Does Culture Evolve-Anth 111

8/12/2019 Does Culture Evolve-Anth 111

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Does Culture Evolve?


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What is Culture?

Culture

Patterns of learned behavior and ideas acquired by people as

members of society.

Different combinations of multiple social traditions.

Emphasizes role for social learning.

Downplays innate (genetically-

determined) behaviors.
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=GctTsgTsaHEn5M&tbnid=4Q20vxK_cj00MM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bostonhomestayblog.com%2Fgo-global-blog%2Fboston-city-of-culture&ei=Y-BCUpivAunD4AOR2IDgDw&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNFYe-U10ugtfunWo-3KXq8GF8SmTg&ust=1380200916172756


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Capacity for Culture

NeandertalsBurial of the dead

Fossil H. sapiensArt, symbolism,

language.

i.e. Culture as we know it.

Human capacity for culture has evolved overmillions of years.

Chimpanzee culture

Oldowan stone tools2.5 mya

Oldowan Chopper

Bison panel at Altamira Cave (Spain)


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Capacity for Culture

Culture considered as the human

niche/adaptation.

Capacity for culture led to our

phenomenal success as a species.

Human society today6 billion people.

Societal institutions rely on high degree

of cooperation between individuals and

groups.

High degree of technological innovation.
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=YRPRGsxc_ZeAwM&tbnid=9EorKTeJFCL9yM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fhaasintheworld.wordpress.com%2Fauthor%2Fhaasibdbox%2F&ei=eeFCUqbNJ4n64AOsiYD4Cg&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNG11ZdpGJPMJRbvbtOf9A5n2UIlUQ&ust=1380201193478347http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=PMgNm9fMGLj_JM&tbnid=ATDSs2ewqrofiM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fdeniseleeyohn.com%2Fbites%2F2011%2F11%2F15%2Fculture-isnt-enough%2F&ei=1OBCUo_7BO-u4AO4x4DADQ&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNFYe-U10ugtfunWo-3KXq8GF8SmTg&ust=1380200916172756


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The Biocultural Organism

Humans are obviously both biological and cultural organisms.

Culture is part of our biological heritage.

This biocultural heritage has produced a living species that:

1) Uses culture to surmount

biological and individual

limitations

2) Is even capable of studying

itself and its own biocultural

evolution
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=Jm1k350yMtrsWM&tbnid=g4qAehxd4hz8sM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fgeknitics.com%2F2010%2F08%2Fso-what-do-you-do%2F&ei=ZeJCUouqHdXA4AODtIHoBQ&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNEyRAI7DcKeJIW2-Py7JO-H3rcsVw&ust=1380201436803090


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Cultural Evolution

Probably the single most divisive issue in anthropology.

Revolves around basic philosophical differences in viewing the most

fundamental aspects of being human.

Many of which have no clear answer..

Nature vs. Nurture

Human Limitations vs. Free Will
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Cultural Evolution

Several Formal Models of Cultural Evolution

1) Sociobiology

2) Behavioral Ecology

3) Evolutionary Psychology

4) Niche Construction

Attractiveness of applying Darwinism to human behavior is that it can

reduce complex phenomena to simple, more fundamental processes.

This would appear to be the mainproblemfor cultural anthropologists.


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Sociobiology

Developed theoretically in 1970s.

E.O. WilsonMain proponent

the systematic study of the biological basis of all

social behavior.

Mainly studied social insects (ants, bees, wasps).

Colonies of ants as a super-organism.

E. O. Wilson

Entire colony functions as a singleentity/organism.

Well-defined roles of different

individuals.

Differ morphologically as well.
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=TmPCBkg6Ptv7hM&tbnid=pCzwltzVwdRIuM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fkids.britannica.com%2Fcomptons%2Fart-144467&ei=l9JCUt6sIK--4AOf74CQDw&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNEO98YQZBkM1TtWvhmm3kwwUR5eLA&ust=1380197364451377


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10 tons(!) of concrete poured into ant colony over three

days and subsequently excavated.

Colonies can contain literally millions of individuals.
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=_pH5ccxnNHH-9M&tbnid=IJOntjwjVBzuGM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Ffofoa.blogspot.com%2F2012%2F02%2Fsuperorganism-open-forum.html&ei=NdJCUqShBI-54APS74HwBQ&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNHUERvACsWT6wlzGEoc2jm9HSPpXA&ust=1380196968818194


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Sociobiology

Some castes of ants were completely sterile.

