatisation, hand-work etc.

6. Sense training: Froebel introduced gifts for the training of the

senses of children; with the help of these gifts wanted to give the

idea of shape, form, colour, size and number. In every modern

school those activities introduced that help in the training of

senses. Audio-visual aids form an integral part of the present

system education.

7. Activity in education: Froebel was the first educator to make self-

activity as the basis of education. ‘Learning by doing’ is the

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slogan of the day. The present school has become a place of

activity and joy for children. We provide activities to students so

that they may satisfy their instincts of construction, manipulation,

curiosity and acquisition.

8. Nature study in education:For Froebel nature study was a means

of bringing the child nearer to God. He advocated syllabus of

nature study to enable the child understand the world in which he

lived and to develop habits of careful observation. This idea has

taken such a strong hold today that we do not regard any school

worthy of name if it does not provide for nature study.

9. Women teachers at the nursery stage: It will not be out of place to

say that it is due to the influence of Froebel that we find a trend to

entrust the education at the pre-primary or pre-basic stage to

women teachers who are considered to be more suited for this task

of instruction at this stage.

Summary of the views of Froebel:

Dr. S.A Ghaffar, has presented summary of Froebel’s thoughts as it

follows:

1. Philosophy of ‘unity’. “All things live and have their being in and

through the Divine Unity.”

2. Education as unity with God: “to lead and guide men to clearness,

concerning himself and in himself, to peace with nature and to

unity with God”.

3. Free self-activity: ‘Education should provide for free self-activity

and on the part of man, he being created for freedom in the image

of God.’

4. Education through doing: “plastic-material-representation in life

and thought doings, united with thought and speech is by far more

developing and cultivating than the mere verbal representation of

ideas!

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5. Education through pla:. ‘Play is the purest spiritual activity of

man--it gives therefore, freedom, contentment, inner and outer

rest, peace with the world. It holds he source of all that is good!

6. Study of nature: Froebel wants to study nature ‘as life--the plant

as development--the animal as acting--the organ as functioning.

7. ‘Drawing out’ as the objective of teaching: “The object in

teaching is to bring more and more out rather than to put more and

more in”.

8. Teaching-learning a double sided process: ‘All true education be

simultaneously double-sided--giving and taking, uniting and

dividing, prescribing and following, between educator and pupil’.

9. Religious education: “Religious instruction quickens, confirms,

explains the feeling that man’s own spiritual self, his soul, his

mind and spirit, have their being and origin in God and proceed

from God.”

10. Discipline through love: ‘Control over the child was to be

exercised through a knowledge of his interest and by the

expression of love and sympathy’.

2.3 HERBART

Life Sketch:

The critics have narrated his life history in different ways, but I

have taken these extracts from Wikipedia website (Wikipedia.org) with

some changes. The writer says:

The philosopher cum psychologist and great Germen educator

was born at “Oldenburg”, Germany, in 1780 ad. Growing up as a fragile

child because of an unfortunate accident, Herbart was taught by his mother

at home until the age of 12. He continued his schooling at the Gymnasium

for six years, and showed interest in philosophy, logic, and Kant's work

involving the nature of knowledge obtained from experience with reality.

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His education then continued at Jena, whereupon he studied philosophy

and came to disagree with his teacher Fichte precisely because Fichte had

taught him to think in a logical manner. He composed a few essays, which

he had given to Fichte during his years at Jena, criticizing the works of

Schelling and advocating his contention for the German idealism promoted

by others like Kant at the time. Leaving Jena after three years, he tutored

the children of Herr von Steiger, who was the Governor of Interlaken.

During these three years, his tutoring job sparked his interest in educational

reform. While tutoring in Switzerland, Herbart met and came to know

Pestalozzi, the German educator involved with issues of reform in the

schools. Resigning from his tutoring position, Herbart went on to study

Greek and mathematics at Bremen for three years, and then eventually

moved on to attend Göttingen from 1801 to 1809. While there, he received

a privat-docent for his endeavors in educational studies after receiving his

doctoral degree. He gave his first philosophical lectures at Göttingen

around 1805, whence he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair formerly

held by Kant at Königsberg. Here he also established and conducted a

seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more to Göttingen,

and remained there as professor of philosophy till his death. Herbart gave

his last lecture in perfectly good health and then unexpectedly died two

days later from apoplexy, in 1841 ad. He is buried in Albanifriedhof

Cemetery in Göttingen.

Herbart was very much focused on his studies, and “he barely saw

the world outside his study and the classrooms” making “his world the

world of books and only books”. Regardless of his relentless studying, he

met an eighteen-year-old English girl named Mary Drake one night when

playing a game of charades. He became acquainted with her and asked her

for her hand in marriage. They lived a happy life with Mary supporting all

of her husband’s pursuits and contributions to the fields of pedagogy and

psychology.

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His Philosophy

Herbart was a dynamic personality, possessing extra ordinary

excellence not only in Philosophy but also in Psychology, Mathematics,

Logic, Education and Educational Pediogogy . Philosophy, according to

Herbart, begins with reflection upon our empirical conceptions, and

consists in the reformation and elaboration of these, its three primary

divisions being determined by as many distinct forms of elaboration.

Logic, which stands first, has to render our conceptions and the judgments

and reasonings arising from them clear and distinct. But some conceptions

are such that the more distinct they are made the more contradictory their

elements become; so to change and supplement these as to make them at

length thinkable is the problem of the second part of philosophy, or

metaphysics. There is still a class of conceptions requiring more than a

logical treatment, but differing from the last in not involving latent

contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their objects, the

conceptions that embody our judgments of approval and disapproval; the

philosophic treatment of these conceptions falls to Aesthetic.

His views about Logic & Metaphysics

In Herbart's writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice; he

insisted strongly on its purely formal character, and expressed himself in

the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug.

As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms the higher scepticism of

the Hume-Kantian sphere of thought, The beginnings of which he discerns

in Locke's perplexity75about the idea of substance. The Validity of

even75the forms of experience75is called in question on account of the

contradictions they are found to involve. And yet that these forms are given

to us, as truly as sensations are follows beyond doubt when we consider

that we are as little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this

stage a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be

doubly a mistake; for we should have to use these unlegitimated

conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their

75

contradictions would still remaIn, whether we succeeded in our enquiry or

not.

But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us a conception A

uniting among its constituent marks two that prove to be contradictory, say

M and N; and we can neither deny76the unity nor reject one of

the76contradictory members. For to do either is forbidden by experience;

and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic. We are thus driven to the

assumption that the conception is contradictory because incomplete; but

how76are we To supplement it? What we have must to point the way to

what we want, or our procedure will be arbitrary experience asserts that M

is the same (i.e. a mark of76the same concept) as N, while logic denies it;

and so it being impossible for one and the same M to sustain these

contradictory positions there is but one way open to us; we must posit

several Ms. But even Now we cannot say one of these Ms is76the same as

N, another is not; For every M must be both thinkable76and valid. We

may, however, take the Ms not singly but together; and again, no other

course being open to us, this is what we must do; we must assume that N

results from a combination of Ms. This76is Herbart's method of relations,

the counterpart in his system of the Hegelian dialectic.

In the76Ontology this method is employed to determine what in

reality corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and

cause,76or rather of inherence76and change. But first we must analyse this

notion of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led us. for,

Though we could doubt whether The76given is what it appears,76we

cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the real thus consists of

the two conceptions of being and quality. That which we are compelled to

posit, which cannot be sublated, is that which is, and in the recognition of

this lies the simple conception of being. But when is a thing thus posited?

When it is posited as we usually posit the things we see and taste and

handle. If we were without sensations, i.e. were never bound against our

will to endure the persistence of a presentation, we should never know

what being is.

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Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position, Herbart leads

us next to the quality of the real:

1. This must exclude everything negative; for non-A sublates instead

of positing, and is not absolute, but relative to A.

2. The real must be absolutely simple; for if it contain two

determinations, A and B, then either these are reducible to one,

which is the true quality, or they are not, when each is conditioned

by the other and their position is no longer absolute.

3. All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity implies

parts, and these are incompatible with simplicity.

4. But there may be a plurality of reals, albeit the mere conception of

being can tell us nothing as to this.

The doctrine here developed is the first cardinal point of Herbart's

system, and has obtained for it the name of pluralistic realism.

The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of

inherence, or of a thing with several attributes, will now become obvious.

Take some thing, say A, having n attributes, a, b, c ...: we are forced to

posit each of these because each is presented in intuition. But in conceiving

A we make, not n positions, still less n+1 positions, but one position

simply; for common sense removes the absolute position from its original

source, sensation. So when we ask, What is the one posited? we are told the

possessor of a, b, c or in other words, their seat or substance. But if so, then

A, as a real, being simple, must be equal to a; similarly it must be b; and so

on.

Now this would be possible if a, b, c ... were only contingent

aspects of A, as for example 23, √64, 4+3+1 are contingent aspects of 8.

Such, of course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradictions as

there are attributes; for we must say A is a, is not a, is b, is not b, etc. There

must then, according to the method of relations, be several As. For a let us

assume A1+A1+A1 ... ; for b, A2+A2+A2 ...; and so on for the rest.But

now what relation can there be among these several As, which will restore

77

to us the unity of our original A or substance? There is just one; we must

assume that the first A of every series is identical, just as the centre is the

same point in every radius.

By way of concrete illustration Herbart instances “the common

observation that the properties of things exist only under external

conditions. Bodies, we say, are coloured, but color is nothing without light,

and nothing without eyes. They sound, but only in a vibrating medium, and

for healthy ears. Colour and tone present the appearance of inherence, but

on looking closer we find they are not really immanent in things but rather

presuppose a communion among several.” The result then is briefly thus:

In place of the one absolute position, which in some unthinkable way the

common understanding substitutes for the absolute positions of the n

attributes, we have really a series of two or more positions for each

attribute, every series, however, beginning with the same (as it were,

central) real (hence the unity of substance in a group of attributes), but each

being continued by different reals (hence the plurality and difference of

attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the appearance of

inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of reals; no such correlative

to substance as attribute or accident can be admitted at all. Substantiality is

impossible without causality, and to this as its true correlative we now turn.

The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the

same contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A that was

a, b, c ... becomes a, b, d ...; and this, which experience thrusts upon us,

proves on reflection unthinkable. The metaphysical supplementing is also

fundamentally as before. Since c depended on a series of reals A3+A3+A3 ...

in connection with A, and d may be said similarly to depend on a series

A4+A4+A4 ..., then the change from c to d means, not that the central real A

or any real has changed, but that A is now in connection with A4, etc., and

no longer in connection with A3, etc.

But to think a number of reals in connection (Zusammensein) will

not suffice as an explanation of phenomena; something or other must

happen when they are in connection; what is it? The answer to this question

is the second hinge-point of Herbart's theoretical philosophy.

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What actually happens as distinct from all that seems to happen,

when two reals A and B are together is that, assuming them to differ in

quality, they tend to disturb each other to the extent of that difference, At

the same time that each preserves itself intact by resisting as it were, the

others disturbance. And so by coining into connection with different reals

the self-preservations of A will vary accordingly, A remaining the same

through all; just as, by way of iLlustration, hydrogen remains the same in

water and in ammonia, or as the same line may be now a normal and now a

tangent. But to indicate this opposition in the qualities of the reals A+B, we

must substitute for these symbols others, which, though only contingent

aspects of A and B, i.e. representing their relations, not themselves, yet like

similar devices in mathematics enable thought to advance. Thus we may

put A = α+β-γ, B = m+n+γ; γ then represents the character of the self-

preservations in this case, and α+β+m+n represents all that could be

observed by a spectator who did not know the simple qualities, but was

himself involved in the relations of A to B; and such is exactly our

position.

Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens,

our philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective

semblance (der objective Schein) that results from these. But if this

construction is to be truly objective, i.e. valid for all intelligences, ontology

must furnish us with a clue. This we have in the forms of Space, Time and

Motion which are involved whenever we think the reals as being in, or

coming into, connection and the opposite. These forms then cannot be

merely the products of our psychological mechanism, though they may turn

out to coincide with these. Meanwhile let us call them intelligible, as being

valid for all who comprehend the real and actual by thought, although no

such forms are predicable of the real and actual themselves.

The elementary spatial relation Herbart conceives to be “the

contiguity (Aneinander) of two points,” so that every “pure and

independent line” is discrete. But an investigation of dependent lines which

are often incommensurable forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of

partially overlapping, i.e. divisible points, or in other words, the conception

79

of Continuity. But the contradiction here is one we cannot eliminate by the

method of relations, because it does not involve anything real; and in fact

as a necessary outcome of an intelligible form, the fiction of continuity is

valid for the objective semblance. By its help we are enabled to

comprehend what actually happens among reals to produce the appearance

of water. When three or more reals are together, each disturbance and self-

preservation will (in general) be imperfect, i.e. of less intensity than when

only two reals are together. But objective semblance corresponds with

reality; the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case must,

therefore, tally with their inner or actual states. Had the self-preservations

been perfect, the coincidence in space would have been complete, and the

group of reals would have been inextended; or had the several reals been

simply contiguous, i.e. without connection, then, as nothing would actually

have happened, nothing would appear. As it is we shall find a continuous

molecule manifesting attractive and repulsive forces; attraction

corresponding to the tendency of the self-preservations to become perfect,

repulsion to the frustration of this. Motion, even more evidently than space,

implicates the contradictory conception of continuity, and cannot,

therefore, be a real predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and

necessary to the comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to

think of the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into

connexions. This we can only do by conceiving them as originally moving

through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with uniform velocities.

For such motion no cause need be supposed; motion, in fact, is no more a

state of the moving real than rest is, both alike being but relations, with

which, therefore, the real has no concern. The changes in this motion,

however, for which we should require a cause, would be the objective

semblance of the self-preservations that actually occur when reals meet.

Further, by means of such motion these actual occurrences, which are in

themselves timeless, fall for an observer in a definite time — a time which

becomes continuous through the partial coincidence of events.

But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the

objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or, in other

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words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the problem of what

Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition from metaphysic to

psychology. Here, again, a contradictory conception blocks the way, that,

viz. of the Ego as the identity of knowing and being, and as such the

stronghold of idealism. The contradiction becomes more evident when the

ego is denned to be a subject (and so a real) that is its own object. As real

and not merely formal, this conception of the ego is amenable to the

method of relations. The solution this method furnishes is summarily that

there are several objects which mutually modify each other, and so

constitute that ego we take for the presented real. But to explain this

modification is the business of psychology; it is enough now to see that the

subject like all reals is necessarily unknown, and that, therefore, the

idealist's theory of knowledge is unsound. But though the simple quality of

the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we know what actually happens

when it is in connexion with other's reals, for its self-preservations then are

what we call sensations. And these sensations are the sole material of our

knowledge; but they are not given to us as a chaos but in definite groups

and series, whence we come to know the relations of those reals, which,

though themselves unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely.

His Principles of Education

Herbart’s pedagogy emphasized the connection between

individual development and the resulting societal contribution.

1. Individual and Societal development: In Platonic tradition,

Herbart explained that only by becoming productive citizens could

people fulfill their true purpose: “He believed that every child is

born with a unique potential, his Individuality, but that this

potential remained unfulfilled until it was analysed and

transformed by education in accordance with what he regarded as

the accumulated values of civilization” Only formalized, rigorous

education could, he believed, provide the framework for moral

and intellectual development. The five key ideas which composed

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his concept of individual maturation were Inner Freedom,

Perfection, Benevolence, Justice, and Equity or Recompense.

2. Human Ability: According to Herbart, abilities were not innate but

could be instilled, so a thorough education could provide the

framework for moral and intellectual development. In order to

develop an educational paradigm that would provide an

intellectual base that would lead to a consciousness of social

responsibility, Herbart advocated that teachers utilize a

methodology with five formal steps: “Using this structure a

teacher prepared a topic of interest to the children, presented that

topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new

knowledge based on what they had already known, looked back,

and deductively summed up the lesson’s achievements, then

related them to moral precepts for daily living”.

3. Making lesson Interesting: In order to appeal to learners’

interests, Herbart advocated using literature and historical stories

instead of the drier basal readers that were popular at the time.

Whereas the moralistic tales in many of the primers and readers

of the period were predictable and allegorical, Herbart felt that

children would appreciate the psychological and literary nuances

of the masterpieces of the canon.

4. Significance of his Pediology: his pedagogy enjoyed a

renaissance of sorts in the mid- nineteenth century; while

Germany was its intellectual center, it “found a ready echo in

those countries such as the United Kingdom, France, and the

United States in which the development of Individuality into

Character appeared particularly well attuned to the prevailing

economic, political and social circumstances”. The combination

of individual potentiality and civic responsibility seemed to

reflect democratic ideals.

Though the emphasis on character building through literary

appreciation diminished somewhat after the movement toward

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utilitarianism following World War I, Herbart’s pedagogy continues to

influence the field by raising important questions about the role of critical

thinking, and literary appreciation in education.

Aesthetics and ethics

Aesthetics elaborates the ideas involved in the expression called

forth by those relations of object which acquire for them attribution of

beauty or the reverse. The beautiful is to be carefully distinguished from

the allied conceptions of the useful or the pleasant, which vary with time,

place and person; whereas beauty is predicated absolutely and involuntarily

by all who have attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is but one

branch of aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations among

volitions (Willensverhältnisse) as thus unconditionally please or displease.

These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five, which do admit of

further simplification; and corresponding to them are as many moral ideas

(Musterbegriffe), as follows:

1. Internal Freedom, the underlying relation being that of the

individual's will to his judgment of it

2. Perfection, the relation being that of his several volitions each

other in respect of intensity, variety and concentration

3. Benevolence, the relation being that between his own will and the

thought of another's

4. Right, in Case of actual conflict with other

5. Retribution or Equity for intended good or evil

The Ideas of a final society, a system of rewards and punishments,

a system of administration, a system of culture and an animated society,

corresponding to the ideas of law, equity, benevolence, perfection and

internal freedom respectively, result when we take account of a number of

individuals. Virtue is the perfect conformity of the will with the moral

ideas; of this the single virtues are but special expressions. The conception

of duty arises from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue.

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A general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the sublimation

of special cases under these must remain matter of fact. The application of

ethics to things as they are with a view to the realization of the moral ideas

is moral technology (Tugendlehre), which the chief divisions are

Paedagogy and Politics.

Theology

In theology Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid

of divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a supersensible

real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is neither tenable nor on

practical grounds desirable.

HIS PSYCHOLOGICAL STEPS IN MANAGING A CLASS:

Before elaborating his steps, specified for managing a class, let us

know his views about realisim, empiricism and the use of Psychology in

teaching methodology to move further

A total Realistis Philosopher: Building upon the teaching methods

of Pestalozzi, Herbart contributed to pedagogy a psychological basis to

help facilitate better learning as well as to ensure children’s character

development. He was the first individual to point out how important a role

psychology plays on education. In developing his ideas about psychology,

Herbart came to disagree with Kant about how true knowledge is obtained.

Kant believed that we become knowledgeable through studying the innate

categories of thought, while Herbart believed that one learns only from

studying external and real objects in the world as well as the ideas that

come about from observing them. Examining the difference between the

actual existence of an object and its appearance, Herbart concluded that

“the world is a world of things-in-themselves, [and] the things-in-

themselves are perceivable. Everything’s appearance indicates that it exists.

He considered all external objects existing in the world as reals, which can

be compared to Leibniz's concept of monads.

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Empiricisim: Subscribing to Locke's empiricist viewpoint involving the

tabula rasa, Herbart believed that the soul had no innate ideas or no already

pre-established Kantian categories of thought. The soul, considered to be a

real, was thought to be completely passive initially as well as very resistant

to changes outside factors exert and force upon it. Even though reals are

disrupted by other forces appearing to cause a change in the reals

themselves, they are thought to be unchangeable. Reals tend to collide and

struggle with one another so much so that each real fights for its own self-

preservation (Selbsterhaltung). The way in which the soul helps to preserve

itself from its outwardly perceived destruction is through Herbart’s concept

of Vorstellungen, or ideas or mental representations. These ideas were

regarded as dynamic forces that Herbart attempted to explain by means of

mathematical formulas.

Influence of Newton on Herbart: Newton’s influence can be seen in

Herbart’s beliefs about how forces mechanically interact with one another

in the world to affect perceptions of reality. The mechanics of ideas

involved their ability to move in different ways, whether they be moving

up into the conscious or delving down into the unconscious. Different ideas

come into contact with each other and result in more complex ideas

through the processes of blending, fusing, fading, and combining in a

multitude of approaches. It is evident Herbart thought that ideas were not

precise imitations of the existing items in the world but that they were the

direct consequence of the interactions of individuals’ experiences with the

external environment. An individual can only gain all the facts and their

associated truth by understanding how their mental representations

combine and potentially inhibit or contribute to one another.

His view about Apperception:

Herbart believed ideas cross the barriers of consciousness, or a

boundary between the conscious and the unconscious, as they become

clearer and strong enough to preserve themselves against their struggle

with other forces. The ideas powerful enough to break through to the

conscious formed the apperceiving mass, or a congregation of similar and

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related ideas dominating the conscious at any given moment. Expounding

upon Leibniz’s concept of petites apperceptions and the idea of

apperception, Herbart believed the apperceiving mass to be crucial in

selecting similar ideas from down in the unconscious to join its forces in

the conscious. Although the individual is focusing all of his/her attention

on those complex ideas a part of the apperceiving mass in the conscious, it

is possible for ideas in the unconscious to combine with other ideas related

to them and struggle to break through the barrier into the conscious,

disrupting the present ideas a part of the apperceiving mass. Apperception

played a key role in Herbart’s educational theory. He saw apperception as

more pivotal in the classroom than sense-perception because focusing on a

child’s apperceiving mass in relation to the material being taught can

inform teachers of how to implement the material in such a way as to direct

the child’s ideas and thoughts to attend to certain information.Managing

Instruction:

Critical Review of Herbartian’s formal steps:

It was for the first time that Psychology was deliberately applied

to the practical work of teaching by the renowned educationist Herbart. He

was the pioneer of the modern developments and teaching practices. He

gave a definite form to classrooms lessons. In his view the perfect

acquisition of a new unit of knowledge involves mental movement through

certain definite stages. He first analyzed the activity of learning and

presented logical steps conforming to the different stages; and insisted that

every new unit of learning should be presented to the children in these four

steps:

1. Clearness (or Clarity): The presentation of facts or things to be

learnt.

2. Associating: Associating these new facts with similar facts

previously learnt (some people call it “to recall his old

apperceptive masses)

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3. System: The interrelated and logically composed format of the

associated facts. In the other words the coherent and logical

arrangement of the associated facts to make the final

assimilation of the newly acquired facts.

4. Method: Practical application of the newly assimilated facts by

the pupils to the new data or situation.

With the passage of time the former steps were changed and

renamed again and again. Herbart’s two followers, Ziller and Rein, have

been working for a long time on these steps and gave them the

following names.

1. Clearness was named Preparation.

2. Association was named Presentation.

3. System was named Abstraction (Comparison and generalization).

4. Method was named Application.

The steps of Herbart have got wide popularity and are generally

followed in the whole educational world. However they have been further

split and one more step has been added to them. Now, the following

modified form of the same steps is mostly followed.

1. Preparation

2. Presentation

3. Comparison or Association

4. Generalisation

5. Application

1. Preparation:

This first step serves as an introduction to the lesson.

Psychologically for- enabling our children to acquire knowledge, the first

thing we are required to do is to prepare them to receive it. This is

necessary both for the children and teachers. By this the children realise

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and find out what they know and what they do not, resulting a desire to

know more. This is called preparation.

During this first step the teacher is enabled to link up his lesson

with life while the children are also enabled to understand the thing, which

is lacking in their lives. In this way, for the teacher after having known the

background of the children, it becomes necessary (and easy as well) to

know his aim. Besides that it is equally necessary to know the aim of

lesson. It is unanimously advocated that the people should also have a clear

idea of what they are going to do. It makes the work of teacher meaningful

and easy.

2. Presentation or Development

It simply means that the teacher gives or presents some new

knowledge to the pupils. This step follows the first one and it is a stage

when matter or new work is brought in. Simultaneously, the activity is

assimilated by the pupil. What is done in this stage, and the method used,

will be determined by the aim of the lesson. In connection with this stage

of enabling the pupil to gain new knowledge, it is important to remember

the principles of selection and division:

a. Principles of selection: The teacher must select wisely what he is

to tell, and how much the pupils are expected to find out for

themselves.

b. Principles of Division: According to this principle a teacher has to

arrange his material in an orderly and clear manner, dividing it

into its natural logical parts. Even, if it is only telling story to the

students of class one, these two principles must be remembered in

its presentation.

In logical perspective, the teacher presents his materials in the

following order:

a. From known to unknown.

b. From simple to complex.

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c. From easy to difficult etc.

In addition to that for making his presentation more effective and

attractive the teacher should use various A.V. Aids in his teaching.

3. Comparison or Association:

At this stage the mind assimilates knowledge, compares and

contrasts it with what it has already with it. For example, when a child,

having previously been acquainted with a dog, sees a horse for the first

time, he calls the horse a big dog’. In the same way we compare new things

with the old one that we have already in our mind.

4. Generalisation:

At this fourth step, the child finds out some general principles on

the basis of comparison and association of the facts, already learnt and

those which are being offered in the new lesson. For example, a child sees

that a ball, a stone, a brick etc. all come down if thrown into the air. Form

these experiences he makes a general rule. It is pertinent to note that the

process of generalisation is imperative to be done by the pupils under the

guidance of the teacher, in the teaching process. The skilful teacher is the

one who can help the child to come to his own conclusions, based on his

own experiences.

5. Application:

This is the last step which is the most important one. The real

knowledge is that one when it is used, if it is to become permanent. For this

purpose the children must be given the chance to express themselves on

what they have learnt. The teacher may make them work actively and gain

further progress. Some times children learn the problems where this rule is

used. Similar is the case with other such subjects like geography, idioms of

a language etc. In this step the knowledge of the pupils is stabilised and

made firm besides preparing them to make further progress.

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Advantages and Merits of Herbartian’s steps

Herbartion’s steps have given a new turn to the teaching practice.

Following are some of its advantages/merits.

1. Based on Thorndike law of motivation, in the preparation step, the

teacher motivates and prepares his pupils for new lesson which

makes the teaching learning process interesting as well as

effective.

2. Due to these steps the work of teaching has become scientific as

well as psychological.

3. Much time and energy is saved by following these steps properly

and wisely.

4. These steps have given a definite form to the work of teaching and

have served as guiding light to new inexperienced teachers.

5. As the second step i.e. presentation step, the teacher presents his

material in logical order which is from known to unknown and

form concrete to abstract, making the teaching easy and simple for

students.

6. Application of newly learnt material gives durability and stability

to learning.

Approximately no lesson of what so ever kind it may be, can ever

be successfully taught without the first, second and fifth steps.

Disadvantages/Demerits of Herbartian‘s steps:

Some educators have very harshly criticised these steps. The

renowned educator W.M. Ryburn says ‘these stages or steps must be our

servants and not our masters”. In spite of all the appreciation and

favourable remarks about these steps, one should not follow them

slavishly. The teacher should note the following drawbacks:

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1. These steps cannot be made applicable to all kinds of lessons.

These are useful for knowledge lesson but not for skill lessons or

even for appreciation lessons.

2. By their nature these steps are exclusively intellectual in character

and do not exploit interest of the children. They fail in motivating

the pupils properly for the new facts to be learnt.

3. In all lessons and in all situations, generalisation is not possible as

well as useful for all the pupils. The teacher insisting on this step

often faces disappointment.

4. To apply these steps very rigidly, it would mechanise the practice

of teaching. The pupils, too, do not take much interest in the new

lessons owing to the rigidity of plan, to which they are already

accustomed.

5. These steps are suitable for higher classes but seldom useful for

lower classes.

Modification of Harbartian’s formal steps to suit different types of lessons.

Types of lessons: There are three main kinds of lessons:

1. Informative, Lesson. 2: Skill Lesson. 3: Appreciation Lesson.

1. Informative Lesson

The first, we may call, the lesson given for the acquirement of

knowledge or information. For example; we have a history lesson in the

primary school, the lesson where a new rule in arithmetic is being taught,

certain geography lesson where information is given etc.

2. Skill Lesson

Acquirement of skill is the main focus in this kind of lesson. As

examples of the second, we have lessons where the mechanics of reading

or writing are taught, a geography lesson on map drawing, lessons on

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drawing and hand work, lessons in which a foreign language is being

taught etc.

3. Appreciation Lesson:

The lesson for the development of aesthetic sense is called

appreciation lesson. As examples of this third kind of lesson, we have

lessons where poetry is presented to children with out particular attention

being paid to meanings. The same type of lesson can be given in prose.

These lessons come chiefly in literature, drawing and music. Each of the

above mentioned different types of lessons have their own techniques.

Now we will discuss these modifications for these lessons.

1. Informative Lesson: With some modifications we can apply the

Herbartion Steps in the teaching of informative lesson.

The steps are

(a) Preparation. (b) Statement of the Aim.

(c) Presentation and association. (d) Generalisation.

(e) Application and Recapitulation.

All these steps have been discussed in detail in the previous

section of this unit.

2. Skill Lesson: This is the lesson where the pupil is learning a skill,

where the object of the lesson is to help him to do something, not

simply to learn about some thing. For example, learning to read or

to write, are lessons, where a skill is acquired.

