DOCUMENT RESUME sp 022 615 - ERIC RESUME. sp 022 615. Dougherty, Neil J., IV, Ed. ... imd ilichard Twitchell, ... the manuscript,

ED 231 783

AUTHORTITLE -

INSTITUTION

REPORT NOPUB DATENOTEAVAILABLE FROM

PUB, TYPE

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

ABSTRACT

DOCUMENT RESUME

sp 022 615

Dougherty, Neil J., IV, Ed.Physical Education and Sport for the Secondary SchoolStudent.American Alliance,for Health, Physical Education,ReCreation and Dance, Reston, VA. NationalAssociation for Sport and Physical Education.ISBN-0-88314-249-X83413p.American Alliance for Healthe Physical Education,Recreation and Dance, P. 0. Box 704, Waldorf, MD20601 ($11.95).Reports -.Descriptive (141)

MF61 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.*Athletics;,Dance Education; Exercise; Leisure Time;'Lifetime Sports; Motor Development; *OutdoorActivities; Physical Education; *Physical Fitness;*Recreational Activities; Recreational Facilities;Secondary Education

This book provides an overview of sports and-information on skills and technique acquisition, safety, scoring,rules and etiquette, strategy, equipment, and related terminology.The emphasis is on individual and dual sports for which facilitiesare widely available and body contact is limited or unnecessary.Chapters are included on: (1) Health Fitness (Russell R. Pate); (2)Motor,Skill Development and Evaluation (Jerry R. Thomas and Jack K.Nelson); (3) Archery (Ruth E. Rowe and Julia Heagey Bowers); (4)Badminton (Arne L. Olson); (5) Basketball (Gene Doane); (6) Bowling(Norman_E.___Showers); (7) Dance in ducation (Dennis.Fallon); (8)Field Hockey (Barbara J. Berf-and-B-arbara-J7-Reimann): 1-9) Cced-Flag-Football (Maryann Domitrovitz); (10) Golf (DeDe Owens); (11) Tumbling(Diane Bonanno and Kathleen Feigley); (12) Jogging (Russell R. Pate);(13) Orienteering (Arthur Hugglestone and Joe Howard); (14)Self-defense (Kenneth G. Tillman); (15) Racquetball/Handball (John P.Smyth); (16) Soccer (John F. Fellenbaum, Jr.); (17) Softball (Becky

. L. Sisley); (18) Swimming (Anpe Ross Fairbanks); (19) Team Handball(Mike Cavanaugh); (20) Tennis (Jim Brown); (21) Track and Field(LeRoy T. Walker and Suzi D'Annolfo): (22) Volleyball (Barbara L.Viera); (23) Weight-training (Bob Ward); (24) Wrestling (Irwin Hess);and (-25-) A Cat-e-e-rhr-Physi-c-a-1--E-duratturF-a-ridSp-o-r-t(-Robert D. anJoyce A. Clayton). (JD)

***********************************,***********************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.***********************************************************************

Physical Education and Sportfor the

SecondarySchoolStudent

4

Neil J. Dougherty IV, ,EditorRutgers College

Sponsored by

The National Assodation forSport and Physical Education

an association of

A0ANPERDThe American Alliance for

Health, PhysicaI Education,Recreation and Dance

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

MATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLY

HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

4h 6teeson

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

CENTER (ERIC)

This document has been reprOdUCed sre ived horn the pawn or org3ni151r0n

iginating It.

Minor ohangeS have been made to ImprovereproduCt+On quality.

Points of wew opinions stated in this deco.

meet do not n000ssofftyfoofesent officio( NIEposition or poky.

Copyright © 1983 ,

The American Alliance forHealth, Physical Education,

Recreation and Dance1900 Association Drive

, Reston, Virginia 2209.1

ISBN 0-88314-249-X

Purposes of the AmericanAlliance For Health,

Physical Education, Recreationand Dance

The American Alliance is an educational organization, structured for the pur-poses of supporting, encouraging, and providing assistance to member groupsand their personnel throughout the nation as they seek to initiate, develop, andconduct programs in health, leisure, and movement-related activities for theenrichment of human life.

AllianCe objectives include:1. Professional growth and developmentto support, encouraie, and provide

guidance in the development and conduct of programs in health, leisure, andmovement-related activities whkh are based on the needs, interests, and inherentcapacities of the individual in today's society.

2. Communicationto facilitate public and professional understanding andappreciation of the importance and value of health, leisure, and movement-related activities as they contribute toward human Well-being.

3. Researchto encourage and facilitate research which will enrich the depthand scope of health, leisure, and movement-related activities; and to disseminatethe findings to the profession and other interested and concerned publics.

4. Standards and guidelinesto further the continuous development andevaluation of standards within the profession ;or personnel and programs inhealth, leisure, and movement-related activities.

5. Public affairsto coordinate and administer a planned prograni of profes-sional, public, and governmental relations that will improve education in areas ofhealth, leisure, and movement-related activities.

6. To conduct such other activities as shall be approved' by the Board ofGovernors and the Alliance Assembly, provided that the Alliance shall not en-gage in any activity which would be inconsistent with the status of an educatiOnaland charitable organization as defined in Section 501(c) (3) of the Internal RevenueCode of 1954 or any successor provision thereto, and none of the said purposesshall at any time be deemed or construed to be purposes other than the publicbenefit purposes and objectives consistent with such educational and charitablestatus. Bylaws, Article III

Table of Contents

Foreword vii

Acknowledgments Vm

CHAPTER 1

Health Fitness Russ'ell.R. Pate 1

CHAPTER 2Motor Skill Development and Evaluation Jerny R. Thomas and Jack K. Nelson 21

CHAPTER 3Archery Ruth E. Rowe and Julia Heagey qowers 35

CHAPTER 4Badminton Arne L. Olson 47

CHAPTER5Basketball Gene Doane 63

CHAPTER 6Bowling a Norman E. Showers 77

CHAPTER 7 ,

Dance in Education Dennis Fallon 93,

CHAPTER 8Field Hockey Barbara J. Belt and Barbara J. Reirrann 103

CHAPTER 9Coed Flag Football Maryann Dtmitrovitz 115

CHAPTER 10Golf DeDe Owens 129

CHAPTER 11Tumbling Diane Bonanno and Kathleen Feigley 151

CHAPTER 12Jogging Russell R. Pate 179

4

CHAPTER i3Orienteering Arthur Hugglestone and Joe Howard 191

CHAPTER 14Self-defense Kenneth G. Tillman 201

CHAPTER 15Racquetball/Handball John P. Smyth 223

CHAPTER 16Soccer John F. Fellenbaurn, Jr. 235

Ati'1

CHAPTER 17Softball Becky L. Sisley 251

CHAPTER 18Swimming Anne Ross Fairbanks 267'

CHAPTER 19Team: Handball Mike Cavanaugh 289

CHAPTER 20Tennis Jim Brown 305

CHAPTER 21Track and Field LcRoy T. Walker and Suzi D'Annolfo 321

CHAPTER 22Volleyball Barbara L. Viera 345

CHAPTER 23Weight-training Bob Ward 365

CHAPTER 24. Wrestling Irwin Hess 383

CHAPTER 25A Career in Physical Education and Sport Robert D. and Joyce A. Clayton 399

6

6

o.

Foreword

..

...

Physical education and sports, like other educational programs, have beenundergoing continual revision. In response to developments in the field, the.Secondary School Physical Educdtion Council; a structure of the National Associ-ation for Sport and Physical Education, has updated and completely revised thepopular textbook, Physical Education for High School Students. .

The earlier editions and now this rewritten third edition.have been the culmina-tion of efforts of many concerned professionals who saw a need to provide thesecondary school student with a comprehensive and authoritative textbook oncontemporary physical education and sports concepts. This third edition carries anew title, Physical Education and Sport for the Secondary School Student. The bookdesigned to provide the student with'ait overview of sports, information on skilland technique acquisition, safety, scoring, rules and etiquette, strategy, &pip-ment, and related terminology. In addition, several new chapters have beenincluded to keep pace with the trends in present-day programming. .

It is the intention of the National Association for Sport and Physical Educationthat this book will assist the student, physical education teacher, and parent inselecting and developing a well-balanced program of activities which today'syouth can value throughout their lifetime. ;

Roswell D. Merrick, Executive DirectorThe National Association for

Sport and Physical Education

NASPE is an association of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,Reerotion and Dance.

r

i

V

Acknowledgments

planning Committee

Tim Brown, ChairSkidrnore College

?"------aardoga Springs, NYPatritia Barry

-Istontgomery County Public SchoolsRockville, MD

Chat' les BucherUniversity of Las VegasLas Vegas, NV

Neil DoughertyRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ

Charles HungerfordSchool District of LancasterLancaster, PA

Roswell MerrickNASPE Executive DirectorReston, VA

Editorial 'Committee

Neil Dougherty, EditorRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ

Patricia BarryMontgomery CotInty Public SchoolsRockville, MD

Diane BonannoRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ

Tim Brown *'Skidmore CollegeSaratoga 5priligs, NY

Special thanks to Isabelle Brown, Skidmore College; lane Misurelli, Skidmore College;

Sonia Regalado, East Bfunswick High School, NI; lames Moryan, Linwood lr. Highimd ilichard Twitchell, Rutgers University, for their editorial assistance. We

also extend our appreciation to MiSTTIOCWoutman forher assistancein thepreparation ofthe manuscript, to Principal George Felton and the students at South Lakes High School,Reston, Virginia, for their tinwwl couperation, and to Annalisa Kraft and lay Paul of TheLoatclon Times-Mirror, Leesburg, Virginia and I im Kirby of The Reston Times,Reston, Virginia, for donation of cover photographs.

Authors

A Career in Physical Education and SportRobert D. and Joyce A. Clayton,Independent ConsultantsFort Collins, COArcheryRuth E. lOwe, ConsultantNational Archery AssociationColorado Springs, COJulia Heagey BowersMillersville State CollegeMillersville, PA

BadmintonArne L. OlsonEast Stroudsburg State CollegeEast Stroudsburg, PABasketballGene DoaneSeneca Valley High.School.Gaithersburg, MD

ABowling 4.Norman E. ShOWersSouthern Illinois UniversityEdwardsville, IL

Coed Flag FootbeMaryann DoinitrovitzPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA

Dance in EducationDennis FallonUniversity ofpissouriSt. Louis, MOField HockeyBarbara J. BeltJohnf. Kennedy High SchoolSil4r Spring, MDBarbara J. ReimannThe American UniversityWashington, DCGolfDeDe Owens, ConsaltantNational 6o16FpundationWestPmBeahFL

Health FitnessRussell R, Pate-University of South Carolina ,Columbia, SC

loggingRussell R. PateUnivemity of South Carolina

' Columbia, SC

Motor Skill Development and EvaluationJerry R. Thomas andJack K. NelsonLouisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA'

OrienteeringArthur Hugglestone andJoe HowardSmith Environmental Education Center.Rockville, MD

RacquetballlHandballJohn P. SmythThe CitadelCharleston, SC

Self-defenseKenneth G. TillmanTrenton State CollegeTrenton, NJ

SoccerJohn F. Fellenbaum, Jr.Lincoh Junior High School-andFranklin and Marshall CollegeLancaster, PA

SoftballBecky L. SisleyUniversity of OregonEugene, OR

SwimmingAnne Ross FairbanksSkidmore CollegeSaratoga Springs, NY

Team HandballMike CavanaughUnited States Team Handball FederationShort Hills, Ill

,

TennisJim BrownMc Neese State UniversityLake Charles, LA ,

Track and FieldLeRoy T. Walker.North Carolina Central University

Suzi D'Annolfo .. a

West Hartiprd Public SchoolsWest Hartford, CT

TumblingDiane BonartnoRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ

Kathleen FeigleyFeigley's Scliool of GymnasticsSouth Plainfield, NJ

Durham, NC

.

VolleyballBarbara L. VieraUniversity of Delawa-reNewark, DEWeight-trainingBob Ward 6

.-Dallas Cowboys Football.ClubDallas, DC

WrestlingIrwin HessKutztown State CollegeKutztown, PA

aerobic energy production (p. 7)atherosclerosis (p. 4)body composition (p. 9)cardiorespiratonj endurance (p. 6)chronic diseases (P. 1)cool-down (p. 8)coronary heart diseasl (p. 4)corongry heart disease risk factors (p. 4)flexibility (p. 12)health (p. 2)

e health-related physical fitness (p. 4)hypokinetic discases (p. 2)infectious liseases (p. 1)lordosis 5)low back pain (p. 5)muscular endurance (p. 11)muscular strength (p. 11)obesity (p. 5)overload (p. 12)percent body fat (% fat) (p. 9) -physical fitness (p. 3)physical working capacity (p. 6)static stretching (p. 12)warm-up (p. 8)wellness (p. 3)

4

INTRODUCTIONA basic characteristic of all animal life is

the capaz:ty for independent movement.Though styles of movement vary greatlywithin the 'animal kingdom; the motiva-,tions for movement are essentially the samein animals ranging from the one-celled pro-ztozoa to the higher order mammals. Allanimals, regardless of size and structuralcomplexity, must move through their envi-ronment to find food, seek shelter, and toescape or defend against enemies. It is noexaggeration to say that, for animals,movement is the basis of life.

The human being, Homo Sapiens, is a per-fect example of an animal species whosesurvival has depended on the ability tomove effectively. Through most of his twomillion years on earth man has lived as ahunter and gatherer. His food supply, con-sisting mainly of wild animals, and natu-rally grown vegetables, was securedthrough the use of physical abilities such asendurance, strength, and speed. For earlyman, a new physical fitness test was pre-sented daily and the prize was a valuableonesurvival!

Today, machines do much of the physicallabor which man used to do by hand. Ir ?deed, the typical American of today is em-ployed in a job which presents little or nophysical challenge. Most Americans useautomobiles for transpdrtation, employnumerous 1M:16r-saving devices" in their

CHAPTER I

Health FitnessRUSSELL R. PATE,

University of South Carolina,Columbia, SC

However, oddly enough, the life span oCthe typical American has increas.ed Onlymarginally since 1900. As indicated in Table1, in 1900.the typical adult at age 20 couldexpect to live for another 42.8 years, whilein 1976 the average 20/ear-old male wasexpected to live 54.6 more years. It cannotbe denied that numerous medical break-throughs have occurred since 1900. How-ever, most of these advances have contrib-uted to treatment and prevention of infec-tious diseases such as smallpox, pneu-monia, and tuberculosis. To date, medi-cal science has not been successful inpreventing chronic diseases such as coro-nary heart disease, stroke, and cancer.Today most Americans die, not from theinfectious diseases which killed theirgrandparents and great-grandparents, butfrom chronic diseases and accidents (seeTable 2). It is perhaps ironic that mddern

Table 1. Life expectancy of Americans:1900-1976.

Rethaining Life Expectancy in.Years

t

occdpations, and even use machines to,re-duce the physical effort of leisure time ac-tivities. Thus, modern man, if he chooses,can lead a life almost totally void of vigor-ous physical activity. Some -authoritieshave suggested, partly in jest, that man'sspecies name should be changed to HomoSedentarius! -

The many technological advances of thepast century liave resulted in an enhancedstandard of living for most Americans.

Year At Birth At 20 Years #At 65 Years

1900 ' 47.3 42.81950 68.2 51.3 13.91960 69.7 52.4 14:31970 70.9 53.1 1121976 72.8 54.6 16.0

T1142. Leading causes a death ;1119or and1970 (deaihs per 100,000 population).

1900

influenza (202)2 "uberculosis (194)3. Inteltinal diseases (143)4. Diseases of

the heart (137)5. Intracranial

lesions (107)6. Kidney diseases

(89)7. Accidents (72)8. Cancer (64)9. Senility (50)

10. Diphtheria (40) .

1 -1.4.

-. 1970DiseasesA the_heact_

(362) s

Cancer (163)Stroke (102)Accidentl (56)

Pneumo;a andInflut (31)

Certain 'dimes ofinfant death (21)

Diaketes (19)Arteriosclerosis (16).Cirrhosis of liver (16) *Bronchitis, emphysema,

asthma (15)

;

2 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

technology, which has contributed somuch to our standard of living, has appar-ently brought with it a series of health risksfor which science has yet to provide so-lutions.

Mounting evidence suggests that an in-active lifestyle, made possible by modemtechnology, is a direct contributor to manychronic diseases. Indeed, health profes-sionals have coined a new term,hypokinesis, to describe a style of livingcharacterized by lack of physical exercise.The so-called hypokinetic diseases arethose- Which occur more frequently insedentary persons than in persons whomaintain high levels of physical activity.Often listed among the hyPokinetic dis-eases are coronary heart disease, obesity,diabetes, high blood pressure, and lowback pain. Clearly, industrialization andmodern technology have left man vulnera-ble to a deadly set of health risks. Thehealth challenge of the latter half of the 20thcentury is to conquer these diseases of af-fluence. Thus, the purposes of this chapterare: to discuss the relationship betweenexercise-habits and health; to describe thespecific components of physical fitnesswhich, if maintained at a high level, canhelp prevent hypokinetic diseases and en-hance the-quality of life.

A

CONCEPTS OF HEALTH ANDFITNESS

DEFINITIONS OF HEALTH

Twentieth century Americans are fortu-nate to live in a society which providesthem wit considerable degree of secu-rity.'T1E great affluence of today's societyhas liberated them from the day-to-daystruggle for survival and has permittalthem=to strA for higher levels of humanexistence. Today it is common to ponder_ovet the "quality of life."

Certainly, good health maintenance is anessential component of a high quality oflife. In the absence of good health, it isimpossible to enjoy the other benefits of aneconomically and culturally wealthy soci-ety. Since health is such a key aspe,-1 of the

134

,

quality of life, it is not surprising that mod-ern America has made a massive invest-ment in health care and health promotionAmerica's health consciousness is evidentat every turn.

In 1979, for instance, Americans spent$212.2 billion on health care. This figurerepresented 9% of the nation's Gross Na-tional Product (total output of goods andservices). Clearly, Americans believe thathealth is important and are willing to pay ahefty price to secure it.

DiseasesTreatment and Prevention

While 20th century Americans may bepaying more for health services than anyprevious society, their basic approach toohealth care is neither unique nor new. Mostorganized health activities have been andcontinue to be disease-oriented. Personshave considered themselves healthy if theyhave not suffered from the symptoms ofsome ailment or illness. Indeed, health hasoften been defined as a state of being freefrom disease or pain.

Traditionally, most of man's professionalhealth care has been designed to proVidetreatment for existing disease conditions.The earliest physicians spent most of theirtime attempting to cure or reduce the symp-toms of illnesses, the causes of which werevirtually unknown. Today, a much greaterunderstanding of the causes of disease is

, had and treatment procedures have be-come highly sophistica ted _Still, mosthealth care professionals are, primarilyttained to help sick people become well

'Nobody can argue with the need toprovide health care for the sick and dis-abled. However, the inadequacies of ahealth care system which deals narrowlywith treatmenCof disease while overlook-ing, the benefits of disease prevention arebeing rapidly recognized. Among theweaknesses of a treatment-oriented healthsystem are: no adequate treatments existfor many diseases (for example, noemL:gency care facilities can help a personwho experiences a sudden lethal heart at-tack), many diseases, even if tteated, leavepermanent disabilities; most diseases in-volve paihfulbr irritating symptoms which

4

reduce the afflicted person's functional ca-pacity; cost of medical treatment can bemassive.

Today, health planners are beginning toplace greater emphasis on prevention ofdisease. A prevention-oriented approachto health maintenance has the potential tominimize the above-mentioned problems.Since 1900 notable successes with the infec-tious diseases have been recognized, manyof which now can be prevented throughinoculations. However, there is yet to besuccess in preventing the chronic diseaseswhich are now the most common causes ofdeath. Since the chronic diseases are oftencaused by societal and personal lifestylecharacteristics, e.g., cigarette sinoking,%sedentary living, industrial pollution, pre-vention of these diseases will depend onchanging human behavior. Some of thosechanges, undoubtedly, will_be difficult 'toachieve. However, sudh changes are possi-ble, and they are necessary if further signif-icant improvement in the health of thepopulation is to be gained.

WellnessRelatively new to the field of public

health is the concept of wellness. Wellnessmight be defined as a state of physical andmental health consistent with optimalhuman function. 'The wellness philosophyis based on the assumption that improve-ment of health variables, above the levelneeded to avoid disease, enhances qualityof life. The wellness trend is an importantone in contemporary America and suggeststhat the traditional definition of health, i.e.,absence of disease, is no longer adequate.Thus, a more current ,and comprehensivedefinition of health might be a state of bodyand mind characterized by absence of ill-ness and by a level of vigor which permitsfulfillment of human potential.

DEFINITIONS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

The term physical fitness is familiar toalmost everyone. Surveys indicate thaT tiretypical American appreciates physical fit-ness, considers exercise to be4good healthhabit, and understands that one's physical

v fitness is related to his/her exereisohabits. ,

Nonetheless, many Americans fail to exercise "

1

HEALTH FITNESS ,3.0

regularly enough to maintain adequate physicalfitness and many others use exerfise improperlyand consequently fail to achieve the potentialbenefits of good physical fitness. These de-ficiencies suggest that many persons do nothave a clear understanding of what physi-cal fitness is and how it can be attained. Tocorrect this problem it is important to de-velop a clear definition of physical fitness.

Over the years, many definitions of phys-ical fitness have been proposed. ,Onewidely accepted definition suggests thatphysical fitness is the ability to performdaily tasks with vigor and alertness, with-out undue fatigue, and with ample energyto enjoy leisure-time pursuits and to meetunforeseen emergencies. It is important tonote that this definition indicates that fit-ness is something which pertains to every-day lives. Physical fitness is not to beequated simply with performance on cer-tain physical fitness tests. Rather, the ulti-mate test of physical fitness is the ability tomeet, efficiently and effectively, the physi-cal demands of daily life. Also, this defini-tion of physical fitness implies that fitness isa matter of concern for everyone. Sinceeverybody encounters physical demands,everybody needs to maintain an adequatelevel of physical fitness.

In studying man's physical abilities, re-searchers have identified several compo-nents of= physical fitft,ss. These compo-nents, which are listedand defined in Table3, combine to determine an individual'soverall physical performance capacity. Asdepicted in Diagram 1, all of the physicalfitness components can be important in the

Table 3. Definitions of physical fitnesscomponents.

AgilitySpeed in changing direction or in changingbody positions.

BalanceMaintenance of a stable body position.Body CompositionFatness, ratio of fat weight to

total body weight.Cardiorespiratory EnduranceAbility to sustain

moderate intensity whole body activity for ex-tended time periods.

FlexibilityRange of motion in a joint or senes ofjoints.

Muscular EnduranceAbility to perform repeated, .high intensity muscle contractions.

Muscular Streogth Maximum force apphecf with asingle musclC contractionY--

PowerMaximum rate of force gdneration and workperformance.

a 1 01-14


ATHLETICFITNESS

AGILIrlPOWER

CARDIORESPIRATORYENDURANCE HEALTH-

MUSCULAR STRENGTH/ RELATEDENDURANCE PHYSICAL

BODY COMPOSITION FITNESS

FLEXIBILITYSPEED

BALANCE

Diagram 1. Components ofathletic fitness andhealth-related physical fitness.

realm of athletics; however, only a few of

the fitness components are known to berelated to health. These latter componentscontribute to health-relatedphysical fitnesswhich is a state characterized by: ability toperform daily tasks with vigor and withoutundue fatigue; demonstration of physicaltraits associated with minimal risk of de-veloping hypokinetic disease. The follow-ing sections of this chapter provide a Com-

plete discussion of the health-related fit-

ness components which should be of con-

cern to everyone.

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEENPHYSICAL4fITNESS AND HEALTH

Throughout much of recorded history,

man has recognized physical fitness as akey component of a healthy lifestyle. Theancient Greeks were perhaps the first to,actively promote exercise as a contributor to

good health. Their philosophy, embodiedin the Latin phrase mem sano in corporé sane

(a sound mind in a sound body), has sur-vived through the ages and today provides

a philosophical basis for many health fit-ness programs. Today it is clear that regularexexise can contribute to good health byreducing the risk of developing certain dis-

eases and by improving the body's ability tofunction, which in turn contributes to well-

ness and the quality of life. Developing aclear understanding of the values of physi-

cal fitness requires consideration of howhealth can. be affected by regular exercise.

EXERCISE AND DISEASE PREVENTION

Evidence indicates that individuals whoexercise properly are less likely than inac-tive persons to develop fhree sPecifichealtli

S.

problems: coronary heart disease; obesity;low back pain. All of these diseases arewidespread in modern America and havebecome more prominent as our populationhas become more inactive. -

Coronary Heart DiseaseDiseases of the cardiovascular system,

i.e., the heart and blood vessels, areresponsible for roughly one-half of alldeaths in the United States each year. Most

of these cardiovascular disease deaths are

due to a disease process called atheroscle-

rosis. Atherosclerosis involves_thebuildupof fatty deposits, called plaque, on the inner

wall of the arteries. Arteries are blood ves-

sels Which carry oxygenated blood to all the

body's tissues. If these vessels becomeclogged with plaque, blood flow and oxy-

gen delivery to vital tissues can be impaired

or completely shut off. If the arteries af-fected by atherosclerosis are those whichcarry blood to the heart hi uscle the resultcarvbe coronary heart disease and, eventu-

ally, a heart attack. /The catiSes of coronary heart disease are

not fully understood. However, sevejalcoronary heart disease risk factors haveBeen identifiedf These risk factors arecharacteristics which, if present, tend to in-

crease a person's chances of developing thedisease. The-primary and secondary coro-.nary heart:disease risk factors are listed inTable 4. It is important to note that physicalinactivity is now considered to be a riskfactor, for coronary heart disease.

The conclusion that physically active

persons are less likely than sedentary per-sons to develop coronary heart disease isbased on several lines ofresearch evidence.For one, several studies have shown thatpersons who have very physically activeoccupations are less likely than sedentary

Table 4. Coronary heart disease risk factors.

Primary Risk Factors

Elevated Serum cholesterolHigh Blood PressureCigarette Smoking

Secondary Risk Factors

ObesityPhysical Inactivity

Psychological StressDiabetes

workers to develop corpnary heart disease.,Aiso, as shown in Table 5, physically fit

ersons tend to have fewer of the risk fac-t s associated..with coronary heart diseaseth n unfit individuals. In addition, studiesof sedentary persons who enter exercisetraining programs have shown that manyof the physical results of exercise trainingare beneficial in terms of cardiovascularhealth (see Table 6), While it should not beconcluded that regular exercise can abso-lutely prevent coronary heart disease, it islikely that maintenance of good fitness canreduce-the chance of-developing this dis-ease.

Table 5. Coronary heart disease risk factors inhigh and low fit adult men.*

Risk Factor Low Fit High Fit

Cholesterol (mg%) 237 217Diastolic Blood Pressure (mm Hg) 86 80Serum Glucose (mg%) 112 102Triglycerido (mg%) 179 87% Body Fat 29 18

*Cooper, K. H., Pollock, M. L., Martin, R. P , et al."Physical Fitness Levels vs Selected Coronary RiskFactors. /AMA 236:166-9." .

Table 6. Effects of exercise training which mayreduce coronary heart disease risk.

Increased

Oxygen transport abilityEfficiency of heart functionTolerance to stressGlucose tolerance

Blood fat levelsObesityArterial blood pressure

ObesityExcessive body fatness, or obesity, is ex-

tremely common in the American popula:tion and is a major cause of IV health. Obesepersons are much more likel)' than personsof normal body fatness to develop diseasessuch as diabetes and high blood pressure.Also, obesity itself has been established as arisk factor for coronary heart disease.

Obesity is the result of excessive storageof fat in the body's tissues. This storage offat occurs whenever an individual con-sumes more calories in food than are ex-pended during daily activities. Obesity canresult from overeating and other poor die-

FrEALTH FITNESS 5

tary practices. In addition, however, obés:ity is often caused by physical inactivity.

Obesity is rarely observed in individualswho are very physically active. Personswho continue to exercise regularlythroughout adulthood tend to stay incaloric balance arid to avoid the gradualaddition of body fat which can lead to obes-ity. An increase in physical activity aliinostalways causes a reduction in hodyVriessin persons who are moderal4nrAkeriely,Obese.Low Back Pain

One of the most common ,ailments ob-served in adult Americans is low back pain.Chronic pain in the loWhack.region can becaused by numerous factors includingtraumatic injury and genetic malformationof the spine. However, very frequently lowback pain results from a condition calledlordosis which develops gradually overseveral years. Lordosis, sometimes referredto as "sway back," is an exaggerated curva-ture in the lower spine (see Figure 1), fre-quently developing from -lack of properexercise.

Lordosis and the low back pain it causesare related to two fitness deficiencies:weakness in the abdominal muscles; tight-ness (shortening) of the low back and ham-string muscles (see Figure 1). Weakness ofthe abdominal muscles makes the organs ofthe abdominal cavity protrude and pullforward on the spine. Tightness in themuscles of the low back and hamstringareas tend to tip the hip bone forward,thereby exaggerating the curvature of thelower spine. Lordosis, if it becomes suffi-ciently extreme, can cause pressure on spi-nal nerves as they leave the spinal cord.This pressure causes pain which may be-come chronic and debilitating.

Low back pain is seldom observed inregular exercisers, since they tend to main-tain good strength in the abdominal mus-cles and adequate flexibility in the low backregion. Exercise routines are often pre-scribed by physicians for persons sufferingfrom low back pain. Exercise cannol pre-vent or cure all cases of low back pain, butevidence suggests that the incidence of thisproblem would be lower if everybody exer-cised prbperly and regularly.

1,()


Normal Cervical Curve

Head Carried Forwardeft,

Prominent Abdomen

."1/1

Normal Lumbar Curve

CORRECt POSTURE

Round Shoulders

Exasperated Lumbar Curve

Prptruding Buttocks

POOR POSTURE

Figure 1. Lordosis, shown on the right, can-contribute to low-back-pain

EXERCISE AND WELLNESS

The disease prevention benefits of rep--la-I exercise are highly significant. Most ,regulartxercisers, however, report that theprimary benefit of physical activity is sim-ply "feeling better." Many exercisers agreethat physicaeactivity makes them feel morealert, relaxed, and vigorous. Persons whoimprove their physical fitne'ss usually findthat they are less fatigued by their dailytasks and are able to more comfortably par-ticipate in strenuous activities.

These beneficial effects of exercise aregenerally attributed to the increase in phys-ical working capacity known to result fromtraining. A person's physical working ca-pacity is closely related to hkslher ability touse oxygen for the production of energy inthe muscle tissues. A person's ability to

1 tiA. II

consume oxygen is limited by the func-tional capacity of hislher body's cardiores-piratory system, Le., strength of heart,elasticity of vessels. Endurance exercise

.training improves the fitness of the car-diorespira tory system and, thus, the body'sability to use oxygen. These effects make iteasier for the physically fit person to per-form those activities requiring sustainedexertion.

Regular exercise may also carry signifi-cant psychological benefits. Many personsfind that vigorous exercise helps them relaxand to cope with the stresses of a busy life.Some psychologists even use exercise as ameans for treating depression and otherpsychological disorders. The psychologicaleffects of exercise are believed to combinewith its physical effects to produce the feel-ing of well-being which most exercisers ex-perience.

5.

COMPONENTS OF HEALTH-RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS

The contributions physical fitness Canmake toward the prevention of disease andpromotion of health-are highly significant.Thus, it is crucial to know how to evaluateone's own fitness and how to maintainancbor develop a good level of holthre-lated fitness. This section wilhpresent sev-

. eral ,simple tests of health-related fitnessand will describe the types of exerciseknown to improve the health fitness com-ponents.

CARoIORESPIRATORY ENDURANCE

CardiorespiraLory endurance is a Per-son's ability to exercise for long periods oftime. It is related to the fitness of the heart,lungs, and blood vessds, all of which worktogether to carry oxygen to the muscles.During exerdse the active muscles requireindeased amounts of oxygen for use in en-ergy production. Good cardiorespiratoryendurance enables one to perform adivitieslike jogging or swimming w ithout tiringrapidly. Persons who have good cardio-respiratory fitness tend to EN less fatiguedby daily adiv Ines, and quialy recover afterstrenuous exertion.

Cardiorespiratory endurance can be eas-ily' measured with-tests ofdistame runningabiLty. . The mile run for time is one of thetests of cardiorespiratory fitness designated

HEALTH FITNESS 7

by the American Alliance for Health, Physi-cal Education, Recreation and Dance(AAHPERD). To take the test, all that isneeded is a track or other accurately mea-sured area, and a clock.Before running themilg the subject should do some distancerunning for practiceand should learn theapproximate 'pace of jogging or runninghe/she can sustain for the entire mile. Aneven pace is usually best; one should avoidstarting the rim at a pace whichis too fast.Table 7 provides percentile scores againstwhich the siibject can compare his/her per-formance. If his/her score ranks above the50th percentile, he/she currently has a goodlevel of cardiorespiratory fitness. However,those scoring below the 50th percentileshould strive ,to improve by starting aproper Lardiprespiratory exercise program.

Cardiorespiratory endurance can best beimproved by regular participation inaerobic exercise. Aerobic activities are thosewhich increase the heart rate for longperiods of time. Table 8 lists several of themost popular aerobic activities. In design-ing an exercise program one should selectan activity or set of attivities which he/sheenjoys and participates in regularly. Manypeople combine the aerobic activities. ofTable 8 into an overall program which ispractit.al and enjoyable, such as playingracqnetball once per week and joggingtwice per week.

Table 7. Norm scores for mile run (minutes and seconds).

GIRLS

AGE 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

PERCENTILES

95 7:59 7:46 726 7:10 718 7:39 7:07 7:26

75 9:30 912 8:36 8:18 8:13 8:42 9:00 9:03

50 11:06 10:27 9:47 9:27 9:35 10:05 10:45 9:4725 12:54 12:10 11:35 10:56 11:43. 12:21 13:00 11:28

5 17:00 16:56 14:46 14:55 16:59 16:22 15:30 15:24

BOYS

AGE 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

PERCENTILES95 6:56 650 6:27 6:11 5:51 6:01 5:48 6:01

75 8:10 8:00 7:24 6:52 6:36 6:35 6:28 6:36

50 919 ,. 9:06 8:20 7:27 7:10 714 7:11 7:25

25 11:05 11:31 10.00 8:35 8:02 8:04 8:07 8:26

5 14:28 15:25 1341 10:23 10:32 10:37 1040 10:56

8 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDAR SCHOOL STUDENT

Table 8. Aerobic activities.

WalkingJoggingSwimmingCyclingRope Jumping -

Aerobic DancingRacquetballHandballIce SkatingCross-country Skiing

Having selected an aerobic activity, it isImportant that the activity be used prop-erly. Following are'some guidelines whichwill help to design a successful cardiores-piratory endurance ftaining program1. FreqUency of exercise. Aerobic exercise

should be engaged in three or moretimes per week. When first beginning anexercise program, it is usually best toexercise every other day. As fitness im-proves, frequency of training may be in-

; creased to five or six sessions per week.2. Duration of exercise. Aerobic exercise

should be sustained continuously for atleast 30 minutes per session. In, tarting aprogram it is often wise to limit the dura-tion of exercise to 15-20 minutes. How-ever, within a few.,weeks most personsare able to sustain 30 minutes of con-tinuous, aerobic exercise.

3. Intensity of exercise. To produce im-provement of cardiorespiratory endur-ance, aerobic exercise must be used withsufficient intensity. However, it is im-portant to note that only a moderate in-tensity of exercise is required. This in-tensity will cause the heari rate andbreathing rate to increase, and wilPoftenbring about sweating. An easy way toestablish a proper exercise intensity is tocheck the heart rate. This can be done byfeeling the pulse in the wrist or neck.The procedure outlined in Table 9should be used to determine the trainingheart rate.

When beginning a training program itis necessaty to experiment to determinethe intensity of exercise which will elicitthe selected iraining heart rate. Asshown-in Diagram 2, heart-rate tends toincrease as exercise intensity increases.By checking his/her heart rate at severalexercise intenbities, the subject will findthe intensity corresponding to the de-sired training heart, rate (see Figure 2).

Having identified the appropriate in-tensity, the goal should be to sustain

Table 9. Method for determining a trainingheart rate.

Step 1. Measure Resting Heart Rate (RHR).Rest quietly for 5-10 minutes.Count heart beats for 60 seconds.

Step 2. Estimate Maximum Heart Rate (MHR).Maximal heart rate decreases withSge.Estimate MHR with i.ie following equation.MHR = 220 - age in years.

Step,3. Compute Trantutg Heart Rate (THR).An appropriate training heart rate can becomputed,with the following equation:THR = RHR + .6 (MHR -Example

If, RHR = 60 beats per minuteandMHR = 205 beats per minute

Then, THR = 60 + .6 (205 - 60)= 60 + 87= 147 beats per minute

Maximum -

HEARTRATE

Rest -

Rest MaximumEXERCI5E INTENSITY

Diagram 2. Relationship tetween heart rate' and exercise intensity.

that intensity for 30 minutes. However,few beginners are able to accomplishthis, and should instead ose intermittentexercise in which recovery periods al-ternate with exercise periods. For exam-ple, a beginning jogger might alternate 3

,niinutes of jogging with 2 minutes ofwalking for a total of 20 minutes.

4. Warm-up and cool-down. Each trainingsession should. begin with light calis-thenic exercises and/or some other formof low intensity exercise. This allays thebody to gradually adjust to the demandsof aerobic exercise. Likewise, each ses-sion should finish with a gradual cool-down. Usually five minutes of walkingor light calisthenics is sufficient. Such,activity allows the body to gradually re-turn to the resting state.

HEALTH FITNESS 9

Figore 2. Methods for determining heart rate bypalpating the pulse.

pODY COMPOSITION ,

The term body compo'sition refers to therelative proportions of lean tissue and fattissue in the body. Lean tissues, which con-stitute most of the body weight, include thebone, muscle, skin, and connective tissu'es.Fat (or adipose) tissue consists of tiny fatcells distributed throughout the body; Inparticular, fat cells tend to accumulateunder the skin and around the internal or-gans. Fat tissue usually represents between10 and 30 percent of the total body weight.A person's body composition is expressedas percent body fat (% fat).

An estimate of an individual's % fat caneasily be obtained by measuring the thick-ness of skinfolds at one or more locationson the body surface. A domino* utilizedskinfold site is over the triceps muscle lo-cated on the back of the upper arm (seeFigure 3). The thickness of the triceps skin-fold can be,measured using a devicecalleg askinfold caliper (see Figure 4). The jaws ofthe caliper should be placed over a doublethickness of skin and subcutaneous fat.,

The thickness of the triceps skinfold isrelated to the total amount of fat in the

2uFigure 3. Triceps skinfold.

t


body: the thicket the skinfold,Ahe greaterthe % of fat. Table 10 provides a normativescale against which the subject can comparehislher triceps skinfold. Those rankingabove the 50th percentile have good bodycomp&sition. A ranking between the 25thand 75th percentile indicates a greater per-centage of fat than is proper. A loss of fatwould be beneficial. Those ranking belowthe 25th percentile should initiate a pro-gram to reduce % fat.

Changes in % fat occur with changes inthe balance between calories taken inthrough the diet and calories used upthrough daily exercise and activity. If morecalories are ingested in food than are ex-pended witti daily activities, fat will best6red in the body. On the other hand, fat islost when caloric expenditure exceedscaloric intake. Thus, there .are three basicmethods by which" the % body fat can bereduced: diet modification to reduce-caloricintake; increased exercise to increase caloricexpendituie; a.combination of the first twomethods.

For many persons the safest and mosteffective approach to fat loss is to increasecaloric expenditure through exercise. In-creased exercise can be combined with amoderate reduction of caloric intaice to ac-celerate this rate of fat loss. Some personscan successfully lose fat through dietingalone; however, severe "crash" dietsshould be avoided. They are often nu-

Figure 4. MeaSurement of skinfold thicknessusing calipers.

tritionally unsound, and cannot in anyevent be maintained on a permanent basis

When initiating an exercise program tolose body fat, the primary go.al should be toburn more calories. Thig can be accom-plished most effpctively by participating inactivities involving whOle. body, moder-ate-to-high iiitensity exercise. Activitiessuch as walking, jogging, swimming, andcycling are best. These, of course, are thesame aerobic activities recommended forimprovement of cardiorespiratory endur-

Table 10. Triceps skinfold norms.GIRLS

AGE 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

PERCENTILE95 6 6 6 6 7 7 8 8

75 9 9 9 9 11 12 12

50 12 ' 12 12 12 14 15 16 16

25 15 15 16 17 18 20 21 20

5 . 23 23 25 26 27 29 30 29

BOYS

AGE 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

PERCENTILE95 5 5 5 4 4 . 4 4 4

75 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6

50 9 10 9 9 8 8 8 8

25 ., 12 14 13 13 12 11 11 11

5 20 22 23 23 21 21 20 20

2 I

ance. In general, the guidelines used to de-,sign a program for improvement for c-ir:cdorespiratory endurance should be used to

, help reduce the To body fat.

MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND MUSCULARENDURANCE -

Muscular strength is defined as thegreatest force which a muscle can exert in asingle, maximal contraction. Strength ishighly related to muscle size, the larger themuscle, the greater its ability to generateforce. Muscular endurance reflects a muscie'sability to perform repeated contractionsagainst a significant resistance. Muscularendurance is related to muscular strength,since when a muscle becomes stronger, itsability to perform repeated contractionsusually improves as well. Muscular endur-ance should not be confused with car-diorespiratory endurance, which is depen-dent on cardiovascular function, not mus-cular strength.

Of particular concern in health-relatedphysical fitness is the strength and endurFance of the abdominal muscles. The abdom-inal muscles run between the lower borderof the rib cage and the front of the pelvicbone. These muscles serve to flex the spine,as when performing a sit-up. The abdomi-nal muscles also help to hold the organs ofthe abdominal cavity in place. If the abdom-inal muscles become w eak, the abdominal

HEALTH FITNESS 11

contents can fall forward and contribute toiordosis, previously mentioned. Mainte-nance of good strength in the abdominalregion is, therefore, an important preven-tive to low back pain.

An accepted method for measuring ab-dominal strength involves performance ofsit-ups. The specific test recommended bythe American Alliance for Health, PhysicalEducation, Recreation and Dance is a timedsit-up test in which the participant per-forms as many sit-ups as possible in oneminute. For test purposes, the sit-upshould be done with kneQs be. t and armsfolded across the chest. A. path. -r shouldhold the participant's feet and count henumber of sit-ups completed. Table 11provides test norms for the sit-up test.Those subjects scoring below the 50th per-centile should begin a program to improveabdominal muscular strength and endur-ance. .

It is also important that adequatestrength be maintained in the muscles of .the arms and the upper trunk. Often, indaily activities, heavy objects need to becarried. If the arm and trunk muscles areweak, ability to lift and carry householdobjects can be impaired. Such impairmentcontributes to accidents and injuries, par-ticularly among the elderly in whom mus-cular strength tends to be low.

Muscular strength and muscular endur-ance are best improved by exercises which

table 11. Norm scores for sit-up test*.GIRLS

AGE 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

PERCENTILE47 50 52 51 51 56 54 54

75 39 40 41 41 42 43 42 44 (7-

50 32 34 ,:,,, 36 35 35 37 33 3725 25 28 - -- 30 29 30 30 29 315 15 19 19 18 20 20 20 19

' BOYS

AGE 10 11 12 13 14 15- 16 17 .

PERCENTILE95 50 51 56 58 59 59 61 6275 40 42 46 48 49 49 51 5250 34 37 39 41 42 44 45 4625 27 30 31 35 36 38 38 38

5 15 17 19 25 27 28 28 25

'One minute bent knee sit-up with arms placed across chest.

2 ')

12 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL. STUDENT

significantly overload the active musclegroups. Overload occurs when a muscle isforced to work against a greater resistancethan normal. Strength improvement is spe-cific to the muscles which are actively over-loaded; to improve strength in several mus-cle groups, several specific resistance exer-cises are-needed.

An effective way to develop go0 muscu-lar strength and muscular.enclurance is topractice calisthenic exercises wnich over-load the abdominal and upper body mus-cles. Figure 5 presents a series of exercisesto improve abdominal muscle strength.Figure 6 shows strengthening exercises forthe arms and upper body. As a generalguideline, 15-20 repetitions of a particularexercise will ensure -maintenance ofadequate muscular strength and enduiancein the exercised muscle groups.Strengthening exercises should be per-formed at least two tothree times per week.