Reproduction not possible.

How does this happen evolutionarily?

Relied on notion of inclusive fitness/kin selection.

E. O. Wilson

Individuals can decrease their

reproductive potential if they are

increasing that of close relatives.

Indirectly passing on your own genes.

This is the basis for cooperative/social

behavior.
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=TmPCBkg6Ptv7hM&tbnid=pCzwltzVwdRIuM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fkids.britannica.com%2Fcomptons%2Fart-144467&ei=l9JCUt6sIK--4AOf74CQDw&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNEO98YQZBkM1TtWvhmm3kwwUR5eLA&ust=1380197364451377


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Sociobiology

Applied similar concepts to humans.

Argued for a biological basis for many human

behaviors

Human behavior explainable in evolutionary

(Darwinian) terms

Emphasizes adaptation and maximizing

reproductive success

Human behavior subjected to natural selection

Human behavior as adaptive behavior

Very controversialE. O. Wilson


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Sociobiology

Originally focused on explaining the evolution of altruism.

The willingness to give up benefits for oneself in order to

help someone else.

Pervasive, yet very difficult to explain evolutionarily.

E. O. Wilson

Natural Selection emphasizes

competition between individuals.

Competition is necessary for Natural

Selection.

How is cooperation possible?
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=OfClXbsKaCFOhM&tbnid=MKeJNDknW2ja3M:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fkingpinlifestyle.com%2Fdoes-competition-set-you-up-for-failure%2F&ei=GetCUrPtO67E4AOi_YGACg&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNEksR-aM3buil5L_uvADw1F6kF2FQ&ust=1380203658610584


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Sociobiology

Organisms share the most genes with close relatives.

Therefore, natural selection will preserve altruistic

behaviors if the altruists sacrifice themselves for close

kin.

Kin Selection

E. O. Wilson

Evolution of altruism/cooperation is amajor topic in evolutionary theory.

Humans are the ultimate cooperators.
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=OfClXbsKaCFOhM&tbnid=MKeJNDknW2ja3M:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fkingpinlifestyle.com%2Fdoes-competition-set-you-up-for-failure%2F&ei=GetCUrPtO67E4AOi_YGACg&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNEksR-aM3buil5L_uvADw1F6kF2FQ&ust=1380203658610584


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Sociobiology

Sociobiology would appear to explain many

aspects of the lives and organization of the

social insects.

It does also seem to explain mating strategies

across the animal kingdom (e.g. primates).

When applied to human behavior, it becomes

very complicated very quickly.

Reductionist perspective limits any role forculture.

E. O. Wilson

Humans only cooperate with genetically related individuals.

Ultimate goal of human social behavior is reproduction (of genes).


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Human Behavioral Ecology

Developed out of Sociobiology

Accepts the importance of Natural Selection on behavior.

Emphasizes behavioral adaptations

Rejects the biological determinism of Sociobiology.

Its not just about genes.

Behavioral Ecology is a widespread approach tointerpreting primate social behavior.
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=6_qdchhnAtttNM&tbnid=8Z1wsEv_W0qQmM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fguides.library.ucla.edu%2Fcontent.php%3Fpid%3D67371%26sid%3D497640&ei=2vtCUoSZEZLd4APhq4DQAg&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNEC9KY_agkFLp2WRjeqBQNoZqCtfw&ust=1380207447386430


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The aim is to determine how ecological and social factors affect

behavioral variability within and between populations and to

predict patterns of behavior using mathematical models.

Applies methods of behavioral ecology to humans.

Treats humans like other animals.

Often try to identify how behavioral differencesbetween groups are responses to particular

environments.

A kind of environmental determinism.
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=wC0xFt4d7UrDbM&tbnid=cKywcGJ2fbzeFM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fheb.fas.harvard.edu%2Flabs.html&ei=7vlCUtSlJvfd4AOEnICgBw&bvm=bv.53077864,d.dmg&psig=AFQjCNEC9KY_agkFLp2WRjeqBQNoZqCtfw&ust=1380207447386430


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Accepts the importance of Natural Selection on human behavior.Emphasizes behavioral adaptations

Human behavioral adaptations depend on

cultural learning rather then genetic

control.

But: Human culture is closely circumscribed

by selection pressures imposed on us

by the environment.

So cultural behaviors/features/traits are

related to the environment one lives in.
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Key assumptions:

1) Human beings are able to alter their behavior flexibly in response

to environmental conditions in a manner that optimizes their

lifetime reproductive success.