All kinds of handwork are lessons of skill. In such lessons we

need to follow a different procedure.

a. Preparation: The first step will be the same as in the case of an

informative lesson, that is preparation, including motivation. It is

just as necessary, in the case of teaching a skill, as in seeking to

impart knowledge, to get the child interested and to link up with

life. We must have some thing to build on. For this purpose we

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can show a model for imitation. Consider the child beginning for

the first time to write in copy book. He learns by imitation. So we

show him the model of correct writing to imitate.

b. Statement of Aims: The second step in a lesson for the

acquirement of skill will be, as before, the statement of Aim. The

child must know what he is going to do, and the skilful handling

of this stage of the teaching will ensure the interest and the

cooperation of the pupil.

c. Presentation or development: In the case of acquiring skill, this

stage consists largely of observation, listening and seeing on the

part of the pupil, doing things with explanation of the best method

of doing them, by the teacher.

Thus, if the class is learning to write, they will watch the teacher

writing a word, and the teacher will, besides writing, show them how the

pen is to be held, how the strokes are to be made and so on. Some rules

may also be stated there.

d. Practice: In this procedure the four steps could be one of practice

by the pupils where they imitate what the teacher has shown them,

and what he has done.

e. Correction: Practice is to be followed by a step, that can be called

correction. It is really a representation. The teacher may once

again demonstrate to them how things are done. At this stage he

will call their attention to wrong methods, show them right ways

of doing things, show them how to avoid mistakes and clumsy

performance. Furthermore, there may be restatement of rules.

f. Practice: (For the 2nd time) After correction the stage of practice

will come again. At this stage the pupils shall again imitate and

seek to improve techniques. In this way these two steps may often

be repeated one after the other. We will be referring again to this

type of work when we consider the process of learning.

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3. Appreciation Lesson: As a matter of fact aesthetic appreciation is

not acquiring some knowledge or learning some skills, it is

concerned with feelings alone, i.e. feeling pleasure. To state in the

words of Smith and A.S. Harrison as given in their famous book

‘Principles of class Teaching”, ‘the appreciation lesson is an

invitation to look at or to listen to some thing beautiful with

leisure, to enjoy it in a favourable atmosphere and with a teacher’s

use of suggestion to heighten its appeal’.

There are three stages which are to be differentiated as follows:

Preparation, Presentation and Practice.

(1) Preparation: There are three things to be kept in mind while

considering an appreciation lesson:

a. The teacher must himself appreciate what he is trying to lead his

pupils to appreciate.

b. He must use the power of his suggestion as much as possible to

create an atmosphere for his lesson. With all pupils, and

particularly with younger ones, suggestion, with its resultant

imitation, will be a powerful factor in an appreciation lesson. For

example, the teacher should try to use the physical environment to

help him in creating a suitable atmosphere. It would be better to

take up a lesson of a poem, on rain, on a bright sun shiny day or

vice versa.

c. The teacher must have some insight into the possibilities of his

pupils so that he may know what they are likely to appreciate. We

should try to link this lesson like the others with life.

(2) Presentation: The following procedure may be adopted at this

stage:

a. The teacher must do his best to put himself into the author’s place

where the lesson is on prose or poetry. He must try to bring out

the author’s thoughts and feelings.

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b. Care should be taken to present the whole lesson just like a single

unit. There should be no breaks or interruptions in the

presentation.

c. After the actual presentation of the passage, poem, picture or piece

of music or other object of appreciation the next step is guidance.

It may be catered as a separate step, but it is really a part of

presentation. During this portion of the lesson pupils will get

chance for telling which particular parts of the material appealed

most to them. Teacher can discuss with pupil their own reactions

to that part of lesson. Opportunities should be given to pupils to

express their preferences and likes and dislikes with older students

after having finished the emotional and aesthetic guidance. At this

stage the teacher may also take up intellectual side of the work

with them.

(3) Practice: The teacher should encourage the pupils to create pieces

of beauty themselves, at the moment when he finds them

appreciating the beauty of the lesson. They should be guided to

exercise their creative abilities and doing some works especially

to write, draw, paint, sing and play for themselves. May be that

the child possess crude and raw creative qualities but these have a

great educational value and will help naturally in developing good

appreciation.

The success of an appreciation lesson depends on the following

factors:

i A teacher should himself appreciate the lesson

ii. He should be able to create appreciatic atmosphere.

iii. External conditions should be quite according to the nature of the

lesson.

iv. The lesson should be quite according to the age, interest,

capacities and likes of the pupils.

v. There should be no language difficulties.

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vi. Critical appreciation must follow presentation.

vii. The teacher should have strong suggestive power together with

the art of presenting the lesson in the same way as the author felt

or thought.

2.4 MARIA MONTESSORI:

(No doubt, Maria Montessori is such an educator, whose life’s

events have been described by several historians in detial, but this article

has been prepared, mostly, by benefitting from the book titled “ Montessori

Hand book & The Montessori Method” written by her and published in

1993, besides some websites. )

Early Education

Her full name is “Maria Tecla Arlemesia Montessori” who was

born in Chiarawalle, Italy, on August 31st, 1870. When she was three years

of age, her family first shfited to Florence in 1873 and then back to Rome,

in 1875, due to the service urgencies of her father. She was brought up by

her parents in a very conducive environment, in the early part of her life.

Her father, Alessandro Montessori was a civil servant and former soldier.

Also her mother, Renilde Sloppani, was well educated and she supported

Montessori to continue her studies as she liked.The mother and daughter

always remained very close to each other. But due to certain controversal

conditions regarding female discrimination in education, her father was a

little bit against her taking admission in Medicines.

She completed her secondary education and graduated from Technical

School Regia Scoula Tecnica Michelangelo Bounarroti, in 1886. she

studied, there Italian, arithmatic, algebra, geometry, accounting, history,

Geography and Drawing Physics etc.

2. Secondary school

At the age of 16, in 1886, she got admission in Regio Technical

Institute for studying technical and medicine subjects. She did well in all of

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the same subjects. Consequently, she applied for admission in the

University of Rome, for Medical Sciences, but she was refused admission

only because on her being female. However, she took admission in a

Degree course of natural sciences of the same university, in 1890. This was

a very critical part of her life. She would always remember the incident

which met him.

During her stay here, she married a person to whom she gave birth

to son. On 31 March 1898, her only child – a son named Mario Montessori

(March 31, 1898 – 1982) was born. When the father of her child fell in love

with another woman and subsequently married, Montessori was left feeling

betrayed and decided to leave the university hospital and place her son into

foster care with a family living in the country side opting to miss the first

few years of his life. She would later be reunited with her son in his

teenage years, where he proved to be a great assistant in her reseaches.

3. University of Rome—Medical school

Finally she secured a degree namely “ diploma di licenza” in

1892, which enabled her to pass her examination. This degree along with

additional studies, qualified her for entrance into the medical program at

the University in 1993, but, here again she met with hostility and

harassment from some medical students and professor because of her

gender. Inspite of extreme non-conducive conditions, she graduted with

distinction and won an academic prize. On the basis of that she secured a

position of hospital assistant, in 1895. while due to her impressive

performance in pediatric medicine, she was granted the degree as Doctor of

Medicine. Her thesis was published in 1897 and she was given job as

Surgical Assistant at the university hospital.

Early Career

In this connection this is pertinent to note that she was fortunate

enough that she was appointed as Surgical Assistant at Santo Spirito, the

same hospital where she had worked previously as Medical Assistant. In

the beginning of her profession, she happened to interact with mentally

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handicapped children. From here she became interested in Psychology and

human behaviour, and by 1904 had accepted a professorship in

Anthropology at the University of Rome. She gave up the same profession

in 1906 and opted to find new fields for her work which became her life’s

work ie re-engineering the field of children’s education. She had no

liabilities except the lonely son and she could manage time for such like

charity based work.

Work with mentally disabled children

The service, she rendered for the disabled and mentally retarded

people was np doubt, highly valuable. Perfectly accustomed to this

practice, she used to spare time for touring and lecturing in the other

countries for this purpose. Besides, she used to look after her only son.

During these days (19 06-1911), she used to publicize her method in Rome,

France and UK. She practically started some schools as well, hence with

opening her First “Casa dei Bambini (childre’s house) in Italy, Montessori

education became popular there. In 1909, Monessori held the first teacher

training course in her new method in Cittia Di Castello, Italy. Also one of

her books titled, The Method pf Scientific Pedagogy applied to the

education of Children, in the Children Houses was published. This made it

spread internally.

Public Advocacy

During the era of 1909-1915, Montessori system of education

gained reputation and got international recognition. The reason was that it

had begun attracting the attention of international observers and visitors.

Schools were established in Switzerland and United Kingdom in 1911.

Similarly Montessori Societies were founded in the United States and the

United Kingdom. Translations of her works started in different languages,

in 1914. one year before this ie, in 1913, she had paid a visit to America,

where it was resolved to open the same schools, in 1915. Even this wave of

school opening was so fast that by the same year, ie 1915, it reached to

Spain, Netherlands, The United Kingdom,Vienna and upto 1939 to India

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and China. Also, this was heartening that Psychalogists like Sigmand Freud

were atracted by this method.

This would not be out of place to say that “Montessori Efucational

Societies” were established in majority of the countries of the world by the

year 1952. All of her schools, though having faced different turmoils and

ups and downs were, finally, established perfectly and got tremendous

reputation through out the world. As early as in 1939, Montessori came to

India and gave lectures on her method at different places. Now, there are so

many schools of Montessori system of education not only in India but in

Pakistan as well. After such tremedous and lengthy services to the

humanity, Maria Montessori died of Cerebal Hemorrhage on May 6, 1952

at the age of 81 in Noordwijk aan, the Netherlands.

Orthophrenic School

Montessori is remembered as the founder of the famous

Montessori Method of Education which emphasized hands-on,

individualized learning within mixed age groups in a child-friendly setting.

Her teaching strategies and her discoveries about the process of learning

revolutionized the field of education in the United States and profoundly

influenced children's education all around the world. Despite the familiarity

of her name, few realize that much of the developmental, "hands-on"

approach now employed in pre schools and kindergartens can be traced to

the innovations of Maria Montessori. Although best known as an educator,

Montessori's formal training was as a scientist and medical doctor. She is

also notable for having been Italy's first female M.D. For her committed

efforts on behalf of children, especially in the face of the fascism of World

War II, Montessori was nominated three times for the Nobel Peace Prize.

(1949, 1950, 1951).

This is a fact that Montessori’s methods were not derived from

any extant pedagogical wisdom. She had chosed a separate and quite new

method for woman teachers. With the passage of time her curriculum,

method and system of education became very much popular. Her method

attracted the attentions of Alxender Graham Bell, Thomas Edison and even

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disabilities activist Hellen Keller. In 1915, Maria Montessori spoke at

Carnegei Hall, after she had already founded the Montessori Educational

Association the Headquarter of which was at Washington DC, USA. This

method has now become very famous and popular since that day attracting

all an sundary.

It is said that she developed an educational theory, which

combined ideas of scholar Froebel, anthropologist Giuseooe Sergi, French

Physicians, Jean Itard and Edouard Seguin, with methods that she had

found in medicine, education, and Anthropology. During the remaining

years of her life, from about 1907 to the mid-1930’s, Dr. Montessori

devoted all of her time and energy to developing schools throughout

Europe and North America. She then traveled to India and Sri Lanka, untill

1947, where she trained thousands of teachers in the Montessori curriculum

and methodology.

Last days of her life: In the last part of her life, she remained in

NetherLands for some period with her lonely son. Her lone son assumed

the mantle of leadership for the Association Montessori Internationale,

after her demise. The services of Maria Montessori are nevertheless,

extremely memorable. Her methodolgy is, no doubt revolutionary which

brought significant change. As eralier stated she died on May 6, 1952.

Montessori Achievements in establishing schools and helping the helpless:

1. The first Casa (Children’s house).1906-1911 spresd of her ideas:

In 1906 Montessori was invited to oversee the care and education

of a group of children of working parents in a new apartment building for

low-income families in the San Lorenzo district in Rome. Montessori was

interested in applying her work and methods to mentally normal children,

and she accepted. The name Casa dei Bambini, or Children's House, was

suggested to Montessori, and the first Casa opened on January 6, 1907,

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enrolling 50 or 60 children between the ages of two or three and six or

seven.

At first, the classroom was equipped with a teacher's table and

blackboard, a stove, small chairs, armchairs, and group tables for the

children, and a locked cabinet for the materials that Montessori had

developed at the Orthophrenic School. Activities for the children included

personal care such as dressing and undressing, care of the environment

such as dusting and sweeping, and caring for the garden. The children were

also shown the use of the materials Montessori had developed. Montessori

herself, occupied with teaching, research, and other professional activities,

oversaw and observed the classroom work, but did not teach the children

directly. Day-to-day teaching and care were provided, under Montessori's

guidance, by the building porter's daughter.

2. Deffects of method identified and removed:

In this first classroom, Montessori observed behaviors in these

young children which formed the foundation of her educational method.

She noted episodes of deep attention and concentration, multiple repetitions

of activity, and a sensitivity to order in the environment. Given free choice

of activity, the children showed more interest in practical activities and

Montessori's materials than in toys provided for them, and were

surprisingly unmotivated by sweets and other rewards. Over time, she saw

a spontaneous self-discipline emerge.

3. Reforms in classroom management:

Based on her observations, Montessori implemented a number of

practices that became hallmarks of her educational philosophy and method.

She replaced the heavy furniture with child-sized tables and chairs light

enough for the children to move, and placed child-sized materials on low,

accessible shelves. She expanded the range of practical activities such as

sweeping and personal care to include a wide variety of exercises for care

of the environment and the self, including flower arranging, hand washing,

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gymnastics, care of pets, and cooking. She also included large open air

sections in the classroom encouraging children to come and go as they

please in the room's different areas and lessons.

4. Managing the Time properly:

In her book, Montessori outlines a typical winter's day of lessons,

starting at 09:00 AM and finishing at 04:00 PM:

9–10. Entrance. Greeting. Inspection as to personal cleanliness.

Exercises of practical life; helping one another to take off and put

on the aprons. Going over the room to see that everything is

dusted and in order. Language: Conversation period: Children

give an account of the events of the day before. Religious

exercises.

10–11. Intellectual exercises. Objective lessons interrupted by

short rest periods. Nomenclature, Sense exercises.

11–11:30. Simple gymnastics: Ordinary movements done

gracefully, normal position of the body, walking, marching in line,

salutations, movements for attention, placing of objects gracefully.

11:30–12. Luncheon: Short prayer.

12–1. Free games.

1–2. Directed games, if possible, in the open air. During this

period the older children in turn go through with the exercises of

practical life, cleaning the room, dusting, putting the material in

order. General inspection for cleanliness: Conversation.

2–3. Manual work. Clay modelling, design, etc.

3–4. Collective gymnastics and songs, if possible in the open air.

Exercises to develop forethought: Visiting, and caring for, the

plants and animals.

She felt by working independently, children could reach new

levels of autonomy and become self motivated to reach new levels of

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understanding. Montessori also realized that acknowledging that all

children were individuals and treating them as such would yield to better

learning and fulfilled potential in each particular child. She continued to

adapt and refine the materials she had developed earlier, altering or

removing exercises which were chosen less frequently by the children.

Also based on her observations, Montessori experimented with allowing

children free choice of the materials, uninterrupted work, and freedom of

movement and activity within the limits set by the environment. She began

to see independence as the aim of education, and the role of the teacher as

an observer and director of children's innate psychological development.

5. International recognition and growth of Montessori education

As early as 1909, Montessori's work began to attract the attention

of international observers and visitors. Her work was widely published

internationally, and spread rapidly. By the end of 1911, Montessori

education had been officially adopted in public schools in Italy and

Switzerland, and was planned for the United Kingdom. By 1912,

Montessori schools had opened in Paris and many other Western European

cities, and were planned for Argentina, Australia, China, India, Japan,

Korea, Mexico, Switzerland, Syria, the United States, and New Zealand.

Public programs in London, Johannesburg, Rome, and Stockholm had

adopted the method in their school systems.Montessori societies were

founded in the United States (the Montessori American Committee) and

the United Kingdom (the Montessori Society for the United Kingdom). In

1913 the first International Training Course was held in Rome, with a

second in 1914.

Montessori's work was widely translated and published during this

period. Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica was published in the United

States as The Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied to Child

Education in the Children's Houses, where it became a best seller. British

and Swiss editions followed. A revised Italian edition was published in

1913. Russian and Polish editions came out in 1913 as well, and German,

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Japanese, and Romanian editions appeared in 1914, followed by Spanish

(1915), Dutch (1916), and Danish (1917) editions. Pedagogical

Anthropology was published in English in 1913.In 1914, Montessori

published, in English, Doctor Montessori's Own Handbook, a practical

guide to the didactic materials she had developed.

6. Her efforts for maitenence of Peace

In 1932, Montessori spoke on Peace and Education at the Second

International Montessori Congress in Nice, France; this lecture was

published by the Bureau International d'Education, Geneva, Switzerland. In

1932, Montessori spoke at the International Peace Club in Geneva,

Switzerland, on the theme of Peace and Education. Montessori held peace

conferences from 1932 to 1939 in Geneva, Brussels, Copenhagen, and

Utrecht, which were later published in Italian as Educazione e Pace, and in

English as Education and Peace. In 1949, and again in 1950 and in 1951,

Montessori was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, receiving a total of

six nominations.

Remaining Important Topics related to Montessori system:

* The spread of Montessori system in Italy:

The first Casa dei Bambini (Children’s house)was a success, and a

second was opened on April 7, 1907. The children in her programs

continued to exhibit concentration, attention, and spontaneous self-

discipline, and the classrooms began to attract the attention of prominent

educators, journalists, and public figures In the fall of 1907, Montessori

began to experiment with teaching materials for writing and reading—

letters cut from sandpaper and mounted on boards, moveable cutout letters,

and picture cards with labels. Four and five year old children engaged

spontaneously with the materials and quickly gained a proficiency in

writing and reading far beyond what was expected for their age. This

attracted further public attention to Montessori's work. Three more Case dei

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Bambini opened in 1908, and in 1909 Italian Switzerland began to replace

Froebellian methods with Montessori in orphanages and kindergartens.

In 1909, Montessori held the first teacher training course in her

new method in Città di Castello, Italy. In the same year, she described her

observations and methods in a book titled Il Metodo della Pedagogia

Scientifica Applicato All'Educazione Infantile Nelle Case Dei Bambini (The

Method of Scientific Pedagogy Applied to the Education of Children in the

Children's Houses). Two more training courses were held in Rome in 1910,

and a third in Milan in 1911. Montessori's reputation and work began to

spread internationally as well, and around that time she gave up her

medical practice to devote more time to her educational work, developing

her methods and training teachers. In 1919 she resigned from her position

at the University of Rome, as her educational work was increasingly

absorbing all her time and interest.l

* Montessori in the United States

In 1911 and 1912, Montessori's work was popular and widely

publicized in the United States, especially in a series of articles in

McClure's Magazine, and the first North American Montessori school was

opened in October 1911, in Tarrytown, New York. The inventor Alexander

Graham Bell and his wife became proponents of the method and a second

school was opened in their Canadian home. The Montessori Method sold

quickly through six editions. The first International Training Course in

Rome in 1913 was sponsored by the American Montessori Committee, and

67 of the 83 students were from the United States By 1913 there were more

than 100 Montessori schools in the country. Montessori traveled to the

United States in December 1913 on a three-week lecture tour which

included films of her European classrooms, meeting with large,

enthusiastic crowds wherever she traveled.

Montessori returned to the United States in 1915, sponsored by

the National Education Association, to demonstrate her work at the

Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco, California, and

to give a third international training course. A glass-walled classroom was

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put up at the Exposition, and thousands of observers came to see a class of

21 students. Montessori's father died in November 1915, and she returned

to Italy.

Although Montessori and her educational approach were highly

popular in the United States, she was not without opposition and

controversy. Influential progressive educator William Heard Kilpatrick, a

follower of American philosopher and educational reformer John Dewey,

wrote a dismissive and critical book titled The Montessori Method

Examined, which had a broad impact. The National Kindergarten

Association was critical as well. Critics charged that Montessori's method

was outdated, overly rigid, overly reliant on sense-training, and left too

little scope for imagination, social interaction, and play. In addition,

Montessori's insistence on tight control over the elaboration of her method,

the training of teachers, the production and use of materials, and the

establishment of schools became a source of conflict and controversy.

After she left in 1915, the Montessori movement in the United States

fragmented, and Montessori education was a negligible factor in education

in the United States until 1952.

* Further development of Montessori education

In 1915, Montessori returned to Europe and took up residence in

Barcelona , Spain. Over the next 20 years Montessori traveled and lectured

widely in Europe and gave numerous teacher training courses. Montessori

education experienced significant growth in Spain, the Netherlands, the

United Kingdom, and Italy.

* Spain (1915–1936)

On her return from the United States, Montessori continued her

work in Barcelona, where a small program sponsored by the Catalonian

government begun in 1915 had developed into the Escola Montessori,

serving children from three to ten years old, and the Laboratori i Seminari

de Pedagogia, a research, training, and teaching institute. A fourth

international course was given there in 1916, including materials and

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methods, developed over the previous five years, for teaching grammar,

arithmetic, and geometry to elementary school children from six to twelve

years of age. In 1917 Montessori published her elementary work in

L'autoeducazionne nelle Scuole Elementari (Self-Education in Elementary

School), which appeared in English as The Advanced Montessori Method

Around 1920, the Catalonian independence movement began to demand

that Montessori take a political stand and make a public statement favoring

Catalonian independence, and she refused. Official support was withdrawn

from her programs. In 1924, a new military dictatorship closed

Montessori's model school in Barcelona, and Montessori education

declined in Spain, although Barcelona remained Montessori's home for the

next twelve years. In 1933, under the Second Spanish Republic, a new

training course was sponsored by the government, and government support

was re-established. In 1934, she published two books in Spain,

Psicogeometrica and Psicoarithemetica. However, with the onset of the

Spanish Civil War in 1936, political and social conditions drove

Montessori to leave Spain permanently.

1* The Netherlands (1917–1936)

In 1917, Montessori lectured in Amsterdam , and the Netherlands

Montessori Society was founded. She returned in 1920 to give a series of

lectures at the University of Amsterdam. Montessori programs flourished

in the Netherlands, and by the mid-1930s there were more than 200

Montessori schools in the country. In 1935 the headquarters of the

Association Montessori Internationale, or AMI, moved permanently to

Amsterdam.

* The United Kingdom (1919–1936)

Montessori education was met with enthusiasm and controversy in

England between 1912 and 1914. In 1919, Montessori came to England for

the first time and gave an international training course which was received

with high interest. Montessori education continued to spread in the United

Kingdom, although the movement experienced some of the struggles over

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authenticity and fragmentation that took place in the United States.

Montessori continued to give training courses in England every other year

until the beginning of World War II.

* Italy (1922–1934)

In 1922, Montessori was invited to Italy on behalf of the

government to give a course of lectures and later to inspect Italian

Montessori schools. Later that year Benito Mussolini's Fascist government

came to power in Italy. In December, Montessori came back to Italy to plan

a series of annual training courses under government sponsorship, and in

1923, the minister of education Giovanni Gentile expressed his official

support for Montessori .

A CRITICAL NOTE ON MONTESSORI’S EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY AND PEDAGOGY

Merits of Montessori Method;

1. It’s the result of the influences of the early great scholars::

Montessori's theory and philosophy of education were initially

heavily influenced by the work of Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, Édouard

Séguin, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, all of whom

emphasized sensory exploration and manipulatives. Montessori's first work

with mentally disabled children, at the Orthophrenic School in 1900–1901,

used the methods of Itard and Seguin, training children in physical

activities such as walking and the use of a spoon, training their senses by

exposure to sights, smells, and tactile experiences, and introducing letters

in tactile form. These activities developed into the Montessori "Sensorial"

materials.

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2. Scientific pedagogy

Montessori considered her work in the Orthophrenic School and

her subsequent psychological studies and research work in elementary

schools as "scientific pedagogy," a concept current in the study of

education at that time. She called for not just observation and measurement

of students, but for the development of new methods which would

transform them. "Scientific education, therefore, was that which, while

based on science, modified and improved the individual." Further,

education itself should be transformed by science: "The new methods if

they were run on scientific lines, ought to change completely both the

school and its methods, ought to give rise to a new form of education."

3. Establishment of Children house ( First sympatheic step for

Children):

Working with non-disabled children in the Casa dei Bambini in

1907, Montessori began to develop her own pedagogy. The essential

elements of her educational theory emerged from this work, described in

The Montessori Method in 1912 and in The Discovery of the Child in 1948.

Her method was founded on the observation of children at liberty to act

freely in an environment prepared to meet their needs. Montessori came to

the conclusion that the children's spontaneous activity in this environment

revealed an internal program of development, and that the appropriate role

of the educator was to remove obstacles to this natural development and

provide opportunities for it to proceed and flourish.

Accordingly, the schoolroom was equipped with child-sized

furnishings, "practical life" activities such as sweeping and washing tables,

and teaching material that Montessori had developed herself. Children

were given freedom to choose and carry out their own activities, at their

own paces and following their own inclinations. In these conditions,

Montessori made a number of observations which became the foundation

of her work. First, she observed great concentration in the children and

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spontaneous repetition of chosen activities. She also observed a strong

tendency in the children to order their own environment, straightening

tables and shelves and ordering materials. As children chose some

activities over others, Montessori refined the materials she offered to them.

Over time, the children began to exhibit what she called "spontaneous

discipline".

4. Wide recognition and Development of Montessori in the

World, due to being a natural/beneficial Method:

Montessori continued to develop her pedagogy and her model of

human development as she expanded her work and extended it to older

children. She saw human behavior as guided by universal, innate

characteristics in human psychology which her son and collaborator Mario

Montessori identified as "human tendencies" in 1957. In addition, she

observed four distinct periods, or "planes", in human development,

extending from birth to six years, from six to twelve, from twelve to

eighteen, and from eighteen to twenty-four. She saw different

characteristics, learning modes, and developmental imperatives active in

each of these planes, and called for educational approaches specific to each

period. Over the course of her lifetime, Montessori developed pedagogical

methods and materials for the first two planes, from birth to age twelve,

and wrote and lectured about the third and fourth planes.

5. Beneficial method for little children:

We can say that, definitely, his method is very much beneficial for

children of 2/1/2 to 6 . All such students are usually very difficult to be

educated. That is why her method became popular in a very short span of

time through out the world

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* Her Works & Contributions:

Montessori published a number of books, articles, and pamphlets

during her lifetime, often in Italian, but sometimes first in English.

According to Kramer, "the major works published before 1920 (The

Montessori Method, Pedagogical Anthropology, The Advanced Montessori

Method—Spontaneous Activity in Education and The Montessori

Elementary Material), were written in Italian by her and translated under

her supervision." However, many of her later works were transcribed from

her lectures, often in translation, and only later published in book form.

Montessori's major works are given here in order of their first

publication, with significant revisions and translations.

“La scoperta del bambino” (English version:The Montessori Method:)

* Her second Book” “The Discovery of the Child”

* Pedagocial Anthropology

* “ Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook”

* The Advanced Montessori Method, Vol. I: Spontaneous Activity in

Education; Vol. II: The Montessori Elementary Material.

* The Child in the Family * Psychogeometry

* The Secret of Childhood * From Childhood to Adolescence

* Peace and Education * The Formation of Man (1949)

* Education for a New World * To Educate the Human Potential

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Demerits of Montessori Method:

1. Beneficial method but seldom afforded by all:

No doubt this is very important method but it is not afforded by all

schools and students to study. Neither they afford it efinancially nor the

schools premises are so deasigned to accommodate it.

2. This method is only for pre-school students: Most of the people like

those methods which are designed for their wards who are either in

secondary schools or Higher Secondary schools or in degree classes. Very

less number of people take botheration for such students.

THE MONTESSORI "METHOD” of bringing up and educating

children:

After years of expression mainly in pre-schools, Montessori

philosophy is finally being used as originally intended, as a method of

seeing children as they really are and of creating environments which foster

the fulfillment of their highest potential - spiritual, emotional, physical, and

intellectual - as members of a family, the world community and the

Cosmos.

Dr. Montessori gave the world a scientific method, practical and

tested, for bringing forth the very best in young human beings. She taught

adults how to respect individual differences, and to emphasize social

interaction and the education of the whole personality rather than the

teaching of a specific body of knowledge.

Montessori practice is always up-to-date and dynamic because

observation and the meeting of needs is continual and specific for each

child. When physical, mental, spiritual, and emotional needs are met

children glow with excitement and a drive to play and work with

enthusiasm, to learn, and to create. They exhibit a desire to teach, help, and

care for others and for their environment.

The high level of academic achievement so common in

Montessori schools is a natural outcome of experience in such a supportive

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environment. The Montessori method of education is a model which serves

the needs of children of all levels of mental and physical ability as they live

and learn in a natural, mixed-age group which is very much like the society

they will live in as adults.

Today Montessori teacher training centers and schools exist on all

continents. There are Montessori parenting classes, "Nidos" ("nests" for

infants), infant communities, "children's houses" (for age 3-6), and classes

for children up to age eighteen in public and private schools. Montessori

works in gifted and talented programs, and for children with developmental

disabilities of all kinds. Many parents are using Dr. Montessori's

discoveries to raise/educate their children at home.

The discoveries of Maria Montessori are valuable for anyone

living and working with children in any situation.

Founder of Montessori Education Method-More details:

An Italian educator of the early 20th century, Maria Montessori is

remembered as the founder of the famous Montessori Method of education

which emphasized hands-on, individualized learning within mixed age

groups in a child-friendly setting. Her teaching strategies and her

discoveries about the process of learning revolutionized the field of

education in the United States and profoundly influenced children's

education all around the world. Despite the familiarity of her name, few

realize that much of the developmental, "hands-on" approach now

employed in preschools and kindergartens can be traced to the innovations

of Maria Montessori. Although best known as an educator, Montessori's

formal training was as a scientist and medical doctor. She is also notable

for having been Italy's first female M.D. For her committed efforts on

behalf of children, especially in the face of the fascism of World War II,

Montessori was nominated three times for the Nobel Peace Prize (1949,

1950, and 1951).

