Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
“Don’t you like it? Yes, I don’t. You mean you do? No, I do…”
Wing-sun Liu
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
ITC The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hung Hom Kln Hong Kong
Tel: 852 2766 6444
Fax: 852 2779 1432
Email: [email protected]
Richard Elliott
University of Exeter & Saïd Business School, University of Oxford
School of Business and Economics
University of Exeter
Exeter EX4 4PU UK
Tel: +44(0) 1392 263200
Fax: +44 (0) 1392 264425
Email: [email protected]
2
Content Area Codes: 24 56 75
Methodological Area Code: 24
For publication in ACR proceeding
An early version of this paper was discussed in a workshop hosted by EIASM, Brussels, May 12-14, 2000. The
authors are grateful to the comments of the participants in the workshop, in particular Dr Suzanne Beckmann and
Dr Susanne Friese. Thanks also go to Dr Yang Chung-fang of the University of Hong Kong, her dedication and
achievement in indigenous Chinese Psychology have always been an inspiration.
3
Don’t you like it? Yes, I don’t. You mean you do? No, I do…
Abstract
This article discuses the inadequacies of extant consumer research on the Chinese consumer.
This huge market is full of complications, contradictions and confusions, and it has even been
argued that there’s no such thing as Chinese identity, only “ Chineseness”. The raw
transplantation of western theories and concepts of consumer behaviour to the Chinese
socio-cultural context can be a fatal trap. A Cross-Indigenous Ethnosemiotic approach to
consumer research is proposed.
4
Don’t you like it? Yes, I don’t. You mean you do? No, I do…
Native English speakers have probably come across this “different” kind of conversation with
a native Chinese speaker. I can still recall when I was small, in my English lesson the teacher
had to spend a long time to drill us to take on this logic. To a child who was alien to this new
language, this “negative and positive” logic just did not sound logical, I kept asking the
teacher for the reasons. Irritated by an inquisitive mind, my beloved and respected teacher
said, “ all because of a different culture.” Since then I have this very vague idea that culture
makes us think and act differently.
Since 1979, with the opening of China, this market with one fifth of the world’s population
and a 10% annual increase of consumer spending (Yan 1994) has stimulated a tremendous
growth of interest among both businessmen and academics. Academically, the prolific study
of China business does not meet with a parallel development in the area of consumer research.
In the iconic Journal of Consumer Research, only two papers on Chinese consumers have been
published in the last decade (Tse, Belk and Zhou 1989; Schmitt, Pan and Tavassoli 1994). In
Amazon.com, the self-advertised largest bookstore on earth, only 14 titles are related to
consumers in China.
Few would question the importance of China in the world economy, few would argue the
country has a unique and deep culture of her own, few would argue Chinese consumers do not
5
act differently to their western counterparts. However, of the consumption culture of this 1.2
billion population we know very little. Challenging consumer researchers is a huge
population with 56 ethnic groups dominated by five major races (Wu 1991), all with their own
dialects and cultures, with other complexities woven in.
It’s so BIG
In 2003 the population in China is estimated to reach beyond 1.3 billion with a private
consumption of US$509 billion (The EIU 1999a). With the globalization of the economy, this
US$509 billion has already attracted investors from all over the world, with increasing
dominance from Europe and United States (The EIU 1999b). In academia, Universities have
given due concern to the growing importance of China as a big market, for example, there is a
China Business Center in the Manchester Business School, Professor John Child of
Cambridge University is directing a Chinese Management Center, Kellogg Graduate School
of Management has set up a strategic alliance with the Guanghua School of Management of
Peking University in China…… The market is so big that no one can afford to neglect it.
Extant Marketing/Consumer Research on China
Western images of the “Chinese National Character” derive from late-nineteenth and early
twentieth century missionary portrayals. To justify the funding and military support for their
6
overseas proselytizing, they exaggerated their descriptions to justify funding and military
support. The most notable one perhaps is Arthur Smith’s explorations of “face”. (Kipnis,
1995)
A century later, this picture still lingers “ China” is still a sexy topic for researchers and
funding organizations in view of its unexplored and mythical nature. Replacing or elaborating
on face, Guanxi (personal relationships) is probably the most frequently mentioned
terminology in Chinese marketing studies (e.g. Davies 1995, Arias 1998) “Any marketer
wishing to be successful in Chinese economies would do well to understand how Guanxi
forms…” (Buttery and Wong 1999) Bjorkman and Kock (1995) further posit that the
relationship marketing advocated by the IMP group has its tradition in Guanxi. A beautiful
example of inter-cultural intellectual intercourse !