Culture (or cultural behavior) as adaptive

Goal of human culture is reproduction

Leads to passing on genetic material (often related to/controlling

the behaviors under study)

2) Optimality and fitness maximization drive behavior, with data

usually gathered on small communities in remote regions.


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Evolutionary Psychology

Many aspects of human behavior (particular related to reproduction) represent

psychological adaptations which evolved to address problems during the

course of our evolutionary history.

Many current behavioral patterns representadaptations to an ancient environment that is no

longer with us.

They thus represent adaptations, but the adaptive

context has changed.

Evolutionary psychologists look at male and

female reproductive strategies in modern

populations from an evolutionary perspective.
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Most of our existence as a genus has involved

living in small hunter-gatherer groups in

Africa.

Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness

This long history of natural selection hasresulted in a mind that is adapted to a

Pleistocene way of life, not living in cities and

driving cars.

Humans today are far removed from their environment of evolutionary

adaptedness but our behaviors can still be understood within this context.

Explicitly Darwinian in emphasizing adaptation and reproduction.


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Environment of Evolutionary AdaptednessCompletely theoretical construct

Impossible to test any theories based on this idea

Represents an attempt to interpret the present on the basis of the past.

Opposite of what is normally done (and criticized)

(i.e. extrapolating the present back into the past)

The human mind is a product of Natural

Selection.

Consists of a set of sealed-off mental

modules, each of which evolved to solve a

different adaptive problem.
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=abS9Rnf24sBAxM&tbnid=sX9SzRPbHgnvYM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myeducation.com%2Fblog%2Fstudy-human-behavior-and-the-mind-with-a-psychology-degree%2F&ei=7AJDUuqGCIXb4AOshIGYAg&psig=AFQjCNHGzebRrX_qi1qXWePsanBfN7flJA&ust=1380209686484310


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Important Implication:Human behavior today is maladaptive.

We have changed our environment and (ironically) are now not

adapted to the new environment we have created.

Modern human behavior (today) is adaptive only in terms of how it

might have influenced reproduction during the Pleistocene.

Heavy emphasis on reproduction.

Most modern human behaviors studied

are somehow related to reproduction.
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So living humans today are in the

middle of an adaptive lag..

Adapted to life in the Pleistocene

Human reproductive strategies

today reflect an attempt to

maximize reproductive success

during our prior Pleistocene

hunter-gatherer way of life.

Not adapted to life in the modern

world.


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Niche Construction

Beaver dams provide a place to raise

young, but also alter water flow,nutrient distribution, plantcomposition, etc.

Rather than occupying a (pre-existing)

niche, organisms create and/orconstruct their own niches.

More recent development in evolutionary theory (since 1990s).

Organisms shape/change their environments, thereby altering theselection pressures they are subjected to.

Emphasizes dynamic relationship between organism and environment.

Beaver Dam


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Human Niche Construction

Humans would seem to be the ultimateniche constructors.

Even during the Pleistocene humanswore clothes, had a controlled use offire and stone tools, actively huntedgame species, occupied caves.

Pleistocene Homo sapienseven built

shelters, made storage pits, etc.

Neandertal lifeways

Excavation of a mammoth hut - Ukraine


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Modern heating and air conditioning canbe considered analogous to thesebehaviors in the past.

These are not necessarily constructing aniche, but reducing the selectivepressures you are subjected to.

Culture (specifically material culture) hasreleased us from selective pressures.

This is why culture is sometimesproposed as being the human niche


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This is how it is argued that culture is

adaptive, by reducing selective

pressures

Certainly, judging by the number ofpeople on the planet today, this

might make sense.

But: group living has lead to new

selective pressures (communicablediseases, sanitation, etc.)


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Human niche construction would seem tobe limitless

This is how we adapt now.usingtechnology.

Behavioral/genetic change is also possible,but niche construction proceeds muchmore rapidly.

Neandertal Tool-Maker

Culture (technology) becomes humanitys niche.

Not a new concept.


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But: what if we go extinct through our niche constructing activities?

How can that be considered adaptive?

Despite some maladaptive behaviors, adaptive behaviors are much

more common and human behavior today generally is adaptive, notmaladaptive.

Based largely on worldwidepopulation growth


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What is a Darwinian Anthropology?

Jonathan Marks

Geneticist

Vocal critic within biological anthropology

Tries to reconcile Darwinism with anthropology

Mainly trying to find some common ground of understanding between

biological and cultural anthropologists.