When beginning a strength-buildingexercise program, the subject should startwith exercises that can be properly per:formed at least five to six times before 'en-countering fatigue. As strepgth improvesand the subject performs 15-20 repetitionswith more or less ease, helshe should prog-ress to a more difficult exercise. An examplewould be starting with 5:6 repetitions of thecurl-up and, over a nurnber of weeks, pro-'gressing to 15-20.repetitions of the full sit-up.

Another approach to strength imProve-ment is weight-training, the use of barbely,i.e., free weights, or supported weights,e.g., Universal Gym, Nautilus, totoverloadselected muscle groups. Weight- traininghas become a popularoctivity and is cer-tainly an efkctive way-to maintain goodmuscular strength and endurance. Expen-sive weight-training systems are not neces-sary for maintenance of good health-rela ted physical fitness. A more -detaileddiscussion of weight-training is presentedin Chapter 23 of this publication.

REXIBILITY

Flexibility has been defined as themaximum range of rnotjon ppssible in ajoint or series of joints. Joint flexibility can

determine a person's abilny to performbodily movements with ease and effi-ciency. Poor flexibility, which is common inour society, may make one liable tomuscle:joint injuries, or may make certainmovements impossible.

Joint flexibilityls determined by the elas-ticity, of the muscles and connective tissueswhich cross the joints. Each joint is heldtogether by. ligaments, tendons, and jointcapsules, all of which are composed of elas-ticconneetive tissues. Also, the muscles in-clude many layers of connective tissues. If .

these various connective tissues in themuscles and joint tissues are maintained ina stretchable state, good jbint flexibility, willbe maintained. However, if the mtiscle andjoint connective.tissu.es,1oseiheitelasticity,the result will be poor joint flexibility. Flexi-bility g highly specific to each joint; thesame person might be very flexible in theshoulder joints, yet quite inflexible in thehip region.

Flexibility is consklered a health-relatedfitness.compobenOecause lack of flexibil-ity can contribute tarow back pain. Poorflexibility in the lower back and in the ham-string muscles can be a cause of lordosisand tbe Kin it causes. Thus, cmaintenanceof good 19w back/hamstring flexibility is animpOrtant goal of lifetime fitness programs

Low back/hamstring flexibility can beevaluated easily using the sit-and-reachtest (see Figt.tre7). This test involves reach-ing as far forward as possible while seated

thp straight leg position. Using the ap-., paratus depicted in Figure 7, 'distance kach

can be scored to the nearest' centimetgr.AAHPERD scoring tables bk....the sit-and-reach test are adjusted so thait a score of 23centimeters cdrreiporuils tc toe level. Table12 prizAfides norm,scores to determine one's

' relative rating for low back/hamstring flexi-bility.

Flexibility i n thalow back/hamstring re-gion can best be improved by usingstaticstretching exercises, involving prolonge.dmaintenance of a stretched'position. As ageneral guideline, a static stretch'should beof sufficient intensily to cause moderaie

Aiscomfort (but no More) in the stretchedmuscle. Excessige, painful stretching niaydamage muscle Or pint tissues and should be

9

HEALTH FITNESS 13

c. Leg raise prone.

d. Side leg raise.

e. Isometric sit.up.

Figure 5. Exercises to strengthen the abdominaland lower trdnk region.

,4


b. Modified push-up.

c. Pull-up.

/ ,ii / "

d. Parallel bar dip.

"IAe. Back extension.

Figure 6. Exercises to strengthen the upperbody.

9

HEALTH FiTNESS 15

Ti6Ie 12. Norm scores for sit-and-reach teSt (centimeters).*

AGE .

ARCENTILE

5025

5

AGE

AID PERCENTILE93

,75i 50

25 a5

GIRLS ,

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

.

35 37 40 43 44 46 46 44 ..

, 31' 32 34 36 38 41 39 4028 29 30 31 33 36 34 3524 24 23 24 28 ,31 30 31

16 ' 16 15 17 18 19 14

boys

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 .33 34 35 36 . 39 41 42 I '4 29 29 30 33 34 36 4025 25 26 26 28 30 30 34

20 21 21 20 23 24 25 28If 12- . 13 : . 12 15 13 s 11 15

*Scale set so that 23 cm is placed at the soles of thefeet.I/

*

'1Z

figure 7. Sit-and-reach test. 0

16 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THESECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT. ,

.

.0

te

, a. Bend and reach.

//,4. ,

',stet,etiP14if

Li

c. Hip flExor stretch.

b. Hamstring stretcfht

d. SItancr-reach.

e. Upper back stretchei.

Figure 8. Static stretching exercises. !Es

"

avoided. A static stretch gimulci be sustainedfor 10-30 second,s, Several ezampl6 of sta-tic stretching etercises are depicted in Fig-ure 8. Thitso exercises, employed three ormore times per Iveek7 will doielop andmaTnt3in d good revel of low back/hamstring flexibility in most persons.

Ck. 4

FITNEA AND tHE;HEALTHYLIFESTYL -

This chapter has discussecrthe contribu-tion regular exercise can make to rherallhealth. Major eMphasis has been placed onthe four coMponents of health-relatedphysical fitness, why they, are important,and how each can be improved.

In concluding this chapter it is importantto emphasize that one's health status is de-termined largely by his 9r her personalhabits and decisions. Recent studies havedemonstrated clearly that several of thetime-honored "good health habits" do infact make a difference to long-term health.A recent study of 4,000 Californians foundthat future health status could be predictedon the basis ofthe five health habits listed inTable 13. Persons who had all these habitswere significantly healthier than those per-sons having few or none of them. Twd ofthese, regular exercise and maintenance ofproper body weight, are directly related tohabits of regular physical activity.

- Table 13. Habits associated with maintenanceof good health.

Abstention from smoking.

Moderate alcohol consumption.

Regular exercise.

Sleep for 7-8 hours per day.

Maintenance of normal body weight.

In conclusion, the healthy lifestyle isthere for the taking. By selecting proper-health habits, including regular exercise,much can be done to reduce disease risksand to enhance the quality of life. It is oftensaid tha t "knowledge is power," butknowledge is powerful only if it forms the

1

.HEALTH. FITNESS 17

basis for action. The knowledge gained byreading this chapter will be use furonly if itis applied. klow is the time to go to work.Reading about exercise'will notimprove thereades's healthexercising will!

TERMINOLOGY

Aerobic Energy Production. k chemical pro-cess by which oxygen, transported from .the

.atenosphere, is used by the cells of the body toproduce energy needed for biological work,e.g., muscle contraction.

Atherosclerosis. A disease process by whichfatty plaque is deposited on the inner walls ofthe arteries; may lead to coronary heart dis-ease.

Body CImposition. The percentage.Of the bodyweight which is fat (% fat). -

Cardiorespiratory Endurance. Ability to sus-tain moderate intensity, whole-b-ody activityfor extended time periods.

Chronic Disease. A disease which developsover long periods of time; often caused bylifestyle and health habits.

Cool-down. A period-of low intensity exerciseperforfned at the conclusion of a training ses-sion.

Coronary Heart Disease. Impairment of bloodflow and oxygen delivery to the heart muscle,caused by atherosclerosis in coronary arteries.

Coronary Heart Disease Risk Factor. A per-sonal characteristic or habit associated withincreased risk of developing coronary heartdisease.

Flexibility. Maximum range of motion possiblein a joint or series of joints.

Hypokinetic Disease. A disease associatedwith sedentary living, i.e., lack of regularexercise.

Infectious Disease. A disease caused by agerm, bacteria, or other disease-producing-agent; can often be communicated betweenindividuals.

-Lordosis. An excessive curvative of the lumbarregion of the spine. -

Muscular Endurance. Ability to perform re-peated high intensity muscle contractions.

Musculir Strength. Maximum force which canbe applied with a single muscle contraction.

Obesity. Excessive body fatness.Overload. A level of exercise intensity or resis-

tance which exceeds that to which.a person is.already adapted.

Physical Working Capacity. Maximum rate atwhich a person can perform physical exercise;heavily' dependent upon the individual's ca-pacity for aerobic energy expenditure.

Static Stretching. Method for improvement offlexibility which involves maintenance of astretched position for 10-30 seconds.

28


Warm-up. Period oft' light-to-moderate inten-sity exercise which precedes a training ses-sion.

REFERENCES

AAHPERD Health Related Physical Fitness TestManual. Reston, VA. The American Alliancefor Health, Physical Education, Recreqionand Dance, 1980.

Cooper, K. H. Aerobics. New York: BantamBooks, 1968.

Cundiff, D. E., and Brynteson, P. Health Fitness,Guide to a Life-Style. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing, 1979.

Getchell, B. Physical Fitness: a Way of Life. 2d ed.New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1979.

Farquhar, J. W. The American Way of Life Need NotBe Hazardous to Your Health. New York: W. W.Norton & Co., 1978.

aerobic.capacity (p. 25), agility fp. 27)

anticipation timing (p. 29)balanc:e (p. 28)cardiovascular fitness (p. 25)dynamic balance (p. 28) 'dynamic strength (p. 25)eye-foot coordination (p. 30)eye-hand coordination (p. 30)flexibility (p. 26)eniometer (p. 27)isokinetic (p. 26)isometric (p. 25)long-term store (p. 24)motor abilities (p. 22),motor skill (p. 21)muscular endurance (p. 26)performance profile (p. 30)power (p. 27)reaction time (p. 28)sensory store (p. 23)short-term store (p. 24)speed (p. 27)static balance (p. 25)strength (p. 25)total body coordination (p. 3(J)

CHAPTER 2

Motor Skill Developmentand Evaluation

JERRY R. THOMAS, Pmfessor andClunnnanand

JACK K. NELSON, Professor,Louisiana State University,

Baton Rouge, LA

INTRODUCTION;

As individuals mature from childhoodthrough adolescence to adults, their abilityto perform the motor skills associated withvarious sports and physical activities, Im-proves. This increase in performance is duetoa number of factors. First, as people growthey become bigger and stronger. Thus,they can run faster, throw and kick farther,jump higher. Secondly, regular participa-tion increases the efficiency of one's heartand circulatory, respiratbry, and muscularsystems, enabling better performance inmany sports skills. Finally as children getolder, they have performed more sportsski:ls (due to paSt experiences). These expe-riemes with a variety of skills increasetheir ability to learn new skills in newsituations. All of these factors taken to-gether are responsible for motor skill de-velopment and result in increased levelsofmotor performance with increased age.

By high school most students can per-form a variety of everyday motor skills andmany specific sports skills. Each of us canprobably catch and throw a softball, do thestanding broad jump, dribble and shoot abasketball, as well as many other sportsskills. Individual interest in sports revolvesaround one or more of the following ques-tions:

what type of sport would I enjoy partici-pating in on a lifetime basis?how .do I choose sports which bestprovide the health benefits of regularexercise?

since my skill level is very good inseveralareas, how do I select a varsity sport inwhich I may excel?can I learn certain sports that I canparticipate in with my family and/orfriends?In this chapter we .hope to demonstrate

how sports skills develop, how peoplelearhthese skills, and how to evaluate andselect sports that will best suit individualneeds. We will also discuss the basic motorabilities that are essential in sports percor-mance and ways in which these abilities canbe measured. A few simple tests of some ofthese abilities will be described so that youcan test yourself and develop a perfor-mance profile. Then on the basis of yourown abilities and interests you may be bet-ter able to select a sport or sports in whichyou should like to participate either recre-ationally or as an athlete with some information as to your chances for succenjoyment. We believe regul participa-tion in sports and physical activity providesmany benefits on a lifetime basis such as:

increased cardiovascular and respiratoryefficiency; -

Inghet levels of muscular endurance;skillful movements in sports;positive mental health;fun and enjoyment;opportunities to socialize with familyand friends.

MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT

A motor skill is the muscular activity nec-essary to accomplish a task. The task may

31

22 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL sDENT

:nliolve big muscles and lots of movementsuch as running, jumping, and turninghandsprings, or it may involve the smallmuscles of the body and relatively littlemovement such as in typing, sewing, andtalking. Many activities involve both largeand smail muscle tasks. Motor abilities, onthe other hand, are more general in natureand help us develop motor skills. They in-clude such things-as-strength muscularendurance, cardiovascular endurance,power, speed, balance, flexibility, agility,and reaction time. The relasionship be-tween motor skills and motor abilities canbe seen in the long jump. Motor abilitiessuch as power and speed, play an impor-tant role in the development of the longjump motor skill.

Let us turn our attention to several fac-tors that directly affect ouc ability to learnand perform motor skills.

Age changes in motor perform'ance. Theperformance of fundamental skills (run-ning, jumping, throwing, catching, strik-ing, and kicking) increases in a rather con-sistent fashion for both boys and girls dur-ing the elementary school years. Diagram 1illustrates that performance for these skillsincreases at each age level for boys and girls

up to 11 years. While the average perfor-mance of the boys is slightly better than thegirls, there is much overlap between thesexes with girls' performance frequentlyPxceeding that of the boys. Most peoplebelieve that the motor performance differ-ences between boys and girls before age 11is due to different cultural expectations formales and females. Girls may not be ex-pected to learn and perform the skills aswell: 4 is hoped,Awever, that recent fed-eral laws (Title IX) which do not allow-dis-crimination on the basis of sex will havepositive effects on girls' participation insports.

Beginning at about 11 or 12 years of.age,,the boys' performance goes up raPidlywhile the performance of girls begins tdstabilize. This is due to both physical andcultural (home and community influence)factors. When a boy reaches puberty, largequantities of the hormone testosterone arepresent in his body. Testosterone promotesmuscular development and the strengthen-ing of bones as well as the secondary sexcharacteristics of whiskers, a deeper voice,and genital 'development. While smallamounts of testosterone .re present ingirls, it does not lead to excessive muscular

Boys

Girls

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

AGE

Diagram 1. Age and gender differences1n performance of fundamental motor skills.,(estimated curve).

Q r,Ar

MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION 23

development. Thc musLular developmentin boys improv es, motor performancew here the rapid application of strength(called pow er) is important. Thus, skills likerunning, jumping, throwing, etc., showrapid gains during this time of develop-ment.

Girls' performance begins to level off atabout 11 or 12 years of age. As girls reachpuberty and start to look more likeztheirmothers, their bodies begin to have ahigher percentage of fat. This in combina-tion with the lack of hormone-related mus-cle devaiipment- tends-to -keep_sirls_Lpey:formance on power tasks substaatiallybelow that of boys after puberty. Neverthe-less, cultural factors are basically responsi-ble for the leveling of performance. Manygirls no longer participate and practicemotor skills or specific seoyts skills. Asmore and more girls participate in sportand exercise on a regular basis after pu-berty, performance should increase.

Factors that influence skill develop-ment. A number of items influence thenormal development and learning of motorskills. Physical fitness tends to vary onlyslightly among younger children but canplay a substantial role beginning at aboutthe fourth grade. If you cannot run for verylong or if you are weak, there may be manyskills you will unsuccessfully perform. ifyou are tired after 2-3 minutes of running,for instance, no matter how skillful you arein soccer, you won't be a very successful,player. In this instance your cardiovascularendqrance keeps you from effectiv/elydemonstrating the skills. Look carefully atthe sports that interest you. Is your physicalfitness level restricting your success? Aftercompleting this chapter you will be in amuch better position to answer/ this ques-Jion and take action based upon your re-sponse.

Motor abilities are also important inlearning sports skills. Most people believemotor abilities such as/hand-eye coordition and balance_pie inherited. Somepeople have morebility than others. Yoursuccess in whatever sport(s) undertaken isdirectly related tO your motor abilities.While you may improve your coordinationin specific sports skills (hitting the baseball,

for example) by continued practice, yo;.1would probably do better to pick a sportinwhich hand-eye coordination is not so/im-portant (swimming, for example), if youreye-hand coordination is not good.

We've talked a good bit about de,velopingfundamental motor skills like throwing, run-ning, jumping, etc. Once the s/kills are de-veloped during elementary, sehool, youshould apply them to specific. sports. Eventhough you may have a/good overhandthrowing motion, it iakes practice to applythis motion to efficiently throw a baseball orfootball. Spend much pf your practice timein the correct perforynanceof the specificskills for the sport(s) you choose. This con-tinued practice, .calfed over-learning, allowsyou to perform the skill in an automatic waywithout having to think about the parts ofthe movemenf. This overlearning of thecorrect move/inent in a variety of situationsis what w, strive for in sport and whatpractice is/all about. 9

How pleople learn skills. When learninga new motor skill or practicing one alreadyknown, both the nervous and muscularsystepts are involved. Suppose you ar,elearning to hit a tennis ball with a forehandstroke. Think about all the things involyed.Fiyst the tennis racket is like a 2 1/2 footeAtension of your arm. You must learn togrip it properly, swing it through a correctarc, turn the racket face at the correct angle,apply the proper amount of force to theswing, Watch the tennis ball coming to you,decide where to hit the bakon the otherside of the net, and then execute all of theseindividual acts with correct timing. Howcould anyone think all sport skills are phys-ical? The brain and nervous systems are the keyfactors in controlling movements.

We frequently refer to the brain's func-tion as an information processing systemwith three major components. The first iscalled a sensony store where incoming infor-mation is held very briefly; in the case of thetennis forehand the eyes send signals to the

ain about the oncoming ball. In addition,the uscles and joints send signals to thebrain out the position of various bodyparts, ar s, trunk, etc. Much of thisinformation is taken from sensory store andused by the second component called


short-term store (STS). STS is where every-thing happens. We integrate all of theseincoming signals to make sense of them.

The third component is called long-termstore (LTS1 and is where information is keptfor long periods of time. For instance, youhave a plan in LTS to control your arms,feet, and trunk for performing the forehandstroke in tennis. This plan has been built upfrom all the times the stroke was done be-fore. People who have learned this strokecorrectly and practiced it numerous timeshave a very good plan that they can usewithout thinking about it. However if justlearning this stroke, the plan is being de-veloped and probably.. has many errors.When hitting a tennis ball, the plan must beadjusted for all of the signals received fromthe senses, i.e., how fast the tennis ball iscoming, the player's position on the court,and where the ball is to be hit. This allhappens.in

Once the plan is taken from LTS and.adjusted in STS for all the current signalsfrom the senses, then the plan is §et intooperation, and the stroke is performed.You are then able to see the results of thisstroke and make corrections in the plan ifneed be, so that performance will be betternext time.

Information processing systems worklike this to control all motor skills. Twothings are important to remember:1. For slow movements or movements that

take a long time, your plan can be cor-rected for errors along the way. How-ever, if the movement is very rapid, theplan is quickly completed and correc-tions can only be made for the next timeyou a ttempt the skill. For example,when you are going to catch a fly ball insoftball, you make adjustments as theball is coming toward you. You can con-tinue to make these adjustments untiljust before the ball arrives at your glove.But when you are hitting a ball thrownvery fast, you don't have time tc. makeany more adjustments in your plan oncethe bat swing is begun. That's why acurve will fool you when you are expect-ing a straight ball.

2. The basic objective of learning nearly allmotor skills is to make them as automa-

tic as possible. This means you don'thave to think about the parts of the skillitself but can concentrate on other as-pects of the situation. In the case of theforehand s,troke in tennis, the stroke it-self should be automatic so that you canthink about your position on the courtand where you want to hit the tennisball. You must practice a skill manytimes in all the specific situations it willbe used to obtain the automatic controlof the movement.

To summarize, the most important factorin learning and performing a movement isto develop a good plan. A good movementplan comes froM correct instruction, effec-tive informaiion about the outcome of eachtry at the skill, and sufficient practice tomake the plan automatically occur whenyou need it.

One of the most important consid-eracions when learning a new skill is beingable to determine when mistakes are madein the movement. Results of mistakes canbe frequently seen, e.g., you hit the vol-leybpll into the net or out-of-boUnds. Butwhat if the plan for the movement was in-correct? Your physical education teacherwill help you analyze error's in your move-ment. However, you should also learn todo this yourself. Sometimes you will bepracticing or playing at times other than inphysical education class and there will beno one to give you error information. Try tobe aware of where your body parts are asthe.skill is performed so that you can feel ifsomething is wrong. Remember how it feltto do the skill correctly and try to make thenext movement in the correct way. Thisability to self-analyze and self-correct is veryimportant and will speed up your learningof the skill. But remember, everyone's styleis little different, so what works for some-one else may not work for you. Differencesin style do not mean poor form, just thatyour body type as well as other consid-erations may suggest slightly differenttechniques. The main thing is don't get dis-couraged, just continue to seek good instruc-tion and practice; skills will improve so youcan have fun when you play and receive thepositive health benefits, both physical andmental, of regular exercise.


EVALUATING YOUR SKILLS

The remainder of this chapter is designedto aid you in evaluating your skills to de-termine the sport(s) in which you are likelyto be most successful. Of course none of thetechniques we are suggesting are fool,proof. But we believe if you will use themand judge yourself fairly,,you can find 'asport or physical activity in which you canbe successful, have fun, and get regularexercise on a lifetime basis.

Physical fitness components. Cardiovas-cular fitness involves the proper function-ing of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels. Itis the ability to adjust to and recover fromthe stress of exercise. Examples of indi-viduals having very high degrees of car-diovascular fitness are marathon runners,long-distance Irack runners and swim-mers, and cras-country skiers.

The term aerobic Lapacity is used in con-nection with cardiovascular fitness. It refersto the maximum amount of oxygen you canconsume per minute. In oth,er words, yourability to vigorously exercise for a pro-longed period of time is determined byyour body's ability to deliver oxygen to theactie muscles and organs. Althou&h car-diovascular fitness (and aerobic capacity)can be improved through excicise, theaerobic capacity is largely determined byheredity.. This is why some people are justnaturally better-suited for dist.mce runningthan others. The saying that "great runnersare born, not made" arises from this fact.

Cardiovascular fitne..ss can be measuredin several ways. TI.e most accurate mea-surement is done in a laboratory in which

.an individual runs on a treadmill w hile theair that is breathed out is analyzed for oxy-gen and carbon dioxide content. Themaximum amount of oxygen that,can betaken m per minute is thus determined(aerobic capacity). Since this way ofmeasuring caidiovascular fitness requiresexpensive equipment, other methods aremore commonly used, such as step testsand distance runs. In the step tests, a per-son steps up and down on a bench at aspecific rhythm for so, era! minutes. Thepulse rate is .then counted either im-

mediately afterward and/or during re-covery.

Distance runs are most frequently usedin testing for cardiovascular fitpess. A gen-eral recommendation is that a distance runshould involve at least five minutes of run-ning. Consequently the most common dis-tance runs are the 1-mile, 11/z-mile, 2-mile,the 9-minute run, ahd the 12-minute run, Aperson who has a higher degree of cai-diovascular fitness will be able to ruri a cer-tain distance, such as a mile, in a shortertime or cover more distance }ñ a set timeperiod, sucii as 12 minutes, than a less fitindividual.

Strength is a very important aspect ofphysical fitness. Simply stated, it is the abil-ity to exert force. Strength is a necessarycomponent in,,most sports and is also animportant element in carrying out one'sdaily activities effectively and efficiently. Itcan be demonstrated in various ways..forceexerted during movement, such as lifting abarbell, is dynamic (isotonic) strength.Isometric strength is force exerted againstan immovable object, such as pushing orpulling against a bar that is bolted to thewall.

Dynamic, or isotonic, strength has.beenmeasured mostly by the use of barbells audweights. A 1 RM means one 'repetition'maximum, which is the greatest amount ofweight a person can 'lift one time. Strength-training with weights utilize multiple RMs.For example, a person utilizing an 8 RM setwould select a weight that he or she couldonly lift 8 times, As the individual growsstronger the number of times the weightcan be lifted ...(repetitions) increases. Whenthe person can lift it 12 times, more weightis added so that the maximum number ofrepetitions drops to 8 again. This is thebasis for progressive resistance weight-training. A major advantage of weight-lift-ing is that measurement, i.e., knowledge ofresults, is automatic.

Isometric strength-training is used tosupplement dynamic training. For exam-ple, we are not equally strong through theentire range of a movement. In otherwords, a heavier weight can be held betterat hip level than when it's held at shoulderlevel because of mechanical leverage. In lift-

ft

,r

t.


in& weiihts, you can only lift as much ascan.11eluindled at the weakest point. There-.

fore if you concentrate at that "stickingpoint" by maximum isometric contraction,strength, can be improved at that specificplace, andlhus 'More weight can be liftedthiotighout the entire range of the move-m*en I. ,. -Isornetkic strength-training is also done inhome.exdreise programs through pushiag

,and pulliffg against- doorways, walls, andother iiirmpvable objects.'°In isokinetic strentli-training, an indi-vidiial applies maximum exertion through-out a full range of mbtion. An example

4 ould be-if you pushed as hard as you.... 'Could on a car as it was being raised on a

hydraul&'lift in 'a service station. No matter,"how hard you push, the steady movementof die, car would not be affected. Some ma-c4ines are nQw used in strength-training

.that automatically adjust so as to provide,.. .$

resistance equal to the force being appliedthroughout the range of motion. This type

. Of training supposedly cbmbines the ad-,. vantages of botll isotonic and isometric.. ...training:,

Muscular endurance is repeating a move-ment which requires less than a maximum

., effort. One .typically thinks of exercises*suctins sit-ups and push-ups as represent-ing muscular endurance activities. There

0are many daily tasks that involve muscularendurance. Raking leaves, hammeringnails, painting, shoveling, and scrubbingfloors are but a few examples of such tasks.

Muscular endurancejs related to car-diovascular endurance and also tostrength, buirthey are not the same abilities.For example, a person may have high car-diovascular endurance and In, able to runmany miles b,ut can do very few push-ups,or a person mAy be able to lift a very heavyweight but canno i do many sit-ups. Obvi-ously there are a mber of factors thatinfluence the relationship between muscu-lar endurance. and strength and cardiovas-cular fitness. \

Although muscular endurnce seems tobe a rather simple clear-cut concept, themeasurement of it is not. For example,push-ups supposedly measure muscularendurance of the arms and shoulders. Yet if

Q c-0

a person isn't strong enough to push hisbody weight up more than one or twotimes, we -can't really say. that the personhas no endurance. The same can be saidabout pull-ups, sit-ups, parallel bar dips,etc. Because of the involvement of strength,these test items are often referred to asmeasures of strength and endurance.Nevertheless, an exercise cannot be con-sidered as endnrance unless it is submaxi-mal (requires less than your greatest effort).In other words, you have to do it re-peatedly.

Flexibility is another part of physicalfitnessthe ability to move the body andits parts through a .,y.ide i'ange of motion. Itis important in one's mobility in athletics, inthe avoidance of injuries, and in posture.

When a person gets "out of shape," oneof the first things noticed is Keduced flexibil-ity. This is because our muscles shortenwhen we do not regularly move andstretch. A person with reduced flexibility ismore likely to suffer a "pull" or strain whenhe moves suddenly or beyond the normalrange of motion. For this reason, teachers/coaches usually- include a number ofstretching exercises as part of any trainingprogram.

Flexibility, is quite specific to the indi-vidual parts of the body. For example, anindividual who is very flexible in the trunkand hips as evidenced by being able to bendover with the knees straight and touch thehands to the floor with ease, may.be very"tight" in the shoulders, or, vice versa.Also, there is what is called dynamic flexibil-ity, in which mobility is demonstratedrapidly, and static flexibility, which is aslow steady stretching movement. In mostsports, dynamic flexibility is more impor-tant than static flexibility.

Flexibility has been measured in anumber of ways. One of the most commontests is whether or not you can bend overand touch your toes, keeping the kneesstraight. This is "non-specific" in that it ispass or failyou either can or you cannot.We can be a little more exacting if we put aruler between the feet and measure how farfrom the floor you can reach, or by havingthe person stand on a bench we can mea-

-


sure haw far beyond toe level one canreach.

The sit-and-reach test essentially mea-sures the same aspect of flexibility as thestanding bend and reach. Most testers pre-fer to use the sit- and-reach. There are sev-eral other simple measures of flexibility thatrequire only a ruler or tape measure. Forexairiple, trunk (and neck) flexibility can bemeasured by having the person to be testedlie face down with the hands behind hishead. Someone holds the hips down on themat while the person arches back as far aspossible and holds this position momentar-ily while the tester measures from the matto the chin. A measurement for shoulderflexibility is done with the person lying facedown, arms stretched out in front, holdinga stick, such as a yardstick, in both hands.Then, with the chin touching the mat, theperson raises his arms as high as possibleoff the mat. The distance from the mat tothe stick is used as an indication of shoulderflexibility.

Flexibility of specific joints such as theankle, knee, elbow, etc.; is sometimes as-.sessed by physiotherapists and athletictrainers using a protractor-type devicecalled a" goniometer. This is often done tomeasure the patient's progress in regainingrange of motion in A joint following inactiv-ity due to injury, such as having been in acast. There are also more accurate and ex-pensive instruments available for measur-ing flexibility in laboratory research.

MOTOR FITNESS COMPONENTS

Power is unquestionably one of the mostimportant elements in athletics. _Power isthe ability to exert maximum force in theshortest period of time. The explosivecharge of the football player, the greatthrust of the shot putter, the long drive offthe tee in golf, the mighty sy, ing of thebaseball bat, and the knockout punch in .

boxing illustrate power in sports. In fact,most of the popular teani and individualsports are predominantly "powe:-oriented."

Evidence of natural power, explosive-ness, force, etc., is one of the first things acoach looks for in new players in many

sports. Pre-sgason workouts and in-seasonpractice drills focus heavily on power de-velopment.

The measurement of power is not an easytask. Power is comprised of both strengthand speed, but it is the coordinated combi-nation of the two abilities that actually con-stitutes power performance. In other wordsa person may be tremendously strong andyet not be as powerful as a person of lesserstrength. Furthermore, increased strengthwill generally improve power but certainlynot in direct proportion.

The standing broad jump and the verticaljump have often been used as power mea-surements. Less frequently, tests of suchskills as the medicine ball throw, shot put,stair climb, and rope pull have also beenutilized as power tests. Nearly all of thesetests are quit5.easy to give and are accuratemeasures. However, as with most tests,they are specific to the part of the body thatis primarily involved. For example, thestanding broad jump primarily measuresthe power of the legs, while the rope pull orseated Machine ball throw tests the powerof the arms and shoulders.

Speed is another important aspect of anumber of sports. Speed of movement islargely innate, which means that it is hered-

,1itary. You are either fast or you're not.'Speed of movement, such as running, canbe improved to a small degree by the prac-tice of proper starting techniques andperhaps the development of better mechan-ics of movement.*

Generally, speed is measured by some .

short run such as the 50-yard dash, the100-meter run, etc. In football, the 40-yarddash has gained widespread popularity asthe measure of speed for that sport, al-though probably a much shorter distancesuch as 5 yards would be considerably moreappropriate.

Agility is the ability to change directionrapidly with a high degree of accuracy. Arunner in football who is able to dodge,start, and stop quickly, and skillfully

'The start of a speed of movement task involves thereaction to some itimulu s. such as the starter's gun orthe command "go," or the movement of some personor object, will be mentioned under the heading ofReaction Time.

9,1

28 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR.THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT,

change direction displays outstanding agil-ity. In fact some individuals without greatstraightaway running speed are still veryeffective because of their ability to shifttheir body weight and change direction

< . quickly and accurately.Agility does not have to involve running.

It can also be shown by rapid changes inbody position, such as in gymnastics, di-ving, and wrestling.

Running tests of agility, commonly givenin practice drills in athletics, relate quitehighly to power. This is understandable be-cause of the explosiveness that is requiredin many agility drills that call for rapid startsand acceleration. Obviously there are manydifferent kinds of agility, such as zigzagruns, shuttle runs, squat-thruSts, and backpedaling, that are part of the conditioningand practice drills in athletics. A goodteacher or coach will use agility drills (andtests) that involve the types of movementsnecessary for tliat particular sport. ,

Balance is the ability to maintaih one'sequilibrium. It is an important element irycarrying out our daily activities effectivelyand efficiently. Balance is an important partof the body movements required in manysports as well.

There are different kinds of halance. Onekind is called dynmnic balance which is theability to maintain proper body positionwhile moving. Most sports require thiskind of balance, but in many differentways. Obviously ice skating, roller skating,skiing, and all forms of dance are excellentexamples of activities which demanddynamic bplance. Any sport which in-volves agility and running, such as football,soccer, basketball, baseball, etc. also in-volves dynamic balance.

Static balance is the type oNbalance in

which a stationary position must be main-tained for a certain period of time. All of the

events in gymnastics require static balance.Often in sports, static balance immediately-follows movement such as when the bas-ketball player leaps high to grab a rebound-or pass and must land and keep from travel-ing, when the gymnast-who turns a flip and

must land and maintain balance on thebeam, and in bowling, shot putting, discus,and javelin throwing where the perforiber

(gri

must suddenly stop after release and main-tain his balance to keep from going over thefoulline.

Another form of-balancingability involves balancing an object either whenmoving-, such as trying to avoid spillingcoffee while carrying a cup across a room,or when stationary, such as balancing thecup on your knee whileseated. This kind ofbalance is not too prevalent in sports, yet itpoints out again the great amount of spe-cificity of performance.

Because of the extreme amount of spe-cificity, tests of balance are rarely includedas a part of fitness tests. One could, how-ever, measure certain kinds of balance bysuch tasks as walking on a beam, by stand-ing on the ball of one foot as long as, possi-ble, and by tumbling stunts such asheadstands and handstands.

Reaction lime is a criticai part of athleticperformance. Reaction time is the time-ittakes a person to react or move after astimulus hts been given. The stimuluscould be any number of things such as thestarting gun in a race, the snap count infootball, the iiihvement of an opponent, thecrack of the bat in baseball, etc. Success inmany sports depends on one's abpity torecognize the correct stimulus and to reactaccorllingly.

Although the definition is very simple,reaction time is quite complex. Many thingsinfluence reaction time. For example, thetype of stimulus (whether a sound, a sight,or a touch) makes a difference in howquickly you will react. The intensity of thestimulus, i.e., whethera loud sound, brightlight, or a slap, will affect reaction. Themovement or series of movements one hasto perform after reacting greatly influencesthe speed of reaction. A person ,can reactmuch faster if all that is requiredis to stepon the car brake when the signal light turnsyellow. On the other hand, if an individualhas to perform a complicated or delicateManeuver, the reaction time will usually beconsiderably slower. An important pointhere is that practice and skill attainment inthe required movement, or task, willgreatly improve the speed of reaction. Thisis the reason why student pilots practiceemergency procedures over and over until

C.

MOTOR

the procedures betome virtually automatic,so that when an emergcnty occurs the pilotcan react instantly without having to pauseand thinLof_the_sequencc_ofsteps.

A very similar situation is present insports. Through countless hours of prac-tice, the athlete develops more and moreskill in the various aspects of the sport, thusdecreasing the need to think about whathag to be done, which in turn enables afaster response.

The measurement of reaction time in theresearch laboratory is done with electricaltimers, which permit measurement of re-sponse to different kinds.and intensities ofstimuli and simpleand Complex responses.A very simple measure of reaction, can beaccomplished using a yardstick. In thismethod, one utilizes the law of constantacceleration of free falling bodies(gravity)and merely converts distance to time.,

The tester holds the yardstick at the topand lets it hang ketween4 the person'sthumb and index finger. The upper surfaceof the thumb should be aligned with the4-inch 'mark. The person being tested looksat the 8-inch mark and is told to react bycatching :he stick when it starts to fall. The,tester says "ready," and drops the stick,varying the time between "ready" and therelease. The distance the stick falls before itcan be caught is 'changed to time by theformula

(distances in inches)time (seconds)5 6(32)

For example, if thf, stick cliops 6 inches,the time that elapsed before the sajectcould react, and pinch the fingers would be.18 seconds.

16 inches6(32)

0.18 secondsNJ

Anticipation timing involves the predic-tion of when an object such as a ball, anopponent, a shuttlecock, etc., is going toare. ve at a particular point. The outfielder inbaseball must determine where the fly ballis going to land (and IA hen) to move underit in time to make the catch. The tennisplayer cOnstantly has to make decisions a3

SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION 29

to where and shen to move and the foot-work required to enable him to be in posi-tion (not too close to the ball, not too faraway)-to return-the-opponent's shot:

This is quite complex. There is much thatis unknown about this kind of decision-making. Teacherlcoaches constantly stress"keeping your eye on the ball." Yet, inmany instances, we are simply not able tokeep our eye on the ball and rnalie the nec-essary movement. For,example, to watch apitched baseball all the way to the plate isimpossible. Consequently,'we must decideWhether we are going to swing, and if so,start the swing sometime before the ballarrives and hope that we have correctly-judged where the ball is going to be and theexact instant when it will be over the plate.The faster our reaciton time the more timewe have before we have to begin the swing.Moreover, the speed with which we canwhip the bat around can also be achiantage-ous.

The more we practice-and the more expe-rience we have in a sport, the more "clues"we pick up that help us in anticipation tim-ing. In tennis, for example, such things aswhere the opponent is looking, the place-ment of his feet, body movements, theswii.g of the racket (its trajectory andspeed), and the sound of the ball as it isstruck gives us information that will influ-ence our prediction as to the flight of theball. Naturally we are sometimes badlyfooled by some of these clues. A goodplayer often tries to take advantage of theuse of 'clues by., deliberately looking inanother direction and trying to disguise theforce and path of the swing.

The saying, ' 'keep your eye on the ball,"is good advice even if it isn't always possi-

'ble. Undoubtedly as a result, the performerconcentrates More on the moment of con-tact, maybe even creaIing an illugion ofseeing the bat or racket strike the ball.

OTHER MOTOR ABILiTIES

Skillful performance as is seen .in ath-letics, dance, crafts, and many daily ac-tivities requires coordination of differentparts of the body during inovement. Sincethere are different kinds of movement, it

30 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDAY SCHOOL STUDENT

'iollowa that there are. different kinds ofcoordination. Some tasks primarily involvethe coordination of the hand and arm inconjunction with vision such as in shootinga basketball, pitching in baseball, passing afootball, and in bowling. These skills re-quire eye-hand coordination.

A number of sports involve skillftlfmoyements of the feet and legs in whicheye-foot coordination is necessary. Place kick-ing and punting in football and dribblingwith the feet in soccer are examples of theneed for this type of coordination.

The term general or total body coordinationis sometimes used to refer to the simultane-dus movements required of the total bodyas in a gymnastics routine, catching a passin football, dribbling and shooting a lay-upin basketball, throwing the javelin, polevaulting, high jumping and hurdling intrack, and on and on. One thing to bear inm:nd is the specificity of performance andconsequently, HI?. specificity of coordina-c'tion.-We are prone to generalize too mucl-and assume that because someone demon-strates good coordination in a sport that hewill also be good in another or all sports.While there may be some similarities inmovernent patterns and basic skills in sev-eral different sports, success in one sportdoes not guarantee success in another.

'IOW CAN YOU PREDICT IN WHICHSPORTS YOU MIGHT SUCCEED?

Obviously, it is impossible to predict suc-cess in sports with any degree of certainty.There are simply too many factors in-volved. Instead, one can try to narrow therange of probabilities in accordance withone's abilities and characteristics.

It might be easier to rule out sports forwhich one is obviously not suited. For in-stance; a person who is tall andlor heavyshould not dream of becoming a jockey. Bythe same token,.an individual who is smalland slow will probably be unsuccessful infootball. Hence, genetics (heredity) doesplace limitations with regard to the chanzesof succeSs in a number of sports. We shouldhasten to add, however, that there is al-ways the exception. High levels of drive,ambition, and perseverance have been

4 U*

known to make up for limitations in sizeand natural abilities.

In the following section, some basicphysical_perfotrnance tests are_described.All of them can be done with very little-equipment, and the directions,areYou may have performed these tests at onefime or another in your physical educationclasses.

These te^4.- represent measures of motorfitness which are basic to athletic perfor-mance. Naturally, they should not be takentoo seribusly. In other words, just becaliseyou are.below a-verage on-a test does notnecessanly mean that you are hopelesslyweak in that area. These tests should,bethought of as mere indicators of abilities incertain areas. Remember, the variousabilities such as speed, power, agility, andendurance that arc involved in a sport arequite specific in the way in which they areutilized. Nevertheless, a profile can be constructed on these different kinds of abilitieswhich may aid in predicting whether youare better-suited for some sports thanothers.

TESTING YOURSEI:F ONMOTOR PERFORMANCE

One-yniIe run (cardiovascular endur-ance). It is best if you have a 440-yard trackfor this test, but the mile run can be donepractically anywhere that you can lay offthe correct distance. The only equipmentnecessarY is a stopwatch or any wristwatchthat can indicate the elapsed time to thenearest second.

When ready, start the watch (note theexact time to the second) as you start to run.Stop the stopwatch as you cross the finishline (or note the time to the exact second ona wristwatch). Note: it is important that youpractice distance running for awhile to getinto some kind of shape as well as establish-ing the best pace for yourself. To try to get arealistic measure of your ability to run amile if you haven't been practicing is awaste of time.

50-yard dash (running speed). Measureoff exactly 50 yards, preferably on a run-ning track. A stopwatch is needed to thatyou can record the time to the nearest tenthof a second.


You can score yourself or have somebodytime you. In either case, the watch shouldbe started as soon as you start to move anestopped at the exact instant that you crossthe finish line. Take at least two.trials anduse the best score.

Standing broad jump (explosive power).All that is needed for this test is a yardstickor tape measure and a flat surface to jumpon: You can score yourself, but it probablyis a little easier to have someone spot yourexact heel placement in the event that youmove after landing.

Stand with Your feet comfortably apart,toes, just behind a startifig line. Swing yourarms back and bend ,your knees; thenspring forward as far as you can swingingthe arms forward.

The measurement is taken from the start-ing line to the heel nearest the starting line.In other words, if you land with one footslightly ahead of the other, the heel of thetrailing foot is u...,c1 as the point of landing.Take three trials and use your longest jumpmeasured in feet and inches as your score.

Push-up (muscular strength and endur-ance). No equipment is necessary for thistest. Begin by lying down with your cheston the floor and your hands about shoulderwidth apart. Push up to a straight arm sup-port and return keef3ing your body stiaightthroughout-. The total number of repe-titions without rest is the score.

Bent knee push-up (muscular strengthand endurance). The'only difference in thebent knee push-up is that the weight issupported by the hands and knees ratherthan the hands and feet. The starting posi-tion is thus hiodified to the extent that theknees are bent while lying face down. Asyou push to a straight arm support, thebody must be kept straight from shouldersto knees.

Shuttle run (running agility). You need agood smooth running surface such as a s

gymnasium floor with lines 30 feet apart.The starting position is on the hands andknees with the hands just behind the start-ing line.

A starter gives the commands, "get set,gor On the command "go," scramble toyour feet and sprint to the other line that is30 feet away. Touch your hand to the floor

just beyond the line and turn around andrace back to the other line, touch the flooragain just over that line and then sprintbpck across the starting line. (Hence, yourun between the lines,4 times and touch ahand to the floor 3 times.)

The timer starts the watch on the com-mand "go" and stops the watch as yourchest crosses the finish line. The score is tothe nearest tenth of a second. Take threetrials and use your fastest time as the score.

Squat-thrust (body movement agility).A timer with a stopwatch should help youtake this test. Start in a standing position.When ready move to a squat position withhands on the floor, thrust the legs back-ward to a push-up position with weightresting on the hands and feet, return to thesquat position, and rise to a standing posi-tion.

Each of the 4 parts of the squat-thrustcounts one point. In other words, one com-plete squat-thrust is worth four points. Thescore is the number of points acquiredwithin ten seconds. The timer starts thewatch on the command "go" and stops thewatch at the end of 10 seconds, at whichpoint, he yells "stop!" Percorm three trialsand use the best score.

DEVELOPING YOUR)PERFORMANCE PROFILE

Belovir are some standards of perfor-mance in the six tests based on many scoresfrom boys and girls approximately 15 yearsof age. You can plot your own profile ac-cording to how you scored in each of tiletests.

Sam2le Profile. A 15-year-old boy who is5'6" tall and weighs 130 pounds had thefollowing scores. Mile (7.48), 50-yard dash(6.9), Standing Broad Jump (8'0"), Push-ups (55), Shuttle Run (10.1), and Squat-thrusts (32).

In this example, the boy demonstratedexcellent explosive power, muscularstrength and endurance, ar4.1 body move-meta agility. His cardiovascular endur-ance/ running speed, and running agilitywere fair to average. With the boy's size, heprobably would not excel in a sport such asfootball or pe,rhaps basketball or baseball.