Maria Montessori was born 31 August 1870 in Chiaravalle, Italy.

Her father was a civil servant and former soldier. Her mother was

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unusually well educated and an avid reader, and Maria herself proved

remarkably precocious. She was confident and strong-minded, excelling in

school and often taking on the role of leader in games and conversations.

At the age of thirteen she entered a technical school, a thing considered off-

limits to females. She subsequently received such high marks that when

she graduated, in 1886, she was able to enter the Regio Istituto Tecnico

Leonardo da Vinci. Here she studied math, natural sciences, and languages,

again excelling beyond all expectations. It was here too that she became

enthralled with the biological sciences, and began to dream of pursuing a

career in medicine.

But in 1890, when Montessori applied to the University of Rome,

she was denied entrance to the medical program because of her gender.

Montessori was not one to be easily discouraged. She enrolled at the

University to study physics, mathematics, and the natural sciences. She

applied herself with steadfast resolve despite the distraction of an ongoing

rift with her beloved father, who strongly disapproved of the decision. Two

years later she had earned her Diploma di licenza. Eventually, despite her

gender, she was allowed to study medicine. When she presented her thesis

in 1896, her sheer brilliance so impressed the all-male board of review that

they awarded her a full medical degree, making her Italy's first woman

doctor.

Soon after this accomplishment she was promoted to surgical

assistant at Santo Spirito, where she had worked previously as medical

assistant. She continued research at the University of Rome, joining the

university staff in 1897. Along the way she entered into a love affair with

another doctor and became pregnant. Rather than marry, the determined

and unconventional Montessori gave her infant son as fosterling to a family

in the countryside. Although she kept track of him, the two saw little of

each other in the early years of his life. (He would return to her side at age

fifteen, and eventually become her most valued assistant.)

Maria's work meanwhile expanded to include regular work in

insane asylums, with mentally handicapped children. She became

interested in psychology and human behavior, and by 1904 had accepted a

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professorship in anthropology at the University of Rome. She surrendered

the position in 1906 however to follow what would become her life's work,

re-engineering the field of children's education. Her initial focus was to

rehabilitate society's discarded children: the mentally retarded, children

with behavior problems, orphans, and the desperately poor. Montessori's

early efforts were so astonishingly successful that she soon amassed a large

following, not only of parents desperate for her help, but of teachers

desperate to learn her methods.

Ironically, Montessori's methods were not derived from any extant

pedagogical wisdom. She had in fact sidestepped the more traditional

education path for women -- teacher's training -- in favor of science. But as

an astute scientist and quick-minded observer, she had soon discovered

some important and, for the period, revolutionary principles about children

and the process of learning. Among these was the notion that children have

an innate drive to learn, and that all on their own they are capable of

amassing an incredible amount of information and wisdom about the world

around them. This was startling news at the turn of the century as hitherto it

had been assumed that children could only learn through instruction -- or

more specifically, from being lectured by an adult.

Montessori further discovered that children's innate power for

learning worked best when they were turned loose in a safe, hands-on-

learning environment. Given furniture, equipment, and supplies that they

could access and work all by themselves, they were self-motivated to

explore, experiment, and reach new understandings. She found self-

correcting, or "auto-didactic", puzzles and other equipment to be an

essential component of independent learning and the child-friendly

environment. What's more, she found that if children were put into groups

with other children with a small range in ages (such as 3-6, 6-9, 9-11, etc.),

they would not only work together but also help teach each other. Older

children would learn teaching and nurturing skills, and younger children

would glimpse strategies for learning and playing that they had not

considered yet.

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Montessori also found that children of all ages thrived when they

were given the opportunity to experience mastery of real life skills and

knowledge that was appropriate to their age and stage of life. Thus

preschoolers thrilled at being allowed to assist in the kitchen and felt pride

and increased self-esteem at being able to help set the table and use

appropriate manners and verbal expressions. Meanwhile the self-

confidence and joy of young teenagers was bolstered by mastering basic

home economics, and by learning information about running a business, or

building furniture or a home. These young teens also did best when the

primary emphasis in their learning process was practical and action

oriented, rather than purely intellectual. Montessori believed this was

because this age group was under so much psychological and physiological

(i.e. hormones) pressure that the surging swings of emotion made it harder

to focus on purely abstract studies. (An interesting premise somewhat

contradicting Jean Piaget's theories about this same stage of development.)

Above all, Montessori felt her most significant discovery was the

awareness that it is the teacher who must pay rapt attention to the students,

not the other way around -- a notion utterly contrary to the expectations of

her day. But she found that by observing how the individual children

responded to various lessons and materials, she could easily figure out

what lessons/experiences to present next. And by acknowledging that each

child is an individual, with individual needs and abilities, she could apply

this method to guiding particular children to fulfillment of their potential.

She even enabled the mentally handicapped children not only to master the

basic skills of self-care, but to pass academic tests designed for mainstream

children.

SOME MORE DETAILS REGARDING “METHOD” ITS MERITS

AND DEMERITS

Dr. Maria Montessori founded a theory of education that has had a

profound influence on the lives of thousands of children throughout the

world since the beginning of the 20th Century. She wrote that education

should "… help the individual from birth and protect his environment".

From this crucial idea the whole of Montessori's theory, her

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recommendation for educational practice including the organisation of the

environment, the curriculum and the important role of the educator, have

developed.

The Montessori Method is an approach to education used predominantly in

the pre-school field. It is also used at the Junior, Middle and Senior levels.

From being rather obscure and elitist, the method has now been widely

adopted and there are now well over five thousand Montessori schools in

North America, one thousand schools in the United Kingdom and several

more thousand throughout the world.

The Montessori approach to education requires that children are placed in a

well-planned and structured environment which will meet their individual

educational and cultural needs. The children are free to follow their own

interests within this planned environment, rather than being forced to learn

something that is inappropriate to their developmental stage. The result is

that children develop in a natural way and are highly motivated. They

develop good discipline and master basic skills, and in many cases earlier

than in a more traditional system of education. To bring about these results

the teacher is trained in specific skills, the curriculum is carefully planned

to reflect the children’s own culture and educational needs, the support

materials for the curriculum are specifically Montessori and the outcomes

for the children are unique.

There are three basic elements of the Montessori approach to education:

The Structured Environment The Montessori Curriculum

The Montessori Teacher

The Structured Environment

This is referred to as the ‘Prepared Environment’ and by this is

meant the physical appearance and the arrangement of the learning

materials adhering to certain principles which focus on meeting the needs

of the ‘whole child’. It is the teacher’s role to prepare and maintain this

environment. These principles encompass: freedom of movement and

freedom of choice for the children structure and order in the arrangement

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and sequence of the materials an atmosphere that is attractive, warm and

inviting materials that provide active learning experiences vertical

grouping (in the age ranges 2½ to 6 years) a closeness to nature and the

natural world and activities and materials that reflect the reality of life, not

fantasy

The classrooms are ‘open-plan’ with the learning materials

arranged in areas and the children are given freedom to move around and to

choose the activities that interest them. For the most part the materials

themselves are self-correcting and this gives the children a sense of

empowerment and helps them to become independent learners. This type of

classroom is different from the traditional adult-centred classrooms where

children often participate passively as teachers endeavour to impart

knowledge and skills to be learned. The indoor environment is arranged in

Montessori areas for a Pre-school classroom (Nursery, Kindergarten 1 and

Kindergarten 2) as described below in the Montessori Curriculum:

The indoor environment is arranged in Montessori areas for a Pre-

school classroom (Nursery, Kindergarten 1 and Kindergarten 2) as

described below in the Montessori Curriculum:

In each Montessori area there are low level shelves which children

can reach and where the learning materials are displayed in a sequential

order. The children make choices about what they want to do and after the

activity they are encouraged to put the materials back in the correct place in

readiness for the next child. This external structure and order helps the

child build his internal order.

The outdoor environment is important. First and foremost the

school should, by preference, be located in a natural environment, with

trees, bushes, plants and animals to ensure that the children remain in touch

with and close to nature. In addition there will be attractive and safe

equipment to encourage the development of different physical skills, as

well as to provide opportunities for children to socialise with each other.

The Montessori classrooms are always attractive, warm and

inviting and there are plenty of materials which reflect the children’s own

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culture. However, the classrooms should not be over-stimulating but rather

have a calming effect.

The Montessori learning materials are the tools which provide the

children with ‘hands on’ active learning experiences. Through this direct

experience and the process of discovery and investigation the children

gradually progress from the concrete to the abstract. Maria Montessori

designed materials for children in the Pre-school and in the Junior school.

In the Middle and Senior schools practical investigation and the application

of research methods are encouraged.

A Montessori school will have vertical groups. Ideally these age

groups will range from 2½ to 6 years, 6 to 9 years, 9 to 12 years, 12 to 15

years and 15 to 18 years but the arrangement of the age groups will depend

on the national requirements of each country and the examination system

for which the children are being prepared.

The principle of reality, not fantasy, in the classroom is one of the

distinguishing features of a Montessori Pre-school classroom. Montessori’s

idea was to teach the children all about how to live in the real world and the

Exercises of Practical Life are the first activities that provide these

experiences. Children learn how to look after themselves and the

environment as well as how to behave socially. In a traditional Pre-school

classroom there is usually a ‘home corner’ where the children play-out

different aspects of living, but in the Montessori classroom they will

actually engage in helping prepare the vegetables for lunch, they will really

wash up after the meal and they will really dust and clean their classroom.

The principle of closeness to nature is another distinguishing

feature of a Montessori setting. In the classroom the children will have pets

for whom they are responsible and plants and flowers to water and tend. In

the outdoor area there is a garden plot especially for the children to

cultivate where they grow vegetables and flowers.

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The Montessori Curriculum in brief

There is a framework which specifies learning outcomes and the

knowledge and skills to be learned. It is divided into the Montessori areas

of learning:

Practical Life

Sensorial

Mathematics

Language and Literacy

Cultural Subjects (which include Geography, History, Natural

Sciences, Experimental Sciences)

Creative Subjects (Art and Craft, Music and Movement, Drama)

The National or International curricula which are required to be

followed in a particular country are taken into consideration when

designing a curriculum for a particular school.

The Montessori Teacher

Initially the Montessori teacher carefully observes the children in

her class to ascertain the developmental needs of each individual child.

Then comes the task of preparing the environment and the materials in it to

meet the various needs of the individual children within the group. As the

children begin to make free choices and interact and discover the materials,

the teacher facilitates and guides their learning. There are some small

group lessons when the teacher introduces new concepts and encourages

the children to ask questions, investigate and discover new ideas.

As a result, children who experience a Montessori education are

highly motivated and learn to be independent, self-confident and self-

disciplined. It makes education a source of pleasure for them - something

to be sought and enjoyed. Each and all are given the opportunity to develop

their own innate abilities to the full potential in an atmosphere where

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competition is irrelevant and non-existent. As a result they develop drive

and a high level of achievement.

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SOME MORE DETAILS ABOUT THE CURRICULUM

The Course Contents of Montessori system of Education

The Montessori curriculum is designed to cater for children from

2 ½ to 6 years. The children enter a prepared and ordered environment.

There is no front or back to the classroom, nor do the children have

particular desks. The materials are kept on low open shelves where there is

intentionally only one of each piece of equipment. This encourages self-

discipline, as each child must wait its turn. They are given the opportunity

and responsibility of choosing their own work and over a period, the

children develop into a kinship, working with high concentration and with

few interruptions. The children learn to co-operate and interact successfully

with other classmates and teachers.

In Montessori the teaching goes from simple to complex, first

introducing the topic gradually, as a whole, and then going into specific

detail, always refining the information increasing the child’s knowledge.

For example, the children first learn about the world and what it is made of,

they then explore each continent, and then refine their learning to their own

country.

The Montessori curriculum allows children preparing for primary

to develop their full potential, building their leadership skills and

confidence, establishing them as valued and respected members of their

community.

Subjects

The Montessori materials within the classroom environment are a

starting block. The materials give each child the vocabulary needed to start

out life with. They are the tools to get him started with the environment as

the building block. The Montessori work is taught to the children on a one

to one basis at their own pace.

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Practical Life

The Practical Life activities are the first activities introduced and

allow your child to try to do what adults around him are seen to do every

day. The Practical Life area of a classroom is an extension your child’s

own home environment. Its aims are to develop his independence,

intelligence, concentration, co-ordination, control, motor skills, social skills

and self-discipline. The Practical Life exercises are broken down into four

key areas:

1. Elementary Movements - develops the child’s manipulative skills

and body co-ordination e.g. pouring, cutting, folding, threading

2. Care of the Person - teaches the child how to look after himself

and his property e.g. putting on his coat, tying his shoelaces,

folding his clothes

3. Care of the Environment - teaches the child tasks he will need and

use within his environment e.g. dusting, tidying up, setting a table,

cooking skills

4. Social Skills, Grace and Courtesy - teaches the child to understand

his role in society and what kind of conduct is acceptable e.g. how

to speak in a group, polite greetings, disposing of litter r

Sensorial

Sensorial exercises are for the development and refreshment of the

child’s five senses, thereby sharpening his intellect and control, preparing

him for more advanced exercises in maths, language and geometry. The

exercises give each child the vocabulary they need to start out with, words

such as height, width, etc. The child then takes these words and uses them

in his environment. The child completes one step at a time, progressively

moving from simple to complex. Where possible, each sense is isolated to

provide an intense experience. Exercises include, the Colour Boxes, the

Touch Tablets and the Sound Boxes.

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Language

Language is involved in every aspect of the Montessori

environment from Practical Life to Sensorial but it is also introduced

through a step-by-step programme starting with the Sandpaper Letters.

Each child will be introduced to sounds and words developing their reading

and writing skills. Exercises include, the Large Moveable Alphabet, Object

and Word Boxes, Sentence Strips.

Culture

Culture is made up of History, Geography, Science, Nature and

Fine Arts. The subjects develop each child’s individual skills, increase their

vocabulary and reading skills, increase their knowledge, develop their

physical skills, satisfy their senses, teach them changes and life cycles in

life and nature, and teach them ecology and aspects of different cultures.

Culture helps the child understand where he is in the world and the

important contribution he has to offer. Exercises include, the Sandpaper

Globe, the Jigsaw Map of the Continents, and Sandpaper Landforms.

Maths

Maths is introduced to the child from the first day. It teaches them

the study of form, quantity, numbers and relations. It allows him to

understand analysis and clear reasoning. It teaches him to sort events into

classes and categories and introduces awareness of relationships between

classes and categories. Above all, it teaches logic. Exercises include, the

Number Rods, Cards and Counters, Naming with Beads.

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UNIT-3

INFLUENTIAL EDUCATORS

3.1 IMAM GHAZALI:

His Life Sketch:

The real name and family background of Imam Ghazali has been

discussed by several historians in different phrases. The shortest and

precise seems to be that of Mrs. Tanveer Khalid. She says, “Abu Hamid,

Muhammad Bin Muhammad, surnamed Al-Imam-ul-Jalil and Zainuddin,

was born at Ghazali near Tus in 450 (1050 A.D). It is said that Ghazali’s

father was a spinner of wool which is the meaning of the word Gazali

(some others believe that), he is called Ghazali because he was born at

‘Ghazala”, and also because his father was known as Ghazai by his

profession.

So far his early education is concerned, he got it at Tus proper,

then he moved to Jarjan and finally to Nishapur to acquire learning from

the most learned man of the time, Abul-Malli-Muhammad-Al-Juwani-

Imamul-Haramian. He was first the pupil and gradually became the

assistant of the Imam and remained in this position till the latter’s death in

1085 A.D. He was called to the court of Nizamul Mulk Tusi, the famous

Seijuki’s vazir and the founder of “Nizamia”, who appointed him as his

intellectual advisor. He remained there in this capacity until 1091; when he

was appointed as a professor at the University of Baghdad. He possessed

great ability of clear expression and of addressing the people. It is said that

while at Baghdad, Ghazali lectured before audience of three hundred and

even five hundred great learned men and lawyers of his time to their

satisfaction. Leaving Baghdad in 1095; he went to Syria, then to Egypt and

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on to Makkah and Madina. Thus he spent about a couple of years in

wandering here and there while contemplating and thinking of sufferings of

mankind at the same time. Fakhurl-Mulk, son of Nizamul-Mulk and the

chief minister of Khurasan at that time, called him back to make him

president of his academy in Naishapur in 1105, but after- some time

Ghazali returned back to his native place Tus Here he wrote his world

famous book “Ihya-ul-Ulummidin”. He died there on 19th of December,

1111.

His Views:

As per statement of Mrs. Tanveer Khahd, in her book

“Education”, Imam Ghzali wrote many books, nearly 78, on several

subjects like Tafsir, Jurisprudence, Hadith, Politics and Education. His

famous writings are, “Cheemia-l-Saadat’ “Mairajus-Salikeen”, “Aqeedat-

I-Misbah” and IhayU1-Ularnmidin”

Mrs. Tanveer Khalid further says that the chief characteristics of his

thinking is that he replaced the rule of intellectual perception by

personal human e:rperience. He was searching to find a new way out for

himself ignoring the accepted doctrine of his age. He fought against the

Pagonis-tic Muslim renaissance. He is thus regarded as a “Mujaddid”

or”reviver” and “Imam” or “Leader” by millions of Muslims today.

He appears as a pragmatist and a realist while emphasizing the

materialistic as much as the spiritual development of man. To him worldly

business is necessary for the peace of mind and even for the sustenance of

life. He advocated not the luxuries but the fulfillment of the basic needs of

man which result in the peace of mind leading him ultimately to the service

of both people and God Almighty, He believed that God had made this

world ‘a place for work and labour”. His ethics, his ways of life and his

outlook began to be dictated by the sayings and the doings of the prophet

(S.A.W) which are realistic in nature and full of action: “Effort and work”

has been appreciated in the teaching of the Holy prophet (Peace be upon

him). He refers to the saying of the prophet that a man should not leave off

this world nor should he entirely curb his worldly desires, but instead of

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this, he should find out the real object behind every thing of this world and

should act always in such a way as to have the limited utility of action in

his mind. He considered the personal experiences of the man and the

experiences of the race very important in the process of education.

The same view was, expressed by Dewey in the 20 th century.

Ghazali pointed out that in the prevailing practice of’ education at that

time, too much time was devoted to the religious learning and too little

attention was paid to the teaching of useful subjects in the practical life. He

stressed the need for the inclusion of useful subjects in the curriculum.

His earlier approach towards education and 1ife was philosophical

and logical in nature. He held the view that logic was essential for

intellectual reasoning and thinking. Anyone who did not know the basis of

logic would not be able to analyze the situations and problems properly.

Very soon he realized the importance of utilitarian subjects in learning and

later on he realized the importance of religious and moral education.

His concepts of the Aims of Education:

To him the aim of education is the character and personality

development of the learner. Education should aim at the inculcation of

desirable traits of behaviour in the child. The child is born good by nature,

people lead him on the path of virtue or vice. Education should enable him

to distinguish between true and the false, the good and the bad, the right

conduct and the evil doings. He realized that religious instructions help in

promoting the goodness of character, hence he advocated the inclusion of

religion in the curriculum. He added further that basic principles of

religion, such as commands and tenets, Quran and Sunnah should be taught

but the “controversial topics” should be left out so that there should not be

any confusion in the mind of the learner. It is interesting to note that the

Church in the 19th century adopted the same policy in the teaching of

religion.

Curriculum: Imam Ghazlai has grouped the subjects of studies into two

categories:

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1. Farz-e-Ain = Cornmpulsory

2. Farz-e-Kafaya = Optional

Farz-e-Ain are those arts and sciences which are compulsory for

every one, such as tenets of Islam, Quran, logic sciences which are not

supposed to be learned by all but only by those who are interested in them.

These subjects include Fiqah, Tafseer, Hadith, Industrial arts such as

weaving, tailoring, hair cutting, engineering, medicine and agriculture etc.

Imam Ghalzali advocated the need of moral education both in

“theory and practice”. The child from the period of infancy should be

taught good habits and positive attitudes by the parents. The early

education of the child is primarily the responsibility of the parents. Parents

should show a co-ordination in their verbal instruction and practical

behaviour.

His view of Women Education:

He interprets the saying of the prophet (SAW) acquisition of

knowledge is’ the duty of every man and woman who carry on a profession

to gather knowledge about that profession in order that they might keep

away from all possibilities of doing wrong. As the duty of a woman is

keeping the house and looking after the children her education should be

such as to make her more efficient in the discharge of her duties.

Methods of education:

His view about the methods of education appears as modern as

those of the educationists of today. First of all he says that the lesson

should be conducted in a very interesting way. It should be made

interesting by allowing participation in it, with the help of audiovisual aids

and by conducting them in a very congenial atmosphere of understanding

and affection. The teacher should proceed from the simple to the complex

according to the development level of the child. The teacher’s method

should include lecture participation of students, discussions and tutorials.

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Students while learning may take down the notes or ‘points’ of the

discussion.

Discipline:

His views upon discipline are as important as his views upon the

method of education. He says that the class room discipline should never

be based on fear; it should rather be based upon love and understanding.

There should be a close and warm relationship between the teacher and the

taught. The teacher should treat them with kindness and sympathy. The

students belonging to the adolescent stage of development are specially in

need of such treatment. The teacher’s personality should be a model with

which the student may identify themselves. He says that punishment should

be avoided as it does not bring any good. It curbs the initiative and shakes

the confidence of the students and develops resistance in them against the

teacher. Modern educators like Pestalozi, Froebel, Montessori and Dewey

are of the same opinion.

His Contributions:

No doubt Imam Ghazali is a great Muslim thinker and educator.

His theories about the aims, methods and curriculum of education are quite

revolutionary. Instead of ornamental education, he emphasized the

utilitarian type of education to enable the learner to carry on in any

vocation or profession. He is even encouraging specialization in any of the

subjects learned. Our problem, even today, is that the curriculum is over

loaded with literary type of subjects, besides a lake of vocational, teaching

and agricultural subjects in it. We are making policies for the industrial and

practical subjects with the general ones. He had great insight into problems

of education and he presented their solution too. He emphasized the

personal experience as much as we do today. He also introduced a new

concept of the teacher-pupil relationship. This type of relationship is

advised by the modern educational psychologists. His views obviously

appear as modern as the thoughts of the educators of today. What he

advocated several hundred years ago is now being implemented and

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practiced in the most advanced countries of the world. He was a great

educator, no doubt.

3.2 JOHN DEWEY:

Life History

John Dewey was born in 1859. After graduation from the

University of Vermont in 1879 he started his career as a school teacher and

had the actual experience of teaching in a class room. His philosophy is not

simply speculative but based on the actual experiences in the school. In

April 1882 he wrote his first article entitled, ‘The Metaphysical assumption

of Materialism’ in a journal of speculative philosophy.

After leaving his job as a school teacher, Dewey joined John

Hopkins University and obtained his degree of Ph.D. in Philosophy in

1884. Thereafter, he worked as a professor at the universities of Minnesota,

Michigan and Chicago. It was at Chicago in 1896 that Dewey founded the

ideal University laboratory school. This school served him as a scientific

laboratory in obtaining knowledge of facts and laws still unknown to the

educationists of the universe. It was here that he tested, modified and

classified his practical experience of school situations.

He was invited by the University of Peking to deliver lecture on

philosophy and education and later on the National Government of Turkey

asked him to draw up a report on the reorganisation of national schools in

Turkey.

5. Philosophy of John Dewey:

Dewey’s philosophy and programme has been variously termed as

“Experimentalism”, “Progressivism”, “Practicalism” and above all

“Pragmatism”. All these indicate his emphasis on every hypothesis or

belief or principle by the way it works or by its consequences. He does not

believe in the existence of any absolute values or ultimate moral principles

which are at once unassailable and unimprovable. He said that there are no

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fixed beliefs. He also insisted that the intellect was subordinate to practical

ends. “Utility” was the touchstone of every value. Pragmatism teaches

which is useful, what works in a practical situation is true; what does not

work is false. Truth thus becomes not a “fixed”, or ‘eternal’ thing, but

something that is subject to change. According to Pragmatism what is true

to day may be false tomorrow.

His Five values

1. Aesthetic taste or capacity.

2. Conscientiousness.

3. Efficiency

4. Scientific spirits.

5. Sociability and social efficiency.

Experience and Experimental Method:

Dewey explains that where there is experience, there is a living

being. In the orthodox view, experience is regarded primarily as a

knowledge-affair, but to eyes not looking through ancient spectacles, it

assuredly appears as an affair of the interaction of living being with its

physical and social environment. To learn from experience is to make a

backward and forward connection between what we do to things and what

we enjoy or suffer from things.

The new philosophy of education is an experimental philosophy.

All experiences cannot be educative. The traditional education gave pupils

experiences but not of the right type. The business of the educator is to set

a kind of experience which while being agreeable promotes having

desirable future experiences. The central problem of an educator based

upon experience is to select the kind of present experiences that live

fruitfully and creatively in subsequent experience. The continuity of

experience is the philosophy of educative experience. It is a development

with in, by and for Experience. Thus a full integrated personality exists

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only when successive experiences are integrated. Experimental method has

the following merits.

1. Experimental method is the foe of every belief that permits habits

and wants to dominate invention and discovery, and ready-made

system to override verifiable fact. Constant revision is the work of

experimental inquiry.

2. Experimental method is fatal to dogmatism because it shows that

all ideas, conceptions, theories, however extensive and self-

consistent and aesthetically attractive they may be, are to be

entertained provisionally until they have been tested by acting

upon them.

3. Experimental method is not just measuring around nor doing a

little of this and a little of that in the hope that things will improve.

Just as in the physical sciences, it implies a coherent body of

ideas, a theory, that gives direction to effort.

His Views on his own method:

l. Selectivity in experience: Mere activity is not experience: A

stream of meaningful experience should be provided. That kind of

present experience should be selected and emphasised which lives

fruitfully and creatively in the course of future experiences.

2. Education is Growth: Dewey is a protagonist of the conception of

education as growth and direction. Life is growing and education

is the process of this ever-increasing growth. What is of

significance for Dewey is the present life and its possibilities. He

criticises the conception of education as a ‘preparation” for the

realisation of some remote future goals. It is essential that the

immediate situation should be interpreted in such a meaningful

way that it may provide the maximum stimulus for the responsive

co-operation of pupils and the utilisation of their energies”.

3. Education a moral process: According to Dewey, “Discipline,

culture, social efficiency, personal refinement, improvement of

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character are but phases of the growth of capacity to share in such

a balanced experience. And education is not a mere means to such

a life. To maintain capacity in it, such education is the essence of

morals. For conscious life is a continual beginning a fresh”.

The Important Stetps of his Problem Method

In view of Dewey, the steps to be taken in the problem-solving

method of teaching are outlined as given below:

1. The students must sense a difficulty. Probably they must feel

backed in some activity in which he is engaged so that the

problem arises of how to restore its continuity.

2. Having once sensed a problem he must explore and clearly define

it.

3. Once the situation has been thoroughly surveyed and analysed,

suggestions will arise as to how the continuity of one’s initial

activity can be restored or reconstructed into a more adequate

form.

4. Next the student reasons out the implications of these suggestions.

He dramatises in his mind what the consequences of each

suggestion would be if acted out.

5. Finally he sets most likely to achieve his ends by acting on it.

This is pertinent to note that ‘the problem method as Dewey

presented it, seems to have a very logical order of development. But when

he gives his views about interest, he is talking of psychology also. In

Dewey’s thinking the logical and psychological perceptions are not

opposed, to each other, but mutually dependent.

His view of Education — A process of Readjustment:

Dewey thinks that the process of education is a continuous process

of adjustment, having as its aim at every stage an added capacity of growth.

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It could be elaborated as to say that there are two sides of the educative

process-psychological and social.

According to Dewey the educative process has two sides-one

psychological and other sociological, and neither can be subordinated by

the other or neglected without evil results following.

Social view of Education: Prof. Dewey states the social function

of education in “The School and Society”.What the best and wisest parents

want for their own child is that the community wants for all of its children.

Any other ideal for our schools is narrow and unlovely if acted upon, it

destroys our democracy. All that society has accomplished for itself is put,

through the agency of the school, at the disposal of its future members”.

Education proceeds by the participation of the individual in the

social consciousness of the race. Dewey believes that all education

proceeds by the participation of the individual in the social consciousness

of the race. This process begins unconsciously almost at birth, and is

continually shaping the individuals powers, saturating his consciousness,

forming his habits, training his ideas, and arousing his feelings and

emotions. Through this unconscious education the individual gradually

comes to share in the intellectual and moral resources which humanity has

succeeded in getting together. He becomes an inheritor of the funded

capital of civilization. The most formal and technical education in the

world cannot safely depart from this general process. It can only organise it

or differentiate it in some particular direction. Dewey believes that the only

true education comes through the stimulation of the child’s powers by the

demands of the social situation in which he finds himself.

School as a Social Institution:

Regarding the role of school, he says, ‘I believed that the school is

primarily a social institution. Education being a ‘social process’, the school

is simply that form of community life in which all those agencies are

concentrated that will be most effective in bringing the child to share in the

inherited resources of the race, and to use his own powers for social ends’,

‘I believe that the school must represent present life - life, as real and vital

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to the child as that which he carries on in the home, in the neighborhood, or

on the playground’.

The Moral Training given by the School Community:

According to Dewey there cannot be two sets of ethical principles,

one for life in the school, and the other for life outside the school. As

conduct is one, the tendency to discuss the morals of the school as if the

school was an institution by itself, is highly unfortunate. The moral

responsibility of the school, and of those who conduct it, is the society. The

school is fundamentally an institution established by society to do a certain

specific work to exercise a certain specific function in maintaining the life

and advancing the welfare of society. The educational system which does

not recognise that this fact entails upon it an ethical responsibility, derelict

and a defaulter.