Identifies several boundary conditions to establishing a Darwinian

Anthropology.


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What is a Darwinian Anthropology?

First, acknowledge that humans evolved from apes

as well as the uniqueness of the human species.

Second, utilize the primate data in broader ways than

simply seeing humans as chimpanzees.

In other words, yes we are primates, but a unique

primate.

Behavioral patterns observed in primates can help us think aboutourselves, but we should also be open to the idea that humans are

just different in some fundamental ways.


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What is Darwinian Anthropology?

Fourth, recognize that not everything is an adaptation.

Adaptation was an outcome of the evolutionary

process for Darwin.

Survival of the Fittest

Not only the strongest and fastest survive.

Survival of the survivors.

Not everyone is attempting to maximize their reproductive success all

the time.


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Adaptive Human Behavior

Throughout all this, the notion that human behavior is adaptive is

pervasive.

A culture trait may have been fixed because:

1) the genes for it were fixed2) it augmented the survival and reproduction of its bearers or their kin

3) it augmented its own survival and reproduction

Everything is there for a reason.

Culture (Behavior) is biological.

Everything has a deterministic explanation.

This is anothermajor problem for cultural anthropologists.


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The notion that human behavior is adaptive is problematic.

Rapidly leads to moralistic judgement of different behaviors and/or

cultures/societies.

Are some cultures more adapted than others?

If so, are they better?

What does that even mean.really?

How is this judged?

Population size, technological development, economic prosperity?


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Is this emphasis on adaptation necessary?

Much of evolutionary change (anatomical/morphological features)across the animal kingdom in fact does not seem to be clearlyadaptive.

Within evolutionary theory, this is one of the major developments thathas emerged since the modern synthesis of the 1940s-1950s.

Neutral theory (1960s)Most mutations do not affect fitness

Punctuated equilibrium (1970s)Emphasizes speciation as a driver ofchange

Critique of adaptationism (1980s)Removed the privileged place thatnatural selection held as the main driver of evolutionary change


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Non-Adaptive, Historically-Contingent Change

Can we remove the ideas of natural selection and adaptation to explain human

behavior and still provide an evolutionary framework?

This is difficult..

Evolution doesnt just start fresh each time, it builds on what is already there.

So your evolutionary history will to some extent determine your potential

evolutionary future.

(i.e. what anatomical changes are even possible)


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Non-Adaptive, Historically-Contingent Change

Men make their own history, but hey do not make it just as theyplease; they donot make it under circumstances chosen by

themselves, but under circumstancess directly encountered, given

and transmitted by the past Karl Marx

Maybe an emphasis on historical contingency

would be a point of agreement between

biological and cultural anthropologists.

Non-adaptive, yet historically contingent

change.

Not entirely satisfactory.
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=E3qCHApDpF0-eM&tbnid=OoTEcoaNG4Ji-M:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Flibcom.org%2Fhistory%2Fkarl-marx-karl-korsch&ei=IxVDUuvcLNDA4APF4oD4Bg&psig=AFQjCNHvAhT4Ozul-_9GZxZ0pYdaTapiPw&ust=1380214385434058


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Sources of Conflict

Biological vs. Cultural explanations

Biological approach involves placing boundaries around human

behaviors and defining culture.

Necessary prerequisites to model anything.

Cultural anthropology is anathema to placing boundaries and

making definitions.

Humans are infinitely creative in their behaviors.

Biological approach is seen as overly deterministic and

reductionist.


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Sources of Conflict

Both sides emphasize the sweeping power of explanation of their

approaches to studying human behavior.

Cultural anthropology

Flexibility of human behavior defies a singular explanation. Non-biologically-based cultural experience mediates our social behavior.

Biological Evolution (Natural Selection)

A secular, stochastic process that is both deterministic (but

historically contingent) and flexible (in its creative potential) ispowerful enough to produce the variation (morphological and

behavioral) we see across living forms.


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Sources of Conflict

Interesting dynamic occurring on both sides of the debate:

Cultural Anthropology

Human behavior cannot be bounded or divided up into discreteunits.

This renders any attempt to reduce it to a set of core principles futile.The flexibility of human behavior is essentially limitless.

Biological Evolution

Morphological variation is continuous across nature and cannot bebounded or divided up into discrete units.

This gradient of morphological variation is produced by theoperation of natural selection.

The creative potential of natural selection is essentially limitless.

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Does Culture Evolve-Anth 111