AV-,

32 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARYSCHOOL STUDENT

Excellent Good Average Fair

1-mile Run

50-yard Dash

Standing Broad Jump

Push-ups

Shuttle Run

Squat-thrusts

He also would probably be at a disadvan-tage in track and field. On the other hanhe may be admirably suited fcr sports sucltas gypmastics or wrestling in which hisstrength, muicular endurance, explosivepower, and body movement agility wouldbe helpful. This is merely a very limitedexample of how motor fitness abilities withrespect to possible sports participationmight be rated. There are, of course, manyother sports in which th e boy's abilities mayor may not be well-suited. Remember also,that one's desire and determination canplay a very important role in whether or nota person will be successful in any sport.

In this chapter we have tried to describesome of the processes that are involved indeveloping motor skills and some of thernabilities that are necessary for success insports, dance, and other activities. By test-ing yourself on some of these importantphysical abilities you should be betterequipped to decide what sport(s) might bebest suited for you.

Regardless of the chosen sport and forwhat purpose (recreation, fitness, or var-sity competition),it is selected, it will takelots and lots of practice before you will behighly skilled. In addition, as you get moreskilled you will get more enjoyment out ofplaying the sport. People usually will notplay a sport.for fun if they are very poor

42

POOr

performers unless they can see that they areimproving. For example, tennis isn't muchfun if the ball is constantly hit into the net orout-of-bounds. The ball has to be kept inplay. But don't get discouraged right away.rnyrovement comes with practice, andwith improvement comes enjoyment andsatisfaction.

Practice regularly. Try to evaluate prog-ress so that you can chart improvement. Intennis,_for example, count the number oftimes the ball can be hit against the wall andthe number of times the ball is served intoeach service court. If this is regularly done,improvement is obvious. The same kind ofself-testing can be done in any sport.

Also, remember that by improving motorOilities such as strength, endurance, flexi-bility, etc., skill performance can be im-proved:For example, if you get tired veryeasily, reactions and speed of movementare slowed, and you can't get into theproper position quickly, which means youcan't make a good play. ay improvingstamina you will find thai you can play ahigher skill level for a longer time.

So get in shape, listen to your instructor,or coach and practice, practice, practice'.You'll find that the joy of effort, the thrill ofthe challenge, and pride of accomplish-ment will carry over and enhance all as-pects of your life.

MOTOWSKILL DEVELOPMENT ArID EVALUATION 33

Table 1.Standards for Fifteen Yearold Boys

Excellent Good Average Fair Poor

1. Cardiovascular Endurance 6 min. & under 6:10-6:40 6:50-7:20 7:30-8:10 8:25 & over(1-mile run)

2. Running Speed 6.2 sec. & under 6.4-6.7 6.8-7.0 7.1-7.3 7.5 & over(50-yard Dash)

3. Explosive Power 7'9" & over 7'6"-7'1" 7'0"-6'6" 6'5"-6'1" 5'10" & under(Standing Broad Jump)

4. Strength and Endurance 48 & over 45-38 37-32 31-28 25 & under(Push-ups)

5. Agility-Running, 9.4 sec. & under 9.5-9.9 10.040.3 10.410.e 11.0 & over(Shuttle Run)

6. Agility-Body Movement 32 & over 31-28 27-16 152412 10 & over(Squat-thrust)

Standards for Fifteen Year-old GirlsExcellent Good Average Fair Poor

1. Cardiovascular Endurance 7:10 min. & under 8:209:15 9:20-10:30 10:45-12:15 12:30 & overt.(1-mile Run)

2. Running Speed 7.3 sec. & under 7.5-7.9 8.0:8.3 8.4-9.0 9.1 & over(50-yard dash)

3. Explosive Power 6'3" & over '6'1"-5'7" 5'6"-5'1" 5'0"-4'7" 4'6" & under(Standing Broad Jump)

4. Strength and Endurance 31 & over 30-25 24-13 12-7 6 & under(Bent Knee Push-ups)

5. Agility-Running 10.3 sec. & under 10&11.0 11.1-11.6 11.7-12.4. 12.5 ez over(Shuttle Run)

6: Agility-Body Movement 30 & pver 29-26 25-14 13-10 9 & tinder(Sejuat-thrust)

REFERENCES

For the StudentBonanno, D., and Dougherty, N. Understanding

and Assessing Human Movement. Minneapolis,MN: Burgess, 1980.

Corbin, C. B.; Dowell, .L. J.; Lindsey, R.; andTolson, H. Concepts in Physical Education. 2ded. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1974.

Fitness for Life. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresmanand Company.

Thomas, J. R., ed. Youth Sports Guide for Coachesand Parents. Washington, DC: AAHPER, 1977.

For the TeacherCorbin, C. B. A Textbook of Motor Development.

Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1980.

Johnson, B. L., and Nelson, J. K. Practical Mea-surements for Evaluation in Physical Education-3d ed. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess, 1979.

Nelson, J. K., andjohnson, Measurement ofPhysical Performance. Minneapolis, MN:Burgess, 1979.

Singer, R. N. Motor Learning and Human Perfor-mance. 3d ed. New York: MacMillan, 1980.

Thomas, J. R. "Acquisition of Motor Skills: In-formation Processing Differences betweenChildren and Adults." Research Quarterly forExercise and Sport 51 (1): 158-73.

Wickstrom, R. L. Fundamental Motor Patterns.Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1977.

-As

aim (p. 38)anchor (p. 36).arrow size (p.43)bow bite (p. 41)dominant eye (fr. 41)draw (p. 36).draw weight (p. 42)kisser button (p. 42)nocking point (p. 42)

to

t. 4.1.t

_

,

INTRODUCTION__Archery belongs to a select group of ac-

tivities that offer participation for all ages." Once the basic shooting skills of archery

have been learned, many enjoyable ac-tivities open up to the archer. For youngarchers, there are junior programs in somelocal clubs, a national Junior Olympic Ar-chery Development Program, and archeryprograms at some high Schools and col-leges. Regardless of age, bow hunting is anenfoyable pursuit. No matter what equip-ment is used, the basic shooting techniqueis the same.

For all archers, there are loc-alstate,regional, and national championships inwhich one can participate regardless of pro-ficiency in skill. If you work hard and trulybecome an expert, there are opportunitiesfor international and Olympic competition.On any of these levels, there are manystimulating experiences as well as chancesto meet people from many different areas.

The t5ought of expert shooting mayseem far away, but remember, no matterwhat level of achievement' is attained, it allstarts at the same pointlearning the basics.

SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES

When beginning to shoot, practice at 10yards until enough accuracy and confi-

*The material in this chapter is from the Guide for NewArchers available from the National Archery AsSocia-bon, 1750 E. Boulder Street, Colorado Springs, Col-

°orado 80909.

CHAPTER 3

Archery*S.

RUTH E. ROWE,National Archery Association,

Colorado Springs, COand

JULIA HEAGEY BOWERS,Millersville State College,

Millersville, PA

dence is attained to move farther from thetarget*. Remember that any arrow shot is yourresponsibility, whether it hits the target or not.

Stand so that an imaginary line thattouches the toes of both feet will, if ex-tended, go to the center of the target. This isa square stance. The feet should be shoul-der width apart with the weight evenly dis-tributed on both feet.

When confident enough to draw, an-chor, aim, and, let down with control, then /nock an arrow by placing the arrow nock on /the nocking point of the bowstring with the /index fletching away from the bow. Place/the fingers on the bowstring with the indefinger above the nocking point and the sec-s!ond and third fingers bclow the nockfngpoint. When shooting an arrow, the indexfinger is above the arrow and the othr twoare below. Place the string in the fst jointof the fingers.

Once the fingers are placed on/the string,extend the bow arm toward, the target,keeping it at about shoulder level. Thepressure of the bow upon/the bow handshould be on the bottom part of an imag-inery Y formed by the index finger and thethumb. The bow hand position is correct ifthe bow has no tendency to slide in anydirection when the hOw hand and fingersare relaxed. A relaxedbow hand means thatthe fingers can be moved when at full draw.The bow does9 have to be gripped orsqueezed; use the sling..

With the fipgers on the string, the bowarm extended, and the bow hand position

Aset,it is absólutely essential that the elbow

* *4

1,`", 45

r:


14:kW*:

.41

71174,_1,,

. joint of the bow arm be rotated downward,that is, the elbow joint is set so that the arm,if bent, will move in a plane parallel to thefloor, npt upward toWard the head. Thiscan be accomplished without changingeither the shoulder or wrist position aftersome practice. Admittedly, it feels awk-ward at, first,'but keep at it. It will be a lotless painful than hitting the elbow with thebowstring. Do not rotate the bow handoutward on the bow so that the main pres-sure of the bow is on the thumb. This won'tsolve the problem, and it will create moreproblems later. Practice this arm, positionby placing the hand on a wall and rotatingthe elbow. Note that the elbow of the draw-ing arm is in line with the arrow at shoulderlevel, not pointed downward. Now drawthe bowstring back, keeping the drawinghand relatively close to the bow arm..Theelbow of the drawing arm moves parallel tothe floor at ghoulder level. When the fulldraw is attained, anchor so that the chin istoUching the top of the indeic finger; the

V t.IV 46

Figure 2.

ARCHERY e

Figure 3.

Figure 4*

47

VS

//38 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARYSCHOOL STUDENT

./

Figure 5.

bow string touches the center of the chinand t/ife tip of the nose. If doing this ispn)blematic, fasten a kisser button onto thes,tring. Position it so that it touches the lips

/when the string hand is just touching under/ the chin.

Once a good anchoris attained, and pailare in a full draw; tighten the musclesin the center of the back between the shoul-der blades to hold the string gild arrow atfull draw. This does not necessarily in-crease the draw, but it does ensure that thearrow will not creep forward on the arrowrest.

While holding, aim by- placing the sighton the center of thetarget. For shooting atten yards, the sight should be about ,thesame distance fióin the arrow as the eye isfrom the chin. If practicing without an ar-row, let down after aiming.

Once yqz are aiming steadily, tightenthe back3.friusc1es a little more while re-leasing the bowstring. The release is sim-ply a relaxation of the fingers of the stringhandnothing more. Because the musclesgcross the baak have been' used, and thet 8

Figure 6.

weight has been released, the string armwill move away from the target and thehand along the neck in an involuntary mo-tion. Allow it to do so, and once the handhas stopped moving, maintain this af-terhold position until the arrow hits thetarget. Then relax and rest.

Figure 7.

When all arrows have been shot .pullthem from the target (or the ground, if thetarget was missed). Pull the arrows from -the target by placing the back of one handagainst the target, with a finger on eitherside of the arrow With the other hand,grasp the arrow cloM4he point of enti3/into the target and pull str ght eackward,making sure no one is be ind the body.Pulling directly backward is extremely im-portant to keep from bending aluminumarrows. Hold any arrows pulled ,underthe thumb of the hand that is afiainst thetarget, or place them in a quiver.

ARCHERY 39

If the arrow has buried in the target uppast the fletching, go behind the target andpull it the rest of the way through. Anarrow buried in the grass should be re-moved by finding the point and pulling itthrough the same direction it entered theground. Do not pull upward any more thannecessary as doing so will bend aluminumarrows, and may break wooden or fiber-glass arrows.

After the arrows have been shot and arekeeping on the target, it is likely that theywill be in a group, but not exactly in thecenter. Move the group by adjustingsightupward if the group is high, to theleft if the group is left, etc. Always move thesight in the same direction as the group isfrom the center of the target.

Self-testing fi1. Shoot two ends of six arrows from a ais-

tance of ten yards at a 36-inch target face.2. Students in grades 7-9 should have ten

hits on the 36-inch target face.' 3. Students in grades 10-12 should have

ten hits in the inner three circles of the36-inch target face.

NEW SHOOTER'S PROBLEMS

It may not seem easy or significant, butconcentration is extremely important toconsistent tierfoirmance. Quite Often some-one who is just beginning to shoot, willreally concentrate on every detail of theshooting sequence and shoot a really goodgroup. Then on the next end he/she willmentally relax, thinking that "Now I've fi-nally got it," and scatter the arrows. Afterthat he/she concentiates again and shootswell, only to relax later on and again shootpoorly. Concentrate on shooting eacharrow wtll. More groups can then be shot

. successfully and consistently., One of The first things many people at-

tempt to do is draw the bail string with thestring arm elbow pulling downward in-stead of in line with the arrow. It is impos-sible to shoot this way. The string arm mustbe in a line.that is parallel to the floor. Onceat full draw, raise the elbow to help get fulluse.of the back muscles that are necessary

for proper shooting.

V.

, 40 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDEN

OM

Figure 8.

FMI 9........

If the arrow falls off the rest while draw-ing the string back, it is most likely due toone of five things. curling the fingers and'orbending your wrist, pinching the nock ofthe arrow between the fingers, gripping thebow anclior improper bow hand position,not keeping the bowstring close to the bowarm when drawing, not using the musclesof the back and shoulder while drawing.

In the beginning there may be difficultygetting to a full draw. The primary reason isusually that the draw weight 8f the bow istoo heavy at this time. Be sure not to reaChfor the string with the head. When drawingthe string back the only movement shouldbe of the arm and the back muscles. Set thehead and don't move it after that. ,

Almost invariably at some point thearcher will receive a "bow bite"a bruiseon the elbow Or arm caused by the stringhitting the arm. To avoid this be sure theelbow is. turned down. But be carefuldon't allow either the shoulder or bowband to change position. Yet, it is possible,and this will prevent hitting of the bow armwith the bow string at release. Until the armcan be kept in the proper position, wear thelong armguard that covers the arm from the .wrisi to the bicep.

If missing the target consistently to oneside, keak to be sure that the proper eye isbeing dsed when aiming. Review the eyedominance test that is described at the be-ginning of the equipment section. If thedominant eye is not being used for aiming,it should be closed or covered.with an eyepatch.

For first attempts at shooting, it would bequite helpful to have a friend watch for anumber of potential trouble spots. If errorscan be eliminated now, shooting will bethat much more pleasurable. (If wotkingalone, try practicing 'the draw and anchorsequence withou? an arrow in front of a mir-ror. Do not release the string when doingthis, as it may damage the bow.) Be awareof:

Whether the bow is vertical. The arrowswill group in the direction in which thetop limb is tilted. This is called canting.Having your jaw closed on each shot. Ifthe teeth are not together on each shot,

,

ARCHERY 41,

the shot will be erratically high and-lowon the target.Whether standing straight. Body posi-

. tion should be just as it is if standing atattention with the arms at the sides. Donot lean toward or away from the target,

- nor forward or backward on the feet..The need for strins clearance. Be sure touse a square stance and keep the stringclose to the bow arm wheri coming to afull draw.Maintaining full draw. If the arrow is al-lowed to creep forward while at full drawa low shot will result (this cannot be ob-served if using a mirror, because there isno arrow),Peeking. If the head or bow arm is movedto watch the arrow in flight or watch it hitthe target, it is almost guaranteed thatmovement will occur before the arrowhas left the bow string or cleared thebow. Therefore the arrow will not hit thecenter of the target. Of course this willnot happen unless actually shooting, so .400s,

have someone observe the shooting.

.

EQUIPMENT

If learning to shoot and not wishing tohave equipment be a hindrance, some at-tention must be giyen to the type of equip-ment used. If buying equipment, choosingthe proper pieces need only involve a mod-est investment. The equipment describedhere is the minimum quality needed whilelearning. More expensive pieces are cer-tainly acceptable but not required at thispoint. If choices must be made in price andtherefore quality, preferably choose a betterarrow.

Before bluying or borrowing a .bow, de-termine the aominant eye since this willdecide whether the shot should be maderight or left-handed. Hold tne hands out infront with the fingers crossing one anotherand the thumbs on top of-each other. Thiswill create a hole between the thumbs andthe fingers. With both 'eyes open, look,,atsome object through this hole and, withmoderate speed, move the hands towardthe face, keeping the chosen object in view

,JhroikiZihe hole. If the hole comes to the41.1

51,

42 'PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

right eye, you are right eye dominant ahdneed to shoot a right-handed bow, and viceversa.

The bow _should be constructed ofwooaand fiberglass laminations. The solid wood

or solid fiberglass bows, while less expen-sive, will give an unpleasant recoil whenthe bow string is -released. The handle ofsuch bows is usually so poorly shaped thatit is almost impossible to have a consistentbow hand position. For these reasons it isdifficult to shoot well with these types ofbows.

For target shboting, the taller the archer,the longer the bow that is needed, forshorter people the reverse is true. A goodrule of thumb in selecting a bow length is to

UpperLimb

TipString otch

Back I Face

SightWindow

HandleRiser Shelf -0-

Handle

Lower.Limb

Recurve'

Diagram 1.1(t

glring

II

have the upper tip of the bow come be-tween the nese and chin when the bow isstrung and held vertically with the lowerbpset on the foot. If short, finding a bow of theproper length may be difficult, but try tocome as close as possible.

Therule for the draw weight of the bow isto keep it as light as possible, particularly ifborrowing or renting equipment. As themuscles become -conditioned and the-archer gets more proficient, increasing thedraw weight may produce better perfor-mance, but if the draw weight has to befought while learning to shoot, it is almostguaranteed that problems will develop thatwill only be a hindrance. As strange as itmay seem, the Muscles used for shootingproperly are seldom used in this mannerexceift for archery. So no matter how strongthe archer is, it is very likely that thosemuscles are not in the condition required toshoot well. Learn to shoot properly andgive the muscles a chance to becomestronger. Find a lightweight bow-15-25pounds for girls and 20-30 pounds for boys.

The bow string should be-made of dacronwith nylon servings. If the sti'ing is new,add a nocking point and a kisser button.These may already be on used or rentedbows; if not, add them.* Be careful with

Draw Length and BoW WeightMeasuring Point

ArrowPlate

-Nocking

Nock Locator Point

Arrow Rest

PivotPoint-

Handle

NockingHeight

Diagram 2.

<

String-A.

*The nocking point should be set 1/4" above perpen-dicular ,from the 1.est. Use a bow square or have aninstructor put a nock locator on the string. The kisserbutton ts attached to the string at a distance above thenecking point that allows it to touch the lipsor a tooth.

used strings they should neither befrayed nor worn on any part of the string.

The bow usually has ,an arrow rest al-ready installed. If It is necessary to add one,an adhesive-backed plastic rest is easy toapply and quite ,durable for normal shoot-ing. Also, some type of pressure point in-eluded with the rest is very important.

Some type of bow sight is necessary-,the style and cost of a sight depends uponpersonal taste and budget. If the bow hasstabilizers the can be used, they are notreally necessary at this point pnd iiTheymake the bOw too heavy to hold thrbugh-

-oul the practice session, do not use themuntil stronger.

The type of arrow chosen is a matter ofpreference but remember they are an in-vestment and if possible an arrow that willbe durable and that wilt perform wellshould De chosen.

Index Feather Nock(Vane)

A

7- Arrow Heador Point Shaft

tCrest ofCresting

Fletching

Diagram.3.

Wooden arrows will warp and breakeasilythey are not a good buy despitetheir price. Fiberglass arrows are tooheavyfor long-distance shooting but are a goodchoice because they are durable. Once pro-fitient and desiring to shoot long disEfiies,aluininum arrows will be needed.

If borrowing or buying used arrows, besure they are in good conditionthat theyate---nQt_cracked or bent, that the pointsproperly Tit the end of the arrow shaft, andthat the nock is neither chipped norcracked. Shooting a damaged arrow is ex-tremely dangerous to the archer and sur-rounding persons. Check the arrows aftereach end for damage.

The arrow size needed is dependentupon the draw length andlhe weight of thebow. For anyone just beginning to shoot,it is imperative that the arlow be an inch

ARCHERY 43

longer than the draw length measured tothe back of the bow. Th 3 is a safety,marginwhich MIA be observed. If the araw lengthdoes not increase after shooting for' severalmonths, the arrows can be cut off if theextra length is bothersome.

Arrows fletOed with feathers are highlydesirable for people just learning tb shoot.

In addition to the 13ow and some arrows,every archer needs an armguard, some sortof finger protection, preferably a finger tab,and a sling to keep the boW in the bowhand. J.

SAFETY

Any bow can be dangerous, whether it isused for hunting Or for shooting at indoor-targets. It should be treated with respect.Always shoot in such a way that there is abso-lutely no possibility that anyone could stray intothe Mooting area or get hit with a wild aiTow. Ingeneral, allow 50-100% more area as asafely buffer than neCessary.

The three *cardinal rules of shuotingsafely are:

1. Never run on an archefy range or whilecarrying arrows.

2. Never indulge in any silliness or horse-play when handling equipment (or putthe equipment away).

3. When an arrow is nocked, never drawthe string back unless aiming at a target.

For personal safety and comfort, re-member a'few things before shooting. First,do What is necessary to keep anything fromcitiflthebw string. Clothing should berelatively tight-fitting and preferably with-out. pockets; at least any shirt pocketsshould be empty. Pin back any ;ong hairthat falls in the face or over the shoulders.Secondly, always use a stringer to stringthe bow. Finally, as mentioned in theequipment section, be sure that the prrowsare at least one inch longer than the drawlength: While learning, everything aboutshooting will change, including the arrowlength. Accidentally overdrawing an arrowofINg rest and then releasing it means itcoald go anywhere, including a strike of thehand or Wrist.

53


., TEAMINOLOGY

Bow. A device made of a piece of flexible m'ate-nal that-is used to propel an aProw, A bow-string connects the two ends.

Raw Siglit. A mechanical device placed on thebow with which the archer can aim directly atthe target.

B w Square. A device, usually shaped in a Tsed to measure string height and nockingeight.

C nt. To tip or t;old the bow to the right or left ofvertical while at full draw. The reference toright or left is determined by the position ofthe upper limb.

Creep. To allow the arrow to slowly move for-ward before the release; to mit maintain fulldraw before release.

Draw Weight. The -.Tight, measured inpounds, used to bring the bow to full draw.The weight of the bow drawn to the standarddraw length.

End. A set number of arrows that are shot be-fore going to the target to score and retrievethem.

Field Archery. An archery round in which the-( archer shoots from a variety Of distances in

woods and fields.Fletching, The feather, plastic ...,res, or other

devices that are attached to The arrow shaft tostabilize the flight.of-the arrow.

Handle. That part of the handle riser wfwre thehand is in contact with the bow.

Index Fletching. The-fletching that is set at aright angle to the slot in the nock.'

kisser Button An indicator or protrusion, usu-ally constructed from plastic, placed on thebow strings so that it touches tiu,.. lips or teethwhile the archer is at full draw.

Laminated Bow. A bow made of several layer..(usually two layers of fiberglass and

5 4

/

,hardwood;core) of different material, glued to-

flether.Let Down. Relurning from full draw to the un-

,drawn pbsition.w: control without releasingtfie string.

Nock. To place marrow onthebow_string, Theattachment on thepar end of the Irrowis placed on the bow string aiid holds thearrow on the string.

Nocking Point. The area of the bow string coy-ered by the nockp

Peek. To move the head or bow ain't_ in order towatch either the anow in flight or where it hitsthe target.

Pressure Point. The spot on the arro* plate orregt against which the arrow lies, and presseswhen the 2w string is released.

Quiver. A-deVice used to hold arrows.Spine. The stiffness or aniount fp arrow bends,,

determined by hanging a two:pound weightfrom the centerpf the arrow and measuringthe-amount of the bend.

Square Stance. The position of the feet in whiehan imaginar, straight line would touch' thetoes of both feet and extend to the center of thetarget. .

Stabilizer. A piece consisting of a weight whiChis extended at a distance by a relatively lighterrode mounted on the handle riser. Any weightattached to the handleriser to iminimizetorque.

Standard,Draw Length. When the bow string isdrawn back to 261/4" from the nocking point tothe pivot point, and then addingl3/4"; not tobe confused with the ',manufacturer's truedraw length (nocking point to pivot point) orthe archer's draw length (arrow length re-luired by each archer).

Tt; rque. An ur;desirable twisting of the bow bythe bow hand or of the bow string by the stringhand.

,

c

drive serve (p. 51)drop shot (p. 48)fault (p. 58)feints (p. 59)hairpin (p. 59)high clear serve (p. 48)

. high clear shot (p. 48)love (p. 57)love-all (p. 57)net flight (p. 60)offensive (p. 50)one hand down (p. 57)"poona" (p. 47)rally (p. 57)ready position (p. 59)receiver (p. 48)

. server (p. 48)service (p. 48)setting (p. 57)short serve (p. 48)shuttlecock (bird) (p. 47)side-out (p. 57)slung (p. 59) s

smash (p. 48)two hand's down (p. 57)

<a' ,

,

r C,

cf

,

55

-.

..

- r

fs.

1.

) r

INTRODUCTION,

Badminton is a court game that can besuccesSfully played with 'njoyment bymost players after a brief practice period.Like most sports, it is-played at many levelsof skill, from the beginner to the advancedplayer who engages in world-wide compe-tition.

Badminton can be played ara backyardrelaxation change-of-pace game or it can beplayed as a highly competitive, fast-moving contes(requiring great speed andagility as well aS fine 'hand-eye coordina-tion and quick judgment. Since the indoorshuttlecoek (bird) is very light and slowsdown rapidly with certain stroke actions,the pace and the flight of the bird make thecontest one of strategy as well as one of fineexeçu Hon of fundamentals.,(Many times, infact, players find that court knowledge,placement of the shuttle, and position an-ticipation are as important in winningmatches as powerful shots and physicalprowess.)

All that is needed to begin play is to iden-tify boundaries, and to possess a racket andan appropriate shuttlecock. Theshuttlecock for outdoor play is muchheavier arrd travels much farther wiih a lestpowerful hit. It therefore, is not affected bylight winds The playing court boundariesare 20 feet by 44 feet for doubles (4 players)and 17 feet by 44 feet for singles (2 players).

Badminton has been played for almost100 years with equipment similar to that oftoday. Modern equipment has been refinedand carefully manufactured, however, toallow the player to complete many shotsmore difficuA with poor equipment. Ap-parently a game like badminton called"pOona" was first played in India. A,British

CHAPTER 4

Badmintonv .

ARNE L. OLSON,East Stroudsburg State College,

East Stroudsburg, PA

army officer brought the game to Englandwhere it gained popularity at a place likeBadminton house where the net was in arathei narrow but high doorway and thecourt boundaries were in an hourglass, ovalshape.


GRIP AND STROKING ACTION

The important consideration in grippingthe racket is that it should permit the playerto develop great racket head speed and yetmake contact with the bird squarely so thatit can be sent to the desired spot on thecourt. The stroking action is usually one ofrotating the forearm in combination withwrist action so that the racket head movesquickly. The forehand stroke is used mostfrequently and a correct grip is demon-strated by placing the palm of the dominanthand flat against the strings of the racket.Then slide the hand down the racket, keep-ing the face of the.racket and the palm in thesame relative position, until the end of thehandle is almost even with the edge of thehand. The handle should lie diagonallyacross the palm of the hand. Close the fin-gers and thumb around the handle in anatural but slanted manner. Spread eachfinger slightly and spread the index fingeras far as possible while still having itwrapped around the handle. This shouldmake a gap about finger width between theindex and middle finger.

The backhand grip is taken by placing thethumb directly in back of the handle insteadof at an angle. This position gives the playera stronger grip to react to the bird and alsohelps accelerate the racket head to hit thebii41!(see Figure 1)., .

t') 5

48 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR TI:IE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

a. Forehand. b. Backhand.

Figure 1. Note that the thumb closes around the grip in the forehand;in the backhand it is extended down the back of the handle.

SERVICE

The contest and each point is startedby having the player (or side in dou-bles) who has won the last rally servethe bird with an underhand niotion. Tech-nically the racket head must be lower than.thr server's serving hand and the bird mustbe 'contacted below the server's waistline.The server generally hits the bird high tothe back of the opposite court, low, justover the net, to the front ,of the receivingcourt, or quickly straight at the player whois receiving the serve (the receiver). Morelong serves in singles and more short servesin doubles are typically used because of thesize of the court and the requirements nec-essary to cover the court. The court is longand narrow in singles and short and broadin doubles.

The high shot is called the high clearserve because it is intended to be hit highenough so that it will be out of reach of thereceiver and come down vertically on theback boundary line. The short shot is called

,r1 $"

the short serve and it is intended to getdown behind the net near the short serveline so that the receiver will have to hit thebird up in the air to retuht the serve. Theserver will then have the option of rapidlyhitting the bird down (smash), of slowlyhitting the bird down (deep shot), or ofhitting a "high clear" shot.

High Clear ServeThe high clear serve is hit with a

powerful underhand action attemptingto hit the bird "out" so that it gets deepinto the court as well as high. Height isuseful to give the player time to preparefor a return and also to give the bird a morestraight up and down descent making itharder to hit. The server must rememberthat it is against the rules to "step into" theserve and, therefore, that the server cannotmove his or her feet until the shuttlecock isstruck. A weight shift from the back footforward is helpful, however, to add powerto the shot. Beginners may find it helpful tostand a little sideways and almost hit the

BADMINTON 49

' Figure 2. Sequence of the high clear serve.

58

50 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL-STUDENT

shuttle out of their hands. More experi-enced players will probably face the oppo-nent more directly and hit the bird afterdropping it. Dropping the bird also allowsthe server to disguise the type of serve untilthe last moment. The server should placehislher non-dominant foot forward 12-15inches and start with the racket arm ex-tended backward with the weight primar-ily on the.back foot. The racket should beabout waist high as the bird is dropped andas the weight is shifted forward the wristshould uncock as the forearm is rotated in-ward rapidly. The follow-through shouldbe high and extend over the oppositeshoulder and actually pull the entire bodyinto a square position (ready position) sothat movement is easy in any direction.Height and depth are to be emphasized (seeFigure 2 for the high clear serve sequence).

The Poole Long Serve Test can be used toevaluate your high clear serving ability. Thecourt is marked with 1- or 2-inch lines asshown in Diagram 1. Four lines have to bedrawn each 16 inches apart. The first .isdrawn parallel to the court lines and 2inches in back of the back boundary lines asshown. The shots landing in the variouszones are scored 5-4-3-2-1 if the serve is hitlegally and goes over the extended ann andracket of a. player who stands 11 feet fromthe net in the 15-inch marked square. Shotshitting the line are considered to be in the

highest point zone. The best 10 out of 12serves are scored with 50, a perfect score. Arope or extra net across the court 11 feetaway from the net and 9 feet high can besubstituted for the player although the op-ponent standing in the court makes the testseem more gamelike. The test can be short-ened to the best six out of eight trials withsimilar results for most students.

Short Doubles ServiceSince the depth of the service court is less

io doubles than in singles and the basicstrategy in doubles is to hit the'bird down-ward whenever it is possible, the basicserve in doubles is the short, low servewhich usually forces the receiver to hit thebird up so that the serving team can take theoffensive. The starting posture should besimilar to that taken for the high clear serveexcept that some players shorten the prepa-ration backswing so they can contact thebird quicker before the receivet can recog-nize it and, therefore, prepare for the shortshot. (The receiver cannot move until thebird is struck either.) The shuttle is con-tacted higher and more or less "guided"over the net rather than being "struck."The stroke has a flat sweeping motion thatis made without uncocking the wristalmost pushing the bird over. The birdshould be on a downward path as it crossesthe net and usually is served at the front

16" 16"16" 16" 2"

I I

1 2 3 4 5

Diagraml. Court markings for the Poole Long Serve Test.

'59

Ct../

Out

Stay back fromshort serve line

..Hit outnot up

BADMINTON 51

Too close toserve line

Diagram 2. Short serve paths (out and low to the net rather than up and downshort of serviceline).

center corner of thecourt. Only change-upsor surprise attempts are made to the ,idecorners because the receivers have betterangles on the return from the outside andcan put the servers off-balance im-mediately.

A modified version of the French ShortServe Test is recommended to evaluate theshort serve performance. The test is de-signed to evaluate the placement accuracyof a low short serve that would be difficultto smash. The shot should actually reach itshighest point on the server's side of the netand be on a downward path as it crosses thenet (see Diagram 2). A rope is stretchedtight 14 inches al ove the net and fastened tothe net standar is. One- or two-inch widemarkings are laced as shown in Diagram3. The areas are 6 inches apart with theprimary tarvt 12 inches from the centercorner. Straight lines of one-inch tape makepreparation much easier and does not alter

Net

the scores in most cases. A preparedcardboard "target" makes the test easy toadminister and convenient to use in prac-tice since it can simply be placed on thecourt and then removed when no longer inuse. The point values are 5-4-3-2-1 andshots on the line are given the highest pointvalue. The best 10 out of 12 trials are totaledfor a test score and six out of eight can beused for most students. The server stands2-3 feet from the short serve line in his/herproper service court.

Drive ServeThe drive serve is a quick "change-up"

action usually sent directly at the receiver orpossibly attempting to be hit past the re-ceiver. The shot is disguised until the lastinstant and then performed with the rackethead down in a "flick" type action. Itshould just miss the top of the net.

Rope

-

)

Subject A

,

B Scorer

Diagram 3.. Court markings for the French Short Serve Test.

? 60


Good ArcHard to Hit\

..... ->"S ---* -...N.. . ".,' \ \/ N/4"-- Poor Arc

Easier to Hit

Diagram 4. Arc of clear or serve.

-OVERHEAD STROKES

The overhead strokes are divided intoforehand and backhand motion with ,thedesired bird flight being the deciding factorin the type of action. For the high clearreturn, the bird is usually contacted as highas possible and in front of the body. Thismakes it easier to,hit the bird "out and up"and to get it to the back baseline where itshould come down at a steep angle (seeDiagram 4). At times a player will find it totheir advantage to hit an offensive clearshot. This shot will not take as much time toget to the court since it is hit just out of thereach of the opponent trying to get the bird"down" behind the opponent (see Diagram5). You should take an action stance thatwill place most of your weight on the footon the racket side With the opposite footwell forward. The position and action isvery much like throwing a ball a long dis-tance. In preparation, you let the rackethead drop low down your back and lead the

fCrward action.with your elbow high. Justbefore contact is made with the bird, theelbow is straightened, the forearm is ro-tated, the wrist uncocked, and the wholearm fully extended to reach up at the bird.High racket head speed is important asweight istransferred from the back foot tothe front and as the grip is tightened ascontact is made. To hit the bird downward(an offensive smash) try to get the racketface a little on top of the bird and buildspeed in the same manner as the overheadclear (see Figure 3). For the drop shot, theaction should appear the same to your op-ponent but the forearm rotation ancLwristaction are held back until after the bird is hitand only the arm moves rapidly to disguisethe action. The bird is hit flat and at the topof the net, dropping quickly to the flooronce it is over the net. Contacting the birdin front of your body is a key concept for allbasic overhead shots.

\/ oe ..--- --/

_ev, ...... ..../1P. .44%

410VI°. I(1)I X \/

I X\

i(2) 1

\I I 1 I I I

Diagram 5. Defensive clear (1) and offensive clear (2).

; 61

a. Correct armefand wrist

alignment.Bird is directeddownward.

Fipre 3. Arm and racket angles in smash.

The Poole Forehand and Backhand ClearTests are recommended to evaluate theplayer's overhead clear performance. Thecourt is marked as shown in Diagram 6. A15- by 15-inch square is drawn 11 feet from

BADMINTON 53

b. Poor alignment. Wristis ahead of theracket. The flightof the bird is toohorizontal.

the net to show the "opponent" where tostand for the test and to establish if the clearis high enough so that it would not be aneasy "kill" shot. Another 15- x 15-inchsquare is marked at the intersection of the

61/2.--)4444 61/eo44 21/2 14-

1

11'

2

-0,13

1

0\

2 j 3

)

1

Diagram 6. Court markings for the Poole Porehand and Backhar Clear Tests.

1,462\

2

2


-C>\

...--- --""---,--,<(a., \..-- ®

,... .-/ / S. A...-- ,

....-- / ,- / , ,/7-\

I G-/ --7---.7-/ ID'\--'I It

\ 1

\\\I

II

H

13..Àll

Diagram 7. Trajectory of the different strokes.

A. Singled.B. Clear.C. Drop.D. Smash.

doubles long serve line and the centerlineon the other side of the net as shown. Theperson taking the test must keep one foot inthis square until' the bird is hit. The pointvalues are 2-4-3-2-1 as shown with shots onthe lines given the larger values. The playertaking,the test places a bird. with feathers(or plastic) down on the forehand side ofthe racket, tosses the bird in the air, andthen hits a high clear forehand or backhandshot depending upon the test. Tossing the"bird in this manner takes some pragtice forbeginners. The test consists of the pointsgained from.the best 10 of 12 trials. To savetime, six of eight shots usually give similarresults.

E. Doubles (low) score.F. Net clear.G. Net (hairpin) drop.H. Drives.

SIDEARM AND UNDERARM SHOTS

Like the oveinead shots, the racket headspeed, direction of the action, and the angleof the racket face, as well as a clean contactin the center of the racket face are all impor-tant to a good execution of the sidearm andunderhanckshots. The bird flight desired is,once again, the determining factor in themanner in which the bird is hit. It is reallyjust that the bird is down in front of you orto your side which makes the shot seemdifferent. The type of action required is thesame as for the overhead shots (see Dia-gram 7 for trajectory lines of the differentstrokes).

Ready Position

Diagram 8. Court location for ready position.

83

FOOTWORK IN GENERAL

The purpose of working on footwork is toenable you to get in position to hit the birdeffectively. The ready position is an impor-tant part of footwork. If you are balancedwith your knees bent and your weight onthe balls of your feet, it is easier to start tomove. The ready position is usually taken 2to 3 feet behind th e. short service line a littleto your "non-racket" side (see Diagram 8).This location helps protect the backhandand alqo helps the player move to the frontcorners of the court. A high clear shot isnecessary for the opponent to get to theback corners and then, of course, the birdfligiit will give you more time to get to theback corners. The racket is normally heldabout waist high with its head up andsquare to the net just to the backhand sideof your face (see Figure 4). A good drill forfootwork practice is to rally with anotherplayer trying to hit the bird to the "fourcorners"--no "kill" shots. After each hityou should always try to return to the readyposition.

Figure 4. Ready position.

BADMINTON 55

Footwork to the left front court. To move tothe front left court in anticipation of aright-handed underhand clear or net shot,the following steps are taken: ,)1. Take a small "get ready" step backward

with,the left fobt. This movement getsthe player into a delicate balance posi-tjon which helps him move his/herwhole body quickly. The right shouldermoves forward and the left shoulderback as weight is shifted to the left foot.

2. The second step is a cross-over step withthe right foot in the direction the playerwanfs to move. The backswing is takennear the end of this step.

3. The next step with the left foot is ad-justed depending upon the bird loca-tion.

4. The last step before the bird is hit isalways with the foot on the racketsidethe right in this' case. Shift theweight to this foot, stretch, hit the bird,step up close to the -right foot with theleft, and start the return to the readyposition by almost falling backward atthe start and then taking small quicksteps to get back.

Footwork to the right front court.1. The first step is taken with the left foot

again to put the player in delicate bal-ance and to give direction .to yourmovement.

2. Then step with the right foot toward thetarget as the backswing is taken.

3. Adjusting the left foot stride for the birdposition, take the last right foot stepwith a body and leg stretching actionand hit the bird with most of the weighton the racket side foot.

4. As you follow through from the shot,bring the left foot up near the right andagain, in a nearly falling action with thebody lowered, return to the ready posi-tion with small quick steps.

Footwork to the left (backhand return ofsmash or drive).1. The left foot moves back in a small "jab"

step to get you on delicate balance, theright shoulder is turned so the 1;ack istoward the net and the weight is shiftedto the left.,.. 4

I .

64


2. The second step is a cross-over step withthe right foot toward the bird location asyou take the backswing and shift yourweight to the right foot and stretch to thebird.

3. After the shot, move the left foot to aposition next to the right and fall back-ward to the ready position by takingshort quick steps.

Footwork to the right (to smash a return orhit a drive or drop shot).1. Remember to start all movement from

the ready position, racket up, weight onthe balls of the feet, and the kneesslightly bent.

2. Pivot to the right on the balls of the feet,shifting the weight to the right and turn-ing the left shoulder toward the net.

3. Take a short step to the right with theright foot.

4. Take a short step with the left to get onbalance and set up for the hit.

5. The last step is with the right foot (al-ways the racket foot) adjusting thelength to the bird position.

6. After hitting, push off the right foot andreturn to the ready position by takingsmall quick steps.

Footwork to the back left (for deep back-hand).1. Pivot to the left on the balls of the feet

and shift weight to the left.2. Take a small step forward and left with

the right foot to give a small base linedup in the direction you desire to go andpush off the right foot to start themovement back.

3. Rotate the body hard to the left and stepbackward with the left foot.

4. Step toward the anticipated bird Posi-tion with a long right stride.

5. Take a medium step with the left footand combine this motion, with thebackswing as you adjust to the bird posi-tion.

6. The last step is with the racket foot (theright if right-handed) in a stretch towardthe bird.

7. Step toward 'the racket foot with a smallstep with the left, shift your weight to-ward the ready position and return to itwith small quick steps.

.9.

Footwork to the back right (for overheadforehand strokes).1. The left foot steps forward to set up the

line of mtwemerit but the weight re-mains primarily on the right foot as youpivot on the ball of the right foot.

2. Push quickly with the left leg as you stepdown the line of movement with theright and rotate your body to face thesideline.

3. Step with the left foot to a spot close tothe right toe with your weight heavy onthe right.

4. The last step is made with the racket foot(the right) as you adjust to the bird loca-tion and prepare for the hit.

5. Lean toward the ready position on thefollow-through and return to the baseposition with short quick steps.

In summary, all the footwork is designedto move the player quickly into position tomake the desired shot and then return tOthe ready position. Wide stances are stablebut time-consuming. Narrow positions areunsiable but permit the player to movequickly if he/she can have his/her center ofgravity headed in the right direction.

SAFETY

Most injuries in badminton are due tolack- of warm-up followed by fast quickmovements and consequent pulled legmuscles or in tournaments where playersoverextend themselves. A hundred ormore smash shots in a one-day doublestournament, for example, may result in in-jury to the elbow or shoulder joint. Playersshould be aware that tbey'should warm upcompletely before a match and then notplay in extended tournaments withoutbeing in g9od physical shape. They shouldremember to pace themseles in this sportwhich requires fast, quick movements.

Occasionally in doubles, two playerswho are not regular partners will both gofor the same shot and either hit the otherplay er or hist her racket. Voice signalsshould be used when there is time to call"I've got it" when going after a slow, short,,high shot. A typical exami.k. occurs when'the player in the backcourt is coming up tohit the bird hanging over the partner who isin the front court.

.411{

RULES

STARTING THE GAME

A racket spin or a coin toss is used todetermine w ho gets the choice of courts or,.to serve or receive at the beginning of amatch. If the racket spin is used, some markis identified which is only on one surface ofthe racket and the opponent is asked if theyprefer that mdrk or the other side. (M or Won the end of a handle of a Wilson racket forexample.) The player then places the headof the raeltet on the floor and spins it as it isturned loose to fall tc) the floor. The sidethat is up determines w ho gets the ehuice ofcourt preference or to serve or receive. Theother side gets the alternate choice.

The side w inning the sect e starts the eon-test with a serve from their fight-hand court(as they face the net). The server must serveso that the bird would land in the right-hand receiver's court (as the receivers facethe net). The rally continues until, oneplayer fails to return the bird to the playingarea. If the side serving commits an error,the serve and storing opportunity goes tothe opposite team. No points. If the receiting team eommits an error, a point is scoredand the sect mg side sect es again, this timefrom the left service to the left receiver'seourt. The sert er should announce theseore just before the next serve is made(Example. saying the sect er's score first,1-lot e, no hands dot% n). Lot e means nustore, hands dow n means the number oftimes the Sun ing team has lost in this secting turn. The usual terms used are nohands dow n, one hand down, and side-out.With two hands down, the side is declared"side-out" and the other side serves firstfrom the right-hand eourt and announcestheir sem. first, 0-7, nu hands dow n (sub-stitute the original team's score for thequestion mark).

In doubles, the side taking the first servestarts with "one hand down," as thoughthey have made a mistake in that sect ingturn. When they lose the serve, they are"side-out." After the first person serves,:.owever, each side gets two "handsdown," before they are "side-out." Whenyour side earns the say e in doubles, theplayer who has the right eourt serving or

BADMINTOII 57

receiving responsibility serves first. Thisplayer continues to serve, alternating ser-vice courts until,thé serving team makes a-fault or an error. The service and receivingcourt locations for players in doubles aredetermined according to the players' re-sponsibility a, the beginning of the game.The player who was on the right on the firstpoint should always be there when servingor when receiving when their team kore iseven (0, 2, 4, 6, etc.). When the team's scoreis odd, the players should be in the oppo-site court to the court they were in at thebeginning of the game. On the serve, theplayer w ho is in the receiving court mustreturn the bird. After the serve, eitherplayer may return the bird. After the firstserve for each side in singles, the side win-ning the serve serves according to theirscore (from the right side if their store iset en and from the left side if their score isodd).