Functions of the School:

The first office of the school is to provide a simplified

environment. It should select the features which are fairly fundamental and

capable of being responded to by the young. Then it should establish a

progressive insight into what is more complicated.

In the second place, it should be the business of the school

environment to eliminate, so far as possible, the unworthy feature of the

existing environment. It would establish a purified medium of action.

Selection should aim not only at simplifying but at weeding out what is

undesirable. The school has the duty of omitting trivial things from the

environment which it supplies, and thereby doing what it can to counteract

their influence in the ordinary social environment. By selecting the best for

its exclusive use, it should strive to reinforce the power of the best. As a

society becomes more enlightened, it realises that it is responsible not, to

transmit and conserve the whole of its existing achievements, but only such

as make for a better future society. The school is its chief agency for the

accomplishment of this end.

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In the third place, it is the office of the school environment to

balance the various elements in the social environment, and to see to it that

each individual gets an opportunity to escape from the limitations of the

social group in which he was born, and to come into living contact with a

broader environment.

His Idea of Laboratory School:

Dewey’s philosophy grew out of his experiments to establish an

ideal school called - the University Laboratory School, founded in 1896.

Dewey wanted that the training of scholars in the school should be such as

to enable them for a complete living in the social world of today. Dewey

posed the following problems and attempted to find their solution:

1. How to bring the school life into closer relation with the home and

surrounding life?

2. How to introduce subject matter in history, science and art to give

a positive value and real significance in the child’s life.

3. How to correlate instruction in different subjects with everyday

experience and occupation?

4. How to cater to individual powers and’ needs?

Manual Occupation in the School:

Dewey found the answer to the above mentioned problems in the

introduction of the following occupations in the school:

1. Shop work with wood and tools,

2. Cooking work,

3. Work with textiles (Sewing and weaving).

A central place was given to occupations and other subjects were

treated incidentally as ancillary practical activities. In the laboratory

school, ‘Science is required in the study of the fibers, of geographical

features, the conditions under which raw materials are grown, the great

canters of manufacture and distribution, the physics involved in the

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machinery of production”. “You can concentrate the history of all mankind

in the evolution of flax cotton and wool fibers into clothing”. The children

can get a good deal of chemistry in connection with cooking, of number

work and geometrical principles in carpentry and a good deal of geography

in connection with their theoretical work in weaving and spinning. And

history comes in with the origin and growth of various inventions and their

effects on social life”.

School Curriculum in Dewey’s View:

Development of social insight and interest. The task of educating

so many children at so many different educational levels with such a

variety of abilities, needs and goods requires a completely different

approach. With this increase in a diversified school population, Dewey

advocates that broader curricular programmes are needed and emphasis

should be placed on the total development of the person as being equally

important as the intellectual and the academic. Such as curriculum

acknowledges that the social responsibilities of education must present

situations where problems are relevant to the problems of living together,

and where observation and information are calculated to develop social

insight and interest.

According to Dewey, social life cannot be cut into pieces of

knowledge. Departmentalisation of the curriculum and the systematic

succession of studies have to be replaced by an elastic programme of

activities.

The subject-matter of geography, arithmetic, grammar should

come out of school situations in answer to social needs.

Teacher- a Guide and Director

“The teacher is a guide and Director” he steers the boat, but the

energy that propels it must come from those who are learning. The more a

teacher is aware of the past experiences of students, of their hopes, desires,

chief interests, the better will he understand the forces at work that need to

be directed and utilised for the formation of reflective habits”.

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Teacher is the prophet of the true God:

The teacher is engaged, not simply in the training of individuals,

but in the formation of the proper social life. Even teacher should realise

the dignity of his calling; that he is a social servant set apart for the

maintenance of proper social order and the security of the right social

growth. In this way the teacher is always the prophet of the true God and

the managing force of the true kingdom of God:

Pragmatic Attitude in Methods of Teaching:

The pragmatic attitude consists of looking away from first things,

principles and of looking towards last things, fruits, consequences, facts. It

is, therefore, in submitting conceptions to the control of experience, in the

process of verifying them, that one finds examples of what is called truth.

Truth means verification.

Dewey’s Concept of Discipline:

Dewey would like to develop discipline by engaging the pupils

performing their part of work faithfuy. This implies the solicitation of the

active co-operation of the pupils in the work of the school in terms of the

participation of the learner in educational activities that are pregnant with

relevant aim capable of immediate realisation and full of deep significance.

Dewey on the Educational thought and practice - His contribution

in this regard:

1. The greatest change has been in the recognition of the worth of the

experiences of the child. The child is no longer regarded as a

passive subject meant for the imposition of external information

but is considered an active living being whose interests have to be

stimulated by participation in socially significant experiences.

This kind of participants, if intelligently and devotedly engaged

in, is a kind of moral experience. Thus instead of the emphasis on

mechanical memorising of subject matter it is essential to stress

the meaningful dimensions of the process of learnin.

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2. Dewey’s social theory of education coupled with the logic of

experimental method has been very influential in the development

of modern education practices.

3. He has been a powerful influence in interpreting the school as a

community for the realisation of the significance of the immediate

experiences and present opportunities of the child if he is to be a

contributor to the march of the social process.

4. Dewey has been one of the significant leaders who have tried to

introduce a more human touch in the processes of education.

5. The pragmatic method of instrumentalistic experimentalism and

absolutism.

6. His insistence on activities of diverse kinds in schools is also an -

other aspect of his social theory of education.

7. Dewey is quite right, in pleading for the wide use of the

experimental method of science, in education.

8. The supreme contribution of Dewey to the philosophy of

education is the theory of scientific democratic humanism.

Critical Study of Dewey’s Educational Thought and Practices:

Dewey is one of those significant figures whose ideas have

influenced not only the thought of people but also powerfully moulded

practices. Prof. V.P. Verma thinks, ‘The strength of Dewey lies in his

immense grasp of the realities of life. He does not soar in the

transcendental regions of the motionless spiritual being but his both feet are

firmly planted in the pressing situations of the day”.

The same author thinks, ‘the quest for the three goals-scientific

method, humanistic ethics and democratic theory - represents the great

contribution of Dewey to educational theory”.

In his book ‘American Ideas and Education’, Fredrik Mayor

observes, ‘in Dewey the voice of the pioneer, the stirring energies of the

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reformer, the patient method of the scientist and the faith of the teacher are

united in a search for a new education through which man can survive in a

chaotic age”.

Whitehead rates Dewey’s services to American civilisation

analogous to those of Bacon, Descartes, Locke and Comte to the modern

world.

Rusk thinks, “In education we cannot but be grateful to Dewey for

his great services in bringing education more into accord with the

actualities of the present day life”.

To quote Irwin Edman ‘Dewey brought-- a reviving approach to

education as a function of society, learning as an experience in growth and

experience like the acquiring of one’s native speech - a mutual

communication, a co-operation. At the school level this view helped

transforming the rigidities of the old fashioned martinet type of discipline

and the tradition of learning by rote.

F.G. Garforth writes in John Dewey’s selected Education

Writings, “Whatever criticism may be levelled at him, whether as

philosopher or educationist, the stature of the man is something that cannot

be denied; nor can the present-day student of education disregard his

immense and civilising influence on the practice of education both in his

own country and throughout the world”.

“Dewey is one of the most astute. If not the most astute, among

the modern philosophers who try to explain the quality and purpose of

human life from an immanent and sociological point of view. His work

offers one of the most helpful means of understanding the functioning of

the human mind within a society of men who want to communicate with

one another and to preserve themselves”.

That is why Ruskin says, “In education we cannot but be grateful

to Dewey for his great services in challenging the old ‘static cold storage

ideas of knowledge” and in bringing education more into accord with the

actualities of present-day life”.

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Joe Park observes in “Philosophy of Education”, “As Pragmatist,

Dewey rejected the authoritarian and classical approach to education,

which he thought stressed the ability to talk about things rather than the

ability to do things. He built his philosophy on a biological base, pointing

out that man is an organism living in an environment, an environment

which helps to shape man, but which, in turn, can be modified by man.

Dewey thought things were to be understood through their origin and

function. To him the only reality for man was experience; the- business of

education was to improve the quality of experience that human beings had.

This he hoped to accomplish by carefully defining the nature of experience

and establishing criteria for judging its value”.

3.3 PAULO FREIRE:

His Early Life and Education:

Paulo Freire was born in Brazil, South America in 1921. As per

assertions of Dr. Zahoor Ahmad Awan, who has met him somewhere in

1992, Freire was a cult like figure, a leading educationist, sociologist, ever

advocating the cause of the down trodden third world people. He was

educated and brought up in his own country. In pursuit of knowledge, he

went to different countries and joined several universities. He was, since

long known for his unique ideas and innovative theories. Mostly, they

know him as an exponent of the causes of the oppressed classes of the

world. While as a matter of fact, he had gained fame for his literacy

teaching work with Brazilian peasants. He was in the real terms of truth a

revolutionary educator. Freire, theorises - a pedagogy that will liberate the

oppressed masses as opposed to the traditional “banking theory and

practice”. He used to advocate the causes of the oppressed classes of the

world. He was opposed to the “banking theory and practice” which are

immobilizing and fixating. For the cause intended by him, he had to

undergo several hard ships and difficulties during the span of his life.

His thoughts and philosophy:

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Paulo Freire was an advocate of the rights of the oppressed

communities. In the words of Dr. Zahoor Ahmad Awan, he is considered

the voice of the third world masses, rather father of cultural revolution in

the world. He had deep feelings for the oppressed population, who were

eking out a redundant existence in shanty towns of the third world

countries. The world is taking him for being the best friend of the

oppressed and warrior of the cause of dispossessed humanity as well as the

have-nots of the globe. He though a white man never spared the people of

his own clan while criticising their oppressions. He was of the view that by

nature all whites are in the habit of colonial-zing the world’s population.

Following his philosophy, he devoted his life for the help of peasants and

labourers. He led his life among the peasants and other poorer societies to

uphold their cause of making them literate.

His views about teachers are very strange. He does not want his

teacher to be a traditional one. In his “problem posing” education, the

teacher is no longer simply the one who teaches only, but he is taught by

his/her students as she/he engages them in dialogue of critical

consciousness or dialectic, aims central to Freire’s theory of “Praxis”

(practice-doing and mobilising).

His Contribution:

His master piece on pedagogy is his book titled “Pedagogy of the

oppressed”, published for the first time in 1970 and revised its version in

1993 by Continum, New York. While another distinct achievement related

to him is his collection of letters published by Craman Saint John Hunter,

New York in 1978. This is a collection of Freire’s Ietters to the Guinian

commissioner of education and local Government workers in 1975-76, as

they worked to design a national prograrmme of education based on

Freire’s work. As Junthan Kozol, says in its foreword, the letter form

seems to be approximately fit for Freiere’s ideas about dialogues. Bell

Hook says, “this book has been important to his work because it is a crucial

example of how a critical thinker approaches, sharing knowledge and

resources with those who are in need”. (Teaching to Transgress-53).

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The next important contribution of Freire is his book named ‘‘The

politics of education, culture, power and liberation” translated by Donaldo

Macedo, South Hadely, M.A Bergin and Gravery, 1985. This seems to be

the further details and explanations of his work i.e. “The pedagogy of the

oppressed’. The distinct feature however of this book is that its final

chapter is a dialogue between Freiere and his student, colleague and

translator Donaido Macedo. The ideas of dialogue and dialect run through

this collection of Freiere’s essays that explore in further details many of the

ideas he introduced in “Authentic dialogue” in order to help the poor men

and there by understand their word. The act of knowing is dialectical

movement, “that goes form action to reflection and from reaction upon

action into a new action”.

Keeping in view his multi-dimensional personality he could really

recognize a politico-cum-educative reformer working, throughout his life

with great zeal and fervour. He never exhausts to advocate the cause of the

Oppressed class. For this, he is sometimes seen debating with the press,

some tines arguing with the nobility and rulers of the countries. While

sometimes he is seen addressing large assemblies of people in renown

universities like the university of New York. He was really an untiring

personality. He kept ‘on writing till the, last of his breath. His another work

is ‘literary reading the word and the world’, written by him in collaboration

with Donaldo Macedo. This book was published by M.A. Bergin and

Carwin at South Headily in 1987. Freire and Macedo worked out the

definition of literacy in this book. In this book, as a matter of fact, they

work to define literacy as a form of cultural politics. They argue that

literacy must be viewed as a set of practices that can serve either to

empower or de- empower people. Literacy must be viewed as the

relationship of learner to their world, instead of being reduced to the

mechanical use of letters and words.

His two more works are “Cultural Action for Freedom” and

“Pedagogy, in Progress” which are very widely appreciated by the world.

His assertion in these two books is also the same as that of “Pedagogy of

the Oppressed”. It is presumed by his readers that Freire wanted, from the

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core of his heart a cultural revolution throughout the world to benefit the

oppressed classes.

His Theory of Education:

Friere presented to the world a liberal and straight forward

concept of ‘education for liberation”. According to the assertion of Dr.

Zahoor Ahmad Awan, he was of the view that emancipation of third world

masses could be achieved/secured through -education and education alone.

He wanted a different kind of education- not the one that was being

administered to the third world by their colonial masters and their local

imitators. The colonial or occupying powers practiced and perpetrated a

code and mode of education which instead of liberating or enlightening

them became instrumental in their further subjugation. Through education

‘alien consciousness” is created among the masses. This alien

consciousness is western superiority and indigenous inferiority. It creates

demoralising myths which kill the creative verve in them. Through their

educational ideology, the masters (western rulers) occupy central stage and

push the indigenous populace and their values to the periphery.

This borrowed consciousness is defined social milieu for them. To

combat this alien consciousness, the third world countries have to develop

a radical pedagogy, which Paulo declares as the “Pedagogy of the

Oppressed”. This pedagogy should and must challenge every myth created

by the oppressor ideology. Alien consciousness needs adaptive behaviour

in the oppressed, which blunts the verve/zeal for transformation, thus

culmination and dehumanisation. To subvert this situation a liberation

methodology through education has to be created to install an autonomous

consciousness in the masses. In the views of Friere education and power

are inseparable and by dictating education the oppressor rules and reigns

supreme. It is autonomous consciousness just opposed to alien

consciousness that dismantles political, economic, cultural invasion and

subjugation.

In short Paulo Freire assumes that:

1. All human beings have the potential to transform.

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2. Freedom is possible if stereo type concepts are defeated

/demolished.

3. Education that treats the oppressed remains intrinsically

oppressive.

4. Education should be one, free, compulsory and for all.

The human beings are the subjects and not the objects, is a

concept central to genuine education and freedom.

Table

Education as system of

domination

Education as system of liberation

1. Narrative form of education 1. Critical/dialogue of education

2. Monologue-Chalk/Talk 2. Dialogue-participatory

3. Banking system of knowledge,

tape recording, rotten plus rote

institution of clicks, dogmatic

approach, teacher issues

communiqués, students

review/ memories.

3. Discovery of knowledge, sense

of togetherness, exploring,

experimenting, collectivization

of knowledge/ education.

4. Culture of silence 4. Culture of conscientization

5. Status-quo oriented-fearful of

change

5. Doubt/ skepticism/ questioning

reciprocation/ prone to change +

progress

6. Anti-people, pro-elite 6. Democratic, pro-people

7. High expensive 7. cheap + accessible

8. Teachers – obsequious and

with attitudes of servitude.

8. Teachers having attitude of

companion/ commeradeship.

9. State/ capital/ oriented and

reliant.

9. Masses/ labour/ love/self

oriented and reliant

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10. Subjective 10. Objective

11. Sees reality in fragmentation 11. Wholistic Approach

12. globalization/ sophistication

high grow culture

12. Indigenization, more local

colour, example-plough, cow,

birds/ immediate experiences

13. Necrophilia-talking to the

dead people + words.

13. Immediency/life based, live,

Friere holds that because men are historical beings, incomplete

and conscious of being incomplete, revolution Es as natural and permanent

a human dimension as is education. (Thanks to Dr. Zahoor Ahmad Awan

for helping the writer in preparing this article).

3.5 ALLAMA IQBAL:

According to the assertion of Mrs. Tanveer Khalid, in her book

“Education”, Dr Sir Muhammad Iqbal was born in Sialkot in 1877. He was

admitted to Muray College, Sialkot and completed his education up to the

intermediate level there. Later on, in 1895, he came to Lahore and obtained

the degree of B.A from Government College, Lahore. After receiving the

degree of M.A from the University of Punjab, he started teaching

philosophy at Government College, Lahore in 1905 then he went to

England and got admission in Law. He also continued studies in

philosophy and wrote a thesis and was awarded the degree of the Doctor of

philosophy at Hiedelberg University. After some time he returned from

England and resumed teaching. But once again, after some time he left

teaching and started practicing law, but this profession did not suit his

temperament and he left it too.

His Basic Theory and Philosophy

During his stay in England, he became more and more interested

in Philosophy and Islamic thoughts. He started writing national poems in

the beginning of the 20th, century and very soon became famous all over

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India. His famous work in poet, “Israr-I-Khudi”, was published in 1951.

Professor Nicholson translated it into English and thus introduced Dr. Iqbal

to the Western world. IN recognition of his valuable philosophical poetry,

he was awarded the title of ‘Sir in 1922 by the British Government. Now

he became known as Dr. Sir Muhammad Iqbal.

While in England, he got chance to observe minutely the western

culture and ways of life. Hg appreciated Their habits of hard work and

industry. He felt that the Muslims of India had forgotten the noble

teachings of Islam were found147in the western people. Thereore, he

disapproved147the tendency among the young generation of his nation to

imitate their frivolous aCts and urged them to acquire their habits of

industry and hard work. In his opinion, they shouLd have revived the basic

IsLamic teachingS which emphasise (action) in the life of humaN beings.

He felt sad about the degenerating and disgusting condition of his nation at

that time.

Although his poetry contained the elements of political thoughts,

he did not involve himself in the practical activities until 1972, when he

was elected a Member of the Legislative Assembly of the province of

Punjab. He was elected as the president of All India Muslim League in

1930. He participated in the Round Table conference in 1932. He is the

originator of the idea for the creation of Pakistan.

He was not only a lyricist, but a great thinker as well. His poetry

contains philosophical thoughts on many aspects of life. In his poetry, we

can trace his ideas about education too.

Iqbal’s educational thoughts traced form his poetry are given as

under:

تعلیم فراغت گی لائے کہ تھے سمجھتے ہمساتھ بھی الحاد گا آائے چلا کہ تھی خبر کیا

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Education was expected to provide ease and comfort but has

brought heresy in its wake. In other words he says that “we were under the

impression that Education would bring respite. It was seldom realized that

the heresy would ensue”. In another place he says, education is producing

slaves, beggars and imitators:

ہے آاتا نظر زندہ جواں کا مکتب گرچہنفس سے فرنگی ہے لایا کے مانگ ہے مردہ

Our students are completely dominated by Western culture,

civilization and ideas. They appear to be civilized but actually they lack

virtue and qualities.

“So far the British Indian Education System is concerned, he says

that it had been introduced to bring out useful subordinate rather than

honourable citizens” he raised objections and said:

سے مکتب ان وند خدا رب یا مجھے ہے شکایتکا کبازی خا ہیں رہے دے کو بچوں شاہین سبق

“Oh my Lord! I have to lodge a complaint against the master of

the school. They teach humility to the young ones of the Falcon.”

In another place he says, “Education is producing slavish

mentality and is providing no activities/experiences to strengthen the

individuality (ego)”.

کا خودی علم لے نہ نام یہاں اقبالمقالات ایسے لئے کے مکتب نہیں موزوں

“Iqbal! Individuality (ego) is not to be mentioned here, as such

elements of teaching are not at all harmonious with the spirit of the existing

schools”.

According to him Modern Western education is nothing but a

conspiracy against religion, humanity and benevolence. He says:

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میں حق کے احرار ہے زہر نہیں علم وہجو دوکف میں جہاں ہے حاصل کا علم جس

Education has crushed the real spirit of the life by creating

economic problems and making no arrangements for providing peaceful

living. In another place Iqbal says:

کردے آاشنا سے طوفان کسی تجھے خدانہیں اضطراب میں موجوں کے بحر تیرے کہ

“May God acquaint thee with some kind of storm! For there is no

commotion in the waves of the sea. Thou hast no way to escape from

bookish knowledge; for thou are merely a reader of the book with no

ability to apply it in real life and with no potentiality for creativeness”.

To him the education in this age is void of guidance, supervision

and patronage. He says:

تھی کرامت کی مکتب کہ تھایا نظر فیضان یہفرزندی آاداب کو اسماعیل نے کس سکھائے

“Was it a personal influence of the teacher or a miracle of the

school which taught obedience and obligation of a son to Ismail”?

In his interesting poem “Pir-o-Murid” he has discussed the

problems of the day concerning contemporary knowledge, soul and other

things. The dialogue occurs between two persons Murid-e-Hindi is he

himself and Pir-e-Rumi is Maulana Jala-ud-Din Rumi. The dialogue is of

exceptional interest as it reveals the Iqbal’s mind and opinions about

education. His famous verse is quote worthy.

بود مارے زنی رابرتن علمبود یارے زنی رابردل علم

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If you strike knowledge on the body, it becomes a snake, if you

strike knowledge on the heart it becomes a friend. According to him the

prevailing Educational system indirectly inculcated materialism and

eradicated spiritualism. His following verse has endorsed this proposition.

عشق میں افرنگ سے افکار لادینی مردہغلام میں مشرق سے افکار ربطئی بے عقل

In his view, there was imbalance between intellectual and spiritual

aspects, that is why in the West the absence of spiritual aspect and in the

East the lack of opportunities to develop intellectual abilities created

problems. In another place he says:

کردار متاع ہے جاتا سے ہاتھ کے قومحیات و ذات فلسفہ جب ہے آاتا میں بحث

One more interesting point is raised by Iqbal. Lack of religious

element in the education in the sub-continent lead masses nowhere. The

religion was not implemented in the practical life no where but only was

restricted to the unnecessarily complicated religious discussion, that is why

education failed to produce a great number of men with high character. As

he says:

امانت کی زمانے اپنے جو تھے سکتے کرپیرو ہیں کے زمانے اپنے دماغ کہنہ وہ

Allama Iqbal says, “the persons who were capable to lead the

world masses, they (due to lethargy) have become followers of their

“times” (tides of the wave), where they live with full “satisfaction” (in

these conditions when their other brethren are in a great mess).

Iqbal has not only criticized this state of the affairs, but also has

suggested the proper ways and right directions for education. Being a poet,

he is not expected to provide us with definite and ready-to-act educational

methods and theories but he has directed our attention to those fundamental

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principles of education which can guide us and enable us to develop sound

educational philosophy and system.

To Iqbal knowledge is the name of mental effort, which enables

the individual to think, contemplate and solve problems rightly and which

is obtained through education. Hence, education, according to him, aids in

studying the nature, ruling and conquering the universe, enabling to

distinguish between the good and the bad, the right and the wrong. That

education, which is unable to inculcate these qualities, cannot be called

education.

The Main topics of Igbal’s Poetry

The main and outstanding topics of Iqbal’s poetry are:

(1) Religion. (2) The concept of self and individuality (3) Character

building (4) Female education. (5) Message to the students and youth (6)

The teachers and methods of teaching. (7) Activity, research and originality

in education.

(8) Moral education.

(1) Religion:

Though Iqbal was thoroughly a religious person, yet he was

neither a fanatic nor a narrow minded Muslim,. He was a liberal minded

person. He would advise the people to adopt all the decent qualities of not

only the Muslim thinkers but also of the other non-Muslim educators. To

begin with we can say that the Quran was the basis of Iqbal’s teachings and

thoughts. His message was directed to the younger generations of Muslim

and towards the fact that these ideas are still to be implemented. He always

emphasized upon the Muslims that the only way by which they could

emancipate themselves from the exploitation of imperialism was to recreate

sense of awareness, independence and to educate themselves according to

the teachings of Islam.

He is reported to have said that the basis of all learning and

education should be Quran. He said, “Quran is a living miracle because its

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teaching provides guidance to man in every age in accordance with his

needs, requirements and altered conditions of life”. At another place Iqbal

asks the Muslims, “Look into yourself and develop depth of insight, in

Quran you will discover that its verses hide (contain in between the lines)

hundreds of new words. In order to solve the present problems only the

application of the single point of Quran is sufficient. To comprehend this

point train yourself and then your fellows to develop understanding heart”.

Iqbal asked Muslims to obtain specialization in the study of Quran and he

holds the views that the right kind of knowledge that is to be obtained,

through senses gives birth to physical powers that should remain always

the spiritual power i.e religion, to promote better results.

(2) The concept of Self and Ego: According to Iqbal the highest aim

of education should be to strengthen the individual qualities of the child by

cultivating• his originality and uniqueness. The concept of self or ego as

regarded by Iqbal is dynamic center of desires, pursuits, aspirations,

efforts, resolves, power and action.

He says that the main concern of our life is the development of the

self. In his view, life is like a shell which helps in developing and

protecting the pearl i.e the self, lying inside the shell. As the main extract

of life is the development of the pearl or self and such a life which is

unable to do so is not worth spending.

خودی ہے نیساں قطرہ صدف ہے زندگانیسکے نہ کر گہر کو قطرے جو کہ کیا صدف وہ

He says that the role played by the self in the creation and

protection of a nation is very prominent. In his words a nation whose men,

especially the young men, posses strong and powerful self never requires

weapons to protect and defend itself.

He further says:

ہوتی نہیں حاجت کی شمشیر کو قوم اسفولاد صورت خودی کی جوانوں کے جس ہو

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According to him when a nation, its religious and educational

systems and values, and its literature neglect or overlook the concept of self

and individuality, that is to say that when self is not rightly and properly

developed then that nation is doomed to insult and disgrace.

He says in another place:

خالی ہے سے خودی کی خا پیکر یہ مگرشمشیر بے رنگارو ز تو ہے نیام فقط

It means that the individuals or human beings should try to reach

such a high position intellectually and spiritually’ that even God will have

some respect for his consent, disposition or opinion. This should be

attained through self awareness self assertion and self expression and by

undergoing challenging experiences of life.

(3) Character Building: Approximately the character building of a

child, through conscious efforts of school and home i.e the teachers and the

parents has been the main theme of the several poems of his poetry. Iqbal

desires that such an education should be imparted to the students, which

will inculcate and promote in them the characteristics of an eagle. An eagle

always flies high, lives at the tops of the mountains, never eats the

remnants, or the left over food or the prey of the other birds. Similarly, the

Muslim student should think high, earn his own livelihood, should never

depend on others, be hardworking, tough and courageous like an eagle.

He further said that the Muslim students should be taught high

moral values and to live independently and Muslims adults should posses

the qualities of a complete and pious man called Momin. He has

categorized the life of a Muslim in to three phases i.e the childhood, the

youth and the adulthood. For all these three phases he has specified certain

principles to be followed in their training.

(4) Female Education: Iqbal was great exponent of female

education. He interpreted the famous proverb that “the hands that move the

cradle, rule the world”. This shows that how much important is the

guidance and training of the child by the mother. About his own mother

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Iqbal says that due to only her guidance he had achieved the honoured,

respected position and great fame as well as glory. Iqbal, view upon female

education is apparent in his poems. To him the creation of women and their

presence is a great blessing of God as a woman is an inspiration of life. He

had paid high tributes to women by saying that although she had not

produced high intellectual works yet she can, and has given birth to great

personalities. lqbal stream lines such an education in women which will

inculcate in them feminine characteristics, and will enable them to assume

the duties and responsibilities, in the future, but he is against such an

education which kills the feminine element in them. Further more, religious

education should form an important part of their education, and it is not

education but the protection provided by men that can really give security

and protectiveness. In his own words:

پرانی کہ ہو نئی تعلیم نہ پردہ نےمرد فقط ہے نگہبان کا زن نسوانیت

(5) The youth or the student: In the opening poem of Javed Nama,

Iqbàl has expressed his primary interest about youth by saying “I have lost

(O! God!) hope in the older men and I have the message for tomorrow.

Therefore, help the youth to comprehend my words and dig out the fathom

as well as the depths of my thoughts with ease”. About youth he said that I

like only those young men who try to achieve the highest and the best:

ہے سے جوانوں ان مجھے محبتکمند ہیں جوڈالتے پہ ستاروں

Iqbal advises the Muslim youth to work continuously and to put

efforts endlessly so that they may leave permanent prints on the book of

world history. The necessary conditions for such a progress are constant

efforts, struggle to improve, desire to learn more, actions and movements.

He prays for he youth that God may confront them with a difficult and

stormy situation to produce action and movement on their behalf. In other

poem named Fountain, he asks the youth not to be lost and misled in the

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appearances and ostentations but always they should pay attention to the

underlying principles.

(6) The teachers and methods of teaching: Iqbal names the teacher

Sheikh, meaning a grand person. To him teachers play an important role in

the development of the personality of students. He is a builder and

constructor whose production is the human soul. He says:

گر عمارت اک ہے مکتب شیخانسانی روح ہے صنعت کی جس

He realized that the formation of an ideal philosophy and system

of education is not enough. To him the real thing is that the teacher should

practice the same philosophy in the schools and colleges. He always

appeals to the teachers to give full attention to the children to arise in them

the constant desires to learn. If a student is unable to memorize certain

lessons, they should not be impatient but should keep directing and guiding

him with affection and interest, as their attention could yield remarkable

result.

So far the teaching methods are concerned, Iqbal strongly

recommends activity on the part of the students because it gives them

chance for the development of their personality. Iqbal rejects the mere

bookish knowledge and cramming, because the knowledge which is not

related to the real life is meaningless.