A convergence has not yet come to consumer research, notwithstanding the number of articles
and journals scattered around, consumer research in China is still in the infancy stage:
fragmentary and sometimes misleading. Stereotypes of consumer research in China today can
be exemplified by the works of Yau (1994) and Tam and Tai (1998). Yau’s book, Consumer
Behaviour in China, probably by far the most comprehensive study and very frequently
referred to in the study of Chinese business. Yau (1994) starts with a cultural analysis of the
7
Chinese with a Confuciusian embellishment. A sample of 1,727 housing units is drawn, two
products: a ball pen and a mini cassette are used to verify the subject matter, a structural model
is then developed, hypotheses are tested and in his case LISREL is applied to the model.
Arbitrarily, the sample is only from Hong Kong; the empirical result is then generalized to the
1.2 billion “sizzling” Chinese consumers in the most distinctively different socio-cultural
context in the last 100 years of historical development. This casual generalization of results is
common. In another market study of females in “Greater China”, Tam and Tai (1998) sample
182 respondents from Guangzhou (a southern city of China) to represent the 1.2 billion
population in China, another two samples of 188 respondents each are selected for the 6
million population in Hong Kong and 20.6 million population in Taiwan respectively. In this
“Greater China” study, a raw transplantation of western ideas is using a simplistic approach
with little concern to the socio-cultural and historical context. Although they are well supplied
with convincing, well-constructed arguments and rigorous models, yet the fundamental
evidence is overlooked. The validity of the sample size is also questionable in view of the
huge Chinese population replete with a nuanced unity.
A Problematic Form of Unity
____________________________
8
Insert Picture 1 about here
____________________________
The positivist approach to the complex unity of Chinese consumers is problematic. The
conventional view of China as a country with 5,000 years of uninterrupted history
characterized with a deep common culture does not entail an homogenous society. China is a
patchwork of local cultures (Cohen 1991), and standardization of local cultures are selective
(Ward 1965). Today, the whole population is composed of 56 ethnic groups (picture 1),
dominated by five major races: the Man (Manchus), the Meng (Mongolians), the Hui (ethnic
groups of Islamic faith in northwestern China), the Zang (Tibetans) and the Han (authentic
race). All of them have their own traditions, language and history. The concept of ‘Chinese’ is
complicated, for it represents an identity oriented towards a cultural and historical fulfillment
rather than the concepts of nationality and citizenship. (Wu 1991) More extremely, Wang
(1988, p.1) even argues that “the Chinese have never had a concept of identity, only a concept
of Chineseness” and many scholars would agree that China should be seen as a civilization
(Wang 1991).
9
Liberally termed the “Greater China” (Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan) ever since
the second world war, local identities of these three places have been re-contextualized,
picking up what was left from pre-war days, identities are then twisted and turned in new and
unexpected directions. (Liu and Faure 1996) In a Hong Kong identity study (Siu 1996), after a
century of British rule, a Hong Konger said the return of Hong Kong to China would make
them feel like foreigners in their own country. On the other hand, a strong movement in
Taiwan is advocating independence emphasizing the unique cultural heritage of the native
Taiwanese. On the Mainland, thousands of years of Confucian values were disrupted and
replaced by Marxism and Russian political models during the Cultural Revolution and then
further traumatized by major historical events. Today, Koreans are considered even more
Confucian than the Chinese (Hellmut and Ciarlante 1998). Caution must be taken when
classical Chinese traditional values are applied to the study of Chinese consumers today, they
may be withered, evolved, reshaped or even reinvented. The size and complex subtle nuances
of the Chinese market demand that consumer researchers severely question the transposability
of extant studies.