SCORING

Badminton scores are made when aplayer is serving and the opponent fails toreturn a serve or a following shot during arally. If the server eommits'an error (faults)on the serve or is not able to return a shotafter the serve, the side is out (loses theserve) or the side uses one of its allowederrors while the team is serving in doubles.The point total required to ivin a game is 15in men's singles or any doubles match and11 in women's singles. If the score is tied at13, the side getting to 13 first has the optionof "setting" the final total to 5 additionalpoints (18) or playing to the iegular total of15. If the score was not set at 13 and thescore is tied at 14, the side getting to 14 firsthas the option of setting the final score at 3additional points or playing to the regulartotal of 15. After the game has been set, thescore is called "love-all" and the side whichfirst gets to the 5 or 3 points wins the game.

In women's singles, if the score is tied at9, the player who reached 9 first has theoption of "setting" the game to 3. If thegame was not set at 9 and the score is tied at10, the player who reached 10 first has theoption of "setting" the game to 2 points. Inhandicap games, setting is not permitted. AMatch is usually two out of three games.

4

66

58 PHYSICAL EIVCATION AND SPORT FOR tHE SECOINiDARY ECHOOL STUDENT

" -44 1-4-- 1.0*-- 1'6"

Back Boundary Lineand Long Service Line for Singles

,2 13'

Right t..) LeftService ServiceCourt Court

Short Service Line

6'6"

Back Boundary Lineand Long Service Line for Singles

20'

a. Doubles court.

Diagram 9.

THE COURT

The court in badminton is 20 feet wideand 44 feet long. One and one-half inchlines divide the court into specific areas forthe service conditions and playing condi-tions of the game (see Diagram 9).

The posts shall be 5'1" from the floor andplaced on the side boundaries of the court.The net shall be 5'0" at the center with a3-inch white tape at the top.

The outside lines mark the boundary areafor doubles play. The line is always good.The singles court does dot include the alleyareas on either sigie of the court.

The service courts are bounded by theshort serve line and centerline in singles

17"-wlBack Boundary Line

and Long Service Line'

iv

Back Boundary Lineand Long Service Line

17'

b. Singles court.

and doubles. The doubles service court isshortened by not including the back alleywhile the singles court is narrowed by notincluding the side alley (in sunimary, dog-bles short and fat, and singles long andthin). Serves are made on a" diagonalpathright service court to right ieceivingcourt.

FAULTS

Faults a're violations of the rules that re-sult in points or loss of the serve.1. Both tlie serwer and the receiver must

stand within the proper service courtwhen serving and neither can movehis/her feet until tche bird is struck.

4

2. On the serve, the bird muSi be contactedbelow the server', waist and the server'sracket Ilead must be lower than theserver's hand.

3. No prelimihary feints or movements Canbe made by the server or the receiverprior tO the server striking the bird.

4. If the bird touches the top of tile net andcohtihues to the correct court, the bird islegally in play. (This is not a, Wilt.).

5. The shuttlecock can be hit oxer the netonly with the racket, and it can only becontacted once oh each-side of the net.

6. If a player touches the bird with.his/herracket, itis a fault and it cannot be ton-tacted again by that:side.

7. If you do holreturn the shuttlecock tothe,proper area, it is a fault unless it istouched tiy an opponent or hislher rac-ket before.it iouches

8. A player or his/her racket may not touchthe net,,reach over the net, or crossunder the netyhile the ird is, in play.

9. The s1uttleco4 mus be contactedcleanly. If it is hit twice, mes to rest onthe ritket b 'efly, or I 'slung" off theracket,.this is a e bird rbay be hitwith any part of the racket.

STRATEGY

BIRD FLIGHT STRATEGY

The' badminton player tries to get theopponent`to hit the bird up in the air so thathe'she can hit it down toward the court. Ifthe bird comes across the net fast, mostshots are returned just over the net in adrop shot action so that the original playerwill have to hit, the bird up in the air and,therefore, be on the defensive. Sinceneither p!ayer prefers to be on the defen-sive, a common return for a drop shot is toretkrn a drop shot just over the net in a'hainiin"-like action. When a pia:. a over-plays a position, an opponent frequentlytries to get the bird down to the court be-hind the receiver to,an open shot. This shotis designed to force the oppositiop to makea mistake and hit a weak return, thus set-ting up a kill shot (a smash);,.

a

BADMINTON 59

SINGLES STRATEGY

In singles, most players play a waiting.game and move the bird around the courtuntil their opponent makes a mistake. If thebird is smashed too early, like when you arein the back alley playing a high clear, anexperienced opponent can frequently dropthe bird.back to your front court before youcan finish .your follow-through and, there-fore, wins the rally% on the smash. Varyingshot velocity and Placement while trying tounbalance the opponent and being patientto search for weaknesses, is basic singlesslrategy. The most difficult shot to returnfor most players is deep to the.backhandside, especially if the player is leaning for-ward to cover net shots. This, in effect, istrying to "get the bird down behind theopponent': as previously mentioned. Thebasic serve in singles is high and deep to theback alley near the center of the court so theopponent does not have sharp angles to useon your position and also so that you canrespond in time to the bird when it is re-armed to yaur court.

DOUBLES STRATEGY

The basic serve in doubles is short, low,and just over the net to the center corners.This serve gives the opponent only angles

which must pass your "ready position" andalso forces the opponent to hit the bird onan upward trajectory. Because most servesare short, the receiver crowds the line alittle and if the bird is up a little, the receiverlooks for a quick smash. To counter this"crowding" action, the server keeps the re-ceiver honest by occasionally serving a low,fast, clear shot to get the bird down b'ehindthe receiver, serving a drive serve at thereceiver to force an errcr or a weak return,or -plays serv9 to the outside alley tomerto catch the reCeiver off-balance. These al-ternatives cannot be overused because theygive the receiver good angles back to theserver's.court, especially if the shot is notperfect. Any imbelance of the receiver fromyour shot is nullified in doubleS by thepartner who can simply cover a little morecourt, on the next shot. In doubles, all,players look for the chance to hit the birddbivnward and go on the rffensive. On the

68kJ.


serve, the basic court coverage is for theserver and the receit,er to play short andcover the short shots. If one pla n. is not asstrong as hislher partner on the overheadshots, the team may decide to have theweaker player always play up on the netand take all short shots after the serve. Thesimplir court position for a team to chooseis a side-by-side position where eachplayer, in effect, plays his/her half of thecourt. On shots down the middle, 'the

° player on the forehand side usually take.;the shot unless they are out of position ordefinitely a weaker player. When a teamhas made a mistake and hits the- birdweakly up in the air, the best defense forthe expected smash return is also the side-by-side formation because the court is moreeasily covered. When a player hits shortthey should go to a short position neaiqhenet to cover a ha:rpin net flight return un-less their partner is "playing up" and,therefore, is responsible for the net posi-tion. When a player hits a smash shot, thepartner should move to the net to coverweak returns or attempts to drop the birdjust over the not. The rules do not allow aplayer to hit the bird until it has crossed toyour side. You cannot hit the net although itis permissible to follow through over thenet if you do not touch the net or the oppo-nent. -

Most skilled doubles teams play varyingformations depending upon the position ofthe bird at the time and the expected netshot. This is called the "combination sys-tems" of play.

EQUIPMENT

RACIUTS

1 le ..,-Ket used can help shot-makingability. Some outdoor rackets are light and'flimsy and make it difficult to control thebird or hit it with power. Prices for racketsmay vary from about $1.98 to $40.00. Qual-ity corresponds with price but rackets cost-ing $8.00 to $15.00 will be wood, fiberglass,zr steel or other light metals and have thedurability and quality that is sufficient forbeginners or even intermediate playss.

Nylon strings can be strung tighter andusually last longer than gut stringsWooden rackets are usually a little heavierthan metal or fiberglass and although itmay be difficult to move them rapidly, theyhave a larger mass which gives more "reac-tive force" tO the bird. Wcoden head rac-kets should be kept in a press if they arestored where the humidity is high or variesalot.

SHUTTLECOCKS

The shuttlecock or bird as it is commonlycalled, is usually nylon with a rubber tip. Intournaments, birds of goose feathers areused. The range of weights available is from73 to 85 grains with the heavier bird flyingfurther and used in heavier or colder air.The correct bird is determined by theplayers at the beginning of the game. Eachplayer serves a few high clear serves andthe bird should come down near the backbaseline to be correct for the players and theconditions of play. If you are using feath-cred birds, they should be .kept in a damparea to keep the feathers moist and to pre-vent breakage. The nylon shuttle can last10-15 games while a goose-feathered shut-tle lasts from a few hits up to two or threegames.

TERMINOLOGY

A1lit3, The 18..indi extension on cach side of thcsingles court used only in doubles play.

Back Alley. The area between the back bound-ary line and long service line in doubles. Thisarea is 30 inches in depth and is used in bothsingles and doubles.

Baseline. The back boundary line of the courton both ends. (The long service line is 30inches short of this line for doubles serviceonly.)

Base Position. The position approximately inthe center of the court which a player tries toreturn to after making each shot.

Bird. Another word for shuttlecot.k. The com-mon structure is nylon and for most tourna-ment play, of goose feathers.

Block. Placing the racket in front of the bird is tomake it drop to the opponent's court. Verylittle stroke movement is made in this shot.

Carry. Holding the bird on the racket during astroke. This is an illegal stroke.

Cross-court. A stroke lit, diagonally from oneside of the court to the other.

Double Hit. Hitting the bird twice on the sameshot. This is an illegal stroke.

Drive. A hard flat shot, which usually passes aplayer close to the net or is a shot right at aperson.

Drop Shot. A bird which just cleared the net andimmediately starts to falLin the opponent'scourt.

Fault. A viokuon of the rules.Foot Fault. A violation of the rules in which the

feet of the server or receiver are not in theposition required by the rules. This could bean illegal position (outside the receiving courtcr serving court by the server or receiver) or amovement on the serve.

Hairpin Net Shot. Astroke made below the netto just over the net with the bird droppingclose to the net on the other side.

inning. The time during which a player or teamis serving.

Kill Shot. A fast downward return which cannotbe returned.

Let. On the serve or during a rally when playmust be stopped due to interference from out-side the court, when the players are not sureof the call, if the shuttle hits the net and falls inthe proper court on the serve, it is i goodserve.

Love. A term used to indicate no score.Match. A match is usually 2 out of 3 games.Match Point. The point which. if won by the

server, wins the match.Obstruction. This fault is called when a player

hinders or interferes with an opponent whenthey are making a shot. It usually occurs whena playerhas made a weak high shot and thenyells or waives hislher racket to distract theopponent.

Overhead A stroke played from above theplayeec head.

Rally. The exchange of strokes when a shuttle isin play.

Ready Position. The basic position that a Avertakes just before the opponent serves. It isisually taken w ith slightly bent knees and theracket held about chest high.

Receiver. The player who is positioned in theproper court and scheduled tp receive the ser-vice.

BADMINTON 61

Round-the-head Shot. The forehand strokemade on the backhand side of the body. Usu-ally it is hit overnead and can be either a clear,drop, or smash shot.

Second Service. The term used in doubles playto indicate that one person has lost the serviceand is down although the player's partner willstill take his/her turn.

Server. The player who delivers the service orwho is scheduled to do so.

Service Court. The area into which the servicemust be delivered.'

Short Service Line. The line six and one-half feetfrom the net that serves must get to in order tobe long enough to be legal.

Shuttle Cock. The official name for the shuttle orbird.

Side-by-side Formation. A doubles formationthat is used where the players play primarilyon one-half of the court and cover their ownterritory.

Side-in. This term refers to the side serving.Side-out. This occurs wnen the side that is serv-

ing loses the serve and becomes the receivingteam.

Smash. The hard overhead btroke hit downwardwith great force to the floor. It is a principlepoint maker in badminton.

Underhand. A stroke made when the shuttle iscontacted below the level of the shoulders andthe racket is below the hand. It is usually used

or to hit the bird upward to cross thenet.

Wood Shot. The shot which results when theshuttle is struck with the frame of the racket.This is a legal shot.

REFERENCES

Burris, Barbara J., and Olson, Arne L. Badmin-ton. Boston, MA. Allyn and Beacon, Inc., 1974.

EL is, Pat. The Badminton Coach. a Manual forCo, ches, Teachers, and Players. London: Kayeand Ward, 1976.

Poole, James. Badininton. Pacific Palisades, CA:Goodyear Publishing Company, Inc., 1969.

bounce pass (,center

v.)

chest IP. 73)dribblin s (19. 64)forwardg (P. 63)freeeartdhs (19(p. 7.318)

jump shop; (73)

aver-uhpra(dp. 1669)lay

reboutldri(1164)

I g..P. 70)

/

A

It) x

P4

11

INTRODUCTION

Basketball is unique in the annals ofsports. It was developed to satisfy an ag-gressive group of football players withnothing to do until springtime in the NewEngland winters. It was in this setting thatDr. James Naismith met this need. Basket-ball is now one of sport's most populargames. More people have witnessed bas-ketball than baseball and football com-bined. The 1982 NCAA championshipgame played before over 60,000 people setan indoor stadium record.

Basketball is played by two teams of 5players each. The goal of each team is toscore a basket by throwing the ball into theteam's own basket while preventing theopposing team from scoring. The thirteenoriginal rules of basketl5all are still basicallythe same. Probably the most importantcharacteristic is the placement of the goalarea above the floor. This provided the chal-ienge which has made the game what it istoday. What is the player's first impulsewhen looking up at the goal? Most com-monly, "Can I put it through the hoop?"


DRIBBLING

Dribbling is the only manner in which aplayer may independently move die balldown the court. To accomplish this, use asoft touch with the fingers and wrist with aslight forearm movement to push the balldownward. Never slap at the ball. Alwayskeep-the head up so that other players canbe seen. The body should be in a flexedposition for better ball control. For protec-

CHAPTER 5

Basketball

GENE DOANE,Seneca Valley High School,

Gaithersburg, MD

tion of the ball always keep the body be-tween the ball and the opponent. Whentightly guarded keep the free forearm up toward off this pressure. There are two basicforms of dribbling: high dribble for speed;low dribble to protect the ball. Points toremember when dribbling the ball are:

use both the right and left hand;pass off the dribble;keep the ball slightly out in front;dribble to a stop and pivot;dribble sharply to the right or left (changeof direction);use a change of pace.

Dribbling Exercises1. Dribble in a restricted area while chang-

ing speeds and directions. Vary the sizeof the area.

2. Set up five obstacles, e.g., chairs, cones,etc., and dribble weave around them.Obstacles may be placed in a straightline or in a random pattern.

3. Go 1 on i with Eire defender being pdb-sive. Try to get from one point to anotherwithin a relatively narrow lane. Vary thelane width from approximately 10' to 5'as skills improve.

4. Go 1 on 1 with the defender being ag-gressive:

Self-testing1. Speed dribble the length of the court and

back. How much time did it take andhow many dribbles were used?

2. Low dribble around five chairs 6 feetapart and time how long it takes toweave around and back again.

PASSING

Passing is the foundation for all scoringplays; its importance is second only to

72


Figure 1. Proper dribbling position.

shooting. The fundamental requirementsof every pass are that it be accurate, well-timed, quick, and the proper type for thatsituation. A passer must approach 100%effectiveness to be considered a good pas-ser.

The primary passes are the chest pass,2-handed bounce pass, and the 2-handedoverhead pass. There are other passes likethe hook pass, baseball, and behind-the-back that require more skill. For the chestpas; hold the ball directly in front of thebody, chest high, with the fingers on thesides of the ball and the thumbs in back(parallel to each other). The elbows areclose to, but not against, the body. Push thearms forward. Snap the fingers and wristwith the weight shifting to the extendedfoot as. the pass is executed by steppingtoward the receiver. An easy-to-handleback spin is imparted at release. The bouncepass is the same as the two-handed chestpass except for the release. The ball shouldstrike the floor two-thirds of the way to thereceiver and bounce to waist height. Theoverhead pass is one of the most effectivepasses that a player can master. The ball is

held on each side and toward the back withwidespread fingers. The thumbs should bepointed toward each other. With the ballheld over the head, the pass is begun by aquick, sport step in the direction of the re-ceiver. The ball is released by extending thearms and-flicking the wrists and fingersdownward. Aim for the receiver's shoul-ders. The follow-through causes thethumbs to turn downward. The followingshould be remembered when performing apass:

in the beginning, execute passes slowly;emphasize correct form;execute passes while in motion to a mov-ing player while progressing;always try to flit a receiver in the chestarea;do not telegraph passes, which is un-knowingly telling the opponent wherethe pass will go in advance;control the ball with the fingers;put a back spin on the ball;follow through.

Passing Exercises1. Pass the ball to a target area approxi-

-mately chest -high on thewall.2. Two players pass the ball back and forth

while stationary and then Moving downcourt using the chest pass, bounce pass,or other types of passes.

Self-testing1. Pass ten times to a chest high target at a

clistaime of 8', 14', 18'.2. Repeat the above test. Keep track of the

time it takes to make those 10 passes and-count the total number of times thetarget was hit.

CATCHING

There are certain fundamental tech-,niques that equally apply to the catching ofany pass. First, "see" the ball into thehands. Second, the eyes should track theball in flight while the hands intercept andgive with the ball. What this does is permitthe hands, wrists, and arms to absorb theimpact of the ball, preventing a fumble.Whenever possible a pass should be caughtwith both hands, while stepping to meetthe ball. The following points should beremembered when attempting a catch:

=

BASKETBALL 65

Figure 2. The chest,pass.

:Figure 3. The overhead pass.

r{

------ '' 74


Figure 4. The bounce pass.

whenever possible catch the pass withboth hands;see the ball into the hands;step toward the passer with either foot;extend both hands chest high in front ofthe body;the palms should be facing each otherwith the fingers widespread;catch the ball with the fingertips;permit the arms to naturally give towarslthe chest.

Catching Exercises1. Have a teammate throw various passes.

Have the speed of the pass and the areasof the body To whkh the pabb i thwwnvaried.

2. Turn your back to a teammate 15 feetaway. Have him/her throw a pass thenyell "ball." Upon hearing the sound,turn, locate the ball, and catch it before ithits the floor.

Self-testingStand 3 feet from the wall and bounce the

ball off the wall for 30 seconds, See howmany passes can be caught in this time,

SHOOTING

One skill everyone enjoys practicingipshooting. It is without a doubt the mainoffensive factor in the game. It is challeng-ing to the individual to develop personal r

h

abilities to the point where he/she can beconsidered a "great shooter."

The Lay-upThe lay-up shot is the first shot the bas-

ketball player learns. The ball is laid on aspot about a foot and a half above the rim tothe right, left, or center of the board so thatthe ball will fall into the basket. The palm ofthe shooting hand should be facing thebackboard as the ball is released. Take off(jump) on the foot opposite the shootinghand. Be a high jumper, not a long jumper.That means to jump as high as possible.Extend the shooting arm and release theball at the hPight of the jump with a full armextension. When performing a shootingexercise the following points should be re-membered:

keep the eyes on the spot on the back-board where the ball is going to be laid;place the ball softly upon the backboard;shoot left-handed on the left side andright-handed on the right side;whatever die speed used when ap-proaching the basket the lay-up shouldalways be released with the same softtouch.

Shooting ExercisesTwo lines, one formed from the right and

one from the left, alternately dribble ondshoot.

BASKETBALL 67

Figure 5. Catching a pass.

a. Lay up with a soft touch. b. Take off on the foot opPosite the shooting hand.

Figure 6. The lay-up.76


Self-testingAlternate shooting right- and left-

handed lay-ups for 60 seconds. Count thenumber of shots attempted and the numbermade.

The Free ThrowThe free throw shot should become as

mechanical and reflexive as possible.Therefore, all preliminary actions and footpositions should be the same fcr every at-tempt. Select one style and stay with it.Move up to the line and set the feet in theexact position that is always used for freethrows. Shoot to have the ball hit the mid-dle of the target (rim). The ball should bebalanced in both hands about chest high inthe starting position. Take the ball up withthe shooting hand, With the elbow stayingin and the arm continuing through with afull extension toward the basket. This isdone in one motion. Have a high releasewith a good follow-through. When execut-ing the free throw the following pointsshould be remembered:

II

relax, concentrate, and think of only thisshot;control breathing by slowly inhaling andexhaling;spin the ball in the hands to kquire theproper.feel before shooting;bounce the ball on the floor a few timesbefore shooting to relax the arms andbody;practice, practice, practice.

Shooting ExercisesFace a partner 9 feet away and practice

form by shooting to each other for 5 min-utes. Move out 2 feet at a time until 15 feetapart.

Self-testing1. Shoot 100 free throws in a row daily.

Keep a record while striving for a 70%average.

2. Shoot 25 one plus ones in which if thefirst is missed the second is not received.Total the number of first one plus onesmade.

Figure 7. Free throw shooting.

"

The Jump ShotThe jump shot is really an extension of

the one-handed set shot. The ball is held inthe fingers of the hand with the fleshy padsof the palm rather than the center of thepalm touching lightly. This is where"touch" comes from. The shooting hand i5behind the ball, with the non-shootinghand to the side of the ball to give better ballcontrol. Face the basket with the hips andshoulders square with either a staggeredstance or parallel feet. The feet should beshoulder width apart. Think in terms ofshooting the ball over the front rim into thecenter of the hoop. The power for the shotcomes from the legs. Bending the knees to aflexed position and good wrist action arevery important. Sight over top of the ballwith the elbow in toward the body.

One of the most important areas of shoot-ing is rotation. This is achieved by bringingthe fingers under the ball when the wrist isbent (flexed). Use good wrist action or snapin every shot. As in. hitting a golf ball,baseball, or tennis ball, the follow-through isessential. A nice arm extension after theshot creates good rhythm, good motion,and makes for a smooth shot. Extend thehand and fingers on the follow-through.After release, the body should have a slightforward lean.

At this point transfer these mechanics tothe jump shot. What is important in thejump shot is not to jump too high, but to becomfortable. The ball should be released asplit second before a personal peak isreached, not at the peak of the jump. Knowpersonal range and do not go beyond it asthis will put a strain on motion. Whenexecuting the jump shot the followingpoints should be remembered:

lay the ball in the hand with the fingerscomfortable and the thumb slightly up;make sure the wrist is relaxed (if it isn't,the fingers and thumb are probablyspread too wide);keep the elbow in toward the-body;flex the knees and lean slightly towardthe target;have good wrist and finger action on thefollow-through for rotation;have a high release for a high arc;

,^

BASKETBALL 69

release the ball a split second before thepeak of the jump is attained;make sure the jump is a comfortable one;concentrate.

Shooting Exercises1. Stand 2 feet in front of the rim and place

the ball in a correct shooting position.Now_shoot as many times as necessaryto develop the proper release.

2. In the same position as above, jump.After each shot back up one step untilout of range. Now work back one step ata time. Repeat.

Self-testing1, Shoot from 5 spots on the court working

from the right baseline to the leftbaseline. Shoot 20 shots at each spot andrecord the percentage at each spot.

2. Have a teammate rebound after eachshot. Shoot for 60 seconds at each spotand see how many shots are done andhow rnady are made. This is a quicknessdrill.

, Figure 8. Hand position for the jump shot.

;


Figure 9. Knee flex for set shot.

REBOUNDING

Two of the most important aspects of re-bounding are timing and balance. To main-tain balance a wide, strong base from whichmovement is made must be established.The knees should be slightly bent, the hipslowered, with the body braced to receivecontact should it occur. The elbows shouldbe held wide at shoulder level with theupper arms parallel to the floor. Theforearms and hands are held high in a verti-cal position. The hands are facing the bas-ket with the fingers spread. Have the bodylean slightly forward with the weight on theballs of the feet.

The timing of the jump is very critical. Itis even more important than the height ofthe jump. What must be known is theheight and direction of the rebound. Con-sidering this, the rebounder jumps into theball. The ball should be caught at the high-est point of the jump. The legs and elbowsshould be spread wide with the buttocks

-extended for maximum room. Catch theball with one hand above aritdbhe below it.Land with the feet and elbows Wide and thehips low with the buttocks pushed out.

Figure 10. Follow-through for the jump shot.

Bring the ball into the chest for protection.Some points to consider for offensive re-bounding are:

great ccncentration is required as well asa desin: to get the ball;try to determine the rebound area of theball (shots from the right usually go to theleft if missed and vice versa);

o maneuver around a player who tries toblock hisiher opponent out;if unable to attain possession of thetry to tip it until possession can begained.

Important rebounding ppints to considerare:

take a wide, arms out, feet apart stancefacing the basket.don't follow the flight of the bail im-mediately but concentrate on the oppo-nent and then pick up the ball;pivot in `front of the opponent, blockinghislher path to the basket;after sighting the 'ball, time the(jump soas to reach it at the peak of the 'jump;go for it, high, wide, and with'authority.

BASKETBALL 71

Figure= The jump shot.

80


Ifo.{..:7.:

r/J-----/lbt i4,

P,/,.sti,

mf- '(94,so-

daZ75010.-taiimazza

Figure 12. Rebounding form.

Rebounding Exercises ,1. Stand in front of the backboard and toss

the ball off it, while timing the jump toreach the ball at a peak.

2 Work with another player, one defen-sive rebounding the other offensive. Theoffensive player loss'e the ball againstthe backboard. Players can switch poSi-,tions. ,

Self-testing1. Place the bill in a Circle at the free'throw

area'. 'Face the ball with another playerbehind the body. See if the other playeran be blocked away from the La for 60seconds.

2. Stand on the doV line in the 3-secohd -lane facing midcrtirt. Have a shootermove atound and,take shots aiming forthe rim. Turn, locate thf ball, and go forthe rebound. Ste how many can be got-ten before the ball hits the floor.

3-. Jump and touch the rim or net re"-peatedlS, 6 times without shlfting Weightor floor position. Rest 10 seconds, thenrepeat. Do, this ten times.

SAFiTY

In basketball;as in most spórts, the bestmethol of self;protection is physical fit-ness. Basketball is ail all-out fast-pacedgame that requires the body to be gradually.worked into shape. Since many injuriegoccur due ,,to lack of warm-up, it is veryimportant to properly warm up before prac-tke and games. Flexibility exercises are vitalto an athlete play ing basketball due to theviolent quick stops and starts as well a theeffects of constant jumping and twisting.All the sliding to the right and left on de-fense causes severe strain in the groin area.Therefore stretching is very irnportanoth.before and after practice.

The eyes can be protected with spec:.1goggles or by switching to contacts.(if glas:ses are worn). Shoes are the most'irfipor-rant part of a playes equipment. Makesure that shoes fit properly and wear twopairs of socks to cut down on friction. Socksshould be white. In case of a blister, the dye ,-from a colored sock can cause an infea" n.To avoid early seaston 'blisters andttscle

n. A

a

,

k,I_3ASKETBALL

pulls, do not start yactice with new shoes.Try to gradually break ta..:m in before prac-tice. This will help prevent blisters andankle sprains. Check the playing area fordangerous objects such as unpadded posts,backboards with no pads, or loose b&rds inthe floor, etc. When outside, check for ob-jects rch as rocks and glass.

RULES

The playing court is a rectangular surfacewith dimensions not greater than 94 feet by'SO feet. There should be two backboards

, (one at eachend of the court) with rims andnets. The rim is to be 10 feet from theofloor.The official ball is made of leather or a syn-thetic material. Its sircumference is be-tween 30" to 291/2", with a weight of be-

tween 20-22 ounces.A basketball team consists of fivse players,

usually) divided between the following po-sitions:

centerthe player who is the tallest orbest leaper usually plays this position; heor she Will jump center at each quarter.forwardsthere, are two players in thisposition; they' are generally good re-bounders with one of them being a goodshooter while the other one excels ondefense;guardsthere are two, with bne being ashootthg guard (called 2-guard) and theother being the point guard (the Pointguard sets up and runs the offense).The game of basketball in the high school

con.ists of four quarters of 8 minutes dura-tion. The game is started with a jump ball atmidcourt,which is taken by the centers. Allother players must be outside the circle and_be tationary. Each quarter is startvl thisway. The team tfitt gains the tap is on of-fense and will attack in the direction its'

,.:center was faciniat the toss of the ball.Play continues uninterrupted until a rule

infraction occurs, or the ball is passed out-of-bounds. When a basket is wored, playcontinues kminteri apted as the other teambrings the ball immediately in-bounds andgoes to the other end of the court in anattempt to score.

Two points are awarded for each success-ful field goal. On a field goal attempt where

-82


gRectangular backboardis 72" wide.

Fan-shar.-.1%..,..'kboardg tis 54" wide.

2" wide by ,, 4--3" deep

If court is less than 74' long it shouldIn divided by two lines, each parallel

to and 40' from 04, farther endline.

Division 14, 3, I 3, 11 3, 6' radius Line

outside

'Le (

.qi-L._____`18, 10"1----01

---4119' to centerof circle

2-inch line

6 feet radiusoutside

Optimum length 84' inside.All lines shall be 2" wide (neutral zones excluded).

1

2' radiusinside

2" wide by8" deep

28

12" wide by8" deep

The color of the lane space marks and neutral zcnemarks shall contrast with the color of the boundinglines. The midcourt marks shall be the same cohras the boundinf lines.

Left endshowslargebackboard.

Minimum of 3 FeetPreferably 10' of unobstructed spaceoutside. If impossible to provide 3feet, a narrow broken 1" line shouldbe marked inside the court parallelwith and 3' inside the boundary.

Semicircle Broken LinesFor the broken line semicir-cle in the free throw lane, it isrecommended there be 8marks 16" long and 7 spaces14" long.

Diagram 1. Regulation basketball court.

one fouled in the act of shooting, a bonusfree throw is awarded. If, however, an at-tempted field goal was unsuccessful twofree throws would be awarded. Each teamis put into a bonus one plus one, after thefifth team foul. When shooting the une plusone, two free throws are not awarded.

When it becomes necessary for an officialto stop play due to a rnie infraction, theclock is stopped. After the infraction hasbeen dispensed, play res mes.

For further explanatio of the rules ofbasketball, the reader is r ferred to the cur-rent rulebook of the Nati nal Federation ofHigh School Associations.'

STRATEGY

The primary function of an offense is toobtain a high percentage shot. The primaryattack is generally employed by two orthree players, while the other two or threeuse tactics to distract their opponents atten-tion away from the focal point of the attack.

t53

Right end showssmall backboard.

Rebound responsibility, defense balance,and secondary shooting, etc., must also becarried out.

There are as many different approachesto offense as there are coaches to teach it.What is important is that they should bebased on sound fundamentals and utilizethe abilities of each player to best advan-tage.

Defensive strategy is based on individualdefensive fundamentals and must be coor-dinated so that players function as a unitwhether evenly matched with an opponentor not. Each team must be prepared to reactto every offensive tactic. To accomplish thisstrategy they must have mental alertness,aggressiveness, hustle, and anticipation,among other things.

EQUIPMENT

Basketball clothing consists primarily ofshorts, a shirt, and shoes. The iiiportanceof comfortable, perfect-fitting shoes that

grip the fluor firmly Lan nott overstressed.There is no article of wearing apparel moreimportant to a player. The shoe shouldhave one-half inch at the end of the shoe.This is to permit roorn for the big toe tonun e %. hen making thuse quick turns andsudden stops. A player must determine ifthe shoe is to be primarily worn indoors oroutdoors. Should play occur indoors a sof-ter rubber sole should be used, while inoutdoor play a harder rubber sole should beused.

TERMINOLOGY

Bounce Pass. A two-handed or one-handeddo ow to another player which rebounds offthe floor about two.thirds of the distance awayfrom the passer.

Changing Directions. To dart quickly fromright to left or vice versa.

Follow-through. The continuation of bodymovement after the ball is shot or passed.

Foul. An infraction of the rules, which ischarged and penalized.

Free Throw. An unguardid shot at tht basketwhich is awarded to a player fouled in the acrof shooting or when the fouling team is overthe team limits on fouls.

High Dribble. For speed in an open court area.Jump Shot. A shot executed while the shooter is

in the air.

BASKETBALL 75

Lay-up. To gently place the ball above the rimonto the backboard.

Low Dribble. Dribble used for protection of theball in congested areas.

Overhead Pass. A two-handed throw to anotherplayer which is initiated from above the head.

Passing. To throw the ball either two-handed orone-handed to another player.

Pivot. The act of turning by lifting one foot offthe floor and turning on the ball of the otherfoot to face in a different direction.

Rebounding. To jump up and catch the ball afterit missed its mark and bounced off the rim orbackboard.

Rotation. The back spin that is imparted on thebasketball as it is released.

Shooting. To throw the ball at the target, in thisinstance, the basket.

Take-off Foot. The foot opposite the shootinghand on a lay-up that is used for pushing offthe floor.

Touch. The feel tor the ball in the fingertips.

.

REFERENCES

N.F.B.R. Basketball Rule Book. .kansas City, MO:Brice B. Durbin Pub., 1981.

Physical Education. Instruction Guide Grades7-12. Rockville, MD: Montgomery CountyPublic Schools, 1978.

Universal World Reference Encyclopedia, Basketball.Chicago, IL. Consolidated Book Publishers,1959.

811

approach (p. 81)delivery (p. 83)5-step approach (p. 83)4-step approach (p. 81)fouling (p. 86)illegal pin fall (p..86)miss (p. 87)pin bowling (p. 81)pushaway (p. Corelease and folkw-through (p. 83)sandbagging (p. 86)spare (p. 87)'spot bowling (p. 80)stance (p. 79)starting positions (p. 8:3)strike (p. 86)

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE

Bowling may be enjoyed by all indMdu-als regardless of age and size. In its simplestform, bowlingis a game in which a player(bowler) attempts taknock-down ten bowl-

--infOins by4olling a ball some 60 feet downa smooth, level lane. A game consists of tenframes with a maximum score of 300.Knocking all pins down with a legal firstball is called a strike (X), and knocking allthe pins down with two balls is called aspare (/). If neither a strike nor spare ismade, then it is either a miss, open, blow,or split.

HISTORY

Bowling may be one of the oldest non-comba tive sports. Egyptian children medsmall round stones to knock over sticks ortall stones in a form of bowling about 7000years ago. The Italian game of Bocci, bowl-ing a ball at a target ball on the grass, datesback to 50 B.C. Early Polynesians in thePacific had a game which resembled bowl-ing as they used flat stones to knock overother stones or sticks, their alley was 60 feetlong (the same as the distance from ourfoulline to the head pin in our present ten-pin game).

Around 1100 A.D. the Kiag of Englandoutlawed bowling-on-the-green since menwere bowling-on-the-green too much andnot practicing archery. During the 15005Rev. Martin Luther standardized the rulesfor the popular game of nine-pins. Flowlingwas brought to this country by settlers fromHolland in the early1600s. Many cities hadplaces :or bowling-on-the-green. Bowlingmoved between buildings (alleys), then thelanes were covered and became so popular

0

CHAPTER 6

Bowling

NORMAN E. SHOWERS,Southern Illinois University,

Edwardsville, IL

later on that some New England legisla-tures outlawed the game of nine-pins be-cause too many people were betting on thegame. Shortly thereafter an enterprisingman added a !enth pin, changed the pinVositioning, increased the width of thelane, endclevised- the present ten-pingame.

Attempts to standardize the ten-pingame failed until a group of men met irrNew York City in 1895 and formed theAmerican Bowling Congress (ABC) whichgoverns all aspects of the game. The Wom-en's International Bowling Congress

.-(WIBC) organized in 1916 in St. Louis, Mis-souri governs women bowlers. The Ameri-can Junior Bowling Congress (AJBC)started in 1941 in Chicago, Illinois to ac-commodate student-age bowlers. Other or-ganizations such as the, National BowlingCouncil (NBC), the Professional BowlersAssociation (PBA), and the Women's Pro-fessional Bowlers Association (WPBA)were later gstablished to promote bowlingat various levels. The Bowling Hall of Fameand Museum, located in St. Louis, Mis-souri, includes lanes, equipment, pictures,etc. from the pdst. More than 60,000,000bowlers make this sport the largest partici-pant sport in the United States, of whichMore than 11,000,000 are regular leaguebowlers. Annual tournaments sponsoredby the ABC (men) and the WIBC (women)involvc more than 35,000 participants ineach tournament making them the largestparticipant tournaments in the world.

GOALS

The goal of bowlers is to bowl a perfectgame (300) with 12 consecutive strikes in arow. An immediate goal within feach ofmost,bowlers is a 200 game. Top flight bowl-ers usually cowilf a 200 average per game.

o


AimingArrows

41-42"

--- 60'

Diagrnn 1. Ten-pin bowling lane.

8 7

Foulline

--- 12' Dots

-- 15' Dots

36"

36"

-4-- 12" iv-

Diagram 2. Nine-pi

Scores depend upon consistency and accu-racy. Studies done by N. Showers' and R.Showers2 on league bowlers, dem-onstrated that men bowling a 200 averageor a woman bowling a 190 average occurredabout one time out of every 1000 bowlers.The average league-average for a man isabout 154 and for a woman is 126.3

'Showers, Norman E. "A Statistical Analysis ofBowling Averages (Men)." Illinois Journal of Health,Physthal Education and Recreation. Fall, 1975.

2Showeis, Robert G. "A Study of Certain Factors' Affecting Bowling Performance of Female Bowlers."

Illinois Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recrea-tion. Winter, 1970.

3Showers, Norman E. "informal Study of 40,0(K)Men and Women League Bowling Averages." 1975..

v, OA .-1

4.4_,

in bowling lane.

A

BOWLING 79

SKILLS AND 4CEINIQUES

,There are many different ways to bowl.kach individual will have his/her own style;however, there are better ways to becomemore proficient.

PROPER STANCE AND HOLDING ME BALL

Witb a properly fitted,bell and shOes, astance should be assumed that permitsfreedom of movement while maintainingbody balance. First, Stand so that the bodywt...ght is evenly distributed on both feet(see Figure 1),. This is done by keeping bothfeet even. If one foot is-placed forward, the

88

80 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL:STUDENT

Figure 1. Starting stance, side view.

body will usually turn, which may cause aproblem.

Second, hold the ball so that some ofthe baR weight is supported in the non-throwing hand. Put the thumb and fingersall thevay into the. ball. This will permit amore relaxed grip and better ball controlduring the pushaway.

Third, keep the wrist and forearm in astraight line. The wrist should be straigland firm, not rigid. Do not cup the ball obend the wrist. Keeping the wrist straightand fhm permits a better pushaway andallows the ball to swing close to the body.

Fourth, hold the ball near Waist leveland next to the body (see Figure 1). Theball may need to be held at about chestlevel. Holding the ball near the chin orhigher is not desirable as the weight of theball, dropping the extra 1-11/2 feet, cancreate balance and delivery problemsB'ending forward is the least effective wayto hold the ball is this method, coupledwith the weight of the ball, tends to causesevere body control problems. Holding theball close to the body is most desirable.

Holding ,the ball away from the body maycause the body to lurch forward on the firststep.

PUSHAWAY

A properly executed pushaway is ex-tremely important. The pushaway deter-mines, in most cases, how well the bowlerwill walk to the foulline and, how well theball will be released. Hold the ball in close tothe body, about waist high (no higher thanchest high), with the thumb and fingerscompletely in the ball, wrist straight on theoutside (see Figure 2a), elbows next to theside with the ball partially supported by thenon-throwing hand. Now, without walk-ing, push the ball forward and down so thatthe ball swings freely; keep the arm relaxed;let the weight of the ball work for you. Asthe ball comes down and back, the wristshould be straight (see Figures 2b and 2c).

What is done at the beginning of thepushaway will affect the rest of the ap-proach, delivery, follow-through, and thefinal pin fall.

WHICH TARGLT? SPOT OR PINS?

The selection of the aiming target is mostimportant. There are two basic targets.(I) Spot (arrow) bowling is looking at androlling the ball over one of the small trian-gular darts beyond the foulline. Keep aneye on the target arrow until the ball isreleased.

The most advantageous, arrow for aright-handed player is the second arrowfrom the right side. For the left-handedbowler it is the second arrow from the left.Studies completed by N. Showers4 anct R.Showers5 revealed that spot bowlers aver-aged at least 10 pins per game more than pinbowlers. The idea is that a target some 12-15feet away is easier to hit than pins 60-63 feetaway. The bap goes straight most theway down the lane before curving so aplayer does not have to make allowance for

"Showers, Norman E, "A Study of Certain FactorsAffecting Bowling Performance (Male)." Illinois Jour-nal of Health, Physical Echicallon, and Recreation. Winter,1970.

55howers, Robert G., 1970.

8

Diagram 3. Target arrows for the right-handedand the left-handed bowlers.

a curve in the same way as when pin bowl-ing. (2) Pin bowling is looking at the pin orpins as the ball is released. When pin bowl-ing, allow for the ball curve which usuallymeans looking somewhere different thanwhere the ball is to be hit.

APPROACH

When the bowler is in the correct stance,has the pusha way ready, and is !coking atthe proper target arrow, the next phase is todetermine how many steps should betaken. The best bowlers use either 4 or 5steps. ..

Prior to trying the 4- or 5-step approach,the player must determine how far awayfrom the foulline to begin the steps. This isdone by starting at the foulline and faking41/2 normal walking steps for a 4-step ap-proach or 51/2 steps for a 5-step approachaway from the foulline. Most females willhave their starting position at or near the12-foot dots, and males will usually startabout halfway between the 12-foot and 15-foot dots and tales using 5 steps beginpearthe15- foot dots. When pacing steps be sureto take normal walking steps. The extra halfstep is for the slide during the final step.

.>

BOWLING Iitl

(Steps in bowling are not really steps, theyshould be more like a shuffle. If a bowlerlifts hislher feet off the floor more than a

. fraction of an inch, tho player tends to losebalance which causes problems.) Practicethe walk at home without a ball.

4-step ApproachThe sequence of a 4-step approach is very

rhythmical. Keep the eyes focused on thetarget arrow, the second arrow from thechannel. Step 1. The ball is held near waisthigh, as mentioned befote, then the balland starting foot (right foot for right-hand rs, left foot for left-handers) move atthe same time. The first step should be short,just e ough to get the momentum started.Step 2. The second step continues with theball still moving in a forward and down-ward movement and beginning back-ward. The second step is longer than thefirst step and a little faster. Step 3: This step .has more momentum, the ball continues itsbackward arc and reaches its highest point(it should not be higher than shoulderlevel). Step 4; This is the final step andincludes tfie slide. Tht ball is now movingforward in its downward arc and continuesforward through the release. The sliding

90


a. b.

d.

C.

Figure 2. Moe 4:step approach (side view).

e.

foot should.be Mraight and facing towardthe target. The upper body should be lean-ing forward from the waist (not bent orhunched). The balance should be on theshding foot with the knee bent, the trailingfoot should be off the floor. The arm shouldcontinue the follow-through, with themiddle fingers bent into the palm and thearm staying on the same side of the body(not across the body). It is very importantthat the eyes be focused on the target arrowall the time during the approach. Continueto watch the ball as it crosses over the targetand stay at the foulline until the ball is seento hit the pins (often a player is off-balanceat the foulline; one of the causes is takingthe eyes off the target as the ball is re-leased).

The 5-step ApproachThe 5-step approach approximates the

4-step with the exception that when start-ing, the first step is started and then the ballis started forward. The final step-slidemovement is similar to picking up all objecton the floor by stepping forward, bendingthe knee and swinging the arm down, andpicking up the object while continuing thearm movement.

RELEASE AND FOLLOW-THROUGH

A very important part of bowling is theproper release of the ball and the armfollow-through. Even though the ball is re-leased jast after the bottom of the armswing, the follow-through is a continuationof the total movement. The ball path, rota-tion on the ball, and accuracy are all af-fected by proper arm swing and follow-through. The arm from which the ball isreleased should continue in an arc (pen-dulum style) so that the arm does not crossthe body. Proper arm swing and follow-through permits the ball to be properly re-leased off the fingers; these in turn impartthe proper rotation to the ball.