(7) Activity, Research and Originality: Iqbal wants his listeners and

readers to be full of action. He laid great emphasis on activity. In his view,

every thing in this world is active in one way or the other. He is of the

opinion that the world, the paradise and even the hell are all related to

action and movement. The man by nature is neither like light or angels nor

like fire or devils, but the actions and deeds with their respective nature

make man so. He says, “O! Muslim, remember you can not construct your

life by imitating others. Under the law of nature man can only progress

through his own research and ideas. A living nation is capable of creating

new worlds through its own thoughts and deeds”. Iqbal was staunch

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opponent of following eternal ideas. That is why he disliked openly the

subjugation by imperialism, socialism, capitalism or any other ism. He asks

the youth to follow only the Quranic teachings.

(8) Moral Education: The poetry of Iqbal is full of moral sayings

and good advice. In this connection, Iqbal held that goodness is not a

matter of compulsion. It is the self’s free surrender to moral ideal. It is only

through personal experiences that one can thoughtfully work out a code of

effective personal morality. These moral values could be learned in every

day social interaction. The practical example set by behaviour of the

teacher is more important and worth while than mere preaching it.

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UNIT-4

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN

4.1 EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCE 1947:

Re-Organization and Orientation of Education in Pakistan.

The British left the country in August 1947 leaving behind the

system of education with hopes and sorrows. Pakistan, like other new born

countries had to face problem of devising guide-lines for the reconstruction

and re-orientation of its entire system of education, ideological

considerations and to meet, the pressing demands of the contemporary

world.

Following were the most crucial problems which needed

consideration in the future plans:

a. To wipe-out (to eradicate) the vestiges of ‘Brown English

attitude” of the people through conscious efforts inculcating a

deep and abiding love for their ideology and culture.

b. To evolve a system of education of normal pyramid correcting its

structure characterized by its “heavy top and weak base.”

c. To remove its external influences and inter contractions that

existed in the system,

d. To evolve a national system of education which could better

reflect the spiritual and cultural values.

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e. To stress upon universal primary education diversification of

secondary education and consolidation of higher education; and

f. To make universities the real centers of learning and to make their

programmes more diversified and innovative.

The glorious tradition of Muslim education in the sub-continent

had been overshadowed by substituting a system of education designed by

alien rule which was primarily based on economic reasons and political

considerations. The strategy of new masters, was to please Indians through

most political coloured, emotionally spirited and objectively controversial

favours. Which could not bring out material change in the sub-continent.

B. The First Education Conference November, 1947

The government, in spite of its preoccupation in dealing with the

immediate effects of partition showed concern over the importance of

education. The task was not merely to expand education but to give it a

new direction and new interpretation. The task was started with convening

the First Education Conference at Karachi from 27 th November to 1st

December 1947. Quaid-I-Azam in his historical message provided basic

guide-lines to the development of education in future. The future system of

education was visualized as having in characteristics of relevance to

modern conditions, stressing the need of science and technology and

limiting the character of the future generations and instilling in them the

highest sense of honour, integrity, responsibility and selfless service to the

nation. The following goals were set by the conference to inspire the future

system of education in Pakistan.

a. The education system be inspired by Islamic Ideology.

b. The social, spiritual and vocational elements be integrated in the

system.

c. Religious education be made compulsory.

d. Compulsory physical training be introduced at all levels.

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The Conference recommended several bodies such as the

Advisory Board of Education, inter-University Board and a Council of

Technical Education, to be constituted to assist the Central Government on

nature of education to co-ordinate educational policies in the country.

4.2 REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON NATIONAL EDUCATION, 1959-60

1. Broad Goals

The Commission on National Education (M. M. Sharif

Commission) was appointed by a resolution adopted by the Government of

Pakistan on 30 December 1959. The Commission was inaugurated by

President Mohammad Ayub Khan on 5th January 1959. In his address he

stressed the need of reorganization and re-orientation of the existing

educational system so that it could better reflect the spiritual, moral and

cultural values and meet the challenges of the growing needs of the nation

in the field of agriculture science and technology and aimed at character

building.

2. The Objectives of Education laid down in the Report

The objectives of education laid down in the report mainly related

to:

a. Training of manpower, educated citizenry and competent

leadership.

b. Meet the individual and cultural need and aspirations of the

people.

c. Provide individuals, full opportunities to develop their capability

for the creation of a progressive and demarcated society.

d. Preserve the ideals and strengthen the concept of a unified society.

e. Create a social welfare state.

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f. Develop the intellectual abilities and character of the individuals

and

g. Create among the people a sense of dignity of labour.

3. Report of the Commission on Higher Education

a. The Commission defined higher education as the form of

education that existed for the advanced training of young people

who have a proven capability for intellectual work and to play

leading role in all walks of life. Therefore, higher education

should be recognised as a distinct stage and be separated from the

intermediate level.

b. Defects Observed by the Commission in Higher Education.

The Commission had observed the following defects in higher

education.

i. Higher education had not been recognised as a distinct stage itself.

ii. Courses and curricula were obsolete, particularly in science and

technology.

iii. The programmes of advanced studies and research were not upto

the standard and co-ordinated.

iv. The academic life of students lacked unity and discipline.

v. Libraries and laboratories were not well equipped.

vi. The service conditions of the teachers were not satisfactory.

vii. The administrative structure of universities was not conducive to

facilitate its proper function.

viii. Rules governing the affiliation of colleges were neither definite

nor enforced strictly.

ix. The evaluation system was absolutely unsound and unsatisfactory.

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c. Recommendations Forwarded by the Commission for the Re-organization and Improvement of Higher Education.

In view of such frustrating situation, the commission laid down

the following recommendations for the re-organisation and improvement of

higher education

i. Higher Education should be recognised as a distinct stage itself

and the present intermediate colleges should be transferred from

its jurisdiction to that of the Board of Secondary Education and

attached to high schools.

ii. The courses of study for the Bachelor Degree should be extended

from two to three years.

iii. The courses and curricula should be revised particularly in the

areas of science and technology.

iv. Each university should establish a committee of Advanced studies

to consider programmes in the field of teaching and research.

v. Teachers should be given salary according to their qualification.

vi. The selection of professor should be made by a committee

consisting of Vice Chancellor and four other members.

vii. Increments and promotion should be given to recognition of

achievement.

viii. The administrative structure of the universities be clarified to

function.

ix. A grant Committee should be established for development of

universities and co-ordination of their programmes.

x. The examination system should be revised as there should be

public examination conducted by university, carrying 75 percent

marks and internal evaluation of students by the teachers through

periodical tests and class work carrying 25 percent marks.

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xi. The national language should gradually and progressively replace

English as the medium of instruction at higher level.

xii. A comprehensive scholarship scheme be introduced at all levels

for the talented students.

xiii. Research should be carried out and linked with teaching and

incentives should be provided to researchers.

xiv. Right selection procedure should be devised to ensure right

selection of students for higher education.

4. Report of the Commission on Secondary Education

In view of the Commission, secondary education should be

recognised as a complete stage in itself and organized as a separate

academic and administrative unit demarcated clearly in al respects from

university education.

a. Defects Observed by the Commission in Secondary Education:

The commission has noted the following defects in secondary

education.

i. The curricula was overloaded with literary subjects.

ii. There was absence of opportunities for training in technical and

vocational subjects.

iii. Matriculation examination was regarded as the qualification for

university admission and not as a terminal examination.

iv. The present curricula for secondary schools laid too much

emphasis on mental ability and too little on physical well-being,

personality and character, and development of skills.

v. The prevailing teaching methods were described as mechanical,

communication of theoretical book learning to reluctant children.

Too much stress was laid on memorization and far too little on

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initiative, independence of thought, imaginative use of knowledge

and self reliance.

vi. Because of insufficient training, low salaries and little standing in

society, the best talent could not be attracted to teaching

profession.

b. Objectives of Secondary Education as Visualized by the Commission

The analysis of the weaknesses helped the commission to

determine the true objectives of secondary education such as:

1. Development of the Individual

i. To foster in children the spirit of enquiry and independent thought

and ability to apply their knowledge to real life situation.

ii. To relate all teaching to the needs and interest of the adolescents.

iii. To design teaching and the organization of the school activities as

to develop the qualities of leadership.

iv. To develop the aesthetic sense and an appreciation of cultural

values among children.

v. Through games, sports, and physical education to cultivate in

children a liking for and skill in physical activity and the

enjoyment of sports.

2. Development of the Citizen

i. To rear children in the habit of industry, self discipline and

honesty.

ii. To cultivate a sense of social responsibility in socially useful

tasks.

iii. To develop the spirit of co-operation and service.

iv. To relate teaching to the needs of practical life and local

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environment.

3. Development of the Worker

i. To cultivate a deep appreciation of the dignity of labour.

ii. To provide full facilities for technical, scientific and other

vocational education as preparation for further professional

education or qualification for a career.

iii. To provide the services of educational and vocational guidance

and thus direct children towards the most appropriate courses and

subsequent career.

4. Development of the Patriot

i. To provide a form of education which has its roots in the national

culture and in Islamic values.

ii. To nurture a pride in the nation an understanding of its history and

aspirations and willingness to serve it.

iii. To create an appreciation of the universal brotherhood of man and

a spirit of international understanding.

c. Recommendations of the Commission on Secondary Education

The following recommendations have been forwarded by the

Commission to improve and correct the situation in secondary education.

i. Secondary education should be recognised as a complete stage in

itself and organised as separate academic and administrative unit,

demarcated clearly in all respects from university education.

ii. Secondary education should properly be consisted of classes IX-

XlI but until compulsory education is extended to first eight years

classes VI-VII I should be considered a part of secondary

education. For the present it should be divided into three stages

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classes VI-VIII Middle, classes IX-X secondary and classes XI-

XII Higher Secondary.

iii. The curriculum at secondary stage should provide a compulsory

core of subjects and should also include additional subjects and

training to prepare students for a definite vocation and career.

iv. The teaching of national language, science and mathematics

should receive greater emphasis.

v. English should be taught as a functional subject rather than as a

literature.

vi. Religious education should, be made compulsory from classes VI-

VIX and optional thereafter.

vii. Practical should be introduced.

viii. As far as possible secondary schools should be transformed into

multipurpose schools offering a wide choice of diversification.

ix. The system of examination should be recognized. The public

examination conducted by university/Boards of Secondary

Education should carry 75 percent marks and the periodical tests

conducted by teacher should carry 25 percent marks.

x. Teachers must be properly trained before entering Service, their

knowledge and professional skills must be periodically refreshed.

xi. There should be a comprehensive assessment of teacher’s work.

The work of good teachers be recognized by special awards.

xii. The academic session must be 40 weeks with a summer vacation

of two months and a winter recess of 10 days and a spring recess

of 14 days. casual leave in a year which should be granted in

emergency case.

xiii. Teachers should not be permitted more than five days

xiv. Educational and Vocational Guidance Career Officer should be

appointed in Secondary and Vocational School.

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xv. The regulations, control and development of education at

secondary and higher secondary should be entrusted to the Boards

of Secondary Education. resources i.e. Contribution of the

management 20 percent, Government grant 20 percent and fee 60

present.

xvi. The income of the school should be raised from three resources

i.e. Contribution of the management 20 percent,

Governmentgrant 2 percent and fee 60 present.

xvii. Talented but poor students should receive scholarship of

substantive amount.

xviii. The value of schools of the residential type should be recognised

and their development be encouraged. The schools of pre-cadet

type should also be established in each wing.

5. Report of the Commission on Teacher Training

a. General Observations of the Commission on Teacher Training

The Commission observed that no system of education could rise

above the teachers who use it and its quality depended ultimately on the

quality and efforts of the teachers. To achieve a teaching profession in

which the nation might feel confident, certain things were necessary. The

teacher must be properly prepared before entering the service, their

knowledge and professional skills must be periodically refreshed. They

must receive salary which would enable them to maintain a certain

standard of living.

But the situation as revealed by the commission was far from

ideal. A large number of teachers, were untrained, few opportunities for

refresher courses were available to them, the increase in salary had never

kept pace with the increase in cost of living. The system of evaluation and

promotion was not conducive to the maintenance of high standard. No

special incentives were provided for good teachers.

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b. Recommendations of the Commission on Teacher Education

The Commission had forwarded the following recommendations

for improving the status and professional competence of teachers. As the

provision of suitable teachers and their training was a matter of national

importance, therefore, the Commission set the minimum qualification for

admission in the training courses for teachers at various stages.

i. Teachers for classes l-V: Secondary School Certificates

(Matriculation).

i. Teachers for classes VI-VIII: Higher Secondary School

Examination Certificate (Intermediate).

ii. Teachers for classes IX-X : Bachelor Degree.

The duration of the training courses for teachers of different stages

of admission should be:

i. Teacher for classes I-V: One year

ii. Teacher for classes VI-VIII: Two years

iii. Teachers for classes IX-X: Two years

iv. Teachers for classes XI-XII: M.S. Plus Short course in methods of

teaching.

The teacher training programme as maintained in the report

should ensure:

i. A sound grasp of subjects, knowledge of psychology, and the

methodology of instruction.

ii. A training college for the training of teachers should be

established in each Wing.

iii. High priority must be given to the training of teachers of science

and practical arts and crafts

iv. Refresher courses for teachers at least once in 5 years to be

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arranged.

v. The administrative staff should also receive in service training

through extension centres.

vi. Provision should be made for post-graduate study in education at

doctorate levels in some universities.

vii. A Council of Educational Research should be set up at the centre

to co-ordinate and stimulate research work on education.

viii. Teachers should be given a scale of salary consistent with their

responsibility, function and status in national life.

ix. Teacher’s should receive special award for merit

x. The achievement of the teachers should be featured through mass

media.

4.3 THE EDUCATION POLICY 1972-80

Background:

Prior to the introduction of the policy of 1972-80, a similar policy

was already in vogue, which was called the policy of 1970. Basically, the

policy of 1970 was based on the national education report of 1959. This

report was short in certain recommendations. Hence, the national education

policy of 1970, adopted measures to remove the deficiencies of the 1959

national commission (M.M. Sharif commission) and to make the

educational process more pleasant. Since this policy provided more

resources for the universalization and promotion of education, hence the

public appreciated it very much. Because in this policy efforts were made

to provide comparatively more equal and better facilities besides elevating

the standard of education and making it much more cheaper. In this policy

the importance of elementary education was clarified and efforts were

made not only to eradicate illiteracy from the country but to improve the

standard and rate of literacy. It fixed the objectives of education on Islamic,

national and democratic foundations, so that a sense of national uniformity

168

may be created in the students and they may lead their lives in accordance

with the Islamic and democratic values. Though the commission of 1959

had framed the aims of education in accordance with national necessities

and urgencies, yet it had failed to provide or generate satisfactory resources

for it. The study of Quran was included in the teaching of lslamiyat but in

the new policy lslamiyat was introduced as a compulsory subject in the

curriculum. So that a sense of abiding by the teaching of Islamic Ideology

is created in the students.

Another characteristic of this policy was that in view of improving

the quality of education, increase in the salaries of the teachers was made.

Maximum facilities were provided to teachers, scholarships were awarded

to intelligent students. Moreover, representation in the college and

university councils was granted to the students.

In short the welfare of the students was fully looked after. Beside,

stress was laid on adult education too. A team of education supervisors was

appointed to look after the day to day affairs of the schools. The private

educational institutions also were made to abide by the official rules and

regulations. So that they may not run them on commercial basis. It was

decided that in case the performance of any institution was found to be

unsatisfactory, that would be nationalised.

In this education policy, it was emphasised to declare Urdu to be

the national and official language. It was further recommended to make

Urdu a medium of instruction at all levels. Several recommendations were

made for bringing the educational programmes in conformity with

practical/technical education, emphasising the creation of sense about the

greatness of diligence (hard work). It also recommended to create social

and cultural uniformity among the citizens of Pakistan and develop a

democratic society.

The policy -was not yet fully implemented when, after two years (1972 ),

the 2nd education policy was introduced.

Really the policy of 1972-80 was a revolutionary one. In the

history of this country, for the first time, the policy was prepared by a

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public representative, democratic and elected Government. Its

implementation was also expedited. Some components of this policy are

very much appreciable. This policy was made for the coming years, but

despite this no satisfactory results could be seen instantly. Of course this

policy, in the capacity of its nature and objectives was based on the norms

of democracy and nationalism.

In addition to this, free education was announced in this policy.

All efforts were recommended to be intensified, in this policy to promote

and extend education and to improve its standard. Education was made free

of cost for children throughout the country. Hundred of centres for adult

education were established. In order to eradicate ignorance from the

country a short term training course was imparted to all the boys having

passed Matric examination. Training arrangements were made for teachers.

One of its, most important features was the establishment of the

plan/scheme of the national cadet corps (N.C.C.).

Similarly, the establishment of elementary school (T.C. for

teachers) repair of repairable building of schools and the supply of free text

books in the elementary classes was one of the admirable steps. The

establishment of Allama lqbal Open University was also a memorable

work but not the least. According to this policy the teaching of the Holy

Quran was made compulsory. In addition to that secondary education too,

was made purposeful. In the general educational institutions,

technical/vocational subjects were introduced. The students availed the

chance of selecting maximum subjects for technical/Vocational education.

In this policy the higher education was also given an immense importance,

rather several new universities were established. For coordination among

all the universities, University Grants Commission was established. The

number of scholarships for the college and university’s students was

increased. For promoting the mental potential -of students and conducting

research work, centres of excellence were established. Besides the poly-

technical institutions were elevated to the level of colleges.

All the privately managed institutions were nationalised with

effect from October the 1st 1972 because these were being run on

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commercial basis and education had been termed to be a business. This was

such a step which was very much liked by the teachers, students and

parents. The prestige of the students was restored and the poor students

were provided chances for gaining education.

In this policy the edifice of education was built (erected) on

democratic values and foundations. The educational institutions were

provided with maximum facilities. Representation of the students at school,

college and university level was made compulsory. Efforts were intensified

to give full autonomy to the students in arranging cultural events and

educational activities. Somewhere, these activities left some adverse effects

as well. In addition to that college councils were established wherein the

teachers were given full representation.

It was also recommended to establish an academy, on the pattern

of civil services academy, to promote their welfare, extend awards for

educational works, contributions and provide facilities. It was also

proposed to establish banks for the grant of interest free loans to intelligent

students. Book banks were established in the colleges and universities. For

the purpose of developing text books and curricula a national curriculum

bureau was established. The examination system was improved. A national

sports trust was announced to -be founded to promote physical education

and games. lslamiyat was made a compulsory subject upto secondary

classes.

Not with standing this all, education was declared to be free

through out the country. This resulted in the flooding of students in such a

way that no room was left in the schools. Because a specific number of

students was already present in the school. This announcement had badly

affected the standard of education. However, nationalisation of the private

institutions and free education up to matriculation was a memorable work

of the Government of that time.

Objectives of the Education Policy 1972-80

The objectives laid down in the policy are briefly stated.

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a. Ensuring the preservation, promotion and practice of basic

ideology of Pakistan.

b. Building up national cohesion by promoting social and cultural

harmony.

c. Building up and nurturing the total personality of the individual,

dynamic and creative.

d. Mobilizing the youth for leadership roles through participation the

program of social service and environmental improvement.

e. Eradicating illiteracy with the short possible time through

universalisation of elementary education and massive adult

education programs.

f. Equalizing access to education through provision of special

faculties for women under privileged, mentally retarded and

physically handicapped children and adults.

g. Designing curricula relevant to the nation’s changing social and

economic needs

h. Providing a comprehensive program of studies through the

integration of general and cultural education.

i. Providing academic freedom and due autonomy to educational

institution

j. Ensuring participation of teachers, students, parents and

community in the affairs of education

k. Generally promoting the welfare, dignity and sense of

responsibility of teachers ad students

2. Recommendations of the education policy on various levels of education.

(i) For a universal primary education, the policy maintained that:

a. Education would be free and universal up to class X for all

children in phased manner.

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b. Primary education up to class V would become universal for boys

by 1979 and for girls by 1984 and up to class VIII for boys by

1982 and for girls by 1987.

c. In the first phase, from 1st October 1972 education up to class

VIII would be made free. In the second phase, starting from 1st

October 1974 free education would be extended to classes IX-X in

all schools.

d. To accommodate the increased enrolment, three thousand eight

hundred additional class rooms for primary classes would be

constructed and about 2300 additional class rooms, would be

constructed for pupils in classes VI-VIII.

e. In providing school facilities, priority would be given to rural and

backward areas and to the education of girls

f. Standard design and specification for low cost buildings of school

would be prepared.

g. The universalization of elementary education would require 2.25

lakh additional teachers. The demand would be made from the

existing training institutions through introduction of teacher

education as optional subjecte, in colleges and the establishment

of National Literacy Corps.

h. Text Books and writing material would be produced free for

primary school children.

i. Adequate literacy books and audio- visual aids would be provided

to all schools

j. Curricula, syllabus and text books would be revised

k. Dignity of Labour would be emphasized

l. A country wide motivational campaign to persuade parents to

send their education to schools would be launched.

(ii) Secondary Education:

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a. On Secondary Education, the policy envisaged that the expansion

ashould be related to the economic development of the country.

For this purpose vocational and occupational subjects be added to

general education to secondary stage.s

b. The policy further maitained that the expansion of science and

technical education would result in progressive integartion of

general and secondary schools and colleges.

c. For teaching of Science, 2200 additional units would be established

and 17500 additional places would be created at matriculation

stage and 700 units with 56000, additional places would be

created at intermediate stage.

d. An integrated science course would be introduced at high and

intermediate stages.

e. for meeting the meeting the immediate demands of the above

progrmmes, the policy further recommended the lunching of short

in-service courses in science and technical education durings

during summer vacation.

(iii) Higher Education

In this regard the policy recommended that:

a. New universities would be established progressively.

b. In order to co-ordinate the programmes of the universities and develop

their facilities, a University Grants commission would be established.

c. The university ordinance would be replaced by enlghtened and

progressive stages.

d. Professional council would be established in the universities.

e. Centres of ecxcellence world be established in general universities.

F. Area study centres would be established in general unoversities.

g. For research and post graduate studies of languages, literature and

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culture of the people of Pakistan, a national institute of Pakistan studies

would be established at Islamabad.

h. A programme of national Professor ship would be institutes so that

highly qualified scholars and scientists may continue as teachers and

research workers.

i. National research fellowship would also be instituted.

(iv) Technical Education:

The following recommendations were made for the promotion of

technical education:

a. Polytechnics would be converted in to technical colleges.

b. In addition to diploma B.Tech degree courses in the technical colleges

could also provide a variety of programmes encouraging new areas of

technology.

c. Those under going the new programmes, would require certificates,

diploma and degree of their respective fields and levels.

d. Technical colleges/institutes would also be assisted to offer specialized

courses of national importance leading to the degree master

of technology.

(v) Adult Education

Keeping the position of Pakistan to be the highest in the

world as related to its rate of illiteracy, the policy forwarded the

following recommendations for adult education:

a. A massive literacy programme, would be under taken in every

town and village.

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b. A massive literacy educational programme would first

concentrate on basic literacy training and then would be expanded

and developed into a fullfleded comprehensive adult education.

c. For literacy training, it was maintained that by 1980 approximate

2.76 lakh literacy centres providing training to more than 11

million literate, would be established.

d. to staff these centres a hard crop of teachers would be trained in

short , intensive courses.

e. The process of education to be continued as life long activity,

institutional arrangement would be made for a massive, co-

ordinated nation wide programme of non-formal and life long

education.

f. Priority would be given to the continuing education of workers in

factories, farms in rural areas, workers engaged in special projects

out of some adolescents and rural women’s

g. A peoples open university would be established to provide part

time educational facilities through correspondence courses,

tutorial, seminar, workshops, radio, T.V broad cast and other mass

media.

3. Teachers and Teacher Education

The policy envisages that in order to meet the immediate

requirements of teachers at all stages, facilities for teacher education,

would be increased by reorganizing teacher education programs and by

introducing innovative techniques. The suggestions contained in the policy

related to:

a. It was estimated that 235000 elementary and secondary school

teachers and an additional 300000 adult and continuing education

teachers both men and women would be required during the result

eight years.

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b. The study of Education as a subject would be introduced in

secondary schools and in general colleges. Students passing at

these levels, primary, middle and high school teachers.

c. The number of women teachers would be gradually increased at

primary stage.

d. The construction of rent free houses for teachers on quite a large

scale, would be undertaken in the future.

e. The recruitment procedure of non-gazetted teachers, would be

streamlined.

f. An Academy for teacher and educational planners/administrators

would be set-up.

4. Other Recommendations

a. The revision and nationalization of merit scholarship at all levels

of education.

b. The establishment of Book Banks.

c. The provision of transport facilities to students.

d. The enforcement of school uniform

e. Reviewing and updating the curricula for all stages.

f. The establishment of National Book Foundation.

g. The establishment of well equipped libraries in educational

institutions.

h. The introduction of instructional technology.

i. The introduction of cumulative record in schools.

j. The creation of National Service Corps.

k. The introduction of military training progressively for all students

from classes IXto XII.

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l. Making of Islamic subject compulsory for Muslim Students upto

classX.

m. The establishment of National, Provincial, and District Schools

Councils.

4.4 The Education Policy 1979-80:

The Critical Review and Characteristics of the Educational Policy 1979:

In this policy the educational objectives were made to be

conforming to a great extent with the Islamic values and the ideology of

Pakistan. Moreover, efforts were made to enroll all male and female

students upto 1981 for admission in the schools, respectively.

1. Mosques and mohallah schools were intended to be

established hoping to prove helpful land multiplying literacy

rates. Simultaneously, one thousand work shop schools were

planned to opened for the local students of the area besides

constructing residential units for those female teachers who

are working in rural areas.

2. It was planned to establish a council for adult education to

reduce the illiteracy srate. This council was intended to be

linked with Allama Iqbal University. This was a great

achievement of this policy.

3. To create scientific awareness among the public ie to make

them aware of the urgency of the teaching of science in the

schools and colleges.

4. The teaching of Islamiyat would be compulsory and a

Shariya Faculty would be established in the Islamic

University. The text books would be produced in conformity

with Islamic principles in the ideology of Pakistan.

5. The status and level of the centre as for the training of

primary teachers would be upgraded and would be called

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colleges of elementary teachers. (this decision was very

much appreciated by the teacher community). All the

teachers would have to under go a course with in each five

years. All teachers of the colleges and universities would also

be trained in the university grants commission higher

education academy.

6. Education in colleges would be further improved. All

expenses of the university would be borne by the

Government. Arrangements for further higher education

would be made in the selected girls colleges and a national

educational research institute would be established.

7. The criterion for the selection of teachers would be reviewed

in an unambiguous (transparent) method for the evaluation of

the performance of the teachers and the administration.

8. Interest free loan for further higher education would be

awarded to intelligent students and the number of

scholarships would be increased two fold (would be

doubled). Reasonable increase would be made in the seats of

male and female students n the university hostels.

9. to keep the educational atmosphere pleasant in the

univversities, all the healthy activities would be encouraged

and all the unhealthy and agitating activities would be

discouraged. (this was a very important recommendation of

this policy).

10. Persuasive incentives would be provided to university

teachers to perform consulting services in other institutions.

Besides educational councils consisting of the well known

educationists and prominent teachers would be framed which

would give educational advice and suggestions to the

Government on current urgencies as well as issues.s thew

rules for scholarship of those teachers would be made lenient

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who arem going abroad to attend training courses. (this

encouraged research and higher scholastic approaches).

4.5 EDUCATION POLICY 1998-2010

The salient features of the national education policy 1998-2010

The main aim of this policy has been narrated to be the facilitation

of access to education of each individual. Because it has, now been proved

beyond doubt that education is not a privilege, but a fundamental right of

every one. To improve the economic well being, political stability and

cultural enlightenment is possible only through educational development.

This aim can only be achieved by conceiving and erecting the foundations

of an organic and flourishing human society by giving top priority to

education.

It is also viewed that the new society of tomorrow simply cannot

develop with out liberating the minds of the new generations. As a matter

of fact, today we are left with no option but to liberate Pakistani mind in

order to transform it into a self respecting, progressive and free being.

These and some more objectives in view, the then Government announced

an educational policy for 12 years. This aimed at the use of new

technologies in education system to promote creativity, productivity and

competence. The several reforms proposed in the policy aimed at bringing

a social change in society as dictated by the teachings of Islam.

Another important feature of this policy is the raise in the budget

allocation for education from 2.2% to 4 % out of the gross development

product (G.D.P) unto 2003. Universalisation of primary education,

improving the quality of education, increasing literacy rate to 70%,

unleashing the energies -of the nation for participation in nation building

pursuits, inculcating high moral, ethical and civic values among the

students.

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To sum up, the policy aims at 5 broad based objectives. These

include the base and improving efficiency of higher education;

strengthening the existing graduate study programme; improving the

delivery system; expanding capabilities of the universities for creating new

knowledge and enhancing entrepreneurial role of the university.

It is also intended by the policy to bring the literacy rate to 55%

by the year 2003 and to 70% by the year 2010. Besides, the policy

proposes setting up 190,000 schools for primary, by the year 2010,69,000

schools for middle, 30,000 for secondary education, 1,100 for higher

education, 715 institutions for vocational/commercial education and 201

institutions for mono/poly tech education. Besides, setting 700 degree

colleges, 250 professional degree colleges, 50 new universities, 20

engineering and 4 agriculture universities by the year 2001 so that to

provide access to schools for all school aged children. In addition to that

evening shifts will also be started in the existing schools, besides

increasing the enrolment from 31% to 48% at secondary level, by the year

2002. Further more,15,000, middle and 7,000 secondary schools are to be

setup.

For recruiting teachers, an education service commission shall be

established and education card would be issued to deserving students. To

meet the ever increasing demand of vocational and technical gradates, the

education policy envisaged to enhance the enrolment in poly technique

institutions from 42,000 to 62,000 and in vocational commerce institutions

from 32,000 to 43,000, by the year 2002, besides starting evening classes

in them. Curricula of these institutions shall be revised. High tech studies

will be included i.e. computer studies etc. The policy 1998-2010 aims at

increasing access and raising quality of all subject sectors of education.