Transposability of Extant Studies
10
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is important in the understanding of “what” and “why’ of the
consumer purchase (Foxall, Goldsmith and Brown 1998; Solomon 1996). In the best selling
Kotlerian text targeting Asians, “Marketing Management: An Asian Perspective”, Kotler et al
(1996) have reiterated Maslow’s idea with a great degree of integrity. The applicability of the
hierarchy to the Chinese is, however dubious, particularly at the levels of self-actualization
(Redding 1982; Kindel 1983) and self- esteem (Kindel 1983). Even Maslow himself cast
doubt on its applicability to the Chinese and dismissed its cross-cultural viability (Maslow
1970). Engel (1985) has also questioned the cross-culturally validity of western marketing
models and concepts. The academic inertia of applying handy western models, without
contextual verification, to other cultures is highly dangerous.
An Indigenous Voice, From Far and Near
This is not an attempt to reject western models and theories of consumer behavior but in
applause of Van Raaji’s (1978) suggestion that we should study consumers in other cultures
with recognition of their own reality rather than blindly replicate Western studies. Consumer
research is beyond the realm of business/ marketing (Nicosia and Mayer 1976, Holbrook
1995), and the social sciences are drawn on heavily to study consumers and consumption. In
the social sciences, there’s already an awareness of the pitfalls in a blind replication of western
11
concepts in different cultures and a localized or indigenous approach is proposed (e.g.Gergen
1988; Enriquez 1981; Kim and Berry 1993). In the main, this indigenous approach
emphasizes an understanding rooted in ecological, philosophical, cultural, political and
historical context (Kim and Berry 1993).
Focusing in on the Chinese subject, in 1980 social scientists met in Taipei for a conference on
“The Indigenous Approach on Social and Behavioural Science in China”. Since then, social
science theories on the Chinese have been rediscovered, reconstructed, developed and
indigenous research topics and methodologies explored (e.g. Chiu and Ying 1997, Hwang
1987, Yang and Bond 1990). This indigenous approach is reverberating in other areas of
management study. A group of scholars from a variety of disciplines in the University of Hong
Kong have just started to explore Chinese Values and Management Practices, and while their
major focus is on Organisational Behaviour and Human Resource Management, the study of
consumer behaviour is starting to stimulate intersect.
Soul Searching – Collectivist versus Holist
Hofstede (1980) started a new wave of discussion on individualism and collectivism (e.g.
Kim et al 1994), and even he agrees that at the individual level there exists a multidimensional
12
model (1994). His concept of collectivism however, is often over simplified when it comes to
Chinese study (e.g Schutte and Ciarlante 1998, Buttery and Wong 1999). Triandis and
Gelfand (1998) have carried out studies of individualism and collectivism across eight
different cultures, the information collected is conflicting, they tell us that this kind of
characterization is an oversimplification and a culture should not be characterized as
individualist or collectivist. Referencing Hsu’s (1983) description of Americans as “Rugged
Individualists”, it may be too rugged to say Chinese are collectivists.
_______________________
Insert Picture 2 About Here
_______________________
Hsu (1981) describes the Chinese as ‘situation centered’, they relate themselves closely to the
outside world, and because emotionally they are shared they are under-determined in
representation. For example, Hsu (1981, p18) refers to the classical Chinese painting: “when
Chinese artists do portray the human form, they either treat is as a minute dot in a vast
landscape, or so heavily clothe it that the body is hidden. The facial expression of such figures
is nil. The viewer obtains a much better idea of the status, rank, prestige, and other social
characteristics of the subjects portrayed than he does of their personalities” . Picture Two is an
13
classical Chinese painting from the Sung Dynasty (960-1279), it is entitled “Poet Tao Yuan
Ming in the Mountains”, which serves as a perfect example for Hsu’s description. The
characters, the poet and the servant are depicted through the landscape rather than through the
actual human forms or facial expressions.
Triandis (1999, p131) contends that “there is a major tendency of Western cultures in the use
of linear logic and decontextualised judgments. By contrast, in the East, thinking is more
holistic and context is used much more than in the West when making judgments.” According
to the discussion of Markus and Kitayama (1991, p227) on Chinese culture “there is an
emphasis on synthesizing the constituent parts of any problem or situation into an integrated
harmonious whole, persons are only parts that when separated from the larger social whole
cannot be understood”. It is this idea of holism that undermines the conventional
understanding of the Chinese as collectivist. Researchers are facing a mass of
situation-centered consumers, with an holistic view emphasizing harmonious wholeness
within a composite of cultures.