DELIVERY

The four main delivery styles are thecurve, hook, backup (reverse curve), dndstraight ball releases. The hook ball or curveball are the best deliveries. Bowlers who

BOWLING 83

use the hook ordcurve ball release aver-age 10-15 pins higher than those playersIN ho use the backup delivery and abou: 20pins better than those who use the straightball. The main reason is the action of theball w hen hitting the pins and this action iscaused by proper hand, arm, and fingeraction at the release point. Until the playerbecomes proficient, he:she should concen-trate on the ball release which approxi-mates the handshake release, then con-tinue the arm movement forward and up(see Figures.2c and 2d). The arm should berelaxed and the grip firm but not rigid.

STARTING POSITIONS

There are seven basic positions that per-mit nearly all of the spares to be made.Learn these starting positions. As theplayer becomes more proficiern some finaladjustments may be necessary. All refer-ences made are to the placement of the rightfoot for right-handed bowlers and for theleft foot for left-handed bowlers. Use thebest angle and lane width possible. Thecenter of the foot should be placed on thesame board as the starting dot.

The key to this system is to walk in thesame straight line that is being faced asnoted by the foot position and dotted line.When a right-hander is trying for the strike,2-, 4-, 5-, or 7-pin leave, he/she faces squareto the foulline and walks straight ahead. Aleft-hander walks straight ahead when at-tempting the strike, 3-, 5-, 6-, or 10-pinleave. When a right-harlder attempts theright side spares (3, 6, 10) he/she shouldwalk in the same lirection that he/she isfacing. Left-hander trying for the left sidespares (2, 4, 7) neec to face in the directionof rlierr walk. Alwa3Is roll the ball the sameway; do not alter the delivery style-,

. There are times when a player needs to"bowl at a pin that is not standing. Deter-mine where the pins and ball will deflect.Some of the types of combinations of sparesare as follows: strike positions-generallywhen the 5-pin is in the set-up such as 5,5-8, 5-9, 1-5-9, 1-5-8; 2-pirt1-2, 2-8, 1-2-10,1-2-8, 4-5, 5-10, 2-4-5-8; 3-pin-3, 3-9,1-3-9, 3-5-6-9, 5-7, 5-6; 4-pin-4, 2-7, 4-7,

,4-7-8 2-10, 5-pin -same as striker 6-1

Pin-6, 3-10, 6-9-10, 6-10, 3-7; 7-pin -7',

9 2


AI A A

AA

EDO

Diagram 4. Ball paths for the left-handed bowler (B-back-up, C-curve,

H-hook, S-strthght).

4-10, 4-7-10; 8-pinsame as 2-pin;9-pinsame as 3-pin, 10-pin-10, 6-10,6-7, 6-7-10.

STRIKES OR SPARES: WHICH IS MOREIMPORTANT?

Obviously Strikes are what the game is allabout, but most players do not get many.strikes, so spares become a very importantpart of the game. As previously noted, untilbowlers average 200, they will.be trying formany more spares per game than they willstrikes. There is a saying, "Get your spares,and strikes will take care of themieives."The more accurately spares are made, themore accurately will strikes eventually bemade.

1

Diagram 5. Ball paths for the right-handed bowler (B-backup, C-curvei,

H-hook, S-straight).

There are certain kinds of spare leavesthat almost defy being made; the object is toknock over as many pins as possible. Pincombinations that fall i4to this category are:8-10; 7-9; 7-10; 4-6; 4-6=7-10.

PRACTICE

As noted in the bowling studies com-pleted by the Showers brothers, the moreone practices andlor the more leagues ;inwhich a player bowls, the better his/her -sr-

erage. For the average bowler tliis meanstwo or three practice games and two tothree leagues per week. When practicing,do not worry about scores but keep track ofthe completed frames. Attempt either the10-pin or 7-pin, or 4-pin or 6-pin, or 2-pin

93

w

I fI -

I\I I \

S \

Diagram 6. Left-hander's placementof IA foot for various pin leaye

positions.

Foulline

Basic PinLeavesand

Directionof

Walk

ur 3-pin w ith the first ball and then attempta strike with the second ball since the headpin should be left and other pins should beremaining. When practicing, be sure thatpositive action is being done, do not perfectan imperfection- by continuing to dosomething that is mechanically poor. Eachbowling establishment has a person qual-ified to help.

COMMON MULTS

The most common fau ts for a bowler tolook for are as follows: three steps, pinbowling, straight or backup ball delivery,walking too fast, walking too slow, turningthe sliding foot, throwing the ball too hard,throwing the ball too slow, bending orslumping at the waist, leaning backward,leaning to either side, dropping the shoul-der, holding the ball too high, holdihg theball too low, no pushaway, no backgwing,missing the spot, using the wrong angle forspares, standing up too straight at the foul-line, not bending the sliding foot knee at thefoulline, not keeping the body balanced, nofollow-through, hqpping or skipping when

er..

BOWLING 85

/ /I I/I II I/ I 1

/ 1 I

10 6 3 5 2 4 7

,. I Is

I ft MtDiagram 7. Right-hander's

placement of right foot for various:pinleave positions.

w diking, sw inging the ball around the back;not using the proper weight ball; noj hav-ing the ball fitted to the hand's size. Theseare the most important. All bowler'willhave some of these faults but every playershould attempt to minimize them. Have aqualified person tawatch the player's bowl-ing performance.

PLAYING THE LANES

An experienced bowler ,will learn to de-termine how the lanes pre to be played.First of all, keep in mina how the ball isbowled on the best lane in the regular bowl-ing establishment. When attempting tobowl and after warming up, compare re-sults with how the good lanes worked; thenmake any adjustments. If the lanes areslow, keep the same target arrow and ad-just the starting foo. position 2-3 boards tothe right for left-handers and 2-3 boards tothe left for right-handers. If the lanes areslic'k (fast) make adjustments 2-3 boards tothe right for a right-hander or 2-3 boards tothe left for a left-hander from the normalstarting positions. Shadow balls are an ex-

94

AP.

86 PHYSICAL EDULkTION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY kHOOL STUDENT

tellent methud to help determine w hetherthe lanes are fast, slow, or just right.

Remember that lane conditions maychange dunng a bowling sessiun. As moreplayers bowl, the lane dressing changes,w hich vill usuall!, cause a "breakdo'An" ofthe.surface dressing w hich in turn causesthe ball to, have niore curve.

ANALYZE THE GAMEa

When bowling, keep a mental or physicalrecord of what pins are continually leftstanding after the first ball. Ligh(hits nothitting the pocket well mean that theplayer's starting. position needs .o bemoved a couple of boards toward the out-

. side of the normal starting position.If cross-pin or hitting high on the

head pin, move the starting position to-ward the center orthe lane 2-3 boards.Some causes may be throwing the ball toohard (light hits) or too slow (high hits) ortaking the eyes off the target.

SAFETY

Safety considerations in bowling arerather minimal, as can be seen below.1. Pick up the ball ivith both hands on the

side of the ball. Picking up the ball wifhthe hand exposed to an oncoming ballmay result in a smashed hand.

*2. Be careful of practice swings. '

3. Wear loose-fitting clothes. Tigl)t-fittirigclothes restrict movements.

4. Don't step in liquids. Getting the slidingshoe wet cause the player to stoptOo quick! .

5. Make sure, the thumb and finger holesare not tight.

6. It is a good idea to test the sliding area onthe approach prior to bowling.

RULES

The game of bowling has many rules.Some of the ,more common ones are.1. Fouling. Many players step over the

foulline or touch a wall or support be-yond the foulline. These are fouls eventhough the automatic foul light detectordoes not activate. Players and/or team

members should call a foul just as if thefoul detector had been activated. Delib-erate fouls may disqualify a player.

2. Sandbagging. Players who deliberatelybowl a low score may be banned fromleague and/or tournament bowling.

3. Illegal Pin Fall. If the ball goes off thebowling lane surface for any reason andthen comes back on to the lane surface

'and knocks over any pins, those pinsmust be respotted or not counted. Oftena ball thrown into the channel (gutter)will bounce out and knock over the 7- or10-pin. If a pinsetterAhocks over anypins left standing o/Veyen if a pin istouched by the pin'setter while the pin isfalling down, the pin or pins must berespotted or not counted. This oftenhappens wfien a pin moves off spot afterthe first ball in a frame.

2

ETIQUETTE

Bowlin-g has some unwritten customs oretiquette. Those which are most common:are listed below.1. "Be ready to bowl when it is your turn.2. Do not talk to a,player who is ready to ,

bowl.3. Wait your turn. Make sure tile bcrwlers

on the Wes next to you are not ready tobowl.'

4. Use your own ball.5. Stay on your approach.6. Do n6t foul.7. Make sure the pips are ready.8. Do not" put powder orother foreign

91

substances on your shoes.. Make sure there are no liquids on the

soles Of your bowling shoes.10.. Do not loft the ball.11. Always exhibit good sportsnianship.

SCORING

Boivling has'its own unique scoring sys-tem. Once the process is understood, scor-ing is not as difficult as it may seem. Exam-ine the rules for scoring (see terminologyfor definitions).1. A strike (X) counts as 10 plus a bonu; of 2

balls (pins knocked down with the nextj

3 4 5 6 7 8'

BOWLING 0

9 10

7 5 9 F .5 g 0 8 I 0 A.E.* r .

You15 23 33 39% 44 72 92 112 142 172

-

10+ 5 5 + 3 10 + 0 '0 + 6 5 + 0 10+10+8 10+8+2 10 + 10 10+10+1 10+10+10

15 + 8 +.10 + 6 + 5 + 28 + 20 +20 + 30 + 30

Diagram 8. How to score the game.

two balls). Exception occurs in the tenthframe when awarded two more balls formaking a.strike with the first ball. (Con-secutive strikes are denoted with a small2.)

.. 2. A spare (I) counts as 10 plus a bonus ofode ball (pins knocked down with thenext ball). Exception occurs in the tenthframe; no bonus is permitted on a lastball spare.

3. Miss, open, glow pr split not convertedinto a sparecount only the total pinsknocked down with both balls in theframe.

4. 4foul counts as zero (0) for that ball.Now examine the game score given in

Diagam 8.Frame 1-7 pins knocked down with first

ball, 3 pity; with second ball. ThiS.countsas a spare (/). Frame total is 15 (10 + 5 forfirst ball in second franie).

Frame 2-5 pinr, with first ball plus 3 pinswith second ball. Total for frame is 5 + 3= 8. Cumulative score is 15 + 8 = 23.

Frame 3:-9 eins"with first ball, 1 pin withsecond ball counts as a spare (1). Score inframe is 10 + 0 (foul on first ball in fotirthframe). Total score is 23 + 10 = 33.

Frame 4-0 pins With first ball (foul) plus 6pins with secOnd ball. Total for frame is 0+ 6 = 6. Cumulative score is 33 + 6 = 39.

Frame 5Total for frame Is 5 (5 with firstball, 0 with second ball). Grand total is 39+ 5 = 44,

2 3 4 5

Frame 6Strike with first ball. Score forframe is 28 (10 + next two balls which is 10(strike in seventh frame),,4:8 (first ball ineighth frame)]. Grand total is 44 + 28 =72.

Frame 7Strike with first bali. Score forframe is 20 [l) for strike + 10 for spare (8+ 2) in eighth frame]. Grand total forframe is 72 + 20 = 92. (Note: Score for aframe is automatically 20 when a strae isfollowed by a spare.)

Frame B'-8 pins with first ball and 2 pinswithisecond ball ior a spare. (The large 0in th4mall box denotes.a split which waspicked up for spare.) Score for frame is20. (Note: Score for a frame is automati-cally 20 when spare is followed by astrike.) Grand total is 92 + 20 = 112.

Frame 9Strike with first ball. Score inframe is 30 (10 + 10 + 10). (Three consecu-tive strikes count as an automatic 30 sincethe player receives 10 + next two balls .which were 'also strikes.) Gidnd total is112 + 30 = 142.

Franie 10Three consecutive strikes. Scorein frame is 30 (10 + 10 + 10). (Three con-se utive strikes ,is an automati 30.)Bo us balls are allowed only fcfjfirststrike. Final game score is 142 + 30 172.

T your scoring skill with the pra ticegame. The answer is in the diagnostic quizGood luck.

6 7 8 9 10

isYou

I71/ tLE 1314I LA 16V 3 5 1 713 JK81/j4

i

' b

/

V

Diagram 9. What is the game saire?-96

avA

4


STRATEGY

Bowling has strategy but is different fromother sports. There is no defense in bowl-ing; it is an offensive-based sport. A bowlercan not be kept from taking hislher turn, soother considerations become paramounte.g., placing players in certain positions inthe team lineup. Usually the best player islisted last (anchor), position; the next bestusually bowls first and the lowest averageplayer is in the middle with the otherplayers either second or fourth. Anotherconsideration occurs in the last framees thebowlers take their turns; the player on theright bowls first and this may be importantif the game is close.

Additional sirategy occurs when certaintypes of splits are attempted, When indoubt, always try to get as many pins aspossible. Examples are splits such as the7-10, 4-6, 8-10, 7-9, awl 4-6-7-10. Thesesplits are next to impossible to convert intospares, so try for the count, that is, the surepins. The only time to attempt these split-spares is if the game depends on making

ON I

"4 toa.

the spare which usually occurs only if theplayer is the last person to bowl.

EQUIPMENT

A big advantage in bowling is that allbowling centers have available equipment.Bowling balls are furnished at no cost andbowling shoes may be rented. However,after bowling for a more extensive period, itis advisable to purchase a ball and shoes.Studies completed by N. Showers6 and R.Showers' revealed that players who cwnedshoes averaged about 5 pins more pergame, and players who owned a ball aver-aged about '10 pins more per game thanplayers who did not own bowling shoes ora ball.

A properly fitted ball and shoes are amust if one wishes to bowl well. Most bowl-ing centers have a resident pro to help withequipment.

6Showers, Norman E., 1970.7Showers, Robert G., 1970.

410110101111.A 1.

b.

'Co

(toll

111 11111/

C.

;1.).

9 7

Figurea. Fitting the ball: (a) conventionalgrip; (b) semi-fingertip grip; (c) fingertip grip.

SHOES

Bowling shoes should be the same size asstreet shoes. Bowling shoes have rubberheels and a composition sole for slidingSome shoes have a leather sole for slidingon one shoe and a rubber sole 'for tractionon the other. Most rental shoes use compo-,.

sition soles.

MLL

Bowling balls come in assorted weights,colors, and hardnesses. The conventional(3-finger) grip is recommended becausebowlers usually do not have the necessarycontrol to master the special grips such asthe semi-fingertip or the fingertip untiltheir league average is at least 180. Whenselecting a ball, two things should be con-sidered. weight, size of thumb and fingerholes. Ball weights will vary from the usual10 pounds to 16 pounds (maximum). Someballs are even lighter in weight. As a ball isselected, find the heaviest weight ball thatcan personally be handled. high schoolgirls, 10-12 pounds; high school boys, 12-16pounds; junior high school girls, 9-12pounds; junior high boys, 11-14 pounds.After selecting the proper weight, insert thethumb all the way inthe thumb should beable to move in and out with easedo notbend the thumba thumb hole that is justlarger than the thumb is needed, with thethumb all the way in the thumb hole,

. stretch .the hand across the ball so that themiddle two fingers extend over the fingerholes. The first finger joints should extendabout 3/4 inch beyond the near edge(nearest the thumb hole) of the finger-holes, hold the ball alongside the-body. Theball weight should not be too noticeableand the ball should hang on the hand. Thebowler should not have to squeeze or bendthe thumb or fingers; helshe should haveno more space between the palm and theball surface than the thickness of the littlefinger. Swing the ball along the side of thebody, the ball should feel comfortable. Anote of caution. a ball that fits correctly willnot feel heavy; a lightweight ball thatdoesn't fit will usually feel heavy.

BOWLING 89'

THUMB PROBLEMS

Many times thumb problems occur whenthe thumb hole is too tight, too loose, or thespan (distance between the thumb hole andfinger holes) is too narrow or too wide.Sometimes thumb problems occur becauseof the way a ball is released, usually spin-ning the ball off the thumb.

CLOTHING

Bowling may be done in almost any typeof normal clothing; however, the playershould use comfortable loose-fitting gar-ments. Tight clothing is restriciive to swing-ing, walking, bending, and sliding.,

LEAGUES

Most players bowl 1n a league. Severalplayers get together to form a team, andthen join a league which normally bowlsthree games, one day per week, for about35 weeks. (Summer leagues are muchshorter.) Most leagues.are handicapped sothat all teams have a good cLapce to win.Most high average players select a scratch(no handicap) league.

DIAGNOSTIC QUIZ

Following are some questions that canaid the player to bowl better from the be-.ginning.1. What are the differences between

house balls and custom-fitted balls?2. Are there differences in bowling shoes?3. Which is better, a curve or straight ball

delivery?4. Which is better, the pin or spot method

of sighting?5. Why is it better to take 4 steps rather

than 3 steps?6. Why is a medium walking speed best?7. Is a ball thrown fast better than a

medium speed ball?8. Where should the player stand to pick a

2-pin spare? a 10-pin spare? a 5-pinspare? a 4-7-pin spare?

9. Name the proper target pin in the fol-lowing spare combinations: 3-10 pins;2-7 pins; 1-2-8 pins; 1-3-9 pins; 5-10pins; 5-7 pins; 1-2-4 pins; 1-3-6 pins.

9 8


10. Which grip is best for a beginner to use?11. Is practice worthwhile? How should a

player practice?12. Did you get a score of 165 for the game

shown in Diagram 9? Frame by frametotals are 20-39-48-68-81-89-97-125-145-165.

TERMINOLOGY

ABC. American Bowling Congress. Men's gov-erning body.

AJBC. American %Junior Bowling Congress.Governing organization for school-age boysand girls.

Anchor. Last bowler on a team. Usually theteam's best bowler.Arrows (also spots). A series of seven triangular

darts, 12 to 15 feet beyond the fOulline. Spotbowlers use these aiming taigets.

Automatics. Term used to designate the pinset-ting equipment.

Average (also grand average, composite aver-age). Add all games bowled in a leagtie anddivide by the number of bowled games. (Dropall fractions.)

Baby Split. The 3-10 and 2-7 splits.Backup Ball. Ball that curves to the right for a

right-handed bowler, or to the left for a left-handed bowler.

Blind. A predetermined score used for a miss-ing player.

Blow (also miss, open, error). Failing to get astrike or a spare in a frame.

Bonus. The number of additional pins scoredafter getting a strike or a spare.

Brooklyn (also crossover). Ball hitting to the leftside of the head pin for a right-hander, or tothe right side of the head pin for a left-hander. .

Bucket. The 24-5-8 and 3=5-6-9 pin leaves.Channel Ball (also gutter ball). Throwing the

ball into the shallow 9-inch wide trough oneilher side of tildbowling lane.

Chenry (also chop). Knocking down at least thefront pin or pins during a spare attempt andleaving adjacent or rear pins, such as knock-ing down the 6-pin front the 6-10 set-up;

1 2 3 4 5

Convert. Ability to make a spare. (also picking asplit).

Count (Pin Count). Failure to get at least 9 pinsin a frame or 9 pins on the first ball following a,spare or multiple strikes.

Curve. A ball that is rolled toward the outside ofthe lane which then curves back toward thecenter of the lane.

Dead Ball. A ball rolled on the .wrong lane orout of turn; also, a delivered ball that causeslittle or no pin action.

Dead Mark. 'Last ball spare or strike in tenthframe; no bonus is allowed on a dead mark.

Delivery. Rolling the ball. Used to designateeither the curve, hook, backup, or straight ball.

Double (also called a chicken). Two consecutivestrikes in a game.

Double Pinochle. Leaving the 4-7-6-10 splitafter the first ball.

Doubles. Team consisting of two players.Dutchman or Dutch 200. Alternating strikes

and spares in a game.Fast Lanes. Term used when the ball doesn't

curve very much due to a slick lane.Foul. Touching or going aver the feulline when

delivering the ball. It is also a foul to touchanything beyond the foulline even if the foullight does not 'go on. A foul counts as a ballrolled but a zero is received for that ball.

Frame. A game consists of ten frames perplayer; either one ball (strike) or two balls arerolled per frame, except in the tenth frame, anextra ball is received if the player gets a spare,and two extra balls if the player gets a strike onthe first ball.

Handicap. A score adjustment based on the dif-ference between team or individual averages.Usually 75% of the difference is used.

Hook. A ball rolled so that the ball takes astraight path and then takes a sharp turn(hook) at the end.

Kegler. Another name for a bowler.Kingpin. Name given to the number 5 pin.Lane (also alley). Name given to the wooden

surface that extends from the foulline to theend of the pin deck.

League Bowling. Bowling in a regularly sched-uled league is a good way to bowl. Usually

6 7 8 9 10Ne:IIONONOWAS20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Diagram 10. Dutch 200 games.

99

teams are coinposed of five play ers. MoM arehandicap leagues. League sessions are usuallyfor three games and players alternate lanes,that is, bowl first frame on one lane, secondframe on the adjacent lane, third frame onsame lane as first frame, etc. .

Mark. A strike or a spare. A mark is tallied foreach strike (two for each consecutive strike)and spare. Each mark represents approxi-mately 10 pins on one's game. Keeping trackof a team's marks will let the bowler knowhow the teams are doing against each other.

NBC. National Bowling Council.Nose Hit. Ball that hits the number 1 pin

squarely.Perfect Game. A score of 300. Twelve consecu-

tive strikes in a ganie.Pin. The regulation pin is 15 inches tall and usu-

ally weighs between 3 pounds 2 ounces and 3pounds 6 ounces.

Pin Bowler. Player who looks at the pins w henreleasing the ball.

Pin Deck. The area where the pins are spotted.The pin deck is 41-42" wide.

Diagram 11. Call pins by number.

Pin Spots. Spots on the pin deck. Pins areplaced 12 inches apart, center-to-center, forming a 36-inch triangle.

Pit. Area at the, end of the pin deck into whichthe pins fall.

Pocket. The 1-3 pins for nght-handed bowlersand 1-2 pins for left-handers.

-PBA. Professional Bowlers Assodation. Men'sorganization.

Return. A track on which the ball returns to thebowler.

Sandbagger. Player who deliberately bowls alow score.

Scratch Bowling. Player does not get any hand-icap.

BOWLING 91

Seiies..Usually three games, such as in a leaguesession.

Singles. Bowler competing as an individual.Span. Distance between the thumb hole and

the finger hoses on a bowling ball. There arethree basic spans: conventional; semi-finger-tip; and fingertip grips.

Spare. Knocking down all 10 pins with two ballsin a frame. Aspare counts 10 plus the numberof, pins knocked down with the next ball.There are 1023 different spare combinations.

Split. When an intermediate pin is missing inany series of pins, providing the heacryin isnot standing after delivering the first ball in aframe. Typical splits are: 5-10; 5-7; 3-10; 2-7;7-10; 8-10,4-5: 5-6; 4-6; 7-10; etc. There are 459different splits.

Spot Bowler. A player who uses the target ar-rows or boards rather than looking at the pinswhen releasing the ball.

Steps. Refers to the number of walking steps aplayer takes when walking to the foulline.Most bowlers use the 4-step approach.

Strike. Knocking down all 10 pins with the firstball in a frame except in the tenth frame wherethe bowler may have three chances for strikes.

Tournament Bowling. Tournaments are usu-ally based on handicaps. Players are handi-capped from a predetermined score either asteams, doubles, or singles. Final standings arebased on total score plus handicap.

Turkey.. Three consecutive strikes in a game.WIBC. Women's International Bowling Con-

gress.WPBA. Women's Professional Bowlers Associ-

ation.

REFERENCES

Amerit.an Bowling Congress. Rulesând Regu-lations. Gredndale, WI, current year.

Ameu..an Junior Bowling Congress. Rules andRegulations. Greendale, WI, current year.

Showers, Norman E. Bowling. 3d ed. Glen-view, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company,1981.

Showers, Norman E. "Suggestions for Teach-ing Bowling." Bowling and Archery Guide.Washington, DC: American Association forHealth, Physical Education, and Recreation,1975-76.

Women's International Bowling Congress.League Rule Book. Greendale, WI, current year.

1 o

-

ballerina (p.ballet (p. 93)ballroom (lancelp. 96)basic waitzstip (p. 100)caller (p. 96)corps de ballet (p. 93)country western twostep (p. 100)danseur (p. 93)disco line dance (p. 99)figures (p. 96)folk dance (p. 96)head couples (p. 96)jazz dance (p. 94)modern dance (p. 93)popular dance (p. 98)side couples (p. 96)square (p. 96)square dance (p. 96)tap dance (p. 95)

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the ages dance has been animportant aspect of all cultures. Amongprimitive cultures, dance was a major formof religious ritual and social expression.Men and women danced to gain the favorof the gods who provided food, shelter,health, and safety. They danced to expresstheir joy in birth, their happiness in love,their courage in war, and their sadness 'indeath. Their movements were inspired bynaturethe movement of animals, theflight of birds, and the beauty of a risingand setting sun.

Dancing has become a part of Ainericantradition. The Indians, the immigrant col-onists, and the black slaves have contrib-uted tlieir dance forms to this tradition.Today Americans enjoy one of the richestcultural traditions in the dance world.

Dance forms appeal differently to eachperson. It may simply be an enjoyable so-cial activity performed at the communitycenter or at the school prom, it may be ademanding performing art, it may be ahighly Lompetitive as well as colorful, cul-tural expression of dance. Each person hasa basic need to express himself/her-self inmovement. Dance provides many recre-ational and artistic opportunities for every-one.

Do you remember moving naturally andspontaneously to the sound of music as achild? Do you remember the fun you had inthe square dance 'Class? Do you recall yourfirst dance at the high school prom or thewedding dance where you saw your par-ents dance for the first time' Several formsof dance are described in the followingpages. Perhaps,, these descriptions will in-spire you to join the world uf.dance.

CHAPTER 7

Dance in Education

DENNIS FALLON,University of Missouri,

St. Louis, MO

SOME FORMS OF DANCE'1NAMERICA

UV

BALLET

Ballet is the supreme classical form ofdance in the western world. Born in Italy,ballet came to life in the courts of Franceduring the 16th and 17th centuries. Balletflourished throughout Europe and Russiain the 18th century ultimately reaching anew artistic height in the early, 19th cen-tury. The year 1841 mar'..3 a zenith in thehistory of ballet with its full introduction ofthe pointe'd shoe and the era of the bal-lerina. Ballet in the 20th century is experi-encing a renaissance period and major bal-let companies can be seen throughout theworld.

The movements of ballet include tradi-tional positions of the feet, arms; and body.The movements are performed standing inplace, springing or leaping into the air, ortraveling through space. The classical na-ture of the form is recognizable with thestrong vertical alignment 9f the body aswell as the turned-out position of the legs.

Many students study ballet just for thelove and beauty of the art. Others, a selectfew, join companies as members of thecorps de ballet. If a girl is an outstandingperformer, she may become a ballyrina. If aboy is an outstanding performer, he canbecome a danseur. ^

MODERN DANCE

Modern dance in Ametica emerged as anew fofm of dance free from the traditionsof ballet and responsive to the vitality of theAmerican pioneer spirit. In The early 20thcentury, Isadora Duncan felt that dance

102 ()


Figure 1. Ballet.

should reveal riot only the natural and purebeauty of the human body but that it shouldbe a truthful expression of human emotionsand ideas as well. Other dancers likeMartha Graham and Doris Humphrey de-veloped techniques of theatrical dance thatexpanded the expressive and virtuosicrange of the body in motion.

Beginning dancers are introduced to,Nnciples of movement relative to space,tempo, flow or continuity, and the force. Asthey apply these principles dancers dis-cover and create new movement patterns.

Professional modern dancers ',spendmany years developing their bodies for ar-tistic expression. They learn to improvisewith dancers, sets, costumes, props, andsound. Ultimately, they learn to organizetheir movements and materials into formalchoreography. Aithough ky will choose aprofessional career in modern dance, it canstill be appreciated as a performing art.

JAZZ DANCE.

-Jazz.dance is a splendid combination ofEuropean and African dance, characterizedby syncopa ted and complex rhythms,

103Figure 2. Modern dance.

European folk dance stepjcombined w ithAfrican rhythms.

During the early 20th celury, jazz dancegained,Acceptance in minstrel shows and anew theatrical form called Vaudeville. Theincreased visibility of black performers hada marked influence on the emergence ofsocial dances, such as the Turkey Trot,

DANCE IN EDUCATION 95*

African rhythmic foot patterns all have con-tribute& tó our American tap dance.

The purpose of tap dance has usuallybeen entertainment. Popularized in theminstrel shows of the 19th century and bysuch entertainers as Bill Robinson andSammy Davis, Jr., in the 20th century, tapdance captures the energy and rhythm of

Figure 3. jazz.

Charleston, Black Bottom, the Shimmy ofthe 1920s, and the Lindy Hop of the 1930s.

Today jazz dance combines its ethnicheritage with modern dance and is fre-quently referred to as modern jazz dance.Students who are interested in careers inthe theatre usually study jazz dance andballet.TAP DANCE

Many of the early Europeap and African-dances_were characterized by distinct heeland toe moyements. The Irish Jig, the Eng-lish Clog, the Spanish Flamenco, and the

this country. The early tap dancers in-vented their own steps and variationsfeaturing fast footwork, vigorous bodymovements, humorous talk, and ,songs.During the, days of Vaudeville the dancersde% eloped a smoother and mere polishedstyk of dance. Some specialized in sanddancing, soft shoe, and various forms ofclog dancing.

Tap dancing has always been an impor-tant piirt of theatrical entertainment inAmerka. Today it appeals to many peoplebecause of its artistry and showmanship.

.1.(i 4

96 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPQRT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL SiUDENT

SQUARE DANCE

Square dance originated from the trenchquadrilles and the country dances of the feBritish Isles. Today it is Very much a part ofAmerican culture.

'Square dance is social dancing in its most,vivacious form. Because it is relatively eSsyto learn, it is popular witliboth childrenand adults. With its rural or country flavor,square dance is extremely popular in met-ropolitan areas where men in cowboyboots and women in full skirts frequenttheir local clubs to square up and dance tocountry music.

The unique feature of square dance is thecaller. The calleE establishes the rhythm ofthe dance and cues or directilhe dancersthrough known figures changing the danc-ers of a sguare. Each square consists of fourcouples. The couples are numbered one,two, three, and four in a counterclockwisedirection around the square. Couplesnumber one and three are also referred to asthe head couples and two and four are re-ferred to as the side couples.

Originally, square dancing used a fewsimple figures dancing as One couple vis-ited another and then moved on to theother coup!es to-repeat the figure. Today,many figures are used as the eight dancersmove in intricate patterns. Because of theincreased complexity of square dancing,The National Federation of Square DanceCallers was formed to establish standardsand order in square dance. Most callershave their own clubs where they teach thefifty basic figures of square dance. The sim-ple qures, such as, swing, promenade, cir-cle, and star form the foundinidn fimoredifficult figures.

Today there are two 'kinds of squaredance. One is danced to singing calls, theother to patter calls. Singing calls are cOm-posed to the lyrics of a popular song andconsist of predetermined figures. Betweenthe figures of a singing call the caller willsing some lyrics of the song. Patter callsconsist of patterns of figures that the callerspontaneously arranges. Between figuresthe caller will insert illything 'phrases (pat-ter) that provide a rhythmic quality to thecall.

f" 1

The square dance is a trulyAmericanfolkdance. Unlike ballet and modern dancewhich emphasize theatrical performance,square tlance invites everydne fo dance.

FOLK DANCE .folk dance is an international experience

'that reveals the distinct tradition, dress,and character of a nationality through acommon mediunt, dance. The highlights ofevery festive national holiday are the folkdances that remind people of their heritageand ancestry. Persons today are returningto the true ethnic nature of,folk dance byusing the original musical instruments, thenational dress, the style, and the precisionof the dances.

Folk dances range from simple to corn=plex dances. Some dances consist of walk-ing steps in simple patterns while othersinclude steps, hops, and jumps in variousrhythms-and in intricate patterns. In eitheycase enjoyment is derived from dancing instile and rhythm akin to the music.

A rather attractive aspect efolk dance isthe varied formation and grouping used indancing. Some dances use lines; circles,groups of three or more, couples, and indi-viduals. Some dances are performed bymen, some by women, and some by bothmen and women. In every dance the group-ing tells the happi,and sad storig from thepast about religious and secular beliefs,birth.and death, courtship and marriage,victory and defeat.

Every year over one million people im-migrate to the United States. They bringwith them their cultural lieritage and t

-energy. -Folk -dance, -indeed, ,is_a_culturaexperience enjoyed by all persons.

BALLROOM DANCE

Ballroom dance is an enjoyable form ofsocial dance performed by men ard womendancing as couples in recreational settings,clubs, ancLballrooms. Ballroom dance hasits roots in the peasant dance tradition ofEurope. In the 16th and 17th centuries, thepeasant dances were refined by the aristoc-racy into extraNagant, elegant, and highlysocial dances. Some of the early courtdances were the courante, the pavane, the

0

t

.,..fr e

.."

,/

DANCE IN EDUCATION 97

,.Figure 4. Square dance.

I

i

,

i

4

El.

r

o

Figure 5. Folk dance.

. ,98/ PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOCSTUDENT

allemande, the gavotte, the gigue, and thegaiard. In the 18th and 19th centuries thecontredanse, the quadrille, the cotillion,the mazurka, the polka, the schottische,and the waltz, gained popularity in Eygopeand America. Today the polka and thewaltz are popular\ ballroom dances in thiscotaitry

The music and dance of millions of Afri-can slaves, strongly influenced populrmusic and dance in The 19th century. By1890 Black culture manifested itself in theonly original art form, jazz. Brass bandspopularized jazz, ragtime, and slowmournful blues during the "Roaring Twen-ties." The foxtrot and the swing, tWo oftoday s more pftpular ballroom dances, be-came popular across the country. .

ImMigrants from Latin and SouthAmerica during the early 20th centu6/brought with them stvetal ballroom dancestitat are popular tda t. the tang5, therumba; the cha cha. Ballroom dance in theUnited States, indeed, is a multi-culturedexperience, one that can be enjoyed 44

P

recreatiopal level or pursued at a' competi-tive level in I4cal, regional, national, andinternational clitests. Incltu4d in the finalsection of this cbapter are basic steps ofselected ballroom (dances.

POPULAR DANCE

Popular dance refers to'that form cif socialdance that is currently favored by mostpeople. Heavily influenced by, popularmusic the dances reflect the moo.' and in-terests of the time.

In the early part of this century peopledanced to the Turkey Trot, Grizzly Bear, -and the Bunny Hop. sLater they boogied tothe Varsity Drag, I300gie, Shag, and SuzieQ. Possibly the most popularodance tosweep the country was the Twist whichappeared during the 1960st During the.1970s the Bump, Bus Stop, Rope, and H...is-tle were danced. These are forms of discodance, a kind of dance iSopularized in clubscalletl discotheques.

Most popular dances have very simplefoot patterns and ohvious body movements

Figure6. Ballroom dance.

it

Rik

0.

, DANCE IN EDUCATION 99'

Figure 7. Popular (disco) dance.

that allow for personal interpretation.Disco dance is performed both individuallyto felt rhythms and patterns c.nd with apartner.

SKILLS ANT) TECHNIQUES

The skills and techniques of dance likethe skills and `techniques of sport arefounded on the ,basic laws of motion. Al-though the skills and techniques of balletand modern dance differ from those of ballroom dancing and the skills and tech-niques of basketball differ from those oftennis, dancers and basketball players learnthe basic skills of dance and sport rathereasily. The basic reason for this is that dan-cers have learned to apply the basic laws ofmotion.

In dance, students continually search forbeautiful movement while in sport theystrive for productive movement like hitsand runs. As dancers acquire skill andtechnique their movements become more

beautiful. They begin to apply the lmys ofgravity to their posture and movement andbegin to control their energy in variousmovements. Dancers become more awareof lines and begin to distinguish tempoof movement as they begin to move intobeautiful flowing patterns.

Dance is loconlotor movement. Personsmove by walking, running, skipping, hop-ping, galloping, leaping, and slicEng. Thpoint their feet forward, touch them to the

..side, dot them behind, and kick them high.When the basic locomotor movements of

dance can be performed, put them into asequence. Try these:

Disco Lihe Dance

Beat Foot Direction

I Right Forward2 Left .L. Forward3 Right : Forward4 Left . Kick5 Left Backward6 Right Backward7 Left Backward8 Right Kick

1 V 8


Basic Waltz Step

Bent Foot

1 Left2 Right3 Left4 Right5 Left6 Right

Direction

ForwardForwardCloseBackwardBackwardClose

Note. The-girl-begins-this-pattern-by-steppingbackward on the right foot.

Country Westem_two-stepBent Foot Direction1 &. 2 Left Forward3 Right Forward4 Left Close5 & 6 Right Backward7 Left Backward8 Right Close

Note, The girl begins- this-pattern by steppingbackward c the right foot.

The first pattern is easy because it is ba-sically walking to the beat of the musicrithout a partner'. The second pattern isalso a walking pattern but performed with apartner. The third pattern is similar to thesecond except that the first and fourth stepsare'slow and take two beats while the othersteps are quick and take one beat each. Ifthis pattern can be mastered, the polka,schottische, rumba, and samba, can be at-tempted.

SAFETY

Injuries occasionally occur to a dancer'sfeet. Blisters, callouses, sprains, and stressfractures are common injuries. Most in-juries can be prevented if dancers pay at-tention to their bodies' warning signal,pain. There, of course, must be space forthe dancers to move freely and the floorshould be a finished, non-slipperyhardwood upon which they can glide withbare feet, soft sandals, or lightweight danc-ing shoes.

Other injuries like pulled muscles canhappen when students attempt movementwithout sufficient warm-up or beyond their.capability. Students, therefore, shouldlearn the basic movements of dance andacquire the necessary strength, flexibility,and timing for them before attemptingmore advanced movements. This adviceshould serve as a basic rule of s,fety.

I

SCORING, RULES, AND ETIQUETTE

In conipetitive, solo, ballroom, and discodance there are rules and scoring proce-dures similar to those used in competitivefigure skating. The dancers must performcompulsory (required) as well as free danceniovements, and they are generally scoredon precision, shownianship, and use ofdynamics.

Eti t_a_tene and form are significant aspectsof dance. Through dance we acquire an ap-preciation for courtesy, graceful move-ment, and correct posture.

EQUIPMENT

Compared to snost sports there is littlepersonal expense for dance-equipment Forballroom and popular dance, dress attire isoften appropriate. For folk and squaredance, many dancers wear appropriateethnic and western attire. Modern dancers,ballet dancers, and jazz dancers usuallywear leotards for practice sessions andcomplimentary attire for performances.The clothing, of course, must fit well andpermit free movement. For social dance,tap, and ballet dancing, shoes and slippersmust be comfortable and of good quality.

TERMINOLOGY

Allemande. A square dance movement duringwhich the designated man and woman graspforearmb and turn each other around once.

Arabesque. One of the basic poses in ballet.Cha Cha. A social dance from Cuba performed

in slow-slow-quick-quick-slow rhythm and4/4 time.

Chasse. A side, close, side step pattern.Choreography. The grouping or patterns of a

dancecomposition. _

Close. Bringing the4eet together.Curtsy. A dip performed either forward or

backward.Danseur. The male ballet dancer.Danseuse. The female ballet dancer.Do-sa-do. A square dance movement during

which the man and woman pass right shoul-ders, move around each other back to back,and return to a facing position.

Gallop. A basic form of movement in a diagonaldirection and a step, close, step, close pattern.

Grapevine. A sideward dance movement in aside, behind, side, front pattern.

Hesitation. A social dance step in a step, touch,step, touch pattern.

1 "t./ 4.,

0

Hop. A form of movement where one jumpsand lands on the same foot.

Jitterbug. An American social dance performedto fast jazz music. Also called the Lindy.

Kick. A quick, fast movement forward, back-ward, or sideward without a transfer ofweight.

Leap. A form of movement where one jumpsfrom one foot to another.

Lindy. See Jitterbug.Measure. A grouping of musical beats made by

the regular occurrence of a heavy beat.MeterRefers-to-timaimmusic_orsrouping.of .

beats to form the underlying rhythm in a mea-sure.

Pas de Deux. A ballet dance for two.Pirouette. A turn on the balls of the feet.NM. A bending of the knees.Point. Pointing the toe of the free foot in a

specified direction.Polka. A Bohemian social dance performed in

time an a op, s ep, c ose, s ep pa ern.Promenade. A square dance movement per-

formed by couples moving counterclockwisearound the square with the boy on the insideand the girl on the outside of the circle.

Rumba. A Latin American dance performed in414 time and quick, quick, slow or slow, quick,quick rhythm.

Samba. A Latin American dance performed in414 time and quick, quick, slow rhythm.

Schottische. A dance, done in 414 time and astep, close, step, hop pattern.

Skip. A form of movement where one steps andthen hops on the samq foot:

Slide. Form of movement where one movessideward in a step, close, step, close pattern.

Square. The basic formation in square dance. Asquare consists of four couples facing the cen-ter of the square with the boys on the left sideof their partners.

Syncopation. A musical term referring to theaccenting of the second and fourth beatsrather than the usual first and third beats ofa measure.

Tango. A Latin American dance from Argen-tina performed in 214 or 414 timeslow, slow,quick, quick, slow rhythm.

Touch. A fast movement without a transfer ofweight.

Two-step. A dance step performed in 214timea step, close, step pattern and quick,quick, slow rhythm.

Waltz. A social dance from Austria performedin 314 time and a three-step, even rhythm.

DANCE IN EDUCATION 101

REFERENCES

The Basic Movements of Square Dancing. LosAngeles, CA: American Square Dance Soci-ety, 1972.

Cayou, Delores K. Modern Jazz Dance. Palo Alto,CA: National Press Books, 1971.

Cheney, Gay, and Strader, Janet. Modern Dance.Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.

Chujoy, Anatole. The-Dance Encyclopedia. NewYork: Simon and Schuster, 1967.

DeMille, Agnes. American Dances.r New York:MacMillan PulAshing Cowany, Inc., 1980.

Fallon, Dennis. The Art of Dfie.co Dancing. Wash-ington, DC: MHPERD, 1980.

Fallon, Dennis, and Kuchenmeister, Sue Ann.The Art of Ballroom Dance. Minneapolis, MN:Burgess Publishing Company, 1977.

Gilbert, Cecil. International Folk Dance at a Glance.Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publishing Com-pany, 1974.ran , --alr-Tecimicat-Manualsami-Dictionary-ofClassical dallet. New York: Daver Publications,Inc., 1967.

Harris, Jane, et al. Dance a While. Minneapolis,MN: Burgess Publishing Company, 1978.

Joukowsky, Anatol. The Teaching of EthnicDance. New York: J. Lowell Pratt and Com-pany, 1965.

Kirstein, Lincoln. Dance: a Short History of ClassicTheatrical Dancing. New York: Dance Hori-zons; 1974.

Kraus, Rkhard, and Chapman, Sarah. History ofthe Dance in Art and Education. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1981.Lockart, Aileen, and Pease, Esther. Modern

Dance. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Com-pany Publishers, 1977.

Nash, Barbara. Tap Dance. Dubuque, IA: Wm.C. Brown Company Publishers, 1969.

Sachs, Curt. World History of the Dance. NewYork: W. W. Norton and Company, 1965.

Sorel!, Walter. The Dance through the Ages. NewYork: Grosset and Dnnlap, 1967.

Steinberg, Cobbett. The Dance Anthology. NewYork: New American Library, 1980.

4

DANCE ASSOCIATIONS

American Dance Guild, P.O. Box 109, Princeton,NJ 08540

National Dance Association, 1900 AssociationDrive, Reston, VA 22091

11 0

e

bully (p. 109)centers (p. 108)corner (p. 110)defense hit (p. 110)the dribble (p. 103)forwards (p. 108)fouls (p. 110)free hit (p. 110)fullbacks (p. 109)goalkeeper (p. 109)halfbacks (p. 108)the hit (p. 105)inners (p. 108)links (p. 108)penalty corner (p. 110)penalq-Vitknp7110)the push (p. 104)puskin (p. 110)receking (p. 106)16-yard hit (p. 110)sweeper (p. 109)tackling (p. 108)wings (p. 108)

..

cr

,

:.,

..)

INTRODUCTION

F-ield_hockey is a fast, exciting gameplayed by men and women of all agesaround the world. Using a curved, woodenstick and a small leather or plastic ball, twoteams attempt to maneuver the hockey balldown the field while trying to score a goal.Basic skills include dribbling, passing,dodging, and tackling. The game is playedon a grass or synthetic-surfaced field, andcan be adapted for indoor play.