Hence, it has underlined some innovative programmes.

Following are the innovative programmes proposed in this policy:

i. Non Formal Basic education Community school;

ii. Use of mosque schools for formal primary education;

iii. Introduction of evening shift at primary level;

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iv Provision of education card to the needy students;

v. Develop an incentive tied approach and provide encouragement to

private foreign investment in the field of education;

vi. Introduction of Nazra Quran from class I to VIII and teaching of

Holy Quran with secondary level;

vii. Setting up one residential model secondary school in rural areas,

initially one at each district level;

viii. Relating education to the word of work by helping students to

identify their carrier or vocation and establishing technical schools

throughout the country;

ix. Introduction of competitive text books at secondary school level;

x. Introduction of national education testing service from the forth

coming academic session, initially for admission to professional

colleges;

xi. Introduction of major reforms in examination system through

legislative enactment, providing adequate safeguards to tackle

boldly in order to eliminate the mall practices and use of unfair

means in the examination systems at all levels;

xii. Introduction of bachelor of education in technology at national

institute of science and technical education;

xiii. Expansion of women polytechnic colleges at district level:

xiv. Expansion of facilities for bachelor of education in science

throughout the country;

xv Package of incentives for teachers to attract better talent;

xvi. Decentralisation and community mobilisation;

xvii. Introduction of matric (tech) stream at secondary level;

xviii. Three years B.A/B.SC. (Hons) course parallel to two years degree

course;

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xix. Creation of monitoring and implementation cells under the federal

and provincial education ministers

The future education institutions will have the following orientations:

i. Lecture methods will be replaced by guidance provided through

the use of new technologies such as computer, television, satellite

and video tapes.

ii. Productive work and problem solving skills will take the place of

routine type of activities.

iii. The future training strategies will contain the following

guidelines:

iv. Training will emphasise on creativity and productivity;

v. Development of professional competencies through updating

knowledge and skills.

vi. Teaching will be replaced by learning and the teacher and student

role will change from dispenser/receiver practices to a joint

partnership in the learning processes.

vii. The multiplier effect of training and the self learning modules will

become necessary ingredients of any programme.

viii. Professional advancement will be a continuous process through

upgrading the job training.

The measures taken to meet the needs of future students are.

i. Student will have adequate opportunity to learn his/her speed of

mental physical development;

ii. Choices of subjects will be much wider and diversified to meet the

needs of the individual student;

iii. Education will effectively be imparted out side the school which

will provide opportunities to work for longer duration on a job;

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iv. Education will be designed in such a way as to provide more

independence in thinking process.

21st century objectives envisaged in the Policy of 1998-2010

Our education system must be made compatible with the demands

of economic activity, and lead to an egalitarian Muslim society. The

education philosophy is moving from specialisation and

compartmentalisation, to generalisation (with more emphasis on broad

based self-learning) and integration (of knowledge skills and their

utilisation, through self-development, including self learning, self analysis,

and team work). Priority to obtain government jobs must be shifted to

realistic and tangible targets, keeping in mind the short and long-term

social indicators of the society’s development. Education must cover the

entire life-span of each individual, to make him the most useful and

productive member of society in his outputs, encouraging self-

employment.

A sense of inquire, a questioning mind with a wide horizon, self

analysis and a critical examination of the socioeconomic system must be

inculcated. An introduction of the Islamic order is vital, by understanding

the message of the Holy Quran, and appreciating it in the context of

continuing scientific and technological advancements. Disparity and

underdevelopment must be eliminated.

The adult education programme should be shifted to NGOs

(nongovernment-organization), supported by incentive grants. Inequalities

(including female education) must be removed by providing more

educational facilities to rural areas. Distance education (both print and

electronic media) must be increased.

There are to be two types of school systems in the next 10 years:

the academic and the vocational/technical (including agriculture,

commercial, and biomedical), each with 12 years of schooling.

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Campuses are to be depoliticized. The reform of the existing

evaluation system is to be done through the National Testing Service. The

system is to be changed from supply orientation to demand orientation.

Emphasis is to be changed from ‘what to know’ to ‘how to know’,

necessitated by the advancement of knowledge, and the massive literature

being generated. National unity must become a driving force for national

development.

The Lecture Methods are to be replaced by guidance through

computers, TV, satellites, and video tapes. Institutional life is to become

less formal, and more human. Productive work and problem- solving skills

are more human. Productive work and problem-solving skills are to replace

routine activities. Training is to emphasize creativity, and productivity.

Professional competencies are to be developed through updating

knowledge and skills. Teaching is to be replaced by learning, and the role

of the teacher with student is to be changed from dispenser-receiver to

partnership to the learning process. Professional advancement is to be a

continuous Process, through upgrading skills on the job training. Learning

is to be at the Student’s speed. Choices are to be much, wider, to fulfill the

individual student’s needs. Opportunities to work for longer duration on a

job are to be provided. More independence in the ranking process is to be

provided.

Secondary Education

Concepts: Secondary Education (IX-XII) provides the middle level worker

for the economy, and is a feeder for higher education. This adolescence age

is the most crucial stage of life, strongly influencing life-time behaviour

and attitudes. It has not received adequate attention of the successive

governments. There are now 30 universities, and more than 150,000

primary schools. The female secondary schools do not have teachers in

science and mathematics. Courses offered should make each student

competent for an employment, linked to the manpower needs of the area,

and the country. Agriculture, being the largest employer, required especial

attention.

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There are 24,403 public sector middle and high schools 114,595

male (60%) and 9,808 female (40%)]. Middle level enrollment is 3.75

million (including 1.39 females, 37%)- at secondary level (Class IX-X) it is

1.55 million, including 0.54 million female (36.5% male, 25.8% female),

and at secondary level is 29.7% (male 36.3%, female 22.3%).

Teachers at the secondary level are at grades 14-16, whereas at the

college they are at grades 17-20. The salary at grade 20 is double that of

grade 16. Teachers at intermediate level are subject specialists, but not so

far classes IX, and X, where Science and English is being taught without

specialist knowledge, B.Ed. and M.Ed. are theoretical. Textbooks,

laboratories, library facilities, playgrounds, potable water, electricity, gas,

boundary walls, and teaching aids (maps, models, and audio-visual

materials) are inadequate. Colleges are better equipped, but desk space is in

short supply. Technical and vocational education must be integrated with

secondary education.

Objectives: Imbalances in educational opportunities between

rural urban, male-female, and rich-poor, must be removed. Students must

be made into quick, easily trainable, learners, with good quantitative skills

in manipulating numbers, problem-solving, able to deal with practical

problems, know their community and its problems will be able to work in

teams, and be active in their own learning, the majority should be capable

of taking on a job. Education at the intermediate stage should prepare

students for professional, and technical university education. They must

acquire analytical skills sophisticated use of language, logical arguments,

be able to undertake library research, be familiar with laboratory

procedures, and to be able to work independently preparing term papers

and carrying out investigations.

Policies: Initially one model secondary school is to be setup in

each district; vocation or career is to be introduced. Curriculum is to be

revised by 1999, multiple textbooks, choice of subjects is to be made very

wide, terminal examinations are to be improved, project method of

teaching is to be introduced, along with integrating vocational skills, and

academics. An Education Service commission is to be established to recruit

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teachers; possessing caliber and qualifications: Education Card is to be

provided to the needy; and an Action Plan is to be prepared for 2002-2010.

TARGETS

1997-98 2001-2

Participation at the secondary level 32% 48%

Participation rate at the higher secondary level 11% 13%Secondary schools 1.000 18.000Secondary school teachers 160.000 164.000

Implementation: The future growth of schools is to be properly

planned, in relation to the pupils population, through the proposed District

Education Authority, which will be given power to levy taxes for meeting

the day to day running of schools. Funds will be provided on the basis of

the local community contributions. One model school is to be provided at

initially 25% of the district headquarters. The National Education Testing

Service (NETS) is to prepare aptitude tests to be administered on demand,

through the departments of Psychology in the universities.

The Curriculum at the secondary stage is to be based on two

principles, to provide: a compulsory core of subjects for every pupil, the

knowledge useful for a developed society; and training to prepare the

student for a definite career. Problem-solving and independent thinking is

to be stimulated. Supplementary teaching/reading material is to be

prepared. A new orientation is to be given to the whole process of textbook

designing, and preparation, utilising competition, initially in Science, and

English, keeping the prices and quality under control; (three best textbooks

are to become the recommended ones in each discipline, but the

examination is to be based only on one of them, as at present).

Assessment items and question banks are to be developed for

Classes IX-Xll by 1999. The examination system is to be continually

improved. Internal and external assessments are to be integrated.

Appointment in the Board is to be contractual and on merit basis. Unfair

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means are to be minimised. Standardised test items are to be gradually

increased, by a scientific method.

B.S.Ed. (Bachelor of Science Education) programme is operating

in two colleges of the country. The Teacher Education Project has designed

a similar B.A.Ed; this is to be implemented throughout the country, in

parallel with BEd. From 2000. The budget book is to reflect the posts for

science and math’s teachers separately. There are two streams of teachers

those recruited directly by the Public Service Commission i.e. subject

specialists. This issue is to be resolved. Monitoring and training is to be

provided through central, model, cluster schools, through continual

training. The provincial teacher training institutes are to perform the

function of training Master Trainers posted to these central schools.

TEACHER EDUCATION

Concepts: The teacher must have a deep understanding of both the

content and methodology of education. Theories and practices of teaching

and learning must be well-defined. The teacher education programme must

cater to the fast emerging needs of the country. The curriculum content,

methods, evaluation techniques, teaching aids and all other teacher related

resources must be enriched regularly. The male teachers are less committed

and motivated to teaching than female teachers. The existing teacher

education programmes are too short. There is political interference in the

appointment of teacher. The teacher training institutions are inadequately

equipped. There is imbalance between supply and demand. Teacher

education textbooks are poor and outdated. Teachers guides and

supplementary materials are not available to teacher. In-service training

programmes for teachers are almost nonexistent. Sporadic training

opportunities lack quality. The examination system is highly defective. It

does not encourage creativity and leadership. Teacher absenteeism,

defective management, and lack of supervision and accountability must be

addressed.

The present institutions and programmes are:

Programmes and Punjab Sindh K.P.K.P Baluchistan Federal Total

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institutionsPTC/CT(GCETS) 34 24 18 10 4 90

B.Ed/B.S.Ed (College of education)

8 4 2 1 1 16

M.Ed/M.A (Ed), IERs/University Deptts of Education

4 2 2 1 - 9

Extension/Staff 1 1 1 1 - 4PITEs 1 1 1 1 - 4PTC= Primary Teaching Certificate, CT= Certificate in Teaching,

PIETA= Provincial Institutes of Teachers Education

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Training programme

Qualification for Admission

Duration of training (acad

year)Classes to Teach

PTC Matriculation 1 I-VTraining programme

Qualification for admission

Training/academic year

CT Intermediate 1 1-IVBSED(12+3) Intermediate 3 VI-XBED(14+1) BA/B.Sc. 1 VI-XMED BED 1 VI-XII + Student

teachers of PTC, CT, and BED + Supervision

Med BA/BSc. 2 VII-XII + Student Teachers of PTC, CT, and BED + Supervision

The demand is greater than the training capacity of 30,000. In

addition, the enrolment in Allama lqbal Open University is 10,000 per

year, of which 7,000 complete the courses (PTC, CT, and BED are offered

in alternative years). There is no special cadre of teacher/educators. Pre-

service teacher training is a requirement for primary, middle and secondary

schools, but not for higher secondary or degree levels. There are 65,000

unemployed qualified teachers due to a continuous ban on new recruitment

for the last six years.

Objectives: To enhance teacher training capacities, develop a

framework for teacher training, and to recruitment for teacher training, and

to institutionalise in-service training programmes.

Policies, and Implementation: The Primary School Teaching

Certificates of other developing countries range from 12 to 16 years. For

teaching at the Primary level, a Diploma is to be started for matriculates,

with 3-year duration, along with study to Higher School level.

The present integrated 3 year BS.Ed programme to cover both

B.Sc and BED has been very successful. A similar combined degree is to

be offered at the masters level. The M.Ed degree is to be offered at the

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masters level. The M.Ed degree is to be strengthened to produce a corps of

trained educational administrators ad supervisors. A three months intensive

in-service training programme is to be provided to the 200,000 head

teachers and supervisory personnel from the primary up to higher

secondary levels. The abilities and skills of the 4,000 teacher educators in

125 teacher education institutions are to be continually upgraded, and

strengthened by establishing a National Institute of Teacher Education

(NITE), with centres for each specialty, with focus on research, at the rate

of 300 per year. The curriculum of PTC, CT, B. Ed are to be improved, to

include: self learning, creativity, problem solving, and leadership skill.

Spring, winter, and summer vacations are to be curtailed. The programmes

are to be semester based, and the institutions are to award certificates,

diplomas, and degrees. All anomalies, and paradoxes are to be eliminated,

and teacher education is to be recognised as a profession.

A three-month intensive Orientation Programme is to be started

by the AIOU to provide the basic skills of teaching through Non-Formal

Education (NFE) methods. Incentives are to be provided to attract students

to join the teaching profession, and to the professional and their families.

At the primary level, female teachers are far more effective. Therefore all

new primary schools will have exclusively female teachers. Staggered per-

service courses will be held for untrained female teachers at PTC and CT

levels. The upper age limit will be removed for female teachers. Day-care

centres are to be opened for teachers siblings; and retired personnel are to

be engaged to teach in far- flung institutions, until regular staff becomes

available

4.6 NEW EDUCATION POLICY 2009:

Filling the Commitment Gap: System Values, Priorities and Resources

1 Educational Vision and Performance

(Work on this policy was started as early as in January, 2007

which finally was announced in 2009. Some meetings regarding proposals

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were also attended by this author as Director Higher Education, Khyber

Pukhtoonkhwa in those days.)

The Constitution of Pakistan sets out an egalitarian view of education

based on values responding to the requirements of economic growth.

Article 38 (d) speaks of instilling moral values and of providing education

to all citizens irrespective of gender, caste, creed, or race. Article 37(b)

explicitly states that the State of Pakistan shall endeavour “to remove

illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within

minimum possible period”. Article 34 requires that “steps shall be taken to

ensure full participation of women in all the spheres of national life”. It is

in this perspective that Pakistan has made a commitment to achieve six

Dakar EFA Goals within the specified target dates.

2 A Reaffirmation of Educational Vision

The planners found gaps between the preceding and the

succeeding policies as it is said that recognizing the commitment gap, a

first priority is a reaffirmation of the fundamental vision of education. The

goals and targets, and the financial and human resources required to

achieve them follow closely from the commitment to a clearly articulated

vision.

“Our education system must provide quality education to our children and

youth to enable them to realize their individual potential and contribute to

development of society and nation, creating a sense of Pakistani

nationhood, the concepts of tolerance, social justice, democracy, their

regional and local culture and history based on the basic ideology

enunciated in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.”

3 Aims and Objectives

1. To revitalize the existing education system with a view to cater to

social, political and spiritual needs of individuals and society.

2. To play a fundamental role in the preservation of the ideals, which

lead to the creation of Pakistan and strengthen the concept of the

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basic ideology within the Islamic ethics enshrined in the 1973

Constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

3. To create a sense of unity and nationhood and promote the desire

to create welfare State for the people of Pakistan

4. To promote national cohesion by respecting each others faith and

religion and cultural and ethnic diversity.

5. To promote social and cultural harmony through the conscious use

of the educational process.

6. To provide and ensure equal educational opportunities to all the

citizens of Pakistan and to provide minorities with adequate

facilities for their cultural and religious development, enabling

them to participate effectively in the overall national effort.

7. To develop a self reliant individual, capable of analytical and

original thinking, a responsible member of society and a global

citizen.

8. To aim at nurturing the total personality of the individual,

dynamic, creative and capable of facing the truth as it emerges

from the objective study of reality.

9. To raise individuals committed to democratic and moral values,

aware of fundamental human rights, open to new ideas, having a

sense of personal responsibility and participation in the productive

activities in the society for the common good.

10. To revive confidence in public sector education system by raising

the quality of education provided in government owned

institutions through setting standards for educational inputs,

processes and outputs and institutionalizing the process of

monitoring and evaluation from the lowest to the highest levels.

11. To improve service delivery through political commitment and

strengthening education governance and management.

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12. To develop a whole of sector view through development of a

policy and planning process that captures the linkages across

various sub sectors of the education system.

13. To enable Pakistan to fulfill its commitments to achieve Dakar

Framework of Action EFA Goals and Millennium Development

Goals relating to education.

14. To widen access to education for all and to improve the quality of

education, particularly in its dimension of being relevant to the

needs of the economy.

15. To equalize access to education through provision of special

facilities for girls and boys alike, under-privileged/marginalized

groups and handicapped children and adults.

16. To eradicate illiteracy within the shortest possible time through

universalizing of quality elementary education coupled with

institutionalized adult literacy programmes.

17. To enable an individual to earn honestly his/her livelihood

through skills that contribute to the national economy and enables

them to make informed choices in life.

18. To lay emphasis on diversification from general to tertiary

education so as to transform the education system from supply-

oriented to demand-oriented and preparing the students for the

world of work.

19. To encourage research in higher education institutions that will

contribute to accelerated economic growth of the country.

20. To organize a national process for educational development that

will reduce disparities across provinces and areas and support

coordination and sharing of experiences.

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3 Secondary and Higher Secondary Education

The secondary and higher secondary school system prepares

young people for life. It has two important roles in this respect – providing

skills to the labour market, as many students leave formal schooling at this

time; and providing input to the tertiary system, for those who go on to this

level of learning. The system does not provide an adequate base for both

these functions. Quite apart from the quality of instruction at this level, a

central question that Pakistan education policy makers confront is the level

of skill development and preparation that can be achieved by twelve years

of school education as a terminal qualification.

The system as it exists has shortcomings in two main respects: it

has a narrow base that leaves a large number of young people outside the

system and the quality of skills it produces is not well matched with the

needs of the labour market. The policy actions needed to address these

concerns, include several more that have been outlined in the previous par

of this policy, related to different levels of elementary and secondary

education. The additional reform initiatives described below are

specifically meant for secondary and upper secondary education.

Access and participation rates at this level of schooling in Pakistan

are low in comparison to reference countries. Pakistan’s national average

ratio of secondary to primary school is 1:6 but, in certain parts of the

country, it reaches the high figure of 1:13. There is a clear need for

expanding the provision. At the same time, efforts have to be made to cut

the high dropout rates and induce more out of school youths back to the

school system, particularly the girls whose participation is still very low.

Actions Required to be taken:

1. Provision shall be expanded, particularly in the rural areas and of

schools dedicated for girls. Priority shall be given to those

locations where the ratio of secondary schools is low.

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2. Student support shall be increased to prevent students from

dropping out of school for financial reasons.

3. Schools shall introduce more student-centred pedagogies.

4. Counselling facilities shall be made available to students from the

elementary level onwards in order to constructively utilize their

energy, to deal with any displays of aggression amongst young

students and to address any other psychological distress that a

student may be in, by suggesting a suitable remedy

5. Life Skills-Based Education (LSBE) shall be promoted.

6. Sports activities shall be organized at the Secondary and Higher

Secondary Levels.

7. Counselling at higher secondary level must also address the career

concerns of young students and encourage them to take up studies

as per their aptitude other than the “accepted” fields of study, be it

technical, vocational or any other area of study

8. Schooling shall also be made more attractive by adding

community service programmes.

9. Grades XI and XII shall not be part of the college level and shall

be merged into the school level forming part of existing secondary

schools, where needed and provision of necessary human and

physical resources shall be ensured. This exercise shall be

undertaken after a detailed study of the failures of previous such

efforts.

10. A system for ranking of primary and secondary educational

institutions across the country shall be introduced with rankings

based on result outcomes, extracurricular activities and facilities

provided to the students, in order to encourage healthy

competition between schools.

11. To create an order for excellence in the country, a “National Merit

Programme” shall be introduced to award bright students

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A. Challenges

Enhancing equitable access to higher education remains a

formidable challenge for the higher education sector in Pakistan. Although

significant achievements have been recorded with an enhancement in

access to higher education rising from 2.2% of the 18 to 23 year age cohort

in 2002 to over 4.7% in 2008, participation rates remain low compared to

India (7%) and Malaysia (12%).

Low allocation of per capita expenditure to students in the higher

education sector continues as a challenge facing the sector since especially

taking into consideration the ever increasing demands for resources to

support the rapidly evolving scientific fields. To address the requirements

of the country it is necessary to focus on enhanced provision of scientific

education relevant to the needs of the agricultural and industrial sector.

Provision of adequate resources to provide infrastructure including

libraries, laboratories, scientific equipment, teaching aids, and high speed

internet connection remains a challenge.

Provision of quality education requires a mechanism for internal

and external evaluation of quality parameters. In this regards it is necessary

to ensure that program and university accreditation mechanisms are

instituted that are compatible with international best practices and provide

complete transparency of operation leading to enhanced provision of

quality education.

The scale, quality and institutional arrangements of the higher

education sector must be able to support and encourage innovation in the

economy and domestic and international funding support.. The challenge is

to enhance the R&D capacity to achieve knowledge transmission to the

productive sector through university-industry partnerships.

On the governance side, the academic and administrative

management of Colleges remains an unresolved issue since the degrees are

awarded by the universities while the administrative control of colleges

themselves lies with the provincial governments.

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B. Strategic Vision for Solution

While preparing a response to the challenges faced in

transforming the higher education sector in Pakistan to respond to domestic

and global socio-economic challenges it needs to be recognized that:

1. Faculty are the heart and soul of the university, and without an

active and well qualified faculty it will not be possible to have

meaningful development in this sector.

2. Faculty development cannot be viewed in isolation and must be

considered together with the development of an environment

conducive to academics, as well as research and development in

the universities. Faculty development programmes must also

address factors pertaining to retention of qualified faculty in the

public sector higher education institutions.

3. Institutions of higher learning are knowledge repositories whose

faculty and students accrue knowledge and apply it to understand

and address "local" issues.

4. An integral role of higher education institutions is in assisting with

policy making and serving as "think tanks” to the public and

private sector.

5. In line with the worldwide paradigm shift from "Teaching" to

"Learning", programs of study will focus on ensuring maximal

absorption of subject matter by the students.

6. Faculty training in pedagogical, communication and ICT skills is

required at all levels to enhance the efficiency of teaching in

higher education.

7. The higher education system and institutions must accord high

priority to ensuring the quality of services and quality of

outcomes. Internal quality assurance processes of higher education

institutions must be strengthened to conform to international

standards of quality assurance.

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8. While building the higher education sector priority should be

given to recognizing excellence and supporting it.

9. To ensure that reform initiatives are aligned with development

objectives, the engagement of key stakeholders of the higher

education sector in the decision making processes is of utmost

importance, particularly in ensuring the relevance of educational

and research programmes to economic imperatives.

10. Changing innovation processes and the evolution of the relative

contribution made by the private and public sectors have

emphasized the need for strong industry-university linkages,

allowing both sectors to interact and collaborate on joint projects.

11. Engineers build nations and engineering education must receive

priority, especially in engineering disciplines of immediate

economic relevance to major industry sectors such as a)

Information and Computerization Technology, b) Energy Sector,

c) Mining, d) Construction, e) Textiles, f) Manufacturing, g)

Nanotechnology and Engineering Design.

12. In the modern global knowledge-economy, employers

increasingly look to universities and colleges to deliver the well-

educated workforce they require in the form of articulate, flexible,

and readily employable graduates to remain competitive.

13. Graduates of the higher education system must have the ability to

communicate effectively both in reading and in writing.

14. In the rapidly changing global economy, the labour market

constantly requires new and different skills, requiring mechanisms

to be enhanced to allow professionals to upgrade their skills at

regular intervals and develop new competencies through lifelong

learning. Higher education institutions are required therefore to

offer learning opportunities in response to diverse demands and

work cooperatively with stakeholders to ensure that the

appropriate courses are readily available.

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15. Brain Drain is a daunting problem for Pakistan. Whilst it is

essential to maintain mobility, and a source of intellectual

enrichment, measures are to be introduced to encourage Pakistanis

to return to their country of origin and to take part in its economic,

social and cultural development.

16. The Higher Education sector is a major force for innovation.

Universities and colleges through local, regional, national and

international partnerships must share their expertise and facilities

to support socioeconomic regeneration and growth.

17. Knowledge creation and diffusion are increasingly important

drivers of innovation, sustainable economic growth and social

well-being. Research is to be reconfirmed as a fundamental

activity of institutions and the establishment and long term

sustainability of a dynamic research sector in universities, that

engages stakeholders in its activities, is key to achieve economic

competitiveness.

18. It is widely recognized that transferring knowledge effectively is

often as important as original scholarship. Incentives are to be

provided to ensure that scientists who innovate and develop novel

applications addressing local needs receive recognition and

support.

19. It is imperative that award of Ph.D. degrees should signify

original contribution to the world body of knowledge as certified

by International experts.

20. The delivery of quality education and research is the core

responsibility of each Institution of higher learning.

21. Universities and institutions of higher learning and research play a

catalytic role in the economic development of the region in which

they are located. Development projects should therefore be

initiated with a vision of sustainable economic development in the

region in which the Institution is located.

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22. It is essential to provide equitable and enhanced access to higher

education for underrepresented groups. The strategy here will be

two-faceted: firstly to promote cultural change in instilling the

value of higher education amongst citizens; and secondly to tackle

the primary barrier of prohibitive costs of higher education.

Distance education and open learning can play a major role in

widening access.

23. Extensive access to higher education will first require optimal

usage of existing physical infrastructure. It will be necessary

however to invest in equipment, laboratory facilities and space to

cater to the demand of enhanced enrolment.

24. Modern information and communications technologies (ICT) are

key to enhancing efficiency, efficacy and impact of programmes

of development in the higher education sector.

25. Allied with the increased demands on higher education by its

customers and stakeholders, the sector faces growing expectations

from government and society as a whole. With increased

appropriation of public funds towards Higher Education come

growing demands for transparency and that those financial

allocations are well-targeted.

26. Movements in the global knowledge-society will require

universities to develop into diverse, flexible, self-analytical and

adaptable enterprises. Only a sector that is actively engaged in

meeting the needs of its stakeholders will be adequately prepared

to respond to the accelerated pace of change the global markets

will inevitably undergo in the 21st Century.

The realization of the strategic vision and implementation of

proposed policy actions will require the availability of adequate financial

resources. It is imperative to enhance the funds available to the education

sector to 7% of GDP by 2015 as well as to enhance the proportion of this

budget available to the higher education sector to 20% of the education

budget. The Policy endorses the main lines of the Medium Term

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Development Framework (2005-10) of the Higher Education Commission,

while suggesting additional action that are consistent with the Framework.

Critical Review of Education Policy, 2009

The Education Policy 2009 is very much comprehensive, well

worded, specific and clearly directed towards the burning issues of the

sector of education. Its objectives are categorical and unambiguous. This

has been very clearly asserted by the policy that access to all types of Arts

& skills including Higher Education or Technology would be made easier

for all without any discrimination. Also, equality in the facilitation of

education for the people from all walks of life would be ensured. No

discrimination is to be allowed on any of the following bases:

1. Gender Basis: Gone are the days when only male members of a

family would get education and the female would be restricted to

home depriving them of formal schooling. Similarly, it is said that

henceforth, no any male students, children or adults are intended

to be given priority in schooling facilities on the female folk. In

the earlier days it was happening due to certain tribal and societal

influences when the female individuals were being discouraged to

attend schools. But now by blessing of democracy and popularity

of democratic approach, discrimination in this regard has been

eradicated.

2. Rural & Urban Bases: In most regions of our country whether it is

a physical development or social and Educational, it is always

distinctly visible in the cities and the rural areas are deprived. But

in this policy all of the resources have been directed to both the

regions equally. Having been noticed this previous disparity, the

developers of this policy have taken proper care of the aspect as

discussed above.

3. The Basis of wealth and Poverty: Almost all entries to different

trades and professions, in colleges and universities have been

significantly indicated to be made purely on the basis of merit,

ignoring all other considerations including that of rich or poor.

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Because, now we are living in the era of emerging sciences and

technologies which demands nothing else except merit and merit

which shall finally lead us to a developed country.

4. Religious Bases: Our constitution has purely clarified the fact that

no discrimination in education or other facilities should be made

on the bases of religions. Hence, it is now included in the goals of

this policy to avoid any discrimination on the basis as mentioned

above.

5. Resource Generation basis: Some times extra facilities are given

to the institutions of those Provinces or regions from where more

resources are generated for the Federal Government. This should

never be made a criterion for the distribution of resources.

6. Great emphasis is to be laid on Higher Education as it is the need

of the day.

7. Those Faculty Members who improve their qualification, they are

to be encouraged: All those faculty members who make

improvement in academic qualification shall be awarded

stipends/post Doct: scholarship and assignments besides higher

grades.

This time, the policy has mentioned an “Action Plan” for each

aim/objective to get the same implemented properly. The policy under

reference is yet in the process of implementation, but it is hoped that care

shall be taken of all the issues as discussed above to benefit the public

properly.

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UNIT-5

CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL ISSUES

5.1 GLOBALIZATION AND ITS CHALLENGES:

Introduction:

Globalisation is defined by the recent sociologists and scientists as

Global Village’. They call the whole Globe and the world to be like one

village. Earlier, in the old days, when no such technological developments,

were made, no such perceptions ever prevailed, but with the blessing of

information technology and speedy communicational relations, the world

really now appears to be just like one village or a ‘mega state’. Especially

the fax machines, E. mails and last but not the least ‘Internet” have totally

changed the world. In day to day business we see so many people talking to

one another, sitting in Washington or Bangkok. Similarly it is now an easy

job to ensure one person or a gift or any other object reach the other

country of the Globe with in shortest possible span of time. This has

necessitated to call now the world to have led to Globalisation. All the

business and affairs of the world are now no more secrets. If any thing

happens in South Africa, the people living in Madagascar are informed of

the same with in no time and so on and so forth. This is called

Globalisation.