A Cross-Indigenous Ethnosemiotic Approach
With the sheer size of the market and its relatively unexplored nature, it is tempting for
researchers to study the market using quantification, rating scales and advanced
14
data-gathering technology as contended by Hodock (1991), qualified by rather superficial
remarks as to the limitations of the study (Wells 1993). However, as discussed above Chinese
identity is ambiguous and paradoxical and this is particularly true in regard to emotion. It is in
the area of emotion that we can see how important an indigenous approach may be to the study
of the Chines consumer.
Qing: Real and Assumed Chinese Emotions
The role of emotion in consumer research has elicited a plethora of studies in the last decade
(Hirschman and Stern 1999). Elliott (1998) posits that much consumption experience is driven
by emotion and Strongman (1996) in a comprehensive study of theories in psychology
identified about 150 of them. In Chinese, qing is the word which denotes emotion and it is
hardly used alone in Chinese language, the specific meaning is determined by the character
which precedes it and follows after it. Ho (1949) has distinguished two levels of emotions
(qing) among the Chinese, the assumed and the real. Assumed qing is prescribed and
obligated by the socio-cultural calibrations. The real qing is cultivated through one’s real lived
experience. Yang (1991, p. 201) maintains that these two qings are mutually exclusive or
compensatory, in that both qings are essential in any emotional deliberation: “With these
levels of emotion (qing) operating in interpersonal interactions among the Chinese, people
usually treat each other with assumed qing when they think others treat them with assumed
15
qing. Both levels of qing flow parallel with each other, each serving its function. The
assumed qing keeps society running harmoniously; people engaging in such interaction do not
expect real emotions from each other. Social interaction involving real emotion serves the
individual’s needs for love, safety, and security. This type of real emotion at first is shared
only among family members, and they can gradually operate under other types of dyadic
relations as well”. Qing is thus an ubiquitous and viscous element among the Chinese.
Hsu (1997) argues that the perhaps most constant element in people is “emotion” and the best
way to understand emotion is cross-culturally, through which commonalties and the
distinctiveness of different cultures may be truly comprehended. Cross-cultural study is also a
blending of etic and emic approaches. Using existing theories and methods to compare two
different cultures, they will then be verified, revised or rejected (Hofstede 1994, Triandis
1999). An indigenous approach (Kim and Berry 1993) upholds the importance of a deep
understanding of a particular socio-cultural context and examines how it interacts with the
individual. The cross-cultural and indigenous approaches are complimentary and not
mutually exclusive, thus a cross-indigenous approach is advocated (Enriquez 1993).
In order to study the Chinese consumer, it would be perverse to start from scratch. Existing
western theories and methods can be a framework on which a body of Chinese materials may
16
be built. A cross-cultural approach in addition to a deep understanding of the socio-cultural
context will make possible the development of consumer study in a universal sense.
Elliott (1999) posits a new interpretive research paradigm, which endows the consumer with a
fragmentary and ambiguous nature. An ethnosemiotic approach is put forward to integrate
phenomenology, social representations and discourse analysis in an ethnographic study,
utilising multiple perspectives to explain the pluralities of meanings beyond the merely
rational.
The methodology of ethnosemiotics allows for the mixing of data collection approaches, such
as the use of impressionistic forms of looking and listening, together with personal
phenomenological narratives and more formal interview techniques. Once captured, data can
be analysed using the concept of social representations to identify shared imagery, and
consumer discourse analysed for variability in meaning and functional purpose. The
emotion-laden experiences of the consumer:- irrational, incoherent and driven by unconscious
desire; constrained by the market economy yet obtaining limited freedom through existential
consumption and symbolic creativity; able to build a D-I-Y self through consumption yet
suffering an expansion of inadequacy through advertising; these pose an enormous challenge
to consumer research. The concept of Chineseness is ambiguous, as a cultural identity it is
patchy and is continuously remade by factors across social, cultural, political and
17
technological boundaries. The ethnosemiotic method converging with a cross-indigenous
approach could be the answer to the ambiguity and paradoxes of the Chinese market.
Don’t you like it? Yes, I don’t. You mean you do? No, I do…
As a country, China is turning from a producer to a consumer. The Chinese market is a fertile
ground to test and develop new, extant thoughts and concepts on the study of consumers. The
richness of the cultural context can suffocate or cultivate the growth of the discipline. For
growth, a Cross-Indigenous Ethnosemiotic approach is suggested.