The sport was first introduced in theUnited States in 1901 by ConstanceApplebee.of England. With extraordinaryzest for the game, "The Apple" promotedhockey for its development of speed,endurance, coordination, and cooperativeteamwork. Field hockey generates anenthusiasm that is shared by everyoneregardless of skill level. Field hockey wasone of the first organized team sports forwomen. Since the early 1900s, op-portunities to participate in the sporthave expanded to include programs inschools, colleges, clubs, and assoCiationsacross the country. The United States FieldHockey Association (USFHA) governs playfor women and the Field HockeyAssociation of America, Inc. governs playfor men.

Involvement in field hockey can lead toexciting experiences in internationalcompetition as a player, coach, or anofficial. The sport is a recognized Olynipicevent for both men and women. Imaginehow exciting it would be to represent acountry at an international match before a,

CHAPTER 8

Field Hockey

BARBARA J. BELT,John F. Kennedy High School,

Silver Spring, MDand

BARBARA J. REIMANN,The American UniverSity,

Washington,DC

packed stadium of 65,000 cheering fans!Just such a crowd was on hand to watch theU.S. women's team-play the English teamto a 2-2 tie at London's Wembley Stadiumin March, 1978.


There are several basic skill techniquesthat must be developed by each player.These include the dribble, the push, andthe hit (often called the drive). Learningand practicing these skills will enable eachplayer to become more involved in the

-game. The more advanced skills, such asthe flick and the scoop, are naturalextensions of the basic skills.

A player must learn to receive a pass andto tackle and regain possession of the ball.-Dodging is a more advanced ball-handlingskill that enables a player to evade anopponent without losing the hockey ball asa result of a wayward dribble or pass.

The following section of this chapterexplains the basic skills needed to play fieldhockey. Each explanation includesexamples of specific practices that can beused to improve individual skill.

THE DRIBBLE

The dribble is the technique used toadvance the ball while running. The lefthand is placed at the top of the stick,withthe back of the hand facing forward. Theleft wrist must remain straight and the leftelbow must be held well away from the

,'side. A straight line should be able to be

112W1


drawn from the stick through the wrist andup to the elbow. At no time should theelbow collapse into the side (see Figure 1).

The right hand is held approximately 6inches below the left. The ball is contactedin front of the body and slightly to the rightand is advanced forward with alternateshort taps. This should be practiced until areal feel for the ball on the stick is obtained.

The feet should point forward and thebody should lean slightly forward. Thehead can move slightly to permit the eyes towatch the ball and to look for the position ofthe opponents.

It is best to practice the dribble at variousrunning speeds since individual speed willvary depending on the game situation.

Practice DrillThTDribble1. Practice dribbling 50-100 yards moving

at different speeds and changingspeeds.

Figure 1. The grip.

I

Dribble on a gym floor following thelines of the court. Establish a course onthe court; dribble the course makingcerfain that' the ball stays on the line.Record the length of time required tocomplete the course. Add a half secondfor every time the ball goes off the line.Attempt to lower individual time andreduce the number ot errors.

3. On a gym floor or a similar hard evensurface, set up 10 traffic cones, 3 yardsapairThibble around the cones; whenthe last cone is reached, dribble straightback to the starting point. Record thelength of time. Repeat 5 times eachpractice time (see Diagram 1).

THETUSH

The push is a technique used to pass theball a shott distance from one player toanother. The left hand is held at the top ofthe stick with the back of the hand facingforward. The right hand is slightly belowthe left, similar to the dribble position. Thebody, is sideways so that the left shoulderfaces the line of the pass. The left wrist mustbe straight and the left elbow away from thebody. The left foot is forward and the ballshould be off of the heel of the left fat. Thefeet are astride with the feet pointing in the

Diagram 1.

A

FIELD HOCKEY 105

Diagram 2.

same direction as the pass. The stick isplaced behind the ball, and pushes it. Thisis executed by a synchronization of a hardaush hr,mh the ball with the righinas the left hand simultaneously pulls backand the weight shifts from the right to theleft foot. There is no back swing. The bodymust remain low. The stick,should followthrough in the direction of the pass (seeFigure 2).

racti&Thills: ThCPush1. Push the ball against a wall, from a

distance of 5-7 feet. Increase thedistance and the force of the pass.Emphasize the follow-through in thedirection of the pass. Concentrate on thestroke and the transfer of weight.

2. Push the ball back,and-forth with apartner from a stationary position about3 yards apart. Increase the distance andchange directions by passing to the leftand the right side of each other.

3. Push for accuracy with a partner, usingtarget of two traffic cones. As accuracyimprows, narrow the distance betweenthe cones and increase the distancebetween partners (see Diagram 2).

THE HIT

The hit is a technique used to move theball long distances or to move a shot on thegoal. Jhe left hand is held at the top of thestick with the tight hand immdiatelybelow it.

The feet are about shoulder width apartand the ball is placed opposite the left foot.On the back sw:ng move the stick backkeeping the left arm straight and cockingthe wrist. The head of the stick should beslightly above the wrist and the right armshould be away from the body. The weightis on the right foot. The weight shifts to theleft foot at the start of the down swing. Atthe moment of impact with the ball the

A A

40. ood.

Figure 2, The push stroke. Note the position of the hands and the follow through to obtain maximumaccuracy.

u 4

11.


A

Diagram 3.

wrist should be firm and the stick should betightly gripped.

All the muscles in the arms andshoulders are-tensed as the ball is hit; thearms are straight. As with all of thetechniques, the eyes must be kept on theball. The follow-through with the stickshould be in the direction of the hit. Thestick must be controlled by the wrist andshotild not come above the waist.

Hitting to the left is a relatively easymove. Simply move the ball in front ofthe left foot, swing through the balt so itmoves to the left, and follow through.(see Figure 3).

,s Hitting to the right is more difficult. Theball is overrun, or pulled back so it isopposite the right foot. The trunk of thebody is twisted so the right shoulder ispulled back and the left shoulder turnstoward the target.

Practice Drills: The Hit1. Practice in a stationary position hitting

the ball against a wall or some other hardsufface concentrating on the' swing,transfer of weight, and contactirig theball squarely, and the follow-through'.

2. Hit with a partner. N.

3. Set up a target of traffic cones betweenpaktners. Hit for accuracy between thecones. As accItracy improves, narrowthe distance between the traffic conesand increase the distance betweenpartners (see Diagram 3).

4. Dribble the ball and hit it while on-themove; hit left, right, and straight ahead.

RECEIVING ME BALL

Due to the nature of the game it isnecessary to receive the ball from alldirections, i.e., left, right, and behind. To

Figure 3. "Lon themove.4. a

successfully receive the ball the eyes andmind must be kept on the ball. If either aretaken off the ball, it may be missed. Whenreceiving the ball straight ahead, the sticksould be held-at right angles to the groundwith the right hand well down the stick.The-left hand should be farther away fromthe body than the right hand to trap theball. As the ball approaches the stick, givewith it so as not to create a deflation. Adeflection or rebound is likely to permit theopponent to steal the ball: A ball that iswell-received will be controlled and willpermit immediate play. The ball can be re-ceived while the player is stationary or onthe move.

FIELD HOCKEY 107

Receiving from the Right

When the ball comes from the right it isslightly more difficult to field since thetrunk must be twisted in that direction. Thefeet should continue to point in thedirection of the opponent's goal as does theleft shoulder. The left elbow is high andwell away from ihe body and the reft wrist

kois straight so as to form a straight line fromwhere the left hand grasps the stick to theleft elbow_(see Figure 4)..

Common mistakes to avoid whenreceiving tbe ball:

1. Pushing at the ball rather than givingas it hits the stick.

2. llending_theieftiwrist.

Receiving from the Left

If the ball approaches from the left side,allow it to cross ovef in front of the left legand field it inside of the right foot. The gripon the stick is the same as the dribblingposition.

3. Putting the left elbow in the side.4. Taking the eyes off the ball.

Practice Drills: Receiving

1. Have someone roll the ball to the playerwhile the player is stationary. Practicestopping the ball with no deflection.

Figure 4. Receivingifrom the right.

1 16


2. Same as #1 but increase the speed of theball.

3. Same as #1 but move forward to meetthe ball and control it immediately onthe stick.

4. Stand behind a' line and have a partnerhit or roll the ball to the player. See howmany balls can be stopped directly onthe line.

5. Hit thq ball into a Wall on the left. Playthe_rebound so.that the ball is receivedfrom the left. Repeat, sending andreceiving the ball from the right.

TACKLING

-ackling I equiresa greatdeal ofself-discipline. The timing of the skill is ofthe utmost importance. It requiresconcentration, timing, poise, andtechnique. Rushing on to an opponent whohas control of the ball can be a seriousmistake. Do not permit the player to bebluffed by the opponent. FaCe theopponent, if possible. The feet should beshoulder width apart, kndes bent, headdown, eyes' on the ball, weight evenlydistributed, and the back should be bentc.--wa,rd, The ,dribbler will attempt todeceive or fake the tackler into a mistake.The better the ball control, the more likelythe dribbler will be able to deceive thetackler with footwork and body moves.

The tackler must retain balance and notbe pulled to one side or the other by a fakemove. The tackler can increase the reach byremoving the right hand from the stick ang,holding the stick at the top with the lefthand. The tackler must watch for anopportunity when the ball is not controlledon tlAdribbler's stick. At this point the ballcan be taken from the dribbler's control. It iseasy to foul when attempting a tackle. Be

. careful nOt to place the body between thedribbler and the ball so that there is anobstrtiction.

If the dribbler has passed a player thenthe player must run to catch up andovertake the person with the ball. It is

preferable to do this on the goalside of-theplayer to prevent them from ,movingtoward the goal. When attempting toovertake/the dribble, be careful not toobstrtfcTor to interfere with the stick of the

1 1

dribbler. This violation will result in either apenalty corner or a penalty stroke to theoffense.

Practice Drills: TacklingTackling is a difficult skill to practice. The

dribbler must work to keep the ball and notjust give it up to the tackler. The skillpractice requires concentration on the partof both players.

A 1-on-t situation is one of the bestpractice drills that canbe had. Set=off=anarea about 10' by 10'; one person is theoffense (dribbler); the other person is thedefense (tackler). This is the same situationas playing 1-on-1 in basketball.

After.this has been practiced awhile, setup a scoring system to determine howsuccessfully the ball is being captured fromthe offensive.player.

THE PLAYERS

The game of field hockey is playedbetween two teams of eleven players each,including a goalkeeper for each team. Theother players are a variety of forwards anddefenders whose positions depend on thestyle of play that best suits the players'skills. :Various lineups can be used toinclude forwards, halfbacks, links,fullbacks, a sweeper, and a goalie (seeDiagram 4).

The forwards are the wings, inners, andcenters of the team's attacking front lineThese players mtist possess excellentstickwork for dribbling, passing, eandreceiving. They should also be able to movequick.ly with or without the ball andanticipate the next action on the field, sothat they can create scoring opportunitiesA skilled forward should keep the defenseguessing by dodging and 'faking andconstantly changing speed and positionAlthough forwards are concerned withscoring, they must be rody to play defenseWhen needed to help regain possession ofthe ball.

The links and halfbacks are mid-fielddefenders. These are the play-makers,constantly sending passes to the forwardsas the team moves into scoring positionThe links are expected to move throughonto the front line when needed ori attack

9

HD 111

dD 11 til1

CF(left (left (center

wing) inner) forward)

LH(left halfback)

LB(left

back)

CH(center

halfback)

R1---RW(right (rightinner) wing)

RB--"`(right

back)

RH(right

halfback)

I

(goalie)

FIELD HOCKEY 109

In

HD

111 T1

RI- RW(left (left (right

wing) inner) inner)

LL(leftlink)

CH(center

halfback)

(rightwing)

RL"(Fightlink)

LH RH(left back) s (right back)

(sweeper)

h -

(goalie)I I G I I

Diagram 4. Sample line-ups for hockey positions.

and they recover to take-up defensiveassignments as well. The halfbacks aremore defense-oriented. They rover an

t, area or mark a p14er as the action getscloser to the goal. They should be strongtacklers and they must anticipate thepassing angles for making interceptions.

The fullbacks, sweeper, and goalkeeperare responsible primarily for defending thegoal. The sweeper and fullbacks interceptthe long, through passes and they markany free player who comes into the circle.They should posse'ss good stickwork and astrong drive for use in clearing the ball.

A skilled goalkeeper is the last line ofdefense and the first line of attack for ateam. A properly cleared shot on goal willdetermine where the team will be able topick up the action and move down the fieldon attack.

All eleven players must work well as ateam. They must cover and support eachother. Good teamwork is based on strong

stickwork, excellent conditioning, and theability- to quickly analyze a situation. Theseare improved through training and dailywork on skill techniques and strategies ofgame play.

THE GAME

fhe game begins with all playerson-sides or within their own defending halfof the field. A bully is taken at the center ofthe fiela between two opposing forwards,each facing a sideline with his or her owngoalline to his or her right. In the bully, theplayers tap their sticks first to the groundand then together over the ball. Thissequence is repeated three times. On thethird tap of sticks, t.he ball is in play and theaction begins. All players must remain fiveyards away until the bully has, been,completed.

A goal is scored when the ball crossescompletely over the goalline between the

118

110 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUD&T

goalposts and under the cross bar. The ballmust be hit by an attack player within thescoring circle although the player taking thehit may be outside the circle. Each goalcounts one point.

During the game or match, fouls occurthat result in free hits for the opposingteam. A free hit is an undefendedopportunity to pass the ball to a teammate.All players must be five yards away ,untilthe hit-is-taken.-The-free_hit..must_beinadfrom the point where the foul occurredexcept for those fouls that occur inside thescoring circle. (These result in variousset play situations.)

intermission. There are no aim-Outs exceptfor an injury or a penalty stroke.Substitutions may be limited or unlimiteddepending on the rules followed by eachschool, club, or association.

Field hockey has been adapted for,indoorplay in a gy mnasium. Specific rules 'havebeen established. The-grind* difference_s______involve using only the dribble andpush-pass to maneuver the ball on the

ecourtBy_using_teams_o_f_5, 6, pr 7playdrs(maximum), the activityis fast and furiousand the enthusiasm for indoor hockey is ona rapid rise.

As with most other sports, field hockeyundagnesexperimentir=rule-changThe following are considered common

fouls: sticks; advancing, obstruction;offside, using the round side of the stick;swinging dangerously at an opponent;unnecessary roughness; interfering with anopponent's stick; picking up or throwingthe hockey ball. Several of these fouls aredefined in the terminology section at theend of this chapter.

There are various set play situations thatoccur during a match. The push-in is themethod for putting the ball in play when itgoes out-of-bounds over the sideline. Thdpenalty corner is taken by the attacking teamwhen the opposing defense commits a foulwithin the scoring circle. A corner is takenby the attack when the defenseunintentionally sends the ball over thegoalline and a goal is not scored. Thepenalty stroke is taken by one attack playerwhen a deliberate foul is committed thatprevents-a goal from being scored.

When the attack commits a foul in thecircle, a defense hit is taken on any spotwithin that circle or from any spot within 16yards of the goalline on a line drawnthrough the place Where the foul occurred

land parallel to the sideline. If the attackfouls outside the drcle but within 16 yardsof the goalline, the defense takes a 16,yardhit. This is from any point on a line runningout 16 yards from the goalline through thepoint of the foul and parallel to the sideline.All-players must remain- five yards awaywhile these various types of plays are takenby each team.

A match is played in two halves of 30-35minutes each. There ig a 5- to 10-minute

I

from time to time. These are initiated on theinternational level and then applied to thesecondary school level with varyingdegrees of modification.

Recently, several new rules were testedduring competition. The "bully" wasreplaced with a *s back to a teammate or apass forward into the attack (similar tosoccer). The stick can be raised above the ".

-should,er only if it does not create adangerous situation with other nearbyplay6rs. If the ball goes out-of-bounds overthe sideline, players may use a hit or apushTin to ,put the ball back into play. AplaYer may move within 5 yards of ateammate taking a free hit as long as allplayerre more than 5 yards away fromany circle. The long corner will be replacedwith a free hit situation with all _playersfrom both teams permitted to move nocloser than within 5 yards of the playertaking the hit from the endline. If these andother-rule changes prove to be assets to thegame, they will become permanent.

TACTICS AND STRATEGIESA player's individual skills are used to

develop game tactics and strategies withteamtnates. There are many smaller gameshappening constantly within the largergame on the field. By remaining aware of

what is happening, all players becomemore efficient at moving with or withoutthe ball to create a space, to meet the pass,

,and to be an active part of the hockey game.Much of the play involves creating and

maintaining triangles within the total team

concept. Defenders work to maithain atriangle by staying goat-side and ball-sideof the opponent with the ball. Attackplayers attempt to maintain a triangle byspacing themselves to permit through, flat,'and back passes. These are more difficult tointercept than the diagonal pass. -

FIELD HOCKEY 111

This section includes sample drills andsuggestions for self-evaluation. These canbe used while learning basic tactics forgame play. Beginning and intermediateplayers should concentrate on small gamesituations prior to playing with' an entireteam.

Drills: Pass Run ..... Dribble1. Fill-the-corners using an imaginary square, pass and move to the empty corner; reversP

directions.

A c (b) A(a) ' (c)C

I

I

A .414 c (cl)contintie

I

A B

2' Pass-to-empty corner: playej moves to meet the pass, passer moves to fill the spot left bythe receiver.

(a) A

C

(b) C A

/B AL_ , A

(d) continue

. . .3. Moving triangle: using tht length' of the 4 C A #

field; switch roles each time down the I .., t / t

field and use the flat pass to the right;B

maintain spices while receiving on the A sends flat pass to cmove. - c sends Uack pass to B

B sends through pass to 'A

4. Through pap. maintaining spaces, moving to receive the pass:filling the open position.

(a)

(b) "t1/`

N.A C B

5. Weave: always follow the

(a)

A

(c)

A

pass; receive On the move; use flat passes.-

- I

- --10.C

A 37.= C

J.

(c)

(d) .

c

120

A

-t

(e) continue

(e) Zontinue

112 PHYSICAL EDUCAT1bN AND SPORT-FOR THE SECONDARY kHOOL STUDENT

6. Rei ;eat #5 and add one defender-3 v 1;rdpeat '#5 and.add two defenders-3 v2.

Beginning.and intermeaiate playersshould play small games of 3 v 3, 4 v 4,5 v 5, and 6 v 6. These are excellent

.ways to learn skillwork and conceptsof _team play. The 11-player gameshould be used by the moreadvancedplayers.

Questions' forself-evaluation:

1. Were your passes cris'p ari0 direct?3. Coidd you receive a pass onto ,your

stick and maintain contrôl? .

=3. bid you maintain.spaces by Moving' toreceive the pa5s or supporting yourteammate(s) from the ?ide? . .

4. Was it difficult to maintain spaces afteradding a defender? If so, why? If not,why not?,,

small group and,

3

EQUWMENT

Basic equipment for the game consists ofa hockey ball and stick. The solid ball has a

GoalCage 4"

Penalty CornerMark

Sideline

white leather kir plastic covering. It weighsnot mere than 53/4 ounces nor less than 5,1/2ounces; its circumference is not more than91A-inches nor less than 8 13/16 inches. The -wooden stick has a handle With a curvedtoe. The handle has a leather, towel, oirubber grip. The stick is flat on the left-handside and rounded on the right-hand side.Hockey sticks measure 26-38 inches inlength and 12-23 (women) or 28 (men)ounces in weight.

To determine the proper length for astick, stand straight with the stick resting'against the iight side of the body and placethe right hand on the stick. There should bejust .enough room remaining for, the lefthand to he placed on the stkk betweentheright, hand and the end Of the handle'(grip).

The hockey field measures 100 yard.. by60 yards. It is flat ond free of obstructionswith a grass or synthetic surface. The goalsare rectangular wooden Or metal, framescovered by a net. Each goal is 12 feet wide, 7feet highand 4 feet deep with a whitewooden facing (see Diagram 5).

The goalkeeper is the only player whocan legally kick,the ball during.play, andthen only when inside the scoring circle.

ICornerMarks

4-

ScoringCircle

S Yds.

5 Yds. A

I 4 T

J 4 16 Yds.

5 Yds.

5 Yds.

_),.16 Yds.

1.41--- 100 Yds.

Diagram S. Tibld markings and dimensions..

1 2 1

^4 Yds.

16 Yds.

60 Yds.

4

Goalies wear leg pads, kickers (over theshoes), gloves, and a face mask. The glovefits tightly with extra padding for the palm.The faee mask is sin ilar to that worn by icehockey goalies. It must be made of plastic oranother synthetic material.

The traditional team uniform worn bywomen includes a kilt, lightweight sportshirt, pullover sweater, knee socks, andrubber-cleated shoes. The uniform forinenis similar except that shorts are worninstead ,of kilts. In addition, most playerswear mouthguards and shinguards as extraprotective equipment.

TERMINOLOGY

Attack (Offense). Team that has possession ofthe ball.

Advancing. Foul called when using any part ofthe body to move the ball or any part of thebody except the hand to stop the ball.

Bully. Method to begin play at. the start of eachhalf or after a goal'is scored.

Circle. Scoring area around each goal,Corner. Set play awarded to the attack when the

defense unintentionally sends the ball overthe goalline without a goal beinic scored.

Cutting. Moving to meet the pass or creating aspace into which the ball can be hit by a team-mate.

Defense. Team that does not have possession ofthe ball.

Defense Hit. Free hit taken after the attackcommits a ioul in the circle.

Dodge. Method for avoiding an opponent with-out losing possession of the hockey ball.

Dribble. Short taps taken to move the ball whilemaintaining control with the stick.

Drive. A hard, direct pass or shot on goal.Flick. Type of stroke with the ball lifted to knee

level (no backswing); a natural.extension ofthe push-pass.

Free Hit. Method for putting the baW into playfollowing an opponent's foul outside the cir-c,le.

Marking. Defending against a player by stayingclose (stick-to-stick) and not permitting him tobe free to make a play.*

FIELD HOCKEY 113

Obstruction Player places any part of the bodyor stick between the ball and an opponentwho is trying to play the ball.

Offside. Player is ahead of the ball in the oppo-nent's half of the field and there are fewer thantwo opponents between himlher and the goal-line at the time that the ball is hit.

Penalty Corner. Awarded tdthe attack when thedefense commits a foul inside the circle.

Penalty Stroke. Awarded to the attack when thedeiense commits a deliberate foul that pre-vents a goal from being scored.

Push-in. Method for putting the ball in play atthe point where it went out-of-bounds overthe sideline.

Push-pass. Hockey ball is pushed along theground directly off the stick (no backswing).

.Scoop. Hockey ball is lifted into the air using ashoveling motion (no backswing).

Square (Flat) Pass. Type of pass that travelsacross the field (right or left) perpendicular tothe siUelines.

StiEks. Foul called when any part of a player'sstick comes above the shoulders at anytimeduring that player's possession of the ball.

Tackle. Method for taking possession of thehockey bail from an opponent.

Through Pass. Type cif pass that travels straightdown the field parallel to the sidelines.

REFERENCES

Barnes, Mildred. Field Hockey. the Coach and thePlayer. Boston, MA: Allyn and bacon, Inc.,,1979.

Field Hockey Rule-Book. Kansa City! MO: TheNational Federation of State High SChool As-sociations.

Gros, vonnie. Inside Field Macey for Wamen.ChLago, IL: ConteMporary Books, Inc., 1979.

Kentwell, gichard. Field Hockey, Techniques andTactics. Brooklyn, MI. Sauk Valley Sport%Supply, 1976.

NAGWS Guide: Field Hockey. Resign, NA: TheAmerican Alliance for Healfh, Pkisical Educa-tion, Recreation and Dance. -

Official Field Hockey Rules for School dirls. NorthChili, NY: USFHA, Inc., 1980.

United States Field Hockey Asspciation. TheEagle.

122

blocking (p. 123)carrying position (p. 120)cut (p. 119)dead ball (p. 123)direc(p._116)fad gc1-1.123)----handoff (p. 118)

pitchout (p. 118)place kick (p. 121)punt (p. 120)screen (block) (p. 115)scrimmage play (p. 122)shotgun formation (p. 116)3-point stance (p. 115)tie game (p. 123)touchdown (p. 123)

A

4.

CHAPTER 9

Coed Hag Football

INTRODUCTION

The fasdnation that-the public has for thegame of football is evidenced by the manyprograms that exist from youth leagues toprofessional-football-cordexences_Man.yindividuals, who for various reasons can-not participate in highly competitive foot-ball programs, are not content in the spec-tator role. These are the men and womenwho are becoming actively involved insome form of recreational football. Theserecreational leagues range from flag or tagfootball teams for men and women to pro-grams involving coed flag football competi-tion. Various- recreational programs incities, high schools, and colleges haveutilized the rules and strategies of regula-tion football, flag football, and tag footballprograms. These modifications make the. game safe, enjoyable, and comyetitive for

'the participants.A coed flag football team is composed of

eight participants (four men and fourwomen) although the game can be mod-ified, to accommodate from six to tenplayers. The playing field (40 x 100 yards)has four 20-yard zones and 10-yard endzones. Scoring takes place by a touchdown(6 points),.conversion (run or kick-1 point),safety (2 points), or field goal (3 points). Theball is advanced as in regulation football byrunning or passing although some modifications are stipulated in the rules. Progressof the player in possession of the ball:isstopped by pulling off one of the flags at-tached to a belt worn 4round the waist. Allthe skills and strategies of regulation foot-ball, with the exception of contact, areutilized, thus making coed flag football fun,challenging, and physically demanding.

; .

MARYANN DOMITROVITZ,Pennsylvania State University,

University Park, PA

SKILIS AND TECHNIQUES

OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE STANCE

, In the game of coed flag football, blocking(physical contact) is not permitted. Theemphasis, therefore, is not on physicalstrength, but on quickness. On signal, theoffensive lineman's responsibility is tombve quickly and screen for a teammatewhether it is for a run or pass play. (Ascreen is a player maintaining a position,without use of contact, between a defenderand the ball carrier. The arms and elbows ofthe screener must remain in contact withthe body.) Defenders must be just as quickahd controlled, for they are expeded tomove'around the screen and rush the quar-terback or ball,carrier. Because both the de-fensive and offensive players are expectedto move quickly at the snap of the ball, thestance used by both is similar. If a 3-pointstance is used, the feet are placed shoulderwidth apart, and the hand reaches forwardand rests on the ground. The posterior israised so that the back is nearly parallel tothe ground and the free arm rests on the legabove the knee. To ensure balance, theweight should be equally distributed on thefeet and the hand, with the head raised andthe focus forward. A 3-point stance is hotspecified in the rules; therefore, it is accept-able for the lineman to be positioned on theline with the knees flexed and the handsresting on the legs just above the knee. Therule enforced is that the offensive.linemanmust be motionless prior to the snap. ThisTule, however, does not apply to the defen-sive lineman.

124

t

116 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOk THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

15'

Diagram 1.

Offense versus Defense Drill

DDefense 0Offense +ConeHow long can the defense be prevented from touching

the cone?How quickly can the offense be out:maneuvered and

the cone tagged?

13rocedure1. Designate a spot 15 feet from ele cone for.the of-

fense and defense.2. Offense must assume a 3-poi M stance.3. Defense may cross the 1ine when offense moves

from a 3-point stance.4. Offense may not make contact with the defense

when trying to obstruct the defender's movementto the cone.

5. Defense must move around the offense and tag thecone.

CENTERING AND RECEIVING MEFOOTBALL

Before offensive play can take place theball must be exchanged between the centerand the quarterback. This is done either bypositioning the quarterback directly behindthe center or in a shotgun formation ten tofifteen feet behind the center. Since flagfootball is primarily a passing game, mostteams utilize 'the shotgun formation be-cause it gets the ball deep into the backfieldand more time is permitted for the decisionto pass or run. If the direct exchange isused, the center assumes. the 3-pointstance, focuses forward,,and grips the ball

-4144Crs"-.40,

Figure 1. The 3-point stance.04

in the same manner as for the throw. With asecure grip, the ball resting on the ground,and the nose of the ball pointing forward,the center sweeps the arm straight back andup between the legs. As the ball is beingswept back, the center rotates the ball one-quarter turn so the ball can be.: placed se-curely into the hands of the quarterback. Itis most important that the swing of the armand the rotation of the football be simulta-neously executed.

To receive the ball the quarterback shouldform a pocket by placing the heels of bothhands together, spreading the-fingers, andplacing the throwing hand on top. Bothhands are positioned under the center withthe back of the top hand pressed against thebuttocks of the center. The quarterback;with the knees bent, feet parallel, andshoulder width apart, calls the signal forthe exchange. Movement away from thecenter should not occUr until the ball hasbeen exchanged.

If the shotgun is used, the center widensthe stance, looks at the target and eliminat-ing the one-quarter turn,, spirals the ballkack to the quarterback. This action is verysimilar to throwing a pass under the legs.

COED FLAG FOOTBALL 117

,

Figure 2. Centering the ball.

15'

4B

Diagram 2.

W Centering Drill

C-Center QB-Quarterback X-Ball

How successfully is the football being centered to themuarterback? .

Procedure1. Center is positioned 15 feet from the quarterback.2. Quarterback counts the number of successfulsnaps

out of 10 attempts.3. A succèssftil attempt is any ball reaching the quar-

terback between the waist and the shoulders.

_/

126


Handoff and Pitchout

After receiving the snap, the exchange(handoff)-between-the-quarterback-and-thebackfield player occurs. The backfieldplayer, preparing to receive the ball, raisesthe arm nearest the quarterback to chestlevel. The near arm must be parallel to theground with the open hand facing downand the elbow bent at a right angle so theforearm is across the front of the body. Thefar arm, also parallel to the ground, isacross-the waist with the palm-up. As'theball is placed in the stomach, the handsquickly close on the football. The ball isthen placed in a secure carrying positionprior to running down field.

If the play is designed as a pitchout, thequarterback places the hands -under thefootball and tosses the football underhandto the backfieid player. The football istossed so that it is received at chest level.The backfield player must concentrate on

X

QB

15'

k,F 5'HB

Diagram 3.

5' 4)

the football until it is caught in the handsand then tucked into the armpit.

GRIP AND PASSING

The football must be securely gripped inthe throwing hand with the thumb andindex finger comfortably spread before thepass. The thunib and index finger shouldbe on the circle of the football with the re-maining fingers placed on the laces. Thenon-throwing hand shobld press the foot-ball into-the throwing hand and beithliatid§-assist in raising the football to ear level. As 'the football continues to be brought backbehind the shoulder, the shoulders andbody rotate so that the non-throwing sideof the body is facing the direction of thepass. When the non-throwing hand can no-longer remain in contact with the football, itshould be extended in the direction of theintended target. The rear foot (plant foot)bearing the majority of the weight, shouldinitiate the throw by pressing into theground to transfer weight onto the forwardfoot which'is pointing in the intended direc-tion of the pass. As the weight is being

Pitchout Dill

X-Ball +-ConeQB-Quarterback HB-Haliback

How successfully. is the ball being pitched to thehalfback?

How successfully are pitchouts being received?

Procedure1. Halfback is positioned 15 feet behind the quarter-

back.2. On signal from the quarterback, the halfback cuts

left/right.3. Quarterback pivots and pitches to the halfback.4. A total of 10 pitchouts, 5 to each side, is attempted.5. A successful attempt is one that reaches the

halfback between the shoulders and the waist.6. Quarterback counts the number of successful at-

tempts.7. Halfback counts the number of successful catches./" I

Figure 3. The grip.

transferred, the hips and shoulders shouldunwind resulting in the chest facing theintended_target_The_throwing_arm,_led.bythe elbow, is whipped torward over theshoulder. As the arm is extended, the wristand fingers snap downward on the release,thus imparting a spiral to the ball. Follow-through occurs as the throwing arm is ex-tended in the intended dii ection of thepass. After the ball is released, the arm isdrawn downward to the non-throwingside. Tilt throw is completed with theweight on the forward foot and the passerconcentrating on the target of the throw.

CUTTING, RECEIVING, AND CARRYING

Prior to receiving a pass, the offensiveplayer must manetalednto an_open area.

10 Yds.

+ (1)

10 Yds.

- (2)

Diagram 4.

5 Y4s.

PassIng and Catching Drill+-Cone P-Passei R-Receiver

How many passes can be successfully thrown?How many passes can be successfully caught?

Procedure1, On a signal from the passer, the receiver runs to-

ward the first cone, cuts behind the cone, andheads toward the second cone.

2. Passer, must throw the football after the receiverpasses the first cone but before reaching the secondcone.

3. Receiver must be ready to catch the pass after cut*ting behind the first cone.

4, 10 passes are attempted, 5 from each side.5. A successful throw is orfe that reeches the receiver

between the waist and top of the head.


This can be accomplished by running apre-determined pass ,pattern. The quickchange of direction (cut) needed to put theoffensive player in an unguarded positionis executed by pushing off of the inside ofthe foot that is on the opposite side of theintended cut. Therefore, if a player wants tocut to the right, the push is off the inside ofthe left foot. This cut can be facilitated by

ing anadt rt 81 I etdh tba k i n g ensdhi

the knees. After the cut has been mastered,a fake which can be done with the headand/or shoulders should be incorporatedinto the movement. Once the cut i adeinto an open area, the o sive plhyershould turnface the quarterback, and con-centrate_on_the flight of the football. Thisconcentration must continue until the foot-ball rests in the receiver's hands.

As the pass approaches, both armsshould be extended with the palms facingthe football and the thumbs pointing in-ward. The fingers should be relaxed andspread. As contact occurs, both the arms

figyfe,4. The carrying position.


and fingers give and-pull-the football-intothe body. If the pass is thrown below thewaist the fingertips point downward andthe little fingers face inward. Once in pos-session of the ball, the receiver should im-mediately put it into the carrying positionby spreading and extending the fingersover its point. The football is then tuckedh:gh up and under the arm and held tightlyagainst the body. Moving down field, theball carrier must combinespeed, quick cuts;and pivots to prevent removal of a flag.Since contact is not permilted in flag foot-ball, utilizing teammates for screening pur-poses is a strategy that must be incorpo-rated into the offense.

PUNTING

When a team fails to advance the desig-nated distanceforalirst_dowtvorscore,oneof the options available to the offense ispunting the football. In coed flag football,rushing the kicker is not permitted; there-fore, complete concentration should beplaced on the punt execution. After receiv-ing the football, the punter rotates it so thelaces are on top. With hands on either sideof the football, the punter simultaneouslyextends both arms forward while takingone short step onto the kicking foot fol-lowed by a normal step onto the supportfoot. As the kicking leg swings forward, thefootball is dropped, allowing 6ntact to

DOWN AND IN

HOOK IN

HOOK AND Gb

eZ OUT

Dkagram 5. Pass patterns.

DOWN AND OUT

HOOK OUT

<Z IN

QUICK IN

5 Yd.

10 Yd.


occur on the upswing. Contact, with a firmankle and the-loe pointing-down-, is madeon the instep of the foot at apProximately-eighteen-to-twenty-four-inches-off-the 2--ground. Maximum distance is achieved bya full extension of the kicking leg with thefollow-through continuing to shoulderheight. When the support foot leaves theground, both arms are extended to the sideto ensure balance and control.

6

15 Yd.

Diagram 6.

Punting Drill

P-Punter

How far cArj ttie football be punted?

Nixed ure1. Punt the ball from behind the designated line.2. Measure the best punt out of 5 attempts.3. Measure the punt from the line to the spot where

the ball hits the ground.

Figure 5. Holding the ball for'the place kick.

1

PLACE KICK

In most instances, place kicking in coedflag football (kickoff, field goal) is donewithout a tee; therefore, the mechanics forthe kickoff and field goal attempts aresimi-lar. After the holder receives the footballthe laces are turned forward and the foot-ball is placed on-the ground with a slightbackward tilt. The kicker, with the headdown, approaches the football and. focuseson a spot below the center where contactmust occur. The support foot, pointing inthe direction of the kick, is planted to theside and slightly to the rear 91 the football.As the kicking leg is brought forward, theknee is bent and tbp ankle is flexed andfirm. The swing of the leg must be forceful

15 Yds.

Diagram 7.Field Goal Drill

K-Kicker

How many field goals can be successfully kicked?

.4 Procedure.I. Count the number of successful field goals out of 9

attempts.2. Take 3 attempts-5 yards, 10 yards, and 15 yards

from the goalline.

130

122 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARYSCHOOL STUDENT\

, s.

r 12-

.

. ...

..-

,ma

.

.4m

Vaw.

,

Diagram 8

2.

3.

4.

6.

with full extension forward and upwardusing the arms to aid in maintaining bal-

,oance.SAFETY

Due to the game's structure, the outdoorsetting, and the variety of weather condi-tions under which the game is played,numerous types of injuries can occur incoed flag football. Many of the sprains andstrains can be prevented by adequatelywarming up prior to the game. Improperrunning, throwing, catching, and kickingtechniques also result in ankle, finger, el-bow', and shoulder injuries. 'These can,however, be prevented by proper teachingand coaching.

Too often, more serious injuries occur asa result of collisions caused by.one or moreparticipants playing in an uncontrolledmanner. A player,unable to quickly stop, .turn, or change direction can be a hazard toother participants. Therefore, the no-contact rule must be strictly enfor.ced. Thefndiyidual supervising or offieiating the ac-.tivity must not permit the participants toconfuse -cod flag footbSIr with regulationfootball where the participant has the ad-vantage of protective equipment.

Acceptable playing conditions, adequateI. warm-up, proper technique, good coach-

ing, and responsible officiating all contrib-ute to safe and enjoyable participation inthis activity.

COED FLAG FOOTBALL RULES,1. Team. Eight (8).players, fouir Men and. .

^ four women, shall constitute a team..

Field. The playing field shall be 100yards long and 40 yards wide. Thereshall be a 10-yard end zone at each endof the field. Goalposts will be placed onthe 1?ack line of the end zone. The fieldshall be marked by lines dividing thefield into* four 20-yard zones. The in-bounds line shall be 10 yards from thesidelines. .

Time. The game shall be played inhalves of 20 minutes each. Teams willswitch ends ot the field at halftimeonly. The rest peiiod shall be five Min-utes at the half. Each captain may callone time-out (1 minute) each half.Start of Game. The team captain* Win-ning the coin toss may elect one of thefollowing: kick; receive; goarto defendduring the first half. At the start of thesecond half, teams will reverse fieldpositions, and the team who kicked Offat the start of the game will receive:Kickoff. The kicRoff *shall be madefrom the kicking team's 20-yard line. Itmust be a place kick and the ball cannotbe teed up in any manner. The receiv-ing team must position five players onthe midfield line. The kick must travel20 yards before becoming a free ball7Scrimmage Plays. Prior to start of play,the offensiVe team must come to a "set"position for one second. One playeronly may be in motion, but cahnot bemoving toward the scrimmage. line.Advancement via the run from behindthe line of scrimmage is restricted togirls only. There are no advancement

,

restrictions for a male once he has ob-tained possession of the ball beyondthe line of scrimmage.

7. -FirSCDOWns. A team shall be allowedfour downs to advance the ball acrosseach zone line (20 yards apart). Eachtime a team adVances the ball across aline it is awarded a first down and willbe allowed fomr more downs to makethe next zone line. Upon a change ofteam possession, the line to gain shallbe that line immediately down fieldfrom the spot where'the ball becomesdead.

8. Detached Flag. Ball becomes deadwhen ball carrier's flag becomes de-tached from the flag belt. The ball car-rier cannot use hands or clothing toprevent opponents from pulling theflag.

9. Blockin$. No blocking is permitted.Offensive players may screen for theball carrier by keeping both arms incontact with the body and moving la-terally into the path of an opponent. No 14.contact is permitted.

10. Passing. All forward passes must bethrown from a point behind the line ofscrimmage.Restrictions on use of the forward pass:a. 'During a 4-down series, males are

restricted to only one forward passattempt. If the down in which Hiepass was attempted is repeated be-cause of a penalty or if a new seriesbegins, he may again attempt onepass in the series.

b. Male pass receivers must receive allforward passes beyond the line ofscrimmage.

c. There are no restrictions on femalepassing or pass-receiving.

11. -Fumbles. All fumbles are ruled a deadball and maynot be recovered by eitherteam. The offensive team retains pos-session.

12. Dead Ball. The b IT becomes deadwhen:a. The ball carrier's flagecomes de-

tached from the flag bel (pulled orfalls off).

b. When any part of the ball rrier's

13

;

15.

16.

17.

COED FLAG FoonALL 123

body other than the hands and feettouch ground.

c. Following an incomplete forwardpass.

d. Following a fumble.e. When the-ball goes out-of:bounds.Kicking. When the offensive teamelects to kick, it must call the play"kick." -Defensive team must have 5players on the line of scrimmage. Noplayer on either team may cross the lineof scrimmage until the ball has beenkicked.

A punt- or kickoff may be made byeither sex, but advancement of the ballfrom either of these two techniques isrestricted by the following:

The male punt or kickoff receivercannot advance the ball forwardfrom his point of contact with theballJut may, however, move back-ward or perpendicular hi, that firstpoint of contact. Advancement isonly possible by a female ball carrier.

Scoring. Touchdown-6 points. Tryafter touchdown-1 point (kick orrun). Field Goal-3 points. Team mustannounce intention to attempt fieldgoal. Neither offensive or defensiveplayers may cross the scrimmage lineuntil the ball has been kicked. The kick.must be made fro,m a spot directly be-hind the point from which the b'all iscentered. The ball shall not be teed upin any manner for placement attempts.Safety-2 points. A safety rdsultswhen the offensive team is responsiblefor grounding the ball behind its owngoalline.Substitutions. Unlimited substitutionis permitted.Equipment. Plastic or metal spiked andcleated shoes are prohibited. Gymshoes, street shoes, or shoes withmolded rubber cleats are permitted.Players may not: wear any device thatmight cause injury to othei partici-pants. Two flags, attached to the flatbeltin a proper manner, shall be wornby all players.Tie Games. If teams are tied in score,the team with the most first downs willbe declared the winner. If teams are

-'1 '4 0

. .124 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR tHE SECONDARY -SCHbOL gTUDENT

t

s

0 0

QB

LB

D

O 0

HB HB

SCB CB

LB LB LB

D

HB

QB

0 0

Offense

C-Center HB-Halfback0-Offensive Lineman F-Flanker

QB-Quarterback

DefenseD-Defensive Lineman

LB-LinebackerCB-Corner Back

S-SMety

Diagram 9. Offensive and defensive formations.

e'tiea in scoie and first downs, an over-time series of plays will be run. The ballshall be placed on the midfield line,and oner te'am will start a series of fourdowns (choice of first offensive seriesby toss of coin). Team "A" (offense)will attempt to advance the ball as far as,possible into "B's" territory in fourconsecutive downs. Team "B" will thentake over the ball at the Toint where"A's" series ended. The position of Theball at the cbnclusion of "B's" fourdowns will determine the winner. Ifthe ball is in "A's" territory' then "B" isthe winner....An interception by opponents will,

terminate a team's series of downs. Therecovering team will start play from thepoint where the interception run-backends.

No punting or field goal attempts arepermitted in the overtime series.'

18. Penalties.Offside-5 yards.Illegal motion-5 yards.Intentionally grounding ballloss of

down and 5 yards from spot of pass.Illegal fOrward passloss of down and

5 yards from spot of pass.Illegal advancement by rnale.-5 yards

from line of scrimmage and loss ofdown; 5 yards 'from spot of illegaladvancement on punt or kickoff.

-I 3

Illegal wearing or protecting of flag-15 yards.

Unnecessary roughness-15 yards anddisqualifica tion of player.

Defensive pass interferenceoffen-sive team ball at point of foul; au-tomatic recorded first down.

Offensive Pass interference-15 yardsand loss of down.

STRATEGY

OFFENSE

Since the game of coeti flag football isprimarily a passing game, the offensiVestrategy should be composed of a variety ofpassing plays with available running op-tions. Basically, the offensive skills that aremost essential for successfully advancingthe football are throwing, catching, and 'open field running. A variety of optionsshould be incorporated into the strategybecause everyone is eligible in coed flagfootball to run, throw, and receive the ballexcept as specified in the rules. The limita-tion on the number of forward passes that amale quarterback may throw, emphasizesthe need for a skilled female quarterback. Itis also important that the offensive linemenare agile and skilled in executing screens toprevent the rushing defensive players fromgetting,to the quarterback.