In view of critics like ‘Andleeb Abbas’ a regular columnist of the

daily ‘The News’, Globalisation now seems to damage the interests of

some of nations or groups through Organisation like W.T.O (World

Trading Organisation). That is why, she says hundreds of thousands people

demonstrated against its policy in Seattle, USA on December the 3rd,

1999, during its meeting. Most of these demonstrators were labours,

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workers and those industrialists who had some vested interests. The W.T.O

management, during this meeting wanted to promulgate certain rules and

laws for free trading. Feeling the same to be against their interests, they

staged the same demonstration. She is also of the opinion that if WTO fails

(in view of its designs which are only to serve the developed countries), it

would be better for the developing countries.

In her view the glaring interests of all the states have put them in

combating situation. Because, now trade superiority is the main tool to

dominate others. Hence the EU is struggling against USA and vice versa.

Such rules and tariff conditions are being floated at the world forum to

benefit either of them, while the losing one is not ready to accept.

Similarly, the other developed countries i.e. Japan etc. are also not ready to

accept rules contesting their benefits, like antidumping rules etc. She is

further stating that as a result of Globalisation, the world bodies and

countries like EUR and USA are forwarding the concept of “Mega State,”

which means to transfer the world into a mega one state, yet to her, it

would damage the benefits of the other countries. Sensing the adverse

effects of globalisation and that of ‘WTO” policies, most of the countries

have demanded to say “Fare well” to it. Through such forum only one of a

few countries are trying to rule the world through concerned trade etc,..

Furthermore, it is also feared by so many countries that by the

globalisation of the world, the issues of defence and protecting of secrets

are becoming difficult for ideological countries like Pakistan. Then there

are certain traditions and conventions which are needed to be preserved,

but with the explosion of fastest information technology and the use of

other means, the cultural revolutions would happen which would destroy

the whole set up.

Despite its several disadvantages, the globalisation, still has so

many advantages, which are stated below:

1. Easier and faster communication: With the inception of the

modern means and latest technologies through out the globe, all

sorts of information and communications have become very easy

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and faster. Gone are the days when we would have to wait for

days, weeks or months to receive a message or a guest of ours.

Interestingly, now you can talk/consult any one any where in any

corner of the globe with in no time on phones, e-mail or wireless,

satellite, vedio conferencing etc and, if not possible, can reach to

him by travelling there provided you have the resources. This is

such a situation which the earlier people might not have even

thought of.

2. Commercial and Trading Activities are Accelerated: No doubt

with the help of information technology and transportational

facilities trading activities across the globe are accelerating.

Export and import rules are being relaxed so that all could benefit

properly, but finally those nations would dominate who do not

have any trade deficit. This would result in the domination of one

or a few countries. However, if so fair rules are formulated for this

purpose, then it is hoped that trading and commerce activities will

remain balanced.

3. Jobs Opportunities: As access to all the multi-national

companies and other similar agencies becomes easier in these

circumstances, the skilled and highly qualified persons get better

jobs, leaving room for others to substitute them.

4. Technological Development and Improvement of Know How:

When the world has become just like a global village all fields of

life would get acceleration. Furthermore, there is the possibility of

uniform development. Because if the world nations want to

maintain peace and harmony through out the globe, they would

have to do so. Besides, among the citizens of developed and

developing countries the know-how would further improve.

5. Means of Rescue: The whole world now being like a globe, its

miseries are always mostly felt by all equally. Though, there are

still elements who are always promoting negative perceptions, yet

majority of the world nations are always extending generous

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assistance to others who are facing some calamities. We can thus

say that the nations of the world, now can easily come to the

rescue of victims, who so ever they may be.

Globalisation itself is good but the related challenges would have

to be faced by the less developed and developing countries like ours

courageously, otherwise it would really create problems for us.

5.2 POPULATION GROWTH:

Definition:

Prior to define Population Growth, let us first know as to what is

Population. ‘Population is the number of people living in a specific area at

a specific time, which is reckoned through doing census after each decade

or the people living in a specific Geographical area at a specific time

Population Growth:

“When the population of a specific area or country is increasing

continuously and the birth rate, over there is proportionately more than the

death rate, it is called Population Growth”.

Background:

The human population in the world in general and in Pakistan in

particular has been increasing with great speed. At the time of

independence of Pakistan, its population was thirty million (three crore).

During the last fifty years it has multiplied four times. It is estimated that

according to the census of 1997, the population of Pakistan has reached up

to 135.2 million. The speedy increase in the population adversely affects

the national resources. With the increase of population, villages, towns and

cities expand further. New towns are erected on the agriculture lands. To

build houses and meet the need of the people, trees are cut in a large

number. Thus decreasing the areas of greenery and forestry. The smoke of

the factories and vehicles is causing environmental pollution. If balance is

maintained between the population growth and increase in the new

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resources, the speed/pace of the national development becomes faster. But

contrary to that, if the population grows more speedily and the rate of the

creation of new resources is slow, hence poverty, pollution, epidemic,

dearness, ignorance and criminal activities are multiplied while economic

and social development comes to a stand still. The government of Pakistan

has launched an educational program to create awareness among the

people, against the rapid growth in population. This unwieldy population

growth has ever been affecting our social, economic, educational and

health’ sectors. Rather it is playing havoc on our educational, residential,

employment, environment, agriculture development, over crowding in our

cities and living standard besides pollution and health sectors.

Population of Pakistan, Its structure, prevailing conditions and the latent (in world’s perspective)

Like the other South Asian countries, Pakistan is also faced with

the problem of population growth, besides so may others. The other several

problems are commonly believed to be the result of the growing

population. There are several components of this topic that need to be

answered. Thereafter, we would be able to understand the problem of

population growth. Some components and items are as given below:

Definition of population and census i.e. population is the number

of the residents of a specific area at a specific time, which is reckoned

through doing census after each decade. In other words, population is the

number of the people living in a specific geographical area at a specific

time. In Pakistan 83.8 million people were living in 1981. This was the

population of Pakistan in 1981 while census is the counting of each

individual, to know the number or volume of population. Census is

commonly done after each ten years. Sometimes a few people like women

and children are left over from counting. In the less developed countries

this ratio is 5% or more. This factor sometimes leads to misleading results,

it is, therefore, said that there are always two types of population i.e. the

real one and the legal one. The real one is that which is based on the

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number of people actually living in a country. For example, in the

population of Pakistan all those who are living over here are included,

whether they are Pakistanis or foreigners. (As at the present there are thirty

three lakhs Afghanis in Pakistan) while a legitimate and a legal population

is that which is based on the bonafied citizens of Pakistan irrespective of

their place of living, whether living here or abroad.

Classification of Population: The population of a country is

distributed or classified into different groups or types according to the

information obtained from the questionnaire filled by each individual. For

example, Population as per gender, age etc. This division is essential to

know the structure of the population, its future trends and to assess the

productive potential, manage estimates of development and plan

development for future. The Population is also classified into categories of

urban and rural, in order to facilitate development planning accordingly.

Generally, the places consisting of more than five thousand inhabitants are

called cities and that consisting of inhabitants less than that are called

villages. Similarly the total of all the population of the cities is called urban

and that of the villages is called rural.

Some essential rates of Population: Since the numerical of

Population are in a great number, hence it is impossible to manage them.

To facilitate its memorisation and comparison, it is mentioned in the form

of ratio and proportionate. Generally, ratio is indicated in percentage or

hundred form, but in Population it is usually shown per thousand

individuals. Either per thousand or per hundred rate. ‘Whatever the ratio

may be, it is called per thousand or per hundred rate. Following are some

of the similar rates and ratio:

a. Birth Rate: If the total number of the children born during a year

in a country is divided by its med year Population and multiplied

by thousand, the resultant figure would be its Birth Rate C.B.R =

Annual Birth of Children * 1,000 / Med Year Population. So if the

total number of the children born during the year of a locality is

5,000 and its Med year population is 1,00,000 (one Lac), the

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Children Birth Rate is C.B.R. 5,000 * 1,000/ 1,00,000 = 50 per

thousand.

But still a large number of experts do not fully rely on this

formula in assessing the Birth Rate of a Country.

b. General Birth Rate: In view of experts of demography, the

General Birth Rate is better than the Child Birth Rate to know

trends of increase in the Population. Because some of them (the

Experts) consider Women of the age of 15 to 44 and some more

that of 15 to 49 to be able to produce children. So the formula for

knowing the general rate of increase is: General Birth Rate = The

living total birth of the year * 1 000 /Med year population of

Women between the age of 15 to 49. This example could be

illustrated as if 4,000 children are born in the living conditions

with in a year and the female Population of those between the age

of 15 to 49, in the Med year was 80,000, hence the usual/general

rate of the Population growth would be:

G.B.R 4,000 * 1,000 /80,000 = 50

c. Capacity of increasing Population on the Basis of Age: Through

the general Population growth rate it is assessed that with what

age group of women more children were born and with which one

the number was less. Further more, through this exercise, it is also

understood as to how were the female classified on the basis of

their age and marital status. Therefore, the more reliable rate is

that in which all the married women capable of producing children

(i.e. of the age between 15 to 49), are divided in to different

groups on the basis of their ages. Then the birth rate of each group

is assessed in the each current year. This is called the birth rate on

the basis of age group. The method of measuring this rate is to

divide all the women between the ages of 15 to 49, into groups

based on 5 years gaps e.g. the group of women of age between 15

to 19, the group of 2 (to 24, that of 25 to 29, that of 30 to 34, 35 to

39, 40 to 44 and 45 to 49.

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Thereafter, the rate of the Population growth of each group per

thousand is assessed as per the actual facts and figures.

Formula = Number of children born living with the women of a

specific age * 1,000 / Population of the same age group women in the Med

year.

Let us suppose that 1500 children are born with a group of women

between the age of 25 to 29, whose total Population during the Med year is

1 0,000. So what is their rate of Population growth. = 1,500 * 1,000/1

0,000 150 per thousand.

After having found the rate of Population growth on the basis of

age, we can easily compare and contrast as to which age group of the

women are producing more or the most number of children, and what

would be the proportionate representation of the women of the said age.

From this, the future trends of the Population growth would be assessed in

better from. In addition to that it would also be revealed that how much

total number of children could be produced by a woman in the age of

fertility, provided she remains married the rest of her life.

As per census of 1972 A.D., the Population growth rate is given in

the following table (Table 6.1):

Age groups of women Birth rate per thousand

15-19 264

20-24 355

25-29 362

30-34 268

35-39 221

40-44 104

45-49 09

The total birth of a woman during her married life is, 08.

Average of 15-49 per thousand 1601/7 = 229.

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It is evident from this table that all the mentioned women of 1975

A.D. between the age of 15 to 19 in Pakistan are counted and the children

born with them are in the same year are estimated, so they are 264 per

thousand. The greatest number of children is born with the women of the

age group between 25 to 29, while this rate was at the lowest level of all,

with age group of 40 years and above.

If all these rates and estimates are calculated, it would be found

that, if a woman between the age of 15 to 19 remains married through out

the rest of her life and produces children at the same rate, hence eight

children would be born to her. To know the Population growth rate from

this table, we may multiply the rate of each age group with the total

number of the married women of the same age and then divide it by 1,000,

so the total number of the children born with them, shall be found.

Similarly if the number of all-the children given in the seven columns is

identified and they are added the sum. of that would indicate the total

number of children born through out that year. Thereafter, if this sum is

divided by the total number of the women of the seven columns and

multiplied by 1,000, so general Population growth rate would come out.

d. Death Rate: Similar to the birth rate the Death Rate can also

be known and found out. Children are born only with women

of a specified age, but Death can happen with individuals of

all ages, genders and each marital status. Hence, for knowing

the Death Rate, the total number of the residents is found who

would have died during a specific year. This sum or number

is divided by the Med year total Population and multiplied

with one thousand and the figure obtained, such is called the

Death Rate. E.g. The Death Rate = The number of total

deaths during the year1,000/ The total Population during the

Med year.

So if the Population of the locality is 100,000 and 200 persons

have died out of them during a year period, the Death Rate

would be 20 per thousand and if in the similar Population

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1200 deaths have occurred, the rate would be 12.

e. Since it is not essential that death rates of male and female should

correspond with each other or they should be the same, therefore,

their rates are usually reckoned separately. Similarly, the death

rate of all the age group is also not the same. The death rate of

children and aged people is high and in youths it is comparatively

low. Hence as the children death rate is not instrumental in

knowing the exact situation, similarly the general death rate also

cannot depict the full picture. It is also short of indicating the

trends of Population for the future. Hence the knowledge of the

Death Rate according to the specification of age, is far better than

any one else. This rate is called ‘Death Rate” based on the

specification of age. The method of finding ASDR/ASBR, i.e. the

number of the specified age (generally 5 to 9 years) group’s

individuals in the Population, and the deaths having occurred

among the persons of the same age during the year, are to be

divided by each other and multiplied with 1,000. Death Rate on

the basis of age = The number of total deaths of the same age

dividing the year 1,000 / The total Population of the same age

group in Med year.

For example, if in a country 7,200 deaths have occurred in the

people of age group 5 to 9 years and the total Population of the same

people is 2,40,0000 3 per thousand. Related to deaths, there ‘are several

other rates which are simultaneously used. One of these is the death rate of

Newly born” (infants). This is also found by the same method, even we can

find with the help of this method the reason or the disease due to which

most of the children happen to die.

f. Gross Migration Rate: Some people happen to migrate to other

countries for jobs, education or due to some other reasons and

settle there. It also lays impact on the country’s Population. To

know the rate of migration, the number of those migrating from

and migrating to this country during the year are added. The sum

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is divided by the total Population of the Med of the year and

multiplied with 1,000 / Med year total Population.

The actual difference in the Population is the difference found in

the number of those migrating from here and the number of the settlers

over here. This is called the net migration. To know the real rate of the

migration, the real (net) migration is divided by the Med year Population,

and multiplied by 1,000. Net migration = Immigrants - emigrants = Net

migration

Net migration Rate = Net Migration * 1,000

For example If the total Population of a country during the year is

50,000,000, from which 600,600 individuals migrated but 100,000 came

here and settled. What will be its rate of migration. For this purpose first

the actual and Net migration is to be found out i.e. to subtract the number

of Emigrants from that of the Immigrants so

600, 000 - 1 00, 000 = 500, 000.

Then as per formula 500,000 * 1,000/50,000,000 = 10 per thousand.

So NMR = per thousand.

g. Population Growth Rate: The most important thing in the study of

population is to keep ourselves aware of Population and know the

pace of its growing. This increase in Population happens due to

two reasons. The first is the natural one which is taking place on

account of the difference between the birth and death rates. The

second is that which occurs due to the Emigrants i.e. those who

come from abroad and settle here.

h. Natural Population Growth Rate: To find out this rare, we have to

subtract the death rate from the birth rate e.g. if the birth rate is 50

and the death rate is 20, so the Natural Population Growth Rate

would be 30. This is pertinent to note that the rates of birth, death

and migration are indicated in the ratio of per thousand while that

of the Population growth is shown per hundred. Here, we would

not say in the preceding example, that the Natural Population

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Growth Rate is 30, but would say that it is 3% (These rates, in

demography are so common that usually mentioning per thousand

and per cent is not considered essential to be natural). If it is

intended to find out the growth rate of Population, the following

formula may be followed.

Growth rate of Population (birth rate - death rate) + Net migration

rate. Or Growth rate = Natural increase rate + Net Migration Rate.

e.g. if birth rate is 42 per thousand and death rate is 6 per thousand and

NMR is 4 per thousand, so the Growth Rate would be = (42- 6) +‘ 4 = 40

per thousand.

But in Pakistan Immigration/Emigration are not as common as in

USA, so it is not so important.

The exact and foremost factor of the increase in the growth rate is

the increase in the birth rate. So if the birth rate is low, the growth rate

would also be low proportionately.

Similarly if death rate is low so the growth rate would be high. All

decreases and increases are basically due to the increase or decrease in

death as well as birth rate.

This is shown in the given table (Table 6.2):

S.No YearBirth per thousand

Death per thousand

G.R. Per Hundred

1. 1962-63 50 20 3.0

2. 1979-80 41 12 2.9

i) Gender Representation in the Population or Ratio Proportionate in

the Population on the Basis of Gender: It is a reality that each

Population is consisting of the men and women. To find out the

ratio proportion of women and men in the Population we may

divide the number of female by that of the men and multiply with

100. i.e. Gender Ratio = Total number of men * 1 00 / Total

number of women e.g. If the total Population of men is

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21,276,224 and that of the women is 20, 794, 436, hence the Ratio

21 276, 224* 100 / 20, 794, 436 = 102.

It means there are 100 women in comparison with 102 men. (in

1972 women were 3,0518,225 and men 44,074,891).

j. When is the Population Going to Become Double: If the

Population of a country is 15 million and it is growing with rate of

3% per year, so towards the end of one year it would be increased

by (15000000 * 0.03) 450,000 and the total Population would

become 15,450000 and after 23 years it would get doubled i.e.

30,000,000.

Mathematically, the easy method is that if any number is to

increase 1% per year it would take 70 years to reach that target. Hence the

formula to find the period of the doubling of a number is 70 Annual growth

rate.

k. Financial Self Dependence Rate: In Demography, the person

between the age of 15 to 64 are called productive capacity holders

and that less than 15 years and more than 64 years are non

productive capacity holder. Hence, the person under 15 years and

those above 64 years of age are considered person dependents,

The rate of such Population can also be known through the

following formula.

Rate of financial Dependence = The Population of the age less

than 15 years + that of more than 64 years of age * 100/ The Population of

those who are between 15 to 49 years of age.

e.g. if in 1981, the total Population of Pakistan was 81,607,075. The

number of those below 15 years of age was 36,849,628 and that of those at

the age of 65 or more was 3,81,594. Find out what was the rate of Financial

Dependence. Which is 3381594 + 36849628 / 81607075 = 4023122 the

Population of the person between the age of 15 to 65 = Total Population -

(The Population of those at the age of 15 + The Population of those at the

age of 65 or more = 816050'5)

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40231222 = 41 375,853.

Rate of Financial Dependence 40231222 * 100 / 41,375,853 = 97

approximately.

The main factors influencing change in Population:

Changes in the Population are occurring due to three reasons:

a) Birth b) Deaths. C) Migration and Remigration.

Birth: It is an established fact that whenever births are in great number

there would be a visible increase in the Population. Similarly, if deaths are

in greater number the Population would decrease and if they are reduced,

the Population will grow further. In the same way, if people migrate and

settle abroad, the Population would decrease. But if some more people

come back to this country from any foreign country, its Population would

increase. For studying the changes in the human Population, the Birth rate

is very deeply analysed. Usually, there are the following reasons of

increase in birth rate.

1. General Tradition of marriage: Though it is not possible in our

country, yet if supposedly none is going to marry or less people

enter this bondage, there would be least birth rate. But if all go to

marry then birth rate would also multiply further.

2. Length of married life: If women lead the most/maximum part of

their life in marital status, there is possibility of the birth of

children in greater quantity, as it is proved by researches that in

Pakistan the women up to the age of 49 in married condition

deliver eight children as per average statistics.

3. The age of marriage: The earlier is the marriage, the more will be

the children and vice versa.

4. The ratio of women according to the pro portion of their age: If

the ratio of such women who are yet able to deliver children is

greater hence the birth rate would be on the high side. For

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example, if women between the age of 20 and 30 are greater in

number, the rate of birth would be high, it the aged women are

more, this ratio would decrease.

5. Health of the wife and spouse: If both the spouses are healthy, so

there is again a chance of co-operative increase in the birth rate,

but if they are not keeping good health, then it would decrease.

6. Economic Conditions: Usually at the eve of bad economic

conditions comparatively more children are born, because there is

no other attractive activity to engage their attention.

b) The Effects of Death Rate: Increase in the rate of Deaths

decreases the Population and by decrease in the deaths, the

number of people grows up. In Pakistan the death rate is 12, while

in the developed countries it has come down upto 5. The

important reasons of increase in deaths are given below:

1. The spread of mortal and fatal diseases: Usually in this part of the

world like so many other developing countries, mortal and fatal

diseases are spreading at a high rate. Hence, the rate of mortality

is very high.

2. The number of children: It is an undeniable fact that the more the

children the higher the death rate. It proves that the one basic

reason of the high mortality rate is the greater number of children.

3. Scarcity of clean water: In Pakistan only 20% people are provided

with clean water. If supply of clean water is ensured, the death

rate would surely come down. As per a survey in the under

developed and developing countries two to two and half crore of

children of the age of five die due to dysentery caused by unclean

water.

4. Non existence of preventive vaccine and medical care: If children

are properly vaccinated in time, the death rate would become low.

But if the vaccines of tuberculosis, hoping Cough, smallpox,

cholera, quinsy, measles and cramps (convulsion) are not given,

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their death rate would go high. Similarly if they lack medical

facilities again their death rate would go high.

5. Unsafe methods of delivery: It is also a fact that if the delivery

cases are attended by untrained nurses (L.H.Vs) and their tools are

unclean as well as unhygienic so deaths possibilities during

deliveries are more.

6. Paucity of sanitation and non existence of drainage system: If

there is dirt every where and no proper drainage system is

existing, it will promote the spread of contagious diseases. Again

if all possible means are utilised the death rate can be minimised.

c) The Effects of Migration: With the emigration of people in great

number, on permanent basis, the population is reduced. Similarly

with coming of immigrants in great number, population increases.

But usually it does not happen to be so. In particular conditions

this factor happens and effects the population. No difference

occurs with internal migration. However with external emigration

the population is effected. But still with internal migration the

problem of over- crowdedness does happen in the cities.

Population Census in Pakistan:

Similar to other countries of the world, in Pakistan after each ten

years, Census are carried out. In the current Century, the following Census

have been carried out:

(1) 1901. (2) 1911. (3) 1921. (4) 1931. (5) 1941. (6) 1951. (7) 1961.

(8) 1972 (9) 1981 (10) 1997.

After the independence of Pakistan the first Census was carried

out in 1951. But to record the Population of Pakistan before 1947, the

Population of those areas by that time which have now been included in

Pakistan has been calculated separately.

As per statistics of 1901, the population of Pakistan was 16.576

million, while according to the first census of Pakistan, this was 33.740

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million, which went up to 46.2 million, 65.39 million, 83.782 million and

135.789 million in 1961, 1972, 1981 and 1997 respectively. Probably, the

actual population may be more than that. So if the population during 1901

is compared with that of 1981, it is clear that during the span of 80 years,

the population has multiplied by seven to eight times. While at the time of

creation of Pakistan the population was 32.5 million, which,

proportionately, has grown up to 1997 by four times and up to 1931 one

and half times. There is one thing more i.e. it took fifty to fifty one years to

become the population double for the first time, while for becoming double

second time it took twenty to twenty three and for the third time it took

sixteen years to be more than the double i.e. two and half times more. It

means that in the later stages, the population growth rate grew higher

which reduced the duration of the doubling of the population.

Furthermore, it is evident from the census of 1921 that till that

time population was growing at the rate of 1% or less than that, it grew

rapidly in later years. In 1961 this rate was 2.9% while now it is 3% or

more per year.

Detail Statistics:

Division of population and its ratio proportion on the basis of

different consideration.

1. Gender Ratio: In 1981 there were one hundred women living

against one hundred and eleven men. But as a matter of fact in the

early years most of the women were usually left from being

counted.

2. Ratio Per Age: It is quite evident that in the country where birth

rate is very high, the young children would be greater in number.

The difference between the population of Pakistan and other

countries is also due to this reason.

3. Ratio Proportion according to Marital Position: According to the

census of 1972 all women in the ages of 25 years and all men in

the ages of 30 were almost married. Because according to the said

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census there were only 38.9% of the population who were not

married.

4. Ratio Proportion of Population according to the Residential

facilities: The majority is that of rural population while the rest are

living in the cities. But gradually, in search of employment, the

people migrate to the cities. Furthermore, for seeking more

facilities and better recreation, population is shifting to cities.

Population of the country is not distributed among the provinces

equally and proportionately. For example, Punjab owns 25% of

the country land but the people living here are 56% of the total

population. The area of Sindh is 17.50% of the total area of

Pakistan, but the population over here is 23% of the country.

Similarly Khyber Pukhtoonkhwa and Tribal areas are covering

13% land of the country, but the people living here are 16% of the

whole population, while Baluchistan consists of the greatest

portion of the land, but the population is 5% of the total living

people.

Besides, the density of population in the country is 105 persons

per one square k. Meter, while in the province of Punjab this rate is 229

persons per square k. Meter, in Sindh 134 persons, in Khyber

Pukhtoonkhwa and Baluchistan 146 and 12 persons respectively. In

addition to that, ratio proportion of population in the cities and the village

is also not uniformed. In Sindh 43.3% is urban population which is the

highest as compared to the other provinces. In Punjab this rate is 27.7%, in

Khyber Pukhtoonkhwa 20% and in Baluchistan 15.6% of their population.

The trends and effects of the Population of Pakistan:

The existing condition of the Population of Pakistan and its

growth rate (GR) indicates its future trends. From this the unfoeseen results

and effects could better be assessed.

They are as given below:

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1. Due to the raise in the growth rate of the Population, the young

generation is increasing. In 1951, the ratio of individuals in the

age of 15 years was 43% of the total Population, which raised to

45% in 1981. This shows that if this growth is persisting

continuously, the ratio of the Population of the persons of the age

less than 15 years shall increase further.

2. Raise in the Population of younger generation shall increase the

rate of Dependency. In Pakistan, the rate of Dependency is already

greater as compared to the other developed countries of Asia. For

example, the rate of Dependency in the developing countries of

Asia is 69, while in the developed countries it is 54 and in

America 49. But in Pakistan this ratio is 97. This adversely effects

the standard of life.

3. Increase in the rate of Dependency results in to literacy rate. On

the basis of Population, Pakistan comes at number 9, while its

number on account of its Growth rate (Population GR) is the

highest and on the basis of per head income, it is on 103 number.

In this way, with the low rate of earning and due to increase of the

dependency burden, all developmental works are adversely

effected.

4. The statistics of the Population show that each year the number of

the women having entered the age group, of those who are able to

produce more children, is comparatively increasing (year by year).

It shows that there is no possibility of better change in the existing

conditions of the growth of Population and this increase shall

continue.

5. The number of Primary schools children (i.e. between 5 to 9

years) is increasing approximately at the rate of 3.2 million per

year. This number is increasing each year as compared to the

preceding years. So in spite of all efforts of the Government, and

in spite of multiplying all the possible facilities in the education

sector, half of the school going children are still left over.

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6. The urban Population (the Population of cities especially) is

growing with a high speed. In 1901, the urban Population was 1.6

million, which became 9.6 million in 1961, i.e. it grew six times.

And in 1987, the Population was 83.782 million. If this trend in

increase is maintained, towards the end of this century i.e. after a

few months, the ratio of the urban Population would be 40%,

while in 1972 this was 20% and in 1981, it was 18.3%. Due to

increase in the urban Population, the problems of health,

education, employment, residence and pollution are, emerging.

1. Effects’ of Population high growth rate on Health sector:

Though there are several other reasons for the low quality of

education and medical facilities in our country Pakistan, yet the main and

the most Important reason is stated to be the enormous population growth

rate. On account of the high rate of its population growth rate, Pakistan is

in the first few countries. These conditions have led us to a very alarming

situation.

As per latest survey carried out by Mr. Owais in his booklet

‘Health Care Systems’ the effectiveness of the healthcare in any country

depends on the provision of the necessary components of health and their

reliability. In these necessities and essential elements are included the

details regarding the available medical facilities in proportion to the

population; and their reliability, could be ascertained from the death rates

of children, general birth and death rates, from the average age, the rate of

injuries, the number of heart patients, the number of the victims of cancer

and such other fatal diseases.

It is estimated that in Pakistan only 0.73% of the G.D.P. is being

spent on the health of 140 million people, while this amount is 5.50% of

the G.D.P. for 10 million Greeks, 6.5% of the G.D.P ‘is being spent on

35000 to 39000 Irish people, on 581 million Italians 8.5%, on 8.7 million

‘Swedish citizens this rate is 7.5%, for 581 million Britishers this ratio is

7% and on 810 millions Germans 8.50 of their G.D.P. is being spent.

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In Pakistan 90 out of 1000 children die in childhood. This ratio in

Greece is 8.6%, in Ireland 7.4, in Italy 7, in Sweden 5.7, in Britain only 7

out of 1000 and in Germany only 6 out of 1000. Furthermore, if there is a

population of 0.1 million in a locality in Pakistan it is provided only with

68 beds for patients while in Sweden there are 1198 beds for similar

population. Similarly the average age of the people of Pakistan is the

lowest (i.e. 63 years) of all the citizens of the above mentioned countries. If

a standard of human facilities is supposed to be retained in Pakistan we

must make six time increase in the health care facilities.

2. Effects of high growth rate Population on Education:

Due to the high growth rate the managers of educational

institutions are facing much hardships in managing their day to day

business. During the admission season, they always bear tremendous

pressure and tension. The number of primary schools children (i.e. between

5 to 9 years) is increasing approximately at the rate of 3.2 million per year.

This number is increasing each year as compared to the preceding year. So

in spite of all efforts of the Government and in spite of multiplying all the

possible facilities in the education sector, half number of the school going

children are left over due to non- availability of the required necessities. In

view of the Prevailing condition, though we may provide an increase in

educational facilities by fifty percent each year, we would hardly retain the

current rate and standard of education. It means that provision of education

facilities to all the school going children has really become a dilemma and

a great concern.