When a Chinese customer says, “ No, I do.” Chances are he/she actually means “yes”.
18
References
Arias, Jose Toma Gomez, (1998), “A Relationship Marketing Approach to Guanxi”,
European Journal of Marketing, 2 (1/2), 145-156.
Bjorkman, I. and Kock, S. (1995), “Social Relationships and Business Networks: the Case of
Western Companies in China”, International Business Review, 4 (4), 519-25.
Buttery, Alan E. and Wong Y.H. (1999), “The Development of Guanxi Framework”,
Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 17 (3),
Chiu, Chi-yue and Hong Ying-yi (1997), “Justice in Chinese Societies: A Chinese
Perspective”, in Asian Perspectives on Psychology, ed. H. S.R. Kao and D. Sinha,
London: Sage. 164-184.
Cohen, Myron. (1991), “Being Chinese: the Peripheralization of Traditional Identity.” In the
Living Tree : the Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today, Daedalus 120 (2)
113-134
Davies, Howard. (1995), “Interpreting Guanxi: the Role of Personal Connections in a High
Context Transitional Economy”, in China Business: Context and Issues, ed. H.
Davies, Hong Kong: Longman, 155-69.
19
Elliott, Richard (1998), “ A Model of Emotion-Driven Choice”, Journal of Marketing
Management, 14, 95-108.
__________ (1999), “Symbolic Meaning and Postmodern Consumer Culture”, in Rethinking
Marketing: Towards Critical Marketing Accountings, ed. D. Brownlie, M. Saren,
R. Whittington and R. Wensley, London: Sage, 112-125.
Engel, James F. (1985), “ Toward the Contextualization of Consumer Behaviour’, in
Historical and International Perspectives of Consumer Research: Proceedings of
International Conference in Singapore, Singapore: National University of
Singapore and Association for Consumer Research, 1-4.
Enriquez. Virgilio G. (1981), “Towards Cross-Cultural Knowledge through Cross-Indigenous
Methods and Perspectives”, in Perspectives in Asian Cross-Cultural Psychology,
ed. J.L.M. Binniei-Dawson, G. H. Blowers and R. Hoosain, Netherlands: Swets
and Zeitlinger, 29-41
_________(1993), “Developing a Filipino Psychology”, in Indigenous Psychologies:
Research and Experience in Cultural Context, ed. U. Kim & J. W. Berry, CA :
Sage 152-169.
Foxall, Gordon R., Ronald E. Goldsmith and Stephen Brown (1998), Consumer Psychology
for Markeing, London: International Thomson.
20
Gergen, Kenneth J. (1988), “Toward a Post-Modern Psychology.” An invited paper addressed
at International Congress of Psychology, Sydney, Australia.
Hirschman, Elizabeth C, and Barbara B. Stern (1999), “The Roles of Emotion in Consumer
Research”, in Advances in Consumer Research, ed. Eric J. Arnould & Linda M.
Scott (Vol. 26), Montreal, Canada: Association for Consumer Research, 4-11.
Hodock, Calvin L. (1991) “ The Decline and Fall of Marketing Research in Corporate
America’, Marketing Research 3, 2: 12 –22.
Hofstede, Gert (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-related
Values. Beverly Hill, Ca: Sage.
_________(1994), “Foreword,” in Individualism and Collectivism; Theory, Method, and
Applications, ed. U. Kim, H. Triandis, C Kagitcibasi, S. Choi & G. Yoon, London:
Sage.ix-xiii
Holbrook, Morris B. (1995), Consumer Research: Introspective Essays on the Study of
Consumption, London: Sage.
Hsu, Francis L. K. (1981), American and Chinese: Passages to Differences, Honolulu: The
University Press of Hawaii
21
_______________(1983), Rugged Individualism Reconsidered: Essays in Psychological
Anthropology, Knoxville: The University of Tennesse
Hwang, Kwang-kuo. (1987), “Face and Favor: The Chinese Power Game”, American Journal
of Sociology, 92(4), 944-974.