DEFENSE

The defensive strategy irk the game ofcoed flag football is to pressure the quarter-back and prevent the ball from being ad-vanced via.the run or. pass. This pressure isthe responsibility of the defensive linemenwho must evade the opponent's screen,contain the quarterback, and remove oneflag before a pass can be attempted. Whilethe quarterback is being subjected to thispressure, the linebackers and corner backsmust remain with their assigned opponent.Usually, man for man coverage is used incoed.flag football. Each defender must con-stantly maintain a position between theopponent and the goalline. If an opponentdoes gain possession of the football, a flagmust be quickly removed. This can be.ac-complished by the defender moving to-ward the opponent, focusing on the waist,and reaching out and quickly pulling a flagfrom the belt. As soon as tke flag is re"-moved, the defender immediately raisesthe flag above the head so that the officialand players are aware that play hasstopped.

EQUIPMENT

FOOTBALLS

The size of the football sglected for play isdependent upon the age level 4af partici-pants in the activity. . What must be takeninto consideration is the fact that coed flagfootball involves women throwing andcatching the football; therefore, the size ofthe football is of prime consideration. A

outh size football should be considered forthe younger participants while an inter-mediate size is more appropriate on thehigh school and college level.

A rubber-covered football, ranging incost from $11.00 to $15.00 depending onsize, is more durable, for teaching, in-tramural, and recreational situations,whereas, a leather-covered football costingfrom $15.00 to $25.00 may be more appro-priate for competitive situations.


FLAGS AND DEUS

Consideration must be carefully given tothe selection of the type of flags and belts topurchase. Regardless of the type of closure,rings, or velcro, the belt should be easilyadjusted as needed by the participants...Themcst functional attachment of flags to thebelt seems to be with velcro on flags andbelt. Although the most common materialused in the construction of flags'and belt is aflexible plastic, a heivy canvas fabric whichseems to be the most durable is also avail-able from some companies. Prices rangefrom $17.00 to $23.00 for one dozen beltsand twenty-four flags.

It shoulcralso be pointed out that strips ofany durable fabric can be tucked intowaistbands of gym shorts or warmup suitspermitting the game of flag football to beintroduced without an expensive invest-ment in equipment.

DOWN MARKER

Although official down markers areavailable and range in cost from $85.00 to$115.00, a plastic pylon, thirty-six inches inheight, 'cap also be used. In situationswhere first-downs are determined by cros-sing into a designated zone, the pylon, withthe downs painted around the side, is allthat is needed.

TERMINOLOGY

Center. The offensive lineman who snaps thefootball to the quarterback.

Defense. The team that does not have posses-sion of the football.

Fake. A move made by a player for theTurposeof deceiving an opponent.

Field Goal. A three-point score w hen the fout-ball is kicked from a place kick over thecrossbar and between the uprights.

First Down. The first of four attempts to movethe football forward into the next 20-yard zoneor end zone.

Forward Pass. A pass thrown from behind theiliin.neeof scrimmage toward the opponent's goal-

' I-fandoff. An exchange of the football from thequarterback to a teammate.

Offense. The team that has possession of thefootball.

134

126 IPHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR

Offside. Movement across the estatilished lineof scrimmage before the Tootball is snapped.

Safety. An offensive player invogession of thefootball is downed in own end zone (2 pants).

Screen (Block). An offensive player posilioning,,the body between an opponent and the ballcarrier.

Scrimmage Line. Imaginary line drawn from theforward tip of the football to the sideline.,

Touchdown. An offensive player hdving pos-session yf the football in the opponent's endzgne.

REFERENCES

Bluth, Robert G, ed.. Youth League Football.Chicago, IL: The Athletic Institute, 1975.

:

4

THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

ettle, Mildred J.; Dowell, Linus J.; and JeteroJames M. Recreational Football. Dubuque, 'IA:William C.,Brown Co , 1980.

National Association for Girls and Women inSport. FlarfootballSgedball-.=Sfeed-a-way.Rides Guide1980-1982. Reston, VA: The Amer-'Kan Alliance for Health, Physical Education,Recreation and Dance, 1980.

UNPUBLISHED.MATERIALS

Intramural Coed Flat Football Rules-1980.Maryadn Domitroilitz: The PennsylvaniaState University, University Park, PA.

SoccerSpeedballFlag Football Manual.,Maryann Domitrovitz: The PennsylvaniaState University, University.Park, PA.

'4

S.

),

birdie (p. 142)bogie (p. 142)casual water (p. 142)direct hazard (p. 143)double bogie (p. 142)

eagle (p. 142)fore (p. 139)

;c: full swing (p. 129),greens (p. 141)ground- ander repair (P. 142)hazards (p; 141)

'honors (p. 139)lateral hazard (p. 143)lost ball (p. 142) -.out-of-bounds (p. 142) ,

oodlap grip (p. 1301

., I putting (p. 136)par (p.141)

set-up (p.-130)

r,short swing (p. 134)

trafectory0146)target )m1;441.129)

triple bogie (p. 142) ---.'

unplayable lie (p.142)/ r r,, , water hazard (p. 143)

'i OF/ifil, clialir

/

/4(6.9 1364

INTRODUCT1011

,tHAPTER 10

_

Golf is a game ih which all individualcan play regardless oftize, strength, age, orsex. It',s a game in which an individual mayplaralone or with others. It may be Olayedfor fun or ior competition.

Tlie 'exact origin of golf is unknown.However, it is speculated that shepherds

_ 1 While tending their flocks played a gamesimilar to golf in which-theylhit stones and'pebbles with their crooks. Through,the cen-hides a stroking game similar to that of theshepherds evolved. Golf as we play it todayon a golf course with 9 or 18 holes had itsorigin in St. Andrews, Scotland.

'The game of golf was introduced in theUnited-States around-1880,4_Robert Reid.Reid was a Scotsman who had immigratedto the United States and settled in Yonkers,New York. Since that time the interest inthe game has grown. Today there are closeto 16 million people playing at least 14rounds of golf a year. Golf is a verr excitinggame. It provides an ongoing challenge forall those who participate in it.

SKILLS AND TIGINIQUES

There are two basic skills which must belearned to play golf: the golf swing (full andshort);..Putting. The golf, swing is used toget the -bail airborne. The design of theequipment enables the golfer to select aclub for tfie various required trajectoriesand distances. Therefore, the same basicgolf swing is utilized. Putting is a skill simi-lar Co croquet in that the ball is rolled alongthe ground. This skill is used primarily on

'Mt concepts courtesy of The National Golf Foun-dation.

A

Golf

DEDE-GWENNational Golf Foundation,*

.West Palm Beach, FL,

the green to get tp bail into the hoie. -A

putter ik used and designed specifically forthis purpose.

GOLF:SW1NG.

FUR SwingTcy picture the motion of the golf swing,

viSualize a child swinging in the paik. Theswinging motion is continuous from be-ginning to pd. Thelnotion is repeatable.There is a constant arc with the height of theswing on one side the same as on the otherside. The motion is rhythmical and flowing(not jerky). There is a swing center aroundwhich .th'e motiodevolves.

The golf swing has the same characteris-tics as those describing the sWini in the,park. Tty to visualize a picture of the golfswing as a flowing motion involving thebody working. as a whole.

Grip .

The grip is the first and most importafitconcept. The hands are the only part of thebody which come in contact with the golfclub. It is ifnportant,therefore, to have thehands positioned on.the club so that theyare noronly comfortable but efficient.

:Two grip positions ate recommended.Both gc)sitions should be attempted to find,the one most comfortable for each mdi-vidiThl. Both positions are- efficient andwhichever chosen, will become more,com-fortable withEpractice.

Target Hana (Hand on Top Nearest the IntendedTarget)1. Stand wjth the shoulders in line with an

imaginary target,.2. Hold the club (grip encl)afong the target

side (side closest to the. target) With theclub head on the ground and the clubfacing pointed toward the target.'

137

I .6

ce.


a. Interlocking...,

Figure 1. The grip:

3. With the target arm hanging in a relaxedposition, place the target hand on theclub as if to shake hands witb the club.

4. Bring the club head off the ground infront of the body with the target armextended.

,Rear Hand (Bottom Position)Extend the rear hand as if to shake hands

with the club.

Overlap GripPlace the little finger of the rear hand

between the index and middle finger of thetarget hand.

Interlocking GripInterlock the index finger of the target

hand and the little finger of the rear hand.

Set-upThe set-up position is the "ready posi-

tion" of the body for swinging a golf club. Itis important that the set-up permit easyfreedom to move the entire body. The moreconsistent the set-up, the more consistent

b. Overlapping

will the swing become. The set-upis alwaystaken as it relates to a target. The followingsteps are suggested for achieving an effi-cient set-up.

AlignmentEstablish a target (anything will do). Take

two clubs (sticks, lines on a gym floor) andplate them on the ground like railroadtracks (see Diagram 1) The ball is on onetrack (target line) and the feet are on theother track (body line). The feet, hips, andshoulders are parallel to the direction of theintended ball flight. This is called a squarestance. Repeat this without the parallel°clubs.Stance

The feet should be about shoulder widthapart (measured from the inside of theheels).

WeightThe weight should be centered over the

middle of both feet with the weight on theballs of the feet. (Hint: it should be easier to

13s

Target Side .

f Ball Rear Side

i_s_ Target Line

Target. , W-111. Body Line1

1

r -

Diagram 1.

tap the heels (both feet) 'than to tap thetoes.)

Posture1. With the back straight, bend forward

from the top of the thighs to about a 45°angle.

2. The arms and hands should be relaxedand hanging freely from the shoulders.

3. There should be a slight flex in the knees- with just enough motion to mobilize

them.

Ball PositionThe ball should be positioned in the

stance just-to theAarget sideef center,

Dia5rarrk-2..._

Full Swing MotionThe golf swing is a continuous motion in

which the body parts work sequentially.The parts are synchronized to produce therhythmical and flowing motion. The vari-ous stages of the golf swing which followare described with illustrations and cues.

Practice Drills

Without Club1. Place two clubs parallel on the ground so,

that each is pointed toward a .arget.

r-

A

GOLF 131

2. Take the set-up position with the armshanging freely from the shoulders overthe parallel clubs.

3. Maintaining the posture position, swingaround the swing center, begin swing-

ort1 011 1 0

swings to begin with, and with the armsrelaxed. (Imagine the arms amhe swingchain.)

4. As the arms get hi0er gradually allowthe lower body to :ake on the rhythm ofthe arms, feel the weight shift from oneside to the other (target side to rear side,rear side to.target side).

5. Try to establish a rhythm and tempo:slow back; then accelerate comingthrough to the target side.

6. As the arms are swinging, let the targetknee touch the rear kneerear knee tothe target knee. This helps the weight to,shift and the heels to come off theground.

7. Feel the motion in the lower body.8. At the top of the swing, feel the back to

the target (coiled as a spring), swingthrough (uncoil), and check that the beltbuckle is pointed-toward-the-target.

9. Swing the arms and turn (backswing);turn and swing the arms (forwardswing).

With the Club- 1. Repeat the same sequence without a ball

(remove parallel clubs).2. Repeat the same sequence (without par-

allel clubs), hitting a tee instead of 4 golfball.

3. Repeat the same sequence (without par-allel clubs), hitting balls off a tee.

4.. Repeat the same sequence and hit ballsfrom the grass without a tee.

Checkpoints1. Top of swing..

a. Back to target. 4

b. Target knee close to or touching rearknee.

c. More weight on rear foot.d. Drive high.

2. Follow-through.a, Arms and hands in high finish.b: Belt buckle to target.-c. Weight on target foot.d. -Rearkneetouching-target knee.

13 9

-r


a.Feet shoulder widthapart.NU forward of center in

- staBody in "ready"position.

Target arm extends; reararm hinges.

b.Takeaway sequence;hands.arms-shoulders.Hub steady and behindball.

Steps of 'the Golf Swing1. During the takeaway, the triangle,

of the fiands, arms and shoulders willmove the club head along the ground onthe extended target line. The heid re-mains steady to ensure that the swingcenter, or "hub" (that point, once again,just above the sternum), will also remainsteady.

2. As the swinging action expands,the upper body 'coils': Of "winds" as Itturns away from the target. The rightelbow will bekin to hinge,

3. At the top of thebackswing you willfeel maximum turn of the shoulders andhips away from the target into a fullycoded position. To sustain the constantarc, the hub remains steady and thetarget ann is farrdy extended, but not

4. As the forward swing bens,'thefirst major move is in the lower body,with the legs leading, triggering a steadyunco3ing of power to accelerate clubhead speed.

5. To help you realize the sequentialmoves taking place in the swing, notethe position of the club, arms, and handsIn relation to the hips.

d.Back to the targetWeight shifted to insideof rear foot.Hub remains steady.

Figure 2. The full swing.

14 0

r

6, At the moment of impact youshould feel all body movement and en:ergy directed toward the targetThe hipswill have begun to turn, and by now arewell out of the way, permitting the armsand hands to swing freely, fully extend-ing the dub head out toward the target.Think of swinging through the ball not tothe ball,

7, In the follow-through strive tomaintain full extension of both armsuntil the diminishing momentum of clubhead speed carries them to a natural rest-ing position.

S. At thecompletion of the swing, theshoulders and hips will have completedtheir rota lion, shifting the majority of theweight to the target foot and forcing anatural lilt of the rear heel from theground. The arms and hands shouldfinish high,

Summary:'Think of the (on going stages as one

con-famous movement governed by bal.a nce and timing that will maneuver theclub head into position to strike the ballsquarely and at its greatest speed

e.

GOLF 133

Legs dnvelaterallytoward target.Arms followHands delay

f.Weight shifts to targetside.Hands and armsproduce "square"dubface at impact.Hub remains steadybehind the ball,Club head at MixiMUTspeed.

h.Arms and hands in highfinish.Majority of weight ontarget foot.Body faces target.

4.04g.

Arrns rotate literimpact.Hub continues to remainsteady.

1 4.


SAort SwingDuring a round of golf, the distances

from the ball to the target continually vary.As a result, a full swing or distance swing isnot always required. The short swing is

Figure 3. Practicing the approachshot (full swing). .

primarily used when approaching thegreen when accuracy is the major objective.

The short swing has the same swingcharacteristics as the full sWing. However,because accuracy and not distance is themajor objective, there are differences in theset-up position, and the length of thebackswing and follow-through.

To produce a shorter swing the changesin the set-up pOsition help the boay tocreate a different feel from the full swing.

Set-up Position1. Feet closer together.2. More weight on the target foot.3. More bend from the top of the thighs.4. Grip the club closer to the shaft (choke

up on the grip).5. Ball position is slightly farther back of

center.

Figure t. Ihe short swing set-up position.

1

12

Figure 5. The short swing.

6. Hands, arms, and swing center slightlyin front of the ball.

To establish a feel for the short swing,imagine a clock as the one illustrated. Thelength of the backswing and follow-through will help determine the distancethat the ball will go. As skill level advanCes,varying the speed of the. swing will alsoinfluence distance. Initially, concentrate onthe techniques and vary the length of theswings with a constant speed: 7:00 to 5:00;8:00 to 4:00.

The swing is initiated and continued byswinging the arms and hands as a unit,back and through. There is very little mo-tion in the lower body. This is primarily anarm and shoulder swing. Permit the lowerbody to respond naturally. Avoid being stilland rigid in the lower body.

The purpose of this shot is to land the ballon the green and get it rolling to the hole,hopefully ending with the ball close to thepin. The technique which has been pre-

;

GOLF i35

sented may be used with any selected club.Initially the more lofted clubs should beused (9, 8, 7) to provide for the highest ballflight. As the skill progresses, variations inthe short swing can be learned. However,the prime objective in the beginning andintermediate skill levels is to get the ball onthe green and directed toward the target.With practice the short swing can bequickly learned.

Practice Drills

Without a Club1. Place two clubs parallel on the ground

directed toward a target.2. Take the set-up position with the arms

hanging over the clubs and hands ex-tended.

3. Place the hands together with the palmsfacidg.

4. Point the target hand toward the rearside.

5. Swing the arms and hands back and

143

136 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT,

forth as a unit between the clubs. Varythe swing lengths (7-5, 8-4) as illus-trated by the clock.

Checkpoints1. Motion is straight back along the track

and straight through. .

2. The back of the target hand is facing thetaitet throughout the motion.

3. No wrist break.4. Motion is with the arms and shoulders.

With the Club1. Place two clubs parallel on the ground

directed toward a target. The clubsshould be a little wider than the length ofthe club head.

2. Take the set-up position with the clubbetween the parallel clubs. The clubswill then form a guide for a straightswing.

3. Swing the club back and forth betweenthe clubs.

4. Vary the length of the swing (7to5,8to4,9to3).

5. Swing back, through,I3nd hold thefollow-through for a few seconds.

6. Repeat: placing a tee in the ground andhitting the tee; hitting balls from the tee(place the tee close to the ground); hit-ting balls without the tee; removing par-allel clubs.

Checkpoints1. The back of the target hand and clubface

point toward the target throughout themotion.

2. Hold the follow-through, cheCk positionof the clubface. Is it toward the target?

3. The hands and arms should be slightlyahead of the clubface prior to and at theend of the swing.

PUT1ING

The putting stroke is used on the green.The ball should be rolled on the ground.There is no air time as with the full andshort swingq. A specifically designed club;the putter, is used. The blade or face of theclub is vertical to permit a rolling motion,and the angle of the shaft with the ground ismore upright.

The technique of the putting stroke issimilar to the short swing. The stroke is

Figure 6. The putting grip.

very short and compact. The length of thebacksWing and forward swing are thesame. The motion is smooth and contin-uous. The stroke is initiated with the armsand shoulders.

There are differences between the put-ting stroke and short swing (as well as thefull swinein the grip and set-up positions.These differences are due to the club designand the purpose of the stroke, which is toroll the ball. To more readily understandthese differences, take one of the suggestedgrip positions with the putter and eithe'r theshort or full swing set-up positions. Noticethat the putter is shorter than the otherclubs and that the putter does not rest flaton the ground. Therefore, a few adjust-ments in the grip and sekrup are necessaryfor an effkient putting stroke: "

GripThe full or short swing grip is modified byturning both hanc6 away from the grip ofthe club. This new position places thepalms of both hands facing more upward asopposed to facing each other in the regular

144 -

grip.. The presSurAemains in the last threefingers of both hands. This grip also per-mits the elbows to separate frbm the,ex-tend ed position of the full and shortswings. The arms .should bend with theelbows pointing away from the body.

Set-upAs in the full and short swing, the set-upposition for putting is important in de-veloping consistency in the stroke. Itshould be noted that a set-up is basicallythe same as the full and short swing exceptthe arms are closer to the, body and the eyesare over the ball. The following steps arepresented as a review for getting an effi-

_cient set-up with the differences italicized:

AlignmentAfter taking the ,putting grip, place the

clubface behind the ball square tothe in-tended target. The feet, shoulders, andhips should be parallel to the target line ofthe ball.

StanceThe feet should be about shoulder width'

apart (meaSured from the inside of the'heels).

Weight ,

The weight should be toward the middleof both feet.

PostureThe back should be relatively straight

and bending from the top of the thighs. Thearms should be bent or flexed vith the el-15-o-ws pointing away from the body on a lineparallel to the intended direction. Thereshould be a slight flex in the knees.

EyesThe eyes ,slibuld be positioned over or

slightly behind the ball.

Ball PositionThe ball should be positioned in the

stance just to the jarget side of center.

Putting StrokeThe stroke is a pendulum motion. There

is no motion in the lower body. The strokeis accomplished with the arins and shoul-ders working as a unit (one-piece) back andthrough the ball. The club is a part of the

t7

GOLF 137

Figure 7 Eye position for putting.,

unit. There is initially no hand or wrist pc-tion. As the kill level advances, greater fedwill develop for the stroke and some handand wrist play may be added. The strokeshould be kept low to the ground, back andthrough. The length of the backswing andforward swing are the same,

Putting Practice (Carpet or Carpet Stripes!GreenlGym Floor)

The drills below are designed for practic-ing stroke techniques, and distance and di-rection judgment.

Without the Ball1. Place two clubs parallel on the ground

just a little wider than the width of theputter blade on line and 10 feet apartfrom a target on a wall or backstop.

2. Practice taking the grip and set-upposition.

3. Practice the stroke technique back andthrough between the two clubs.

4. Stroke back through and hold the finish.

1 15

II II

I

Key Points1. Emphasis

Table 1. Summary of key points.

Full Swing Short SwingDistance and Direction' Direition

GOLF 139

PuttingDirection

xi p Ovikap_or Intprinric nvPrlap_orinterlock Modification of Overlap_ZS_Interlock

3. Set-upA. Alignment Parallel to the Intended Same Same

Direction

B. Posture

C. Stance Feet Shoulder Width Apart Feet Narrower than Feet Shoulder WidthShoulders Apart

D. Weight A. Middle to Balls of the " A. Same A. SameFeet

B. Weight Evenly Distrib- B. More Weight on the B. Weight Evenly Distrib-uted between Both Feet Target Foot uted between Both Feet

E. BallPosition

Target Side of Center Center to the Rear Sideof Center

Target Side of Center

F. Swing,Center

To the Rear Side of theBall

To the Rear Side of theBall .

Even With the RearSide of the Ball

4

Checkpoints1. The blade should go back and through,

low to the ground.2. From the set-up position, check eye

alignment by dropping a ball from thebridge of the nose. The ball should fallbetween the clubs°.__

3. Hold the finish and check in relation totarget: -a. Blade alignment to the target (square

is desired).Etjade in relation to ground (low isdesired).

c. Length of forward swing (equal todesired backswing).

d. Arm and hand position (same unitposture as set-up).

P.

ETIQUETTE AND SAFETY

Golf, as other sports, has a code ofbehavior, or recommended actions for theparticipants, known as golf etiquette. Golfetiquette helps individuals to enjoy thegame, to keep play moving on the course,to encourage safety, and to protect thecourse from 'unnecessary damages'.Examples of golf etiquette are:

1. The player who hits first on the tee hashonors. Honors is decided on the.firstteeby flipping a coin or drawing lots.

\\

After the fiist tee, the player with thelowest score on the previous hole hitsfirst on the next tee.

2. On the fairway, the player whose ball isfarthest from the green, hits first.

3. When a player is hitting, other players...should stand quietly. They shouldstand to one side of the person hitting,not in front.

4. Players should be ready to hit theirshots when their turns come. .

5. A player should not hit until theplayers in front of them are safely out oftheir hittIng distance.

6. The warning cry "fore" should beyelled if a ball is in. the air and otherplayers are in danger,ofbeing hit.

7. The score on a hole (for example, hole8) should be recorded on the next'tee(for example, hole 9).

8. AQplyer should be sure no one is infront or behind when swinging a clubor hitting a ball.

9. A player should never throw clubs.10. A player or group of players who are

playing slowly should let the player(s)behind them go through to avoid slowplay.

Most injuries in golf occur when a club isswung recklessly or carelessly or a golf ballis hit without attention to its direction andthose around. Injuries may be avoided by

117

9

,...110. a...a..

.....

' Teeing Area

%

'

s

..

.......,

/

Rough...44.

,

:,.4", ......

''... \IP' s...... -... ....-

Fairway4

...

//

Out;of-botinds, 1

....'

. ,..." .

,

Lateral Water Hazar

.......e.

...

.

....Direct Water Hazard

.

Diagram 3.ON

k, t.18

--- ........

..,...

.*. P:a

d -4.

'

-.....

s

being more aware of golfoticjitate and itsimplications for safety.

THE GAME OF GOLF

6DuasEs'

Golf courses are cymposed of 9 or 18holes and each course is different inappearance, length, terrain, and difficulty.A course has unique characteristics whichreflect the design of different golf coursearchitects. Just as an artist paints differentpictures, an architect designs each holewith its own personality. The holes vary inthe type of hazards or obstacles (water andsand), the length of the holes (short, long,Medium), and- the contoyr of the greens(large or small, round and kidney-shaped).The covises may.vary from very flat .andboring layduts to extremely rolling andhighly wooded terrain which presents ex-citing challenges.

Golf is played on courses which mayhave 9 or 15 holes. An 18-hole ccourse is .

usually considered a regulation course.Courses with 18 holes vary in length (totalyardage) from around,5,000 yards or less toas long as 8,000.yards.

HOLES

Individual golf holes vary in length fromabout 85 yards to 60q yalds., Holes arecategorized by che length or total yardagefrom the teeing area (point for beginningeach hole) to the cup or traldle of the green.The holes are labeled. short (55 yards orless to 245 yards), m.yhum (245 to 445 yards),long (445 yards to 600 or more yards).

GOLF 141

Golf holes have a unique personality asreflected in the architectural designs. Giventhe uniqueness, there are basic compo-nents that the majority of golf holes andcourses will have. These are labeled inDiagram 3. Sand and water on a golf courseare considered hazards or obstacles whichmay or may not induce penalties. The useand placement of waterhazards (direct andlateral) and sand traps in a golf hole willdepend on course design. They may or maynot appear on a holeor holes. Out-of-bound (0B) markers ,define the outerperimeters of a course. They are most oftenseen where a course is bordered by roadsorhousing developments.

SCORING

The objeCtive in golf is to progress frontilthe teeing area to the green (see diagram)and into the hole in the fewest number ofsirokes. The total number-of strokes takenon the hole is recorded as a score. At theend of the 9 or 18 holes, the scores on eachhole are added for a total score for the'golfround.

Td make scoring easier a score card isprovided at golf comses. A sample scorecard is illustrated in Diagram 4. Note theterm par on the score card. Each hole has adesignated pa'r which is the established ,stroke standard for thq given length of holein yards (tbtal yardage). The designatedpars are 3 (short holes), 4 (medium holes),and 5 (long.holes). Generally, an 18-holecourse will have 4 par 3 holes, 10 par 4holes, and 4 par 5 holes.

The score car'cl is divided into.two sets of9 holes (hokis 1-9, holes 10.-18) with (heholes numbered consecutively from 1 to 18.

Yardage 510 326 137 365 342 160 490 362 382 3074 325 380 485 130 3651290 500 151 351 2975 6049

fjandicap 1 13 17 7 11 15 3 9 5 . 12 6 4 18 8 14 2 16 10

Par 5 4 3 4 4 3 5 4 4 36 4 . 3 4 4 5 3 4 36 72

Hole 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Front ,10 11 12 13 14 lg 16 17 18 Back Total

Sue

John 'Mary ' -' . .George . r

Diagram 4. Sainple score card.

114


Each 9 holes and the total 18 holes liave adesignated par. This is obtained by,acidingthe individual pars on the first 9 holes(holes 1-9) which is called the frontside pndadding the individual parson the second 9holes (holes t)--18) which is called the backside. The total for the front side and back sideis the designated par for the course.Referring to thescore card, par on the frontside (holes 1-9) is 36,and par on the b.,ackside (holes 10-18) is 36. The course par(holes 1-18) is the front side 36 plus the backside 36 for a total of 72.

When an individual goes to play golf,he/she is trying to ob,tain a scd're which is

0 equal to, or lower .1.1an par. However, notaeveryone is a Nancy Lopez-lvfelton or JackNicklaus and capable of shooting a scoreequal to or lower than par. Par is, howevqra standard of excellence against whichindividuals may evaluate their own skill.

Terminology of ScoringThe following terms are ...3sociated with

scOring. The terms are defined with refer-ence to Tar and 'a numerical example.'Parfor this hypothetical hose is 4.

Par\ = stroke standard on a'hole = 4

Birdie = 1 stroke less than par = 3Eagle = 2 strokes less than par = 2Bogie = 1 stroke more than par =

DoubleBogie = 2 strokes more than par . = 4

;TripleBogie =. 3 strokes more than pm = 7

. RULES,

To give order and direction to the game ofgolf, rules were established. As in othersports, situations arise during play ,,vhichmay or may not in-yoke penalties. The rulesof golf are established bv the United StatesGolf Association (USGA), the ruling body,of golf in the United StatesThe rules govern situations on golf courses which aredirect results of-the actiOns of a, player inattempting to hit the ball, eneresults of

, hitting the ball, or the conditions of thecourse over which the player has no con-trol. 4

An undérstanding and knowledge of therules help the players to make accurate de-

1 =

cisions in situations Which require an in-terpretation .a f the rules during the golfround. Rules -overning particular situa-tions may impose 0,1, or 2, strokes on theplayer's score. The most stringent penaltyis-disqualification and may occur in certainsituations when in competition. The mostcommon rules encountered on the golfcouise will be presented by the number ofstrokes imposed. Some of the rules permitthe players to decide how they wantto putthe ball back into play and are called op-tions. Some options are not always possi-ble.

No Penalty StrokesCasual .water. Water Nirhich is not nor-

mally on the course and is the result of rainor faulty watering systems.

_ Arbon: The player may lift and drop thebâ1l al the nearet;t point of relief for swingand stance not nearer the hole.

Gidund under repair. Marked area Onthe course which is under construction.Usually indicated by a sign or coded inwhite paint.

Action. The player may lift and drop theball at the nearest poinf of relief of swingand stance not nearer the hole.'Hole made by a burrowing animal.

Holes made by moles, snakes, and otherburrowing animals are often found on thecourse.t'Action: Player may lift and drop the ball at

the nearest point of relief of swing andstance.not nearer the hole.

One (1) Stroke'PenaltyOut-of-bounds (OB). The outer perime-

ter of a tolf course is usually marked bywhite stakes. A balltlying outside the inneredss_of the takes is considered OB andout of play.

Action: Player must drop (if on tee, rnay're-tee) a bi%ll and hit from the spot wherethe last ball was hie0B.

Lost ball. A ball Nhick was hit and can-not be found within five minuted of search-

,.ing.

Action: Player must drop a ball (if on tee,may re-tee) and hit from the spot where thelost ball was hit.

Lhiplayable lie. A player may declare theposition of any ball unplayable. Normally

'44

an unplayable position is such that swing-ing a club or taking a stance is difficult orunsafe to equipment or ihe golfer.

Action: Three options. (a) Player may re-turn to the original spot and drop a ballwhere the ball was originally hit. (b) Playermay take two club lengths relief in a half-moont area from an unplayable ball posi-tion. (c) Player may go back on a line as faras he/she desires from the unplayable ballposition keeping the spot between theplayer and hole.

Water hazard. Defined on the course byyellow or i-ed stakes. All area within thestakes is considered part of the hazard. Ifthere are no stakes, the water is consideredthe hazard bounclItY.

Lateral hazard (red stakes). Waterhazard that is parallel to the fairway.

Action: Three options: (a) Player may playthe ball from where it *lies in the hazard (nopenalty strokes). (b) Player may drop theball within two club lengths of the pointwhere it last crossed the margin of Thehazard, on either side of the hazard. (c)Player may go back to the point and dropthe ball where the last ball was played.

Direct hazard (yellow stakes). Waterhazard that crosses the fairway.

Action: Three options: (a) Player may playthe ball from where it lies in the hazard (nopenalty stroke). (b) Player may drop the ballon a line anywhere back from the pointwhere the ball last crossed the margin of thehazard keeping that spot between him/herand the hole. (c) Player may go back anddrop the ball at the point where the last ballwas played.

Whiffing or missing the ball. An attemp-ted swing at the ball and missed contact.

Action: The ball is played where it lies.Ball moves. A ball that is moved acci-

dently by the player while addressing theball (except when teed) or removing debrisfrom around it in preparation to hit.

Action: Ball is replaced to its original posi-iion prior to moving.

Two (2).Stroke PenaltyPlaying-the wrong ball. A player hits a

ball other than own.Action. If the error is dikovered before

hitting the next tee the player may go back

G OLF 143

and play his/her own ball with the 2 strokepenalty and not count any of the strokesplayed with the wrong ball.

Grounding the club in a hazard. A playermay not sole the club in a hazard whenaddressing the ball. Doing so results in thedesignated penalty.

Hitting an unattended flagstick. Aplayer w hen on The green must have theflagstick held by another player/caddie orremoved from the hole and placed out ofthe line of the putt. Failure to do so andhaving the player's ball hit the flagstick(either in the hole or lying on the green)results in the designated penalty. The ball isplayed from the final resting spot.

Hitting another player's ball on thegreen. When putting, a'ball in the line ofputt should be marked by the owner. Ifthere is failure to have it marked, and theball putted hits another, the penalty is as-sessed and the hit ball is replaced.

Thel2 are, however, other rules whichare less commonly encountered and are de-scribed in greater detail in the USGA RuleBook and four volumes entitled Decisions ofthe USGA.

The rules of golf are meant to make thegame more fair and challenging. Learn therules and abide by them.

STRATEGY

Strategy may be phrased simply as a planof action. A golfer's strategy has two steps:the selection of the route or target areas foreach shot; selection of the club to reach thetarget areas.

STEP 1: SELECTION OF ROUTE

The golfer standing on each tee must de-termine the route to the green. The route isthe direction he/she woule like to hit eachshot. The route or Step 1 of the plan ofaction or strategy is pre-planned. The bestroute is one which avoids potential penal-ties or trouble as water, sand, out-of-bounds, or woods. It is important to re-member, the best route is not always theshortest route.

Planning the route or selecting targetareas is not difficult. Two things must be

151

,.

t

\\ \N.. Wooded Area.........., ., ..,

/

....,.....

,

///

."//

........:.:

Narrow Fairway

/ -..-..

/ --..s.

. 1

Out-of-bounds //

Water Hazard-

........

....

..... ... _../Diagram 5. Strengths of a golf hole.

e 1 52

;

/ /// / / /

/

,.

/.

)

..

Wide Fairway

Fairway with No Trouble

Diagram 6. Weaknesses of a golf hole.

146 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE ECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT1/

considered: the strengths and weaknesses SEEP 2: CLUB SELECTION

ef the golfer; the strengths and-weaknesses / -/of the golf hole. Through practice, both on

In selecting the club to reach the chosen/

the practice tee and.the golf course, a golfertarget area (Step 1), three questions must be

learns strengths and weaknesses. The / asked by the golfer. The questions can eas-'

golfer learns how far and short each club,'ily be remembered by the letters LTD:

can be hit and in which direction the ba4L 1. What is the lie of the ball?

tend to go when they are hit right, left,T 2. What ball trajectory (or height) is

straight, high, or low. Practice is very impor-needed?

tant in helping a golfer learn what his/herD 3. What is the distance to the decided

abilities are and the areas requiring 'im-target area?

provement.The lie of the ball refers to the ball's posi-

A golf hole has strengths and weak-tion in the fairway, rough, or hazards.

nesses, just as a golfer. These are observa-These positions may be good (easy to hit

ble by standing on the tee and lookingfrom) or bad (more Clifficult to hit from).

down the fairway. The strengths of a golfGenerally, the more of the ball which can be

hole are sand traps, water hazards, out-seen, the easier the shot. Therefore, the

of-bounds, narrow fairways, wooded areasbetter ihe lie, the greater the club selection

(trees), and/or small _greens. They are or more choices of clubs to use.

strengths because they are potential troubleThe trajectory of the ball is the height and

areas for the golfer which may or may notthe angle of the ball after it is hit. Diagram 7

result in penalties (discussed in Rules).demonstrates various heights and angles, of

The'weaknesses of a hole are wide fair-. the ball when hit by different clubLNotice

ways, fairways or parts of fairways with nothe higher the trajectory the less roll or dis-

trouble as traps or water, open areas intance after the ball lands. Basically, as theclubs go progressively down in number (9,

front of the green with no hazards, and/orlarge gceens. These ar weaknesses be- creases and the distance increases8,

7 . . .) as illustrated, the trajecto. ry de-6

cause the areas are free of trouble and lack .

challenges.The distance to the target areas is assessed

A golf hole may have few or manyby "visual feel" or hy actually stepping the

,strengths, few or many weaknesses, or, a

distances off. Through practice a golfer vis-

combination of strengths and weaknesses.ually learns to make estimations of the dis-

*

Each golf hole must be viewed individuallytance each club will go when hit. If a course

for strengths and weaknesses. . ,

is frequently played, actually stepping offt.For review, Step 1 (selection of target

he yardage from markings on the course,

areas) of strategy is pre-planned. The key tc\becomes very helpful. More advanced

the selection of target areas is for the golfer \players regularly do this.

to use strengths'against the weaknesses of ' Considerations in Club Selectionthe golf hole. In other words, avoid poten- The following general rules in club selec-tial trouble areas. Play toward the open tion (LTD) should be learned.areas in the fairway. and ,..in front of the 1. The better the lie, the greater the numbergreen. Play away from the trouble. \ of options available in selecting a club.

3 2

As the lie gets worse, there are less clubsto choose. It is better to favor a more,lofted club with bad lies. (L)

2. The higher the trajectory needed, themore lofted club should be selected(higher' numbers). The less trajectoryneeded the less lofted clubs are selected(lower numbers). (T)

3. The greater the distance required, theless lofted and longer clubs are selected(smaller numbers). The less the distancerequired, the more lofted and shorterclubs are selected. (D)

SUMMARY OF GOLF STRATEGY

Playing golf becomes more exciting andchallenging when a golfer feels in control.Not every shot planned will end up in thedecided target areas. Not every club selec-tion will be the right one, but, the timetaken to think, about the shot and developstrategy will draW the golfer closer to amore consistent performance. Remember,strategy begins with practice to develop anunderstanding of abilities and strengthsand weaknesses. Practice, time, and pa-tience are needed to develop the desiredconsistency.

SELECTING EQUIPMENT

CLUBS

A set of golf clubs is composed of bothwoods and irons. The maximum number ofclubs which may be carried by a player is 14under USGA rules. However, this does notprevent a player from carrying fewer than14 clubs.

The advanced or intermediate player mayhave a complete set of clubs. The set mayinclude the following clubs. 1, 3, 5 woods,2-9, pitching and sand irons, putter. Someplayers may substitute a 4 or 7 wood for the2 iron.

The beginner may initially only want astarter set which may have a 5 or 7 wood, 3,5, 7, 9 irons, and a putter. Once the playerfeels comfortable using these clubs, acquir-ing the other clubs would be suggested.

GOLF 147

SelectionTwo considerations in selecting golf

clubs.are the fit and cost. The first and mostimportant consideration is selecting a clubwhich is appropriate for the player. Clubsmay be purchased in different lengths andweights. The appropriate club for an indi-vidual depends on height, strength, andhand size. Using a club which is too heavyor light or too long or short is detrimental todeveloping good technique. Club fittingcharts, available in most golf shops, help anindividual select the appropriate length,weight, and grip size in golf clubs. Mostgolf professionals and teachers can lend as-sistance in fitting clubs and their assistanceis advised.

The second consideration in selectingclubs is cost. New clubs may be a costlyadventure, but the money invested in buy-ing a good set is worth it. A set of clubs canfeasiblylast a lifetime. New, clubs can rangein price from $10.00 or less to more than$40.00 for an iron or wood. A complete set(14 clubs) range from $150.00 to $600.00. Astarter's set (6 or 7 clubs) ranges fromaround $50.00 to $100.00. Used clubs maype purchased for much less and often are asequally good for an individual to useprovided they fit appropriately. Used clubsmay be obtained singularly or in sets.Sources for new and used-sets are golfshops located at golf courses, discounthouses or golf shops, drivilg ranges,friends, or family.

BALLS

Golf balls on the market today are either awind or solid ball. A wind ball has a liquid(acid) center within a. rubber casing fol-lowed by many layers of rubber winding.The cover (white) niay be Surelyn which istough and dprable or Balatta which is softerand more easily damaged. The solid ballhas a solid core with a durable cover. Forthe majority of players, the solid ball is bet-ter because it does not cut or damage asquickly. It retains its shape (roundness)longer.

The cost of new golf balls ranges from$.85 to $1.75 each. Used balls may be pur-chased for much less. Used balls are often

1


very good balls (often new balls) whichhave been found and are being resold.These balls are fine to play with; however,they should be round and free of deep cuts.Cuts reduce the effectiveness of the ball fordistance and direction.

TERMINOLOGY

Addressing the Ball. Preparation to swing theclub by taking a stance and placing the clubbehind the ball.

Apron. Short grass around the green.Away. The ball farthest from the hole.Birdie. One stroke less than par.Bogie. One stroke more than,par.Divot. Turf removed from the ground while hit-

ting.Dogleg. Curvature in the fairway.Double Bogie. Two strokes more than par.Eagle. Two strokes less than par.Fairway. The short grass between the tee area

and green.Fore. A warning to individuals in the direction

of play-t4at the ball is coming.GreerirN putting service (closely mowed

grass).Hazard. Term used to indicate sand traps and

water on the course.a. Lateral waterwater that runs parallel to

the fairway.b. Direct waterwater that runs across the

fairway.Honors. Order of teeing off (lowest score on

preceding hole).Hook. Curvature of the ball to the left (right-

handed player).Obstruction. An artificial object (house, shed,

ball washer, etc.) on the golf course.

1Oboe

t.I

Out-of-bounds. Area that is not part of the golfcourse.

Par. Standard score set for a hole.Path. Direction in which the club is swung.Provisional Ball,. A second ball hit when the

first ball is thought to be lost or out-of-bounds.

Pull. Starting direction of the ball to the left(right-handed player) of the desired targetarea.

Push. Starting direction otthe ball to the right(right-handed player) of the desired targetarea.

Rough. Tit long grass parallel to the fairway.Slice. Curvature of the ball to the right (right-

handed player).Target Area. Desired landing area for the ball.Tee. A peg on which the ball may be placed on

the teeing area.Tee Area. The designated area for beginning

each hole.Unplayable Lie. A position of the ball from

which it may be difficult to hit.

REFERENCES

National Golf Foundation. Golf Instructor'sGuide. North Palm Beach, FL. National GolfFoundation, 1980.

National Golf Foundation, Twelve Golf Lessons.North Palm Beach, FL: National Golf Founda-tion, 1980.

Owens, DeDe. "Analysis of Amputee GolfSwings. Unpublished Ph.D. diss., Univer-sity of Virginia, 1980.

Toski, B., and Flick, J. How to Become a CompleteGolfer. Westport, CT: Golf Digest Book Ser-vice, 1978.

back bend (p. 161)back extension (p. 157)back handspring (fliP-flop) (p. 170)back walkover (p. 166)backward roll (p. 154)bridge kick-over (p. 161)cartwheel (p. 158)forward limber-over (p. 162)forward tuck roll (p. 153)front handspring (p. 164)front walkover (p. 163)handstand (p. 155)headstand (p. 154)movement sequence (p. 151)round-off (p. 159)Tinsica (p. 169)valdez (p. 168)

9 0

157

INTRODUCTION

Tumbling is a series of self-testing ac-tivities which offer the discovery and ex-pansion of movement capabilities in a chal-lenging and exdfing setting. Unlike manyother sports, tumbling is not only a compe-titive activity but a self-improvement activ-ity as well. The goal of tumbling is to de-velop overall performance by increasing anindividual's strength, flexibility, power,endurance, balance, agility, and coordina-tion. This occurs through the use of pre-scribed exercises or skills which range indifficulty from a basic balance like the frontscale to a difficult twisting maneuver like atwisting back somersault.

Over the years a wide variety of skills andapparatus have been developed to assistthe person in discovering and expandingmovement- capabilities. The basic forwardroll, for instance, has at least twenty varia-tions which can be used to add variety andchallenge when learning a basic forward

- rotary movement. Tumbling offers some-thing for everyone regardless of entry level.If patient and diligent when workingthrough the progressions provided by theinstructor, many things can be accom-plished that at first seemed impossible.

Media coverage of gymnastics in theOlympics has given a glimpse of what thesport isdike at advanced levels, but what isnot unattainable. Gymnastics covers a widerange of activities and is, in fact, severalsports rolled into one. There is tumbling,vaulting, the balance beam, rings, tirt;evens, ever* the horizontal bar, andsthe

;N. 0

CHAPTER II

Tumbling

DIANE BONANNO,Rutgers University,New Brunswkk, NJ

andKATHLEEN FEIGLEY,

Feigley's School of Gymnastics,South Plainfield, NJ

sidehorse, each of which requires spedalabilities. Regardless of the one you chooserecognize that a strong tumbling back-ground is important.


MOVEMENT SEQUENCES

The sole purpose of any tumbling routineis to provide the performer with an orga-nized means of demonstrating control ofthe body while moving through space, atvarying speeds and different levels. A trulygood routine will be composed of smallunits bf activity which emphasize varyingdegrees of difficulty in the areas of flexibil-ity, agility, power, strength, endurance,and balance. In combination, these smallerunits, which are known as movement se-quences, represent the totality of an indi-vidual's movement capabilities.

Like the sentences in a paragraph thesemovement sequences are composed ofmany separate elements. If the elements inthe sequence, like the words in a sentence,are carefully chosen and placed in theproper order, they will permit the creator orin this case the tumbler to effectively ccim-municate t? the audience.