3. Effects of High Population Growth Rate on Social Life:

The Population growth becomes a problem when resources are

less as compared to the number of living people. If resources are in

abundance, the Population growth could be a pleasant necessity as well.

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In Pakistan, the raise in the Population growth is becoming

alarmingly an issue in comparison with existing resources. This could lead

to serious complications in coming years, if its solution is not searched out.

In view of meager resources, the unwanted and improper increase in the

Population can lay adverse effects on the fields of life. The unemployment

caused by the Population growth, can create frustration, dejection until it

can create trends of hatred and exploitation. Class wars are multiplied and

the increase of marriages and dowry are emerging.

Due to low income and large family size, the citizen cannot keep

up their health. Hence, if a teacher falls ill and he does rot come to the

school, resultantly, his class would be made to sit with the other class. If

this class is of 50 students, it would grow to 100 after mixing both of them.

Due to this increase in the Population, there would be so many social

problems. That class which used to sit calm and civilised, now would face

disorder. Hence it would create the problem of discipline. There would

happen shortage of seats, hence some students would have to remain

standing. There would be mutual bid to grab (scramble) and even there

would come the stage of quarrels. It is also possible that during this

scrambling the objects of students may be stolen which may cause

suspicion (mistrust) and bitterness. Due to these factors in spite of

increasing the number of primary schools 9 times, no improvement in the

rate of literacy has occurred.

If this situation of the Population growth is, supposedly,

permanent so the last bencher (student) would hardly benefit from teacher.

Probably, they may not pay attention to their students which may result in

the greater rate of failure and this may cause so many psychological

problems e.g. Inferiority complex, disgust, isolation and frustration.

The world Population is growing so rapidly, that the world

resources would prove in sufficient for maintaining a reasonable standard

of life. In 2000 AD the expected Population of the world would become 7

billion. In 1977, the world’s Population was 4 billion, which grew to be 5

billion in 1986 AD.

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The following social problems usually emerge in countries where

the Population growth is rapid:

a. Competition would multiply which would result in

unemployment. Hence Poverty Would grow further.

b. It would lead to corruption.

c. There would be increase in crimes.

d. Litigations and quarrels would multiply.

e. The individuals would suffer from deprivation, frustration and

dejection.

f. The issues of beggary and child lifting would increase.

g. The problems of dowry and marriages would emerge.

h. A great problem of migration and remigration would emerge.

i. Mental and physical diseases would emerge.

j. Some individuals may fall prey to one addiction or the other.

These could be treated, but the basic reason, i.e. the rapid

Population growth should be stopped.

5.3 EDUCATION AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Prior to discussing the topic under reference, let us know the

etymological meanings of the words “Education”, “Conflicts” and

“Resolution”.

“Education” means to train the body, mind and soul of a person.

In other words “Education” is the change that occurs in the behaviour of an

individual after undergoing a certain training or course. (Further details

given on page 05-06 of this book)

The word “Conflicts” is the plural of “conflict” meaning, battle,

qurrel, disagreement, difference (of opinion) and simultaneous loyalty to

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contrary persons or principles. Such like conflicts, as a matter of fact,

finally lead to large scale fights and wars. While the word “Resolution”

means to solve, bring into an end and do away with. The topic under

reference denotes the fact that a real type of education can play very

effective role in resolving “conflicts” how so ever grave that may be.

A common proverb goes in English language as “if you want

peace, prepare for war”. That is why it is commonly believed by all wise

and positive thinking people that, “war is essential for peace”. From this it

is quite clear that we can devide (based on purpose/objective) wars into:

(1) Positive and

(2) Naegative type of war.

There would have been no need of dividing “wars” into the above

two categories had there not been such people who use it for nefarious

ends. Hence, wars for curbing brutality and oppression is good, while any

other except this is bad. Similarly education can also be divided into the

same two categories. “Education” in itself is nothing but source of comfort,

development, happiness and peace. But some people having malafide

designs use this for conquering the other opponent only for vested interest.

The History of Education is replete of such episodes and examples

which show that the definition as well as objectives of education have been

constantly changing as or when the aims of the life of a nation have ever

changed. Similarly, the components of the course, attitude of the teacher

and process of teaching learning process have also changed.

The primitive concept was that “ Man by nature is a warrior”.

Therefore, people in the past, used to prepare their children for war. They

would take great care of their physique and would train them to fight,

because they believed that no conflicts can be resolved without war. Since

people like them were led by such like misperceptions, to several conflicts

and wars. The worst amongst them had been the World War 1st and 2 nd

which caused immense destruction and killings.

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Now, there has come an enormous change in the attitude of human

beings and they now prefer to resolve their differences of opinion with the

help of education and discussion, say with peaceful means. Despite the fact

that on one side we see that several conflicts are continuing in one part of

the world or the other, but there are some others where the opponents have

agreed to sit across the table and resolve the same through discussion

instead of guns. This all has become possible because of the spread of

education. The man of today is convinced that war is not the solution to a

problem. War makes the situation worst. They have come to know that

talks, not guns, can resolve the conflicts. All this is the fruit of Education.

Positive education always stresses that peace is the ultimate end and

objective of Education. According to basic teachings of all religions of the

world “man is by nature peace-loving” and “not-warrior” as misconceived

by some other people. Guns aggravate situation and can not resolve our

problems and conflicts. We can do so through peaceful talks and

negotiations.

Education can Prevent and Resolve Conflicts

As education brings enlightenment to mankind which is against

ignorance and darkness, hence it removes all kinds of misperceptions and

negative designs. Furthermore, education unviels several new and

interesting venues for mankind and preoccupies him in purposeful

activities, hence he never inclines to aggressive and untoward activities.

Following are the important merits of education in conflict resolution.

1. Education is a blessing of Allah: Approximately all religions have

shown great reverence and liking for knowledge and education.

Especially, Islam considers education a great source of

emancipation of man from the slavery of others. It is said in the

Holy Quran: “are those who know and those who do not “know”

equal?” (it means that such like people cannot become equal).

Similarly, the deeds of the learned people and the ignorant ones

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also cannot be called to be equal. Hence, it means that education

brings significance to each individual and makes him remarkable.

2. Brain-Washing & Awareness: As already discussed, education is a

very fruitful activity which removes all types of negativities from

the minds of men, rather we can say that it does brain-washing of

the learners youth. It can bring a great change in their outlook and

attitude. Education makes man think constructively and positively.

Through education we can convince our public that war is harmful

for the survival of mankind in the globe.

3. Guidance from religious teachings becomes easier: By getting

educated, mankind happens to study the contents of those portions

of the courses outlines which are related to religious studies and

hence he learns “good wishing” and well behaving as articulated

by approximately all religions. While Islamic Studies have very

distinctive position in this regard. Islam says that all” faithful

should learn forgiveness instead of aggression” and they should

instead of afflicting others they should control their emotions.

4. Education saves our Resources: By fighting prolonged wars or

maintaining enmities with other nations, we happen to divert all

our resources to wards purchasing weapons. This makes our

resources exhaust in comparatively less profitable task. If conflicts

are resolved through talks then there is no need of weapons of

wars. Each country spends a lot of money, perhaps 50% of its

budget on weapons. Education, if given properly can save these

extra expenditures.

5. Education preserves culture and brings social and economic

prosperity: If all conflicts are resolved through peaceful talks,

there would be no untoward activities. The nation would give full

attention to the development of their social, cultural and economic

sectors which would take them forward.

6. Resolution of conflicts made through talks and educative efforts is

durable: It is a fact that any dominance or victory won through use

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of force cannot remove the hatred from the hearts of the

subjugated or affected nation. Hence, we can say that the same

dominance and victory is temporary and a day would come that

there would be war again due to the hidden hatred. But, if the

same is solved through intellectual discussion based on the

expertise of education shall get the conflict resolved for ever.

7. Education eradicats all discriminating attitudes: No doubt,

education advocates equality, uniformity and social justice hence,

all types of discriminations are to be at first minimised and then

eradictaed from the country as well as world. The nations, due to

globalization are already drawing nearer and closer to each other

and the world would finally become as one global village.

8. Education brings prosperity and Development: Due to the very

nature of Education, it takes along with it prosperity and

development. When there is prosperity and development, the

people are not inclined to negative and disruptive activities. They

always remain busy in their own business, duties and profession

which makes the atmosphere very much conducive to conflicts

resolution and peace. Education provides conducive environment

for all positive activities including maintaining peace.

To maintain peace on the surface of the earth is no doubt, very

difficult task but it is not impossible. The only thing that we need is to

utilize education for positive changes in the society.

5.4 GENDER EQUALITY IN PAKISTAN

Etymological meanings of “Gender” and “Equality”:

Before we discuss the topic under reference in detail, let us know

the meanings of “Gender” and “Equality”

Gender: It means the sex role identity used by humans to emphasise the

distinctions between male and female. The words “gender” and “sex” are

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often used interchangeably but sex relates specifically to the biological and

physical characteristics which make a person male or female at birth, where

as “gender” ,refers to the behaviurs associated with members of that sex.

“Equality” means to treat a person or persons equally with others. It means

that we should not distinguish between a male or female student while they

are getting education. Or their contents of course and other activities must

be the same. The Psychologists have described the behaviours of a male

and female child in different ways as given below:

By the age of three, children tend to be aware of their gender, hence they

are encouraged to prefer the games, clothings, modes of speech and other

aspects of culture usually assigned to their sex. Even as babies, boys and

girls are treated differently from one another. Boys are seldom dressed in

pink as it is considered to be feminine colour. So even at an age at which

male and female behaviour is indistinguishable, it is seen as important that

the child sex is not mistaken because gender rule vary from culture to

culture and from society to society. It appears that many of the behavioural

differences between male and female are caused by socialisation as well as

innate causes. As number of western women employed in wage labour is

increasing divisions between the gender rules are shifting, but very much

still exists.

Some gender related behaviours are really consumable. The gender assured

behaviour such as aggression is the part of male and passivity of the

opposite gender, is derived at least from rules which are taught during

childhood. Males are told “boys do not cry” and are given guns and cars as

toys; girls are given dolls and play houses so they can maintain the

traditional female home making role. With the passage of time, girls take

on games previously associated with boys but the reverse is still less in

evidence. Similarly, many boys and girls tend to excel only in the areas of

study traditionally attributed to their sex; and this may partly explain under

dominance in many fields such as science and engineering. These factors

have provided significant arguments for the campaign by the women’s

movements for sexual equality and re-marrying like men. However, each

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and every thing which is within the limits is advisable. But, if one

transgresses the others’ rights it would create disturbance.

Importance of Gender Equality:

(Justice demands to treat male and female and such other people equally in

all fields of life. This article shall prove the importance of this proposition

in the light of Islamic Shari’a and constitution/ law of Pakistan, our

beloved country).

As gender equality is very important issue of the society, the following

ways and means are used to minimise gender discrimination:

Ways and means to minimise Gender Discrimination:

1. Religious point of view: There are always misconceptions about

Religions as well as religious office bearers especially the Muslim society

and Islamic teaching to be fostering discriminatory behavoiur with male or

female folk, but it is not so. Islam gives equal right to both genders in so

many sections of life. Due to this the followers of the Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH) brought tremendous changes in the world as men and women both

had to perform their duties equally.

While going through the annals of history, we find that in one way or

the other, the gender factor has been playing important role in the

development of a nation. Similarly, it is also found that in most of the

societies, women folk, have been regarded less important as compared to

the man folk. As much as in the older days in Rome, it was being discussed

for years, “whether has a woman a soul?” if she has, whether her’s is a

human soul or the soul of a devil? And if she possesses a soul what will be

conducive her social status as compared to man? She was made a prey to

such degradation until the dawn of Islam. Islam declared her equal to man

in all conditions be created with out education and sender equals privileges

except a few. Especially, the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) clearly issued

orders regarding her equal right of education by saying that “Seeking

knowledge is obligatory for all Muslim men and women” this is just

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because Islam considers, that conducive conditions cannot be created

without education and gender equality.

2. Our constitution declares that rights of all are equal:

Pakistan was created in 1947 with the partition of the Indian

subcontinent, following the end of British colonial rule. Successive military

and civilian governments have struggled to bring about political stability.

Pakistan is ranked as a lower-middle income country by the World Bank,

but still the people observing simple life according to the teaching of Islam

are living contented life. On the other hand the Constitution of Pakistan

upholds the principles of equal rights and equal treatment of all persons.

Over the last two years, the government has passed legislation to promote

gender equality including the Prevention of Anti-Women Practices Act.

Although the position of women varies considerably among different social

and ethnic groups. Even though a slow closing of the gaps between men

and women has been observed. Due to certain tribal and societal pressures

women still have limited access to education, employment and health

services, but there is no hindrance from the government and law side. Lack

of government resources, high poverty and low levels of literacy all

contribute to the fact that very few women are aware of their rights, while

also complicating the implementation and enforcement of reforms intended

to improve their position. Govt. efforts are on to remove the remaining

discrimination to ensure development. Pakistan ratified the Convention on

the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women in 1996. It

is hoped that after some more efforts the situation would improve. The

parliament is always dedicated to bringing improvement in the condition of

the social norms and rules to bring uniformity among male & female’s

rights

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3. Family Laws & Family Code to compensate the possible differences:

No doubt, due to some customary and tribal constraints in the past

some discriminations were being observed in this part of the land but by

framing family laws/family code the same rate has fallen down. Under the

Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929, the minimum age of marriage is 16

years for females and 18 years for males. This is also considered by some

critics to be a discrimination. But due to some other reasons, (one of the

reasons is education too) the incidence of early marriage has also fallen in

the last decade. Polygamy is legal for men, but only under strict pre-

conditions, such as approval from the first wife, and the practice is

generally frowned upon. But reportedly, men who decide to take more than

one wife rarely obtain consent and the required letter of permission from

their first wives. In the event of divorce, Islamic Sharia law grants custody

of sons until the age of seven and of daughters until the age of 16 to their

mothers. Once children reach these ages, however, custody normally

reverts to the father or his family and if the wife requests a ‘Khula’ divorce,

in which case she forfeits her dowry. However, many women are unaware

of this.

Pakistani women have the right to pass citizenship onto their

children. Women have the legal right to acquire land via Islamic and state

law.

4. Law of Inheritance: However, their inheritance rights are governed by

Islamic Sharia law. Women may inherit from their fathers, mothers,

husbands or children, and under certain conditions, from other family

members, but their share is generally smaller (half as compared to brother)

than to which men are entitled. The social status attached to property and

land often makes it difficult for widows and daughters to inherit even their

entitled shares, as they may face opposition from the deceased man’s

relatives. In 2011 Anti-Women Practices Law makes it a punishable

offence to deprive women of their inheritance rights. Women have the legal

right to acquire land via Islamic and state law.

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Those who refuse to do so shall be punished according to the law.

5. Minimizing Violence on the bases of Gender:

In 2006, the Gender Crime Cell was established within the

National Police Bureau to gather, collate and analyse data on gender-based

violence. The government also runs emergency shelters across the country,

but these are not able to meet demand. Two laws addressing harassment of

women were introduced in 2010, with punishments of up to three years

imprisonment or a fine of 500,000 rupees ($5880). It is thought to be a

widespread problem, particularly affecting domestic servants. In addition

to that the government passed an amendment to the Criminal Law to

specifically punish “hurt caused by a corrosive substance” in 2011. The

law aims to address the problem of acid attacks. Under-reporting and

inconsistent data collection makes it difficult to ascertain the number of

cases each year.

6. Minimizing Son Bias

Through social awareness and education now reasonable changes

have come, but earlier very little attention was given to the health of

female. Data from the 2006-2007 DHS indicates that 49.8% of boys and

44.3% of girls under two had received all their vaccinations. Rates of

under-five mortality were equal for boys and girls. Overall, this could

indicate some preference towards boys in early childhood care. Given that

in most contexts, under-five mortality rates are higher for boys than for

girls. Gender-disaggregated data regarding childhood malnutrition was not

available. According to UNICEF, primary and secondary school enrolment

and attendance rates are higher for boys than for girls in Pakistan, by

around 9%.

Some individuals prevent women folk from their rights. Although

there are no legal restrictions to women’s ownership rights in Pakistan,

discriminatory practices and norms prevail. Women have access to land

and other forms of property, but data suggest that the share of female land

ownership is very low. A household survey, published in 2005 profiled by

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the International Center for Research on Women found that women owned

less than 3% of the land – even though people in 67% of sampled villages

agreed that women had a right to inherit land. Efforts are required

traditional to first parole the activities rather and accordingly lend them to

promoting their technological and entrepreneurial capacities.

8. Right of Drawing loan from Banks:

Since long women could do no business, but now some

improvement has been made in the procedure. Pakistani women are entitled

to obtain bank loans and other forms of credit, and a number of credit

institutions now give preference to women. However, their access is

limited by their inability to provide the required documents.

9. Improvement in Restricted Civil Liberties

Due to the customs of this country and teachings of Islamic

Shari’a, and social norms that reinforce women’s primary responsibility as

a wife and mother are very strong in Pakistan. Her sphere is the household,

and her behavior reflects upon the honor of her whole family. Because of

this, women’s access to public space is often circumscribed, particularly in

regard to mobility. Although women have the legal right to freedom of

movement, widespread discriminatory practices limit their ability to

exercise this right, particularly in villages and tribal areas. As compared to

the past, now women folk has become very active in so many fields of life.

They have been given access to the rights of freedom of speech, assembly

and association. There are a large number of active and vocal NGOs

working on women’s rights issues. Some of them have got special

assignments and have become very prominent in NGO sector. There are no

legal restrictions on women’s ability to stand for elected office or otherwise

participate in political activity and contest on Assembly or senate seats.

While some seats are also reserved for women seats. As of February 2010,

there were 76 women serving in the National Assembly, 60 of whom were

appointed through the national quota and 16 elected freely.

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10. The Women, Business and the Law

Where are laws equal for men and women?

The history tells that all rights have been specified to be given to

women, in thing constitutions, but some individuals, lake the other

countries do not abide by the same law. This is not only in Pakistan that

gender discrimination is observed, but in, wages through out the world it is

a common practice. The Women Business and the Law237report presents

indicators based on laws and regulations affecting women's prospects as

entrepreneurs and employees. Several of these indicators draw on the

Gender Law Library, a collection of over 2,000 legal provisions impacting

women's economic status. By now there is no any such law related to

female to be banning them from Business. In Pakistan certain

improvements are being brought in the same with the passage of time.

11. Improvement in General Basic Rights:

In addition to the above, following are the other general Basic Rights of women:

1. Women, Business and the Law: Creating economic opportunity

for women (as already discussed)

2. Equality in wages

3. Selection of profession

4. Right of vote

5. Access to education

6. Right of Marriage.

7. Right of inheritance etc

The FAO (Wikipedia article writer) Gender and Landrights:

The FAO Gender and Landrights Database contains country level

information on social, economic, political and cultural issues related to the

gender inequalities embedded in those rights. Disparity on land access is

one of the major causes for social and gender efficiencies in rural areas,

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and it jeopardizes, as a consequence, rural food security as well as the

wellbeing of individuals and families. The topic under reference can further

be well elaborated if information regarding the following categories are

obtained from the concerned sources. (this note is for researchers).

The Database offers information on the 6 following Categories:

National legal frame

International treaties and conventions

Customary law

Land tenure and related Institutions

Civil society organizations • Selected Land Related Statistic

Importance of HRD (Human Resource Development) man power (men & women both) in Developmental Projects:

If all or majority of the citizens of a country, including male and

female individuals are educated, it will significantly increase the speed of

development. Because, education has multidimensional structure. It covers,

arts, crafts, technology, sciences, medical and industrial schences. So over

all development could be made in the country if all are educated. Only the

efforts which are required to be intensified are (i) to make them (people)

aware (ii) and to educate them all. Because it is said that these both are just

like two wheels of a cart. It cannot move if any one of them is not working.

To make the pace of development of our country faster, the following steps

may be taken:

1. To create awareness among the public: It is necessary to make the

public realize the importance of the hard work and human

resources. Majority of the population of this part of the world is

still slaves of the outdated conventions and traditions that all

things are pre-destined by their fortune. Furthermore, they

presume that only money, land and other similar things are

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bringing some returns to them and they or their woman folk need

not work hard or do a job. Their attitude must be changed.

2. Equal opportunities to both the Genders: Whether it is education,

health or job, public service whether it is the issue of employment

in the case of working people, all these should be provided equally

to both the genders in countries where though equal chances are

provided to them in education and health, yet so far as their wages

are concerned, the women folk is still striving hard for that. It is

astonishing that in the developed countries of the world, there is a

difference between the wages of men and women, but in Islam

there is no concept of this.

3. Better working conditions: If it is intended to gain more

development, we must make the working conditions of all our

institutions as well as factories etc especially, that of women folk,

firstly must be provided with safety, privacy and equal wages for

their labour. Similarly, social and moral support should also be

equally provided and no discrimination should be made on the

basis of gender.

4. Simplicity and saving. Though, our country is an Islamic one and

our society is following certain values which are quite helpful in

making all kinds of development, yet still some of our members of

the society need to be aware of it. Islam teaches us simplicity,

which, if followed by men and women equally and they make

stress upon saving the national resources, it is hoped that the

country would prosper with great speed.

In this respect, the role of women is much more important. Being

daughters, sisters, mothers and wives, they can use their

relationship much better and can make other shun bad habits as

well as extravaganza. This attitude would not only be helpful for

economic development of the country, but it will also be helpful in

making the environment conducive for consistent development.

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5. Fit persons for certain jobs. This is an established fact that unless

a fit person for certain job is employed, no useful results could be

obtained. We know that there are always several kinds of duties

and jobs. Some are better done/handled by men while the rest of

them are catered by women. Different studies have revealed that

as women give full attention to each minor and minute issue, they

show comparatively faster progress in industries, hospitals as well

as other institutions.

From the above statement it is proved that development could be obtained

satisfactorily only when we utilize the potentials of both the genders i.e. the

men and women, equally and in the best possible way. Side by side, we

must impart skill and technological know-how to them all equally with out

any discrimination. This is also the real essence of the teaching of Islam

and the instructions of the UNO charter. However, in our country,

observance of all the Islamic values is compulsory while carrying out such

duties, both the genders must follow the same equally. Furthermore, efforts

should be made to make people abide by the rules of human right

commission and no violence should be carried out against any one on

gender basis.

Though the rights of male and female, in real sense are not yet believed, in

Pakistan by all to be equal, yet in education sector enormous changes are

coming very rapidly. But in the light of social justice their rights are quite

considered equal in all respects.

5.5 MEDIA AND EDUCATION

Prior to elaborate the details of the topic, let us know the

etymological meanings of “Education” and “Media”.

Education: It is a process of living through a continuous reconstruction of

experiences”. It is the development of individual’s potentialities. (already

discussed and defined in previous pages ie 4 to 6).

Media: Media is the plural of “Medium”, which means, idiomatically to

provide a link for a person with other persons. In other words, “media”

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means a source, an instrument, an appliance and an agent. So “Media”

stands for all such means which may provide a link/contact for aperson

with another person. So from telephone to fax, E.mail to Multimedia and

internet and from postal service to printing as well as radio, wireless and

satellite, television and vedio conferencing etc, all these are called media.

While the things shown by these appliances are usually called “Advertise”

“advertising” or ‘telecasting”. In the older days when a king or ruler would

like to promulgate an order or announce some important things, they would

order a drum beater to do so. Then he would go in the places of public

gathering and inform the people of the situation beating the drum and

announcing loudly. With change in the communicative measures and

information technology, now more sophesticated and advanced

instrumentsare are avaiable, through which the same purpose is quite

easily obtained, provided one has the resources to obtain access to the

same.

(all these instruments and appliances now are used for teaching, instruction

and lecturing. Rather the whole teaching learning proces is being run with

the help of “Media”)

In the cities and villages now the same drumbeater and messangers have

been substituted by loud speakers

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telephones, telegrams, telecom, wireless, e.mail aNd walkies talkies.

SimilaRly, when at a large scale public infoRmation is intended, by paying

some dues, the same could be done through the print as well as electronic

media ie. News papers, Television and E.Mail or internet through

comPUter.in addition to that whEn any buSiness is involved in the same

information , then it has to be done through mediA mentioned in the

preceding lines.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Media:

(Note: Advantages of education have already been discussed time and

again which can be seen in the previous pages of this book. Now we

discuss advantages and disadvantages of “Media” for learners and general

public).

Advantages:

a. Very Vital and Powerful Column of the Society: As per sayings of

scholars like Kunda Mani Dixit, a former regional Director of

Inter Press Service, now working in Kathmandu, society has four

legs, parliament, judiciary, executive and Media. Three of them

are already crumbling. What we can do is to save at least one leg –

the Media. Media can flourish only if we are open to it. We should

assimilate all that is happening in world, open heartedly. Though,

for some period allured by the attractive advertisements

(programme) of the developed countries we would face several

problems-competition in jobs, competition in trade, (possible that

some technology or educative material may not be easy for us to

digest). Competition in productions and so and so forth. But the

time would come that we would learn from that much and we

would maintain balance. We may also improve our T.V, and

media programmes besides our items of business and contents of

courses.

b. Transfer of Technology: Telecasting (or sending through media)

or advertising through the local T.V channels both are playing

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very important role in the transfer of technology. At first glance,

the people are made aware of new items, (contents/substance) or

new theories, while finally they get familiarity with that and

understand the mechanism as well. If this trend is maintained and

the media is not misused by our people, it is hoped that the things

would improve. But effort should be made by the states as well as

public of different countries to co-operate with each other

especially, the eastern countries must unite in trade etc, against the

European block. We should stress upon using our own products

instead of foreign goods.

c. Transforming the world into a global village: Media is

transforming and have transformed the world into a global village.

The whole of the Europe is now just like one unit, trading one

currency. Similar blocks should be made by the less developed

countries as well. Though, we have several social and cultural

differences, yet if the issues like Kashmir are settled, then there

should not be any hatred on biases among the countries of the sub-

continent. Unfortunately, there are certain reasons for the media to

replace the social biases and hatred between India and Pakistan. If

the Media is given true freedom it can play more constructive role

in imparting all liberal skills/technologies and other necessary

information perfectly. However, sthe media of our land must keep

itself aware of the advertisements/programmes of the West and

their challenges. The country media, must evolve its own

programmes more attractive and quality of products more

improved to compete the other members of the global village. The

other problems of ours like Kashmir Issue are clearly understood

now by the world.

d. The Main Source of Information: To keep one self well informed

has become a dire need of each and every individual in this world

of globalization. It is a well known fact that now, Media has

several thronged dimensions. It, not only deals in information but

it has got maximum dominance over the main springs of

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knowledge like websites, internet, distance learning, radio, T.V,

vedio conferencing and use of gigital appliances.

Al these can be utilized by the pupils/teachers to gain education or

make acces to certain difficult issues of research and high tech.

Media, therfeore, plays important role in educating the public, the

students and machinery of the Government.

Last but not the least, different and quite innovative ideas as well

as machineries and technologies are introduced to the people. Also

they come to know the use of such new appliances and techniques.

Disadvantages of transmitting and receiving education through

Media:

Following are the disadvantages of Advertising as well as Imparting

teaching/learning process through Media:

Disadvantages:

1. Psychological Complex:

It is a fact that in our society different categories of people are living.

When they see an item or read about any issue(or lesson/theory), which is

needed by a person and his resources do not allow him to buy , or

understand that, he gets frustrated. In this way, if our people through other

channels see the advertisement or programme and life style (including the

classroom managements in the other countries) other nations i.e. The field

of their economic development, their social and industrial prosperity, they

get a little bit hopeless. There are a sufficient number of good thinkers,

who consider all sorts of advertising very much dangerous for this society

of ours. They are of the opinion that it causes mental sickness instead of

doing any thing constructive.

2. Tough Competition in Trade and “Educational Technology”:

As making Advertisement or making teaching/learning interaction through

Media, especially electronic media, the whole world becomes aware of

comparatively better things or technology/theories, so it makes things

difficult for the under-developed and developing countries in trade,

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educational technologies and emerging sciences. This leads, sometimes to

loss in trade, technology and proper learning.

3. Wastage of time and Resources:

Being a very interesting as well as attractive source of information

and enjoyment, almost all learners cannot help but indulge in the misuse of

the same instruments; and it leads them to the wastage of their precious

time and resources. If enough measures are ensured to be taken to

safeguard the happening of the learners to the same misuse, then the

purposeful use of the media is very much beneficial.

4. Hazzards for Health:

As most of the learners, especially the youth use net or other

means of media for prolonged durations, it keeps them away from other

social and academic interactions. Even they do not find time to do physical

exercise, hence they get, sometimes health problems.

5. Life in isolation:

In addition to that the learners and students who do not find time for going

out and visiting of their relatives etc, they remain isolated from them. Even

they become used to it and finally they cannot adjust themselves to appear

in certain gatherings. They always like to be left alone busy in using the

information technology for days in and days out. This practice is too much

injurious for their mental and physical health.

6. Chances of imitating alien immoral and anti-social or cultural habits:

When the students happen to use media and information

technology for educational and academic goals, they are usually immature,

mentally. Thus they happen to copy/imitate all those habits/norms which

are, though permissible in the particulr cultures but banned in ours’, hence

it creates great social complexes in the society.

Despite these few disadvantages, advertising/or interacting for

learning puposes on media is quite unavoidable/helpful for all. It is not

245

only a technique or tactic, but it is also a good profession for the people

having expertise in this field. It makes learning easier and faster besides

making it cheaper as compared to go to another country to interact with the

concerned expert. On line learning has become now an easier trend. On the

other hand, the people involved in this profession, earn a lot and contribute

to the Government exchequer, besides widening the dimension of trade and

promotion of science and technology.

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247

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