Hu, Hsien-chin. (1949), Emotion, Real & Assumed, in Chinese Society, unpublished
manuscript on file with Columbia University Research in Contemporary Culture,
No.CH668.
Kim, Uichol and John Berry W. (1993), Indigenous Psychologies: Experience and Research
in Cultural Context, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Kipnis, Andrew. (1995), “‘Face’: An Adaptable Discourse of Social Surfaces,” Positions 3(1),
119-148.
Kotler, Phililp, Swee-hoon Ang, Siew-meng Leong and Chin-tiong Tan (1996), Marketing
Management: An Asian Perspective, Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Liu, Tao Tao and David Faure (1996), “Introduction: What does the Chinese Person Identify
With?”, in Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China, ed. T.T.
Liu & D. Faure, Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong, 1-13.
Maslow, Abraham H. (1970) Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper & Row.
22
Schutte, Hellmut and Deanne Ciarlante (1998), Consumer Behaviour in Asia, New York: New
York Unviersity.
Schmitt, Bernd H, Yigang Pan and Nader Tavassoli (1994), “Language and Consumer
Memory: The Impact of Linguistic Differences between Chinese and English”,
Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (Dec), 419-431.
Solomon, Michael R. (1996), Consumer Behaviour, New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Strongman, Ken T. (1996), The Psychology of Emotion: Theories of Emotion in Perspective,
Chichester: Wiley.
Tam, Jackie L.M. and Susan H.C. Tai (1998), “ The Psychographic Segmentation of the
Female Market in Greater China”, International Marketing Review,15 (1), 61-77.
The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1999a, “China to 2003”, Business China, August: 9.
__________1999b, “ Where It Goes”, Business China, June: 10-11.
Triandis Harry C. and Gelfand, M. (1998), “Converging Measurement of Horizontal and
Vertical Individualism and Collectivism,” Journal of Personality and Social
Pscyhology, 74, 118-128.
Triandis Harry C. (1999), “Cross-cultural Psychology,” Asian Journal of Social Psychology,
2: 127-143.
23
Tse, David, Russell Belk, and Nan Zhou (1989), “Becoming a Consumer Society: A
Longitudinal and Cross-Cultural Content Analysis of Print Ads from Hong Kong,
the People’s Republic of China, and Taiwan,” Journal of Consumer Research, 15
(March), 457-472.
Van Raaij, W.F. (1978), “Cross-Cultural Methodology as a Case of Construct Validity” in
Advances in Consumer Research, ed. M.K.Hunt (Vol. 5), Ann Arbor: Association
for Consumer Research, 693-701.
Wang, Gungwu (1988),” The Study of Chinese Identities in Southeast Asia,” in Changing
Identities of the Southeast Asian Chinese since World War II, ed. J. Cushman & G.
Wang, Saingapore : Oxford University, 1-21
Wang, Gangwu (1991), The Chineseness of China: Selected Essays, New York: Oxford
University.
Ward, Barbara E. (1965), “Varieties of the Conscious Model, the Fishermen of South China.”
in The Relevance of Models for Social Anthropology, ed. M. Banton, London:
Tavistock, 113-137.
Wells, William .D. (1993) “Discovery-oriented Consumer Research”’ Journal of Consumer
Research 19, March: 489-504.
24
Wu, David. Y. H. (1991), “The Construction of Chinese and Non-Chinese Identities,”
Proceedings of the American Academy Arts and Sciences, 120 (2), 159-179.
Yan, Rick (1994), “To Reach China Consumers, Adapt to Guo Qing”, Harvard Business
Review, 72, September –October, 66-74.
Yang, Chung-fang (1991), “Conformity and Defiance on Tiananmen Square: A Social
Psychological Perspective.” in Culture and Politics in China: An Anatomy of
Tiananmen Square, ed. P. Li, S. Mark, and M.H. Li, New York: Transaction.
197-224.
Yang, Kuo-shu and Michael Bond, H.(1990), “Exploring Implicit Personality Theories with
Indigenous or Imported Constructs: The Chinese Case,” Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 588, 1087-1095.
Yau, Oliver H.M. (1994) Consumer Behaviour in China: Customer Satisfaction and Cultural
values, London: Routlege.
25
Picture 1
Picture showing people of the 56 ethnic groups in China
Source: Min zu da jia ting 1996
26
Picture 2
27