To be effective, each movement sequencein a routine should include at least four ofthe element's listed below:

locomotorpovements which can be per-formed1. forward backward, or sideward.2. at a hig , medium, or low level.3. fast, me ium, or slow.

158

152 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR

4. on different parts of the body5. along different pathways (straight,

zig-zagged, or curved).nonlocomotor movements (bending,stretching, twisting, curling, etc.) whichcan be performed1. rhythmically or arhythmically.2. at a high, medium, or low level.3. by a varying number of body parts.4. symmetrically or asymmetrically.5. at a fast, medium, or slow pace.balances which can be performed1. at a high, medium, or low level.2. with any number of points of contact

with the floor.3. in a symmetrical or asymmetrical po-

sition.4. in different body positions (inverted,

sideways, etc.).5. in different styles (angular, straight,

rounded).flexibility movements which can be per-forined1. while moving or stationary.2. in the air or in contact with the

grou nd.3. using different joints.strength movements which can be per-formed to show strength of differentbody parts1. in a slow sustained manner or an ex-

plosive manner.2. by moving slowly through the range

of motion or by holding a specific po-sition.

rotary movements which can be per-formed1. at a high, medium, or low level.2. in different directions.3. in contact with the poor or freely in

the air.4. at different speeds.springing movements which can be per-formed1. at a high, medium, or low level.2. from many different body parts.3. in different directions.Below are three movement sequences

Which are written in general terms. Thinkabout each element that is listed. Next toeach one write a skill that you can do inorder to accomplish that element. Practicethe sequence as you have written it. When

z


you can move from one element to the nextin the first sequence so that your move-ments are fluid, work on sequence numbertwo and then three until you carl performthem with equal success. When you havecompleted.each sequence write your ownin the fourth space provided, then connectall the sequences together so that you canmove from sequence number one to se-queng number four without stopping.When you are finished you will have com-pleted a tumbling routine.

I. Movement Sequence Number One.A. From a stand move slowly into a

one-point balance.B. Do a rotary movement into a ba-

lanced position.C. Spring to a balanced position at a

high level.D. Do a forward locomotor move-

ment for at least three beats.E. Do a symmetrical jump.F. Do a rotary movement backward.G. Do a two-point balance at a

medium level.,Movement Sequence Number Two.A. Do a moverhent which demon-

strates flexibility of some joint.B. Do an inverted balance position,

hold for three beats, rock, or rollout.

C. Spring, and do a one-half turn inthe air.

D. Do a rapicil-orward locomotormovement.

E. Move sideways in an inverted po-sition.

F. Balance at a low level.III. Movement Sequence Number Three.

A. Spin out of a low level pose into ahigh level pose.

B. Do a rapid forward locomotormovement, changing types ofmovement at least twice.

C. Do a movement onto the hands,with the feet momentarily leavingthe ground.

D. Do a half turn.E. Do a backward movement onto

the hands with the feet momen-tarily leaving the ground.

F. End in a movement which dem-onstrates flexibility of the legs.

tl.

15o

1

TUMBLING 153

Performance ChecklistAsk your partner to watch your routine

and evaluate your performance according

1. Were the movements creative?2. Were the movements performed with

maximum amplitude (withgreatest stretch or heightpossible)?

3. Were the movements controlled(performed without a wobble)?

4. Was the sequence performedfluidly?

5. Were the movements co qpatible(was,it easy to go fromone to the next; was extramovement needed)?

to the guidelines provided below. Be surethey include .comments for each category.

Good Fair Needs Improvement

G. Move to a balance which demon-strates abdominal strength.

IV. Movement Sequence Number Four.A.B.C.D.E.F.

TUMBLING SKILLS

I. Forward Tuck RollA. Description.

1. From a stand, squat, andplace the hands on the mat,shoulder width apart ap-proximately one arm's lengthfrom the feet.

2. Place the chin On the chestand elevate the hips.

3. Push off by extending the legswhile placing weight on thehands.

4. As the hips come forwardoverhead use the arms togently lower the shoulders,keeping them rounded back,to the mat.

5. Remaining in a tight tuck,with the heels close to the but-tocks, continue rolling ontothe feet.

16

6. Keep the hands reaching for-ward as though you weregoing into another roll so thatyou can stand up.

B. Spotting.A spotter can assist the beginnerby placing a hand behind the per-former's head to ensure that it istucked.

C. Self-analysis.Yes No

1. Were the handsproperly,placed infront of the body?

2. Did the hips elevate _before moving for-ward?

3. Was the head tucked?4. Did the arms lower

the body to the floorwith the shouldersmaking the first con-tact?

5. Was the performer _able to stand withouthaving to touch thefloor with the hands?

D. Variations.1. Straddle to tuck.2. Lunge to tuck (the straight leg

should be dragged across thefloor until it meets the oppo-


site leg which is now also ex-tended.

3. Pike to tuck.4. Straddle to straddle. (stay

tightly compressed through-out the roll and use the handsin between the legs to returnto the straddle stand).

5. Pike to pike.

II. Backward Roll.A. Description.

1. From a stand, squat and placethe hands slightly above theshoulders with the palms fac-ing the ceiling.

2. Rest the Chin on the chest,with the forehead,toward theknees; keep the elbows closeto 'the body.,

3. Remaining in a tight tuck,rock ba ck wa rd on to arounded back (be sure not toopen).

4. As soon as the palms contactthe floor push against thefloor while extending the el-

. bows (remember to keep theelbows close to the body).

5. While pushing with the arms,quickly place the feet on thefloor directly overhead (avoidshooting the feet into the air).

6. As soon as the feet are firmlyon the floor and your head isfree, immediately rise to astand.

B. Spotting.1. Kneel at the performer's side.2. The spotter should place the

hand closest to the per-former's back on the Ver-former's near hips As the rollbegins and the hips start offthe floor the other handreaches around the per=former's back to, grasp theother hip.

3. To prevent any strain on theneck, the spotter should per-form a lifting action of thehips as the hips rise above theshoulders and the bodypasses over the neck.


1. Was the bydy tightlytucked at the be-ginning of the skill?

2. Did the body remaintightly tuckedthroughout the skill?

3. Did the elbows re-main close to thebody throughout?

4. Did the arms pushevenly after contactwith the floor?

D. Variations.1. Tuck to tuck.2. Tuck to straddle.3. Tuck fo straight leg (pike).4. Straddle to straddle.5. Straddle to straight leg (pike).6. Straight leg to straight leg

(pike).7. Tuck to knee scale.8. Tuck to front scale.

III. Headstand.A. Description.

1. Start in a lunge position (seeFigure 1), and place the handsand front knee on the 'floor.The hands should be placedunder the shoulders in linewith the knee.

2. Place the hairline on the matso that it forms the top of anequilateral triangle A whichis made by the hands andhead. Be sure you can seeyour hands.

3. Slide the straight leg forwarduntil the hips are abolie thehead then slowly, with con-trol, lift the leg to a verticalposition as the bent front legbegins to straighten and slow-ly joins the other leg in thevertical position. As you dothis you will feel your weightshift from the hairline to thetop of the head. Keep theneck straight throughout thismovement.

4. Use the fingers and heels ofthe hands to maintain bal-ance.

5. In case of overbalancing or asan alternate means of comingdown, pull the chin towardthe chest, bend at the hips,and pike the legs toward theface and continue rolling to astand.

B. Spotting.1. Stand close to the performer

facing his/her side.2. Grasp the performer's leg as it

hies the vertical position,thereby aiding in balancing.

3. If the performer 'chooses toroll out, the spotter shouldkeep the legs in a vertical po-sition until the performer canlower them in a controlledmanner to a tight compres-sion (verbally instruct them tomaintain straight knee posi-tion to avoid injury).

Figure 1. The lunge,position.

C. Self-analysis.

TUMBLING 155

Yes No1. Did the hands and

heAd form an equilat-eral triangle?

2. Were the hips placeddirectly above thehead?

3. Did the neck remainstraight throughout(or did a relaxed neckcause a roll-out orarch to occur)?

4. Did the legs lift in acontrolled manner?

5. Was the performer'sbody absolutelystraight at the top ofthe headstand or wasthere a pike or archthat pulled the head-stand off-balance?

6. If the performerchose to roll out wasit with control andstraight legs?

D. Variations.1. Tripod to headstand, forward

roll.2. Tip up to headstand, forward

roll.3. Kick up to headstand, for-

ward roll.4. Kick up to headstand, to stag

(pose), forward roll.5. Kick up to headstand, to

double stag, forward roll.6. Straddle to headstand, for-

ward roll.7. Drag-up headstand (start in a

prone position and with thehands by the shoulders, dragthe hips over your head; thelegs should remain straightthroughout), and withoutbending the legs bring themup over the hips.

N. Handstand.A. Descriptica.

1. From a standing position stepforward thrOugh a lunge posi-tion, (the arms should remain-overhead).

1 6.2

156 PHYSICAL EDUCATION ANDSPORT FOR

2. Bend forwarcU at the waistwhile lifting the back leg andplacing the hands on the floorapproximately two feet aheadof the forward leg and shoul-der width apart.

3. Gently push off the forwardleg, while continuing to liftthe back leg until the legsmeet in a vertical position.The arms must remain per--fectly straight throughout.

4. The head should be in a neu-tral position, not lifted -ortucked, with the eyes focusedon th e floor hetween thehands. The back should beperfectly flat with -7o pike orarch.

5. To return to a stand the per-former can split the legs andstep back down to a lunge po-sition or, bend the arms, tuckthe head, and slowly, withcontrol, lower the body to aforward roll with the legs re-maining straight.

B. Spotting..1. The spotter should stand

slightly back from where theperformer will place thehands and slightly to the side.'(It is better to be too far thantoo close to the performer as itis. easier to move forward tocompenclte for the distancethan,back.)

2. As a performer kicks to ahandstand . the spotterreaches forward and graspsthe performer's thigh withboth hands to keep the per-former fronigoing over and tohelp support the performer'sweight.

3. Under no circumstancesshould the performer's leg bepulled into a vertical positionif he/she does not haveenough leg lift,

4. If the performer chooses tostep down, the spotter canishift the hand nearest thet

.0


belly side of the performer tounder the performer'sstomach to help lower him/her down. If the performerchooses to roll out, the spottershould remain in contact withthe performer's thigh, liftingup to support as much of,theperformer's weight as pos-sible as the roll-but occnrs.(Remind the performer to rollslowly, tuck the head, andkeep the knees straight.)

C. Self-analysis.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Did you begin in aperfect lunge?Did yov love yourbody tu .vard the matin a straight line posi-tion?Did you lift your leadleg into place?Did you maintain astraight body posi-tion while upsidedown?Were you able to holdyour balance for atleast three sacondswithout breakingform or moving handposition?

Yes No

,

D. Variations.1. Handstand to stag pose.2. Handstand to double stag

pose. 0.

3. Handstand snap down.4. Forward roll to a handstand

forward roll.5. Headstand, pop into a hand-

stand (draw knees to chest be-fore popping legs upward).

6. Backward roll to immediatehandstand (back

7. Side handstaact (half a cart-wheel).

8. Handstand chest roll.9. Handstand to a split.

10. Handstand pirouette.11. Press up handstand.

V. Back Extension.A. Description:

1. From a standing position,bend the knees and squat to atuck position. The armsshould move from a stretchedoverhead poSition to a bentlosition slightly above thenoulders With the palms fac-

ing the ceiling.2. As in the backward roll, the

chin should be toward thechest, the elbows close fo thebody, and the back shouldremain rounded to make therolling action easier.

3. Begin to roll backward whileremaining in'a tight tuck. Asthe hands contact the floor,extend the elbows -so thatthey art totally straight. Atthe same time open the hipangle and shoot the legsstraight toward the ceiling toend in a handstand, split thelegs, and step down to astand. (If the timing is correctyou will extend sour bodyslightly before the vertichl po-sition is attained becau'se thebackward momentum willcarry you right to the verticalby the end of your extension.The total opening actionshould have an explosivequality.)

4. Key 'timing and executionprobtems to look for: if you--are short of the handstand orfalling back toward the di-

. rection from .which yostarted, then _your push 'ispremature; if you are over orbeyond th9 handstand yourpush was too late and/or tooslow; lifting your head as you ,

open will eause an unde-sirable arch instead of astraight body handstand.

B. Spotting.1. Stand to'the side of the per-

former near the spot where!,

C.

TuMBLING 157)his/her hands will make con-tact with the floor.

2. Watch for the hands to con-tact tbe floor and immediatelygrasp the performer's closestthigh with both hands.

3. Exert your force upward tohelp the performer-reach abalanced handstand position.Sti=pport the performer'sweight in case the aims do notstraighten quickly or com-pletely.

4. Be aware that:a. An early push by the per-

former may cause himlherto be falling toward theback. By grasping thethigh early you can pullthe performer to a band-stand or quickly instructhim/her to tuck the headand roll out as you iowerhim/her to the floor.

b. A late push would causethe performer to land in apush-up position. Youcan prevent this bypick=ing the_thigliiiie-arly andals-tiby giving a verbal cue,e.g., "now," so that theperformer lePrns to push,as the hands contact the&or,. If the performer hasalready passed the verticalposition, quicldy shiftyotir hand that is on thefront of the thigh to theperformei's waist to breakthe fail and allow them tostep down.

Self-analysis.

1. Was the body tightlytucked at the be-ginning of the skill?

2. 'Were the elbows heldc!ose to the bodythroughout?

- 3. Did the legs shootupward as the hands*made contact withthe floor?

1 6,1

Yes No


4: Did the legs shoot up _toward the ceiling(not toward the frontor back wall)?

5. Did the legs and body _straighten ex-plosively?

6. Did the arms pushevenly?

D. Variations.1. Tuck to extension and snap

down.2. Tuck to extension, and walk

out (one leg comes down at atime).

31 Tuck to extension, and rollout forward.

4. Straddle to extension.5. Pike to extension.

- 6. Tuck to extension to split.7. tuck to extension to double

leg shoot-through.

VI. Cartwheel.A. Description.

1. This entire skill will be per-formed with the body travel-ing sideward along a straightline.

2. Perform:a sideward lungeand place the closest hand onthe floor arm's length fromand in line with the bent frontlunge leg. At the same timelift the straight rear leg over-head toward the ceiling.

3. As the bent front leg extendsand pushes from the floor,the second hand should nowmake contact with the flooralong the same straight line ata minimum of shoulder'swidth from the first hand; thebody should now be in astra,ddled handstand.

4. Your momentum should con-tinue to pass smoothlythrough the vertical positionas the first leg over the headcontacts the floor. The firsthand down will now lift offthe floor and straight over thehead. Then the second hand

will lift off over the head, andfinally the pushing leg willland on the floor along thesame straight line.

5. This entire wheeling actionshould have-a 1,2,3,4 rhythm(hand, hand, foot, foot).

6. The elbows must remainstraight throughout, and thehead should remain in a neu-tral position,- neither liftingupward nor with the chin in atucked position.

7. The path of your cartwheelshould be on a very straightline and through a verticalposition.

B. Spotting.1. The front of the spotter's

body should be facing theperforiner's back and thespotter should be positionedwith-the feet in a stride posi-tion at the approximate spotwhere the performer's handswill make contact with themat.

2. As the wheeling action be-gins, the spotter shonld placethe hand closest to the per-foemer on the hip of the lungeleg. As the performer's handcontacts the floor the spottershould place the second orhand farthest away on theperformer's other hip whichwill now be leading.

3. The spotter may have to ac-tually grasp and lift the hipsto help the performer attainthe vertical position and tosupport the weight in case theperformer bends the elbows.

4. Instruct the performer to re-main tight and to keep thelegs straight throughout theskill to prevent the spotterfrom being kicked by bentlegs

5. Guide the performer throughthe skill until he/she is stand-ing.

Lefthanded

Left Foot

Right Fotit

Righthanded

44PRight Foot

Left Foot

TUMBLING 159

Right HandLeft Hand

Diagram 1. Hand and foot placement for the round-off.

C. Self-analysis.

1. Did you start in a per-fect lunge?

2. Did you stretch for-ward as you went to

-place your handsdown? .

3. Did you maintain awide straddlethroughout?

4. Did you maintain aneven tempo through-out, i.e., hand, hand,foot, foot?

D. Variations.1. Cartwheel quarter turn at the

end of the skill either in or

2. One-handed cartwheel withthe near arm.

3: One-handed cartwheel withthe far arm.

4. Cartwheel, close the legs in ahandstand position at the topof the wheel.

5. Quarter turn at the start of thecartwheel.

6. Dive cartwheel.

Yes No

*The easiest turning cartwheel to perform is one thatbegins with a one-quarter turn of the body in towardthe direction you will go or ends with a one-quarterturn of the body back toward the direction from whichyou came.

1. A round-off begins in thesame way a cartwheel doesbut builds much greaterspeed and the performerlands on two feet.

2. Start in a lunge position withthe knee in front of the ankleso that your lower leg is at a450 angle to the floor.

3. Hand placement is quite var-ied but in general the widerthe hand plac'ement the morepower that, can be exerted.The`fingers of the first handdown should point towardyour lunge leg, while the fin-gers of the second hand arefacing the same direction asyour back. Arms should re-main next to the headthrougho, t.

4. As the back leg drives overthe head and the front legpushes powerfully from thefloor, the hands are placed onthe mat along a straight line,while the head is kept in aneutral position throughout.Lifting the head creates anundesirable back arch.

5. The performer should pushvery hard off the lunge leg soit can meet with the other legbefore the vertical position is

1

160 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECCNDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

attained. A pirouetting actionor quarter-turn of the bodyoccurs as thc legs snap to-gether. Quickly snapping thelegs together will permit thetrick to proceed at maximumspeed;

6. As the feet contact the floorthe arms should be con-tinuing overhead and thebody should now land fadngthe direction_ from which itcame.

7. There are two very importantmethods. of this last stage ofthe round-off called thesnap-down.a. Block underthe feet are

snapped down to thellooras close to the hands_aspossible so a backwardmomentum is continuedso that a back hand-spring (this action shouldnot be done unless aspotter i standing behindyou to stop your momen-tum or unless you are con-tinuing to another skillsuch as a back hand-spring).

b. Block outthe feet areplaced back away fromhands so as to stop back-ward momentum andconvert it to upward mo-mentum. Blocking outwould be used if theround-off were to be fol-lowed by a vertical jumpor a somersault.

B. Spottrng.1. The spotter should stand on

the same side as the per-former's lead leg and in theapproximate spot' yrhere theperformer will vOlace thehands.

2. Grasp the performer's secondarm down with your near armand place your far arm in theperformer's hip area to assistin landing.

: 11 6 7

3. As the performer's feet con-tact the floor switch your fararm to the performer's back toprevent over-rotation.

4. An advanced spotting tech-nique for a powerful blockedunder round-off would be tostand to the side and behindwhere the-performer's feetwill contact the floor. As thelegs pass by, you mustquickly reach in and grasp theperformer's waist to preventover-rotation. Your nearesthand should go on the per-,former's closest hip. Yoursecond hand should reacharound back to the oppositehip. Be sure you are standingon the sairte side as the per-former's lead leg and do notstep in until the legs havepassed you.


1. Did the skit!, begin in _a good lunge posi-tion?

2. Were the handgplaced wide apart?

3. Were the handsplaced in the properpattern?

4. Did the arms remainnext to the headthroughout?

5: Did the back leg kick'quickly, upward?

6. Did the front leg ex-tend and push offforcefully?

7. Did the legs meet be-fore they reached thevertical?

8. Did the pirouettebegin as the legssnapped together?

9. Did the hands pushoff the floor and con-tinue overhead as thefeet made contactwith the floor?

D. Variations.

TUMBLING 161

b. Place your far arm behind1. Round-off, snap down. the performer so that your2. Round-off, walk out. arm stretches across the3. Round-off, back extension. small of his or her back4. One-handed round-off. and your hand grasps the5. Round-off, flip-flop. waist.

VIII. Lead-ups for Limbers and Walkov-ers.A. Back Bend.

1. Description.a. Stand with the feet side by

side and approximatelyshoulder width apart,with the arms stretchedtoward 'the ceiling, thestomach in, and the headfacing forward.

b. Stretch the fingertips upand back as you begin toarch the upper back. Thehead should move backwith the arms as you beginto look for the floor.

c. As you continue back-ward your lower back willarch. The knees and hipsshould not move forwardbut should remain directlyover the base of support.The hands should contactthee floor with controlpermitting the shouldersto move to a proper bridgeposition. The handsshould be shoulder widthapart.

e. To return to a standingposition rock the hips upand forward, taking carenot to pike at the hips.

f. Push from the hands asyou rock forward, keepingthe head back between thearms.Continue movement untilyou arrive back to thestarting position de-scribed in "a."

2. Spotting.

g.

a. Stand to the side of theperformer in a wide stablestance.

c. The other arm shouldstretch across the front ofthe performer.

d. As the performer reachesbackward, gently lowerhimlher to the mat andprovide support in thebridge.

e. As the performer returnsto a standing position,give gentle assistance asthe back and hips moveupward and forward.

3. Variations.A ,back limber could be per-formed following step "d" of"Description" by pushing offboth feet siMultaneously asthe hips move up and back.As the body reaches a flatbody handstand, pike at thehips anti bring both feet to astanding position on thefloor. Lift the chest, head, andarms to end in positiOn "a" of"Description."

B. Bridge Kick-over.1. Description.

a. Start in a bridge positionwith the feet on a raisedsurface such as a foldedmat.

b. Lift one leg toward theceiling.

c. Begin to bridge the shoul-ders (move the shouldersbeyond the fingers, awayfrom the folded mat), andgently lift the support legoff the mat as the bodymoves toward a flat backhandstand with the leg ina split position. The armsshould remain verystraight throughout.

d. While in a vertical positionwith the shoulders di-

I. 6 8


redly over the hands, ro-tate the hips toward thefloor and bring the lead legdown as close to the handsas possible without lettingthe shoulders move fromthe position directly abovethe hands. Now lift thechest, head, and arms asthe back leg lowers to alunge position. (Allowingthe shoulders to moveforward during this lastphase could cause thegymnast to collapse for-ward.)

2. Spotting.Spotter #1a. Stand to the side of the

perfoimer so that you arefacing the direction towhich he/she will be kick-ing (face their hands withyour back to hislher feet).

b. Reach under the per-former's bogy with thearm that is closest to his orher hip and grasp the

c. Place the other hand onthe hip that is closest toyour body.

Spotter #2a. Stand to the side of the

performer so that you arefacing the direction towhich he/she will be kick-ing (face their hands withyour back to hislher feet).

b. Reach under the per-former's body with thearm that is closest to his orher hip and grasp thewaist.

c. Place the free hand underthe performer's shoulderto stop the arms from col-lapsing during the skill.

d. As the performer kicksover, lift the hips up andgently rotate forward.

IX. Forward Limber-over.A. Description.

1. Begin as you did in the hand-stand. Upon reaching the ver-tical position, attempt tomove your shoulders backtoward the direction fromwhich you came, so that yourshoulders are now behindyour wrists (this bridging ac-tion will permit a soft, con-trolled landing).

2. Continue your forward mo-mentum as you arch yourlower back and place the feetsoftly on the floor in a bridgeposition with the hands asclose to the feet as possiblewithout an extreme backarch. Ideally the feet will beplaced side by side but as abeginner you may have toplace the feet shoulder widthapart. Your knees should beonly slightly bent upon con-tact with the floor.

3. Your hips should continue tomove upward and forward,with your head back. Thearms remain next to the headas you rise to a stand (be sureto keep the head back untilthelips are over your base ofsupport).

B. Spotting.1. The spotter stands to the side

of the performer's pa& of ac-tion and, as in the spot for thehanclgtand, grasps the per-former's nearest thigh.

2. As the performer safelyreaches the vertical positionthe spotter's hand on the backof the leg slides clown thebody to the middle back,while the hand on the front ofthe thigh moves to grasp theperformer's nearest upperarm (during this phase it willbe necessary for the spotter tobend the knees or widen thestance to stay in contact withthe performer).

3. Use the hand under the per-former's back to assist in lift-

ing the hips up and forwardand the hand on the upperarm to assist with the forwardlifting momentum and tokeep the arms in line with thehead. The hand on the upperarm can also be used to pullthe performer's weight back-ward if over-rotation is oc-curring as the performer is re-turning to a standing po-sition.

4. Another advanced method ofspotting could be used afterthe performer is capable of at-tempting the skill with lessphysical lifting and is readyfor more assistance with thecorrect technique. Thismethod would have thespotter kneeling next to theperformer and placing the far-thest hand on the performer'sshoulder, and the nearesthand on the performer'swaist. The spotter would thenassist the performer in feelingthe correct shoulder action bygently pushing the per-former's shoulders back to-ward the direction fromwhich they came.


1. Did you begin in aperfect lunge?

2. Did you stretch for _

4. Did' you rely on an _

5. When your feet

3. Did you move into a _

upper back arch

back arch?

landed did you pushwith your hands?

6. Did you watch your _hands throughoutihe exercise?

straight body?

handstand position

rather than a lower

the mat with a

without an arch?

TUMBLING 163

7. Was your head the _last body part to comeup?

X. Front Walkover.A. Description.

1. From a standing position,step forward through a lungeposition, with the arms overthe head. (It is best to stepforward onto the leg on whichyou do the best side split.)

2. Bend forward at the waistwhile lifting the back leg andplace the hands on the floorshoulder width apart a0-proximately two feet ahead ofthe forward leg.

3. Gently push off the forwardleg, while continuing to liftthe back leg.

4. As the body moves toward avertical position, keep thelegs in a wide split and beginthe shoulder bridging actionas described in the limber-over, where your shouldersmove back toward the direc-tion from which you came.Your shoulders are now be-hind yotfr wrists. Your el-bows should remain verystraight throughout the entireskill.

5. Continue the bridging actionas you arch your back andplace your lead leg on thefloor as close to your hands aspossible without an extremearch, and with your knee onlyslightly bent.

6. As you rise to a stand, yoursecond leg should be held in ahorizontal position or above,the hips should line up overthd support leg with thestomach pulled in; the armsshould remain by your ears,and your head should remainback until your weight is overyour base of support. 1henfocus directly forward.


1 7

164 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT,FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT _

of the performer's path of ac-tion and as in the spot for thehandstand, grasps the per-former's nearest thigh.

2. As the performer safelyreaches the vertical positionthe spotter's hand on the Packof the leg slides down thebody to the middle back,while the hand on the front ofthe thigh will move to graspthe performer's nearest upperarm (during this phase it willbe necessary for the spotter tobend the knees or widen thestance to stay incontact withthe performer).

3. Use the hand under the per-former's back to assist in lift-ing the hips up and forwardand the hand on the upperarm to assist with forward lift-ing momentum and to keepthe arms in line with thehead. The hand on the upperarm can also be used to pullthe performer's weight back-ward if over-rotation is oc-curring as the performer is re-turning to a standing po-sition.

4. Another advanced method ofspotting could be used afterthe performer is capable of at-tempting the skill with lessphysical lifting and is readyfor more assistance with thecorrect technique. Thismethod would employ thespotter in a kneeling positionnext to the performer andplacing the farthest hand onthe performer's shoulder,and the nearest hand on theperformer's waist. Thespotter would then assist theperformer in feeling the cor-rect shoulder action by gentlypushing the performer'sshoulders back toward the di-rection from which theycame.

C. Self-analysis.

XI..

Yes No1. Did the body begin in _

a good lunge posi-tion?

2. Were the handsplaced approximatelytwo feet ahead of theforward leg?

3. Were the handsshoulder widthapart?

4. Did the front leg pushoff as the hands madecontact with thefloor?

5. Did a bridging action _take place?

6. Was there a wide splitthroughout?

7. Did the elbows re-main straightthroughout?

8. Did the lead leg landon the floor close tothe hands?

9. Was the trailing iegheld in a horizontalposition uponlanding?

10. Did the head remainback until the weightwas over the base ofsupport?

D. Variations.1. Front scale, front walkover.2. Front walkover, forward roll.3. Front walkover, front walk-

over.4. Front walkover, split.5. Front walkover, handstand

double stag, roll-out.Front Handspring.A. Description.

1. From a standing position,step forward to a lunge withthe knee ahead of the foot.

2. Bring the hands quickly to thefloor without breaking theshoulder angle and with theback in a hollow position(shoulder blades spread,stomach in). The hands mustcontact the floor before the

1 71

V

forward leg straightens;otherwise a diving actiononto the hands will occur andthis is not desirablEkin thefront handspring.

3. As your hands are beginningto contact the floor you mustalready be anticipating piish-ing off the mat so you canpush immediately upon con-tact. At the same time yourback leg should be drivingstraight overhead and yourforward leg should be ex-tending and pushing power-fully from the floor.

4. Your legs should join beforeattaining the vertical positionif you are performing a two-foot landing. If you are doinga one-foot landing youshould feel almost a stoppingaction of the first leg beforethe vertical position is at-tained. (To avoid pressure onthe lower back it is recom-mended that the beginnerlearn this skill by landing onone foot, or landing on a softmat with the assistance of aspotter.)

5. The push-off should be be-fore the vertical position is at-tained so that flight (a mo-ment in the air without floorcontact by the hands or feet)occurs after the push but be-fore the feet land.

6. The landing should be suchthat the foot or feet are di-rectly underneath the hips.The arms should remainstretched beside the head atall times. The head shouldremain back until the veryend when a shift is made to aforward focus. (Never tuckthe chin as this breaks thebody line and cuts off rotationcausing a sitting action at theend of the skill.)


TUMBLING 165

of the performer's path of ac-tion and, as in the spot for thehandstand, grasps the per-former's nearest thigh.

2. As the performer safelyreaches the vertical positionthe spotter's hand on the backof the leg slides down thebody to the middle back,while the hand on the front ofthe thigh moves to grasp theperformer's nearest upperarm (during this phase it willbe necessary for the spotter tobend the knees or widen thestance to stay in contact withthe performer).

3. Use the hand under the per-former's back to.assist in lift-ing the hips tip and forwardand -the hand on the upperarm to assist with forward lift-ing momentum and to keepthe arms in line with thehead. The hand on the upperarm can also be used to pullthe performer's weight back-ward if over-rotation is oc-curring as the performer is re-turning to a standing po-sition.

4. Another advanced method ofspotting could, be used afterthe performer is capable of at-tempting the skill with lessphysical lifting and is readyfor more assistance with thecorrect technique. Thismethod would have thespotter kneeling next to theperformer and placing the far-thest hand on the performer'sshoulder, and the nearesthand on the performer'swaist. Assist the performer infeeling the correct shoulderaction by gently pushing theperformer's shoulders backtoward the direction fromwhich they came.


1, Did the body begin in -,

o


a good lunge po-sition?

2. Did the hands conieto the floor quicklya. without breaking

the shoulder angle?b. with the back

in a hollowposition?

c. before the forward_leg straightenedcompletely?

3. Did the straight legwhip upward andforward forcefully?

4. Did the legs join to-gether before eitherreached the verticalposition?

5. Did.the push-offoccur before the ver-tical position was at-tained?

6. Did the arms remainstretched alongsideof the head through-out?

7. Did the head remain _back until the land-ing?

8. Upon landing did the _head shift forward(but not downward)?

9. Was there an ex- _tended air moment(lime when the handsand feet are off thefloor simulta-neously)?

D. Variation.1. Handspring walk-odt.

XII. Back Walkover.A. Description.

1. Start from a standing positionon one leg (the support leg)with your other leg lifted offthe floor (the lifted leg shouldbe the leg on which you doyour best split). The armsshould be stretched over thehead, the support legstraight, and the stomach and

.9

1 73,

back muscles pulled tightwithout any arch or sag.

2. As you begin to arch back-ward you should feel asthough you're going up andback as opposed to straightdown and back. Start by lift-ing your free leg, slightlyarching your back,- liftingyour arms up and back, asyour head watches yourfingertips stretch toward thefloor. The support leg shouldremain straight throughoutand the hips should remainover the support leg withoutmoving forward.

3. The hands should contact thefloor softly, shoulder widthapart, and as close to the sup-port foot as possible withoutan excessive lower back arch.

4. As the hands contact thefloor, the shoulders should bein a good bridge position sothat the support leg can justgently and with control lift offthe floor.

5. As you pass through the ver-tical position, your backshould straighten as theshoulders are extended. Thehead should be in line withthe straight arms, and the legsshould be in a wide split (seeFigure 2).

6. Continue your movementthrough the vertical positionas your hips tilt toward thefloor and the lead leg keepsstretching toward a spot onthe floor approximately ,1-2feet from the hands. Land onone leg with the free leg held'up as the arms, chest, andhead lift as one unit tOthe ver-tical position.

B. Spotting.1. Stand to the side of the per-

former facing the performer'sshoulder.

2. Reach across the small of theperformer's back and grasp

,.

0

the performer's waist withyour far arm.

3. The spotter on the lead legside should place the handunder the performer's thigh.

Figure 2. The back walkover.i

TUMBLING 167

4. Ae the performer reachesbackward gently lower thehands to the mat.

5. Assist the lead leg as needed.

C. Self-analysis. .

Yes No1. Was the body

stretched throughoutthe skill?

2. Was the lead legstraight throughouttheskill?

3. Were the shouldersin a good bridgewhen the handsmade contact withthe floor?

4. Did the head stayeveri with the armsthroughout?

5. Was a wide splitmaintained?

6. Did the hands landsoftly on the mgr?

7. Was the skill per-formed smoothly?

8. Did the hands pushoff of the mat?

D. Variations.1. Back walkover to front scale.

Figure 3. The valdez.

t 1 74

168. PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

2. Back walkover to split.3. Back walkover to chest roll

(stop in handstanctand chestroll-out).

4. Back walkover to kneelingpose.

5. Switch leg back walkover(lead leg stops when it is ver-tical to the floor; trailing legbypasses lead levand landsfirst).

XIII. Valdez.A. Description.

1. A valdez is a back walkoverfrom a sittine position (seeFigure 3). The leg you wouldnormally lift first for a backwalkover is the leg thatshould be extended while youare sitting. The other legshould be bent in a tuck posi-tion with your heel close tothe body. The arm on thesame side as the straight legshould be extended and heldparallel to that leg. The otherarm should be placed on thefloor behind the back andheld as close to the body as iscomfortable with the fingersfacing away from the body.

2. To begin the valdez, lift thestraight leg up and back andwhile straightening the bentleg, lift the hips up toward theceiling. Keep the head facingforward; do not look backimmediately. Have the eyesfollow the fingers of ihe for-ward arm.

3. The forward arm should liftstraight up and back and thenstretch toward the flooralongside the other hand. Themain thing to remember withthe back hand is to keep yourelbow straight and gently letyour wrist rotate so that yourfingers slide to point forwardwhen you pass through thevertical handstand position.The head should follow the /

I .1

movement of the forwardarm.

4. You will pass through abridge position with one legextended in the air; as youcome to this point, you willbridge your shoulders al-lowing your support foot togently lift off the floor. As thebody moves to the verticalposition, straighten the back,extend the shoulders, andcontinue as you would in aback walkoyer.

5. Place the foot on the floor bytiltifig the hips downwardand stretching the lead legtoward the floor a few inchesfrom the hands. Keep tfieshoulders over the hands'andas the back leg comes down tolunge position lift the arms,-head, and chest to a verticalposition. (A lead-up for this'kill would be to go from asitting position to a brislgewith the extended leg Medand then return back to a sit-ting position. Concentrate onkeeping the arms straight,going straight up and back asopposed to going around theside or pushing the hips for-ward. The spotter should beused for the first few at-tempts.)

B. Spotting.1. Kneel next to the performer

on the extended leg side.2. Place the far hand on the per-

former's back at the top of thehips.

3. Place the near hand under thethigh of the extended leg.

4. As the performer lifts up andback, gently lift the hips androtate backward.

5. Assist the leg when needed.C. Self-analysis.

1. Did the head faceforward as the hipsmoved upward?

Yes No

4,

2. Did the straight armstretch up and backbefore going towardthe floor?

3. Did the back arm re-main straight?

c- 4. Did the lead leg re-main straightthroughout?

5. Did the bent leg ex-tend vigorously?

6. Did the body moveinto a good 'bridge"position, i.e., shoul-ders over the supporthand?

XIV. Tinsica. c-Y

A. Description.1. Begin as in the front walk-

over, from a standing posi-tion stepping forwardthrough a lunge with thearms overhead.

2. The chest and arms lower tothe floor as the rear leg lifts.

3. The hands are placed on themat one at a time in a splitposition. The first hand con-tact is made by the same sideas the forward lunge leg. Thesecond hand should beplaced along a line straightahead of the first hand downand as far away from the firsthand as possible. The fingersshould be facing forward andtheshoulders should be on aslight diagonal line.

4. As you reach the vertical posi-tion the back should bestraight, the legs split, and theshoulders extended.

5. At the vertical position yourshoulders pill twist slightlyback toward a normal hand-stand position. Then yourshoulders will bridge as yourfirst foot seretches toward thefloor and the lower back

--arches slightly to passthrough a _bridge position.The first hawl down lifts off

TUMBLING 169

the floor, followed by the sec-ond hand lifting off the floor.

6. You will rise to a stand as inthe front walkover by align-ing the hips directly Zwer thelandirig foot, while keepingyour head back, and the arrnsstretched alongside of- thehead. As you come to a standyour focus will move forwardand the stomach muscles willbe pulled inward to allow youto bring your second legdown with control.

7. This skill has the rhythm of acartwheel (hand, hand, foot,foot) and the appearancepf awalkover.

B. Spotting.1. The spotter stands to the side -

of the performer's path of ac-tion and, as in the spot foi thehandstand, grasps th6 per-former's nearest thigh.

2. As the performer safelyreaches the vertical positionthe spotter's hand on the backof the leg slides down thebody to the middle back,while the hand on the front ofthe thigh moves to grasp theperformer's nearest upperarm (during this phase it willbe necessary for the spotter tobend the knees or widen thestance to stay in contact withthe performer).

3. Use the hand under the per-former's back to assist in lift-ing the hips up and forwardand the hand on the upperarm to assist with forward lift-ing momentum and to keepthe arms in line wiih thehead. The hand on ihe upperarm can also be used to, pullthe performer's weight back-ward if "Over-rotation is oc-curring as the performer is re-turning to a standing po-sition.

4. Another advanced method ofspotting could be used after

1 7 6

a.

170 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT' FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

the performer was capable ofattempting the skill with lessphysical lifting and is readyfor more assistance with thecorreQt technique. Thismethod would have the spot-ter kneeling next to the per-former and placing the far-thest hand on the performer'sshoulder (upper back), andthe nearest hand on.the per-former's waist. The spotterwould then assist the per-former in feeling the correctshoulder action by gentlypushing the performer'sshoulders back toward the di-rection from which theycame.


1. Was the skill done ina four-count rhythm(hand, hand, foot,foot)?

2. Did the body begin in _a good lunge posi-tion?

3. Were the bandsshoulder widthapart?

4. Did the front leg pushoff as the hands madecontact with thefloor?

5. Did the bridging ac-tion take place?

6. Was there a wide split _throughout?

7. Did the elbows re-main straightthroughout?

8. Did the lead leg,landon tilt floor close tothe hands?

9. Was'the trailing legheld in a horizontalposition uponlanding?

10. Did the head remain _back until the weightwas over the base ofsupport? "."

D. Variatiotks.1. This skill may also be done

beginning in a completesideward po'sition as de-scribed in the cartwheel andat the vertical$position shift-ing the hips and shoulders tofinish as with a forward walk-over.

2. Tinsica right.3. From a front scale.4. To a front scale.

XV. Back Handspring (Flip-flop).A. Descripdon.

1. You can begin the flip withyour arms in a variety of posi-tions (overhead, forward athorizontal, or by the sides ofthe body). The important fac-tor is that you do not let yourchest come forward as youbegin. For our purposes wewill start with the arms at thesides shice having the armsoverhead sometimes gives thefeeling of a lack of momentum

Figure 4. The fall for the back handspring.

TUMBLING 171

Figure 5. Contact with the

and the arms in a horizOntalposition creates a down-upwind-up which usua.11ycauses the chest to move for-ward.

2. Standing with the arms at thesides begin to fall backwardfrom your feet without letting

' your chest or knees comeforward.

3. As you begin to fall bend yourknees slightly to give powerfor the push-off (see Figure4). Every body part should bebehind your base of support.

4. Next you will very quicklyand powerfully extend theknees and push from yourfeet as your arms are thrownoverhead.

5. You should contact the floorwith your shoulders over thehands, and the legs not quitevertical (see`Figure 5).

6. The last and final phase iscalled the "snap-down."Zrom a slight tight arch withthe shoulder blades pinched,

floor in the back handspring. o

move quickly to a hollowbody position with the stom-ach in and the -shoulderOblades extended-10 a verybroad position.

7. Where you snap your legsdown to the mat will dependupon the trick that follows.As in the round-off if youwish to do a selies of flip-flops you must "blockunder," i.e., bring the feetdown.very close to the Fandsto contimie the backwardmomentum. It-you plan tocontinue td..a somersault orstop your .momenfum yoMustblock out; put,your eelfar from tbe harids to convertyour speed to an upward di-rection.

8. The verbal cues for 'the flip--flup are "fall - Sit CO"

9. The verbal cues for the snap-- down are "Arch-Hollow!!:-

B. Spoiling.1. Standor kneel to the side and

slightlybehind the oerfOrmerJ. u .c

172 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR 11-IE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

so that you rii4 facing his/hershoulder.

2. Place (he far hand on the per-former's bark at the top of theHps.

3. Place (ne near hand under theperformer's thigh.

4. As the performer begins theskill, gently lift and rotate thehips over.

5. Assist the thigh as necessary.6. Be sure that the performer's

hips are lifted high enough toallow him/her to place the,hands down so that theshoulders are above them.


1. Did the body fallbackward from thefeet rather than thewaist?

2. Did the chest andknees stay behind thebase of support(ankles) during theinitialphase?

3. Did the body extendrapidly and power-fully?

4. When the handsmade contact withthe mata. were the shoulders_

over the hands?b. were the legs

almost at avertical position?

c. was the headfacing the mat?

5. Did the head stayeven with the armsthroughout?During the snap-down, did the bodymove to a "holloW"position?

D. Variations.1. Back handspring, back hand-

spring.2. Back handspring, walk-out

(one leg down at a time).3. Round-off, back handsprin4 m-r

t.

CONDITIONING

To meet the physical demands of tum-bling and to be successful in learning newskills it is essential that the performerachieve a certain degree of strength andflexibility. Since it will be necessary to con-stantly support your own weight whiledoing stunts like handstands andcartwheels, the minimum strength re-quirement would be the ability to supportyour own weight with your arms.Adequate strength not only permits you toperform your moves with control but en-'sures a greater degree of safety.

Flexibility, or range. of motion of thejoints, is another key component for safeand successful gymnastics. Flexibility notonly protects your muscles from injury butis also essential for the performance of cer-tain skills such as walkovers and splits.

In order to achieve the_grea test degree ofimprovement, flexibility exercises shouldbe performed daily and strength exercisesperformed a minimum of three timesweekly. The exercises listed below are notwarmup exercises but exercises that shouldbe incorporated into a regular gymnasticsconditioning program.

ARM AND SHOULDER STRENGTH

Pull-upsFrom a straight hang on abar with the

hands in an overgrip, bend the arms andpull the body upward so that the chin isabove the bar.Lead-ups1. Bent arm hanghave a partner lift you

into a bent arm position and hold thisposition as long as possible not to exceedone minute.

2. Modified pull-upsperform pull-upson uneven bars with the feet resting on alow bar if you are not strong enough tolift the body weight from a straighthang.

Push-upsIn a prone position with the hody totally

straight, lower' the body by bending thearms as close to the floor as possible; returnto a straight elbOw support.

Lead-ups(4. Assume the same prone position as

TUMBLING 173

Figure 6. The planche dip.

above and remain balanced in that posi-tion for 15-30 seconds.

2. In the prone position as above, place theknees on the floor and lower and raisethe body by bending the arms.

Variations1. With the feet on a raised surface so that

the hips are over the shoulders, bend thearms to touch the head to the floor andreturn to support.

2. While balanced in a headstand position,bend the legs slightly and push the armsstraight to a handstand.

Dips1. Stand between parallel bars or betv. een

two beams placed approximately shoul-der width apart ar raised to at leastelbow level.

2. Jump to a straight arm support.3. Raise and lower the body by bending the

elbows to a 90° angle.

Lead-ups1. Bend and straighten the arms only

Slightly until your strength is, adequateenough to support a full range of move-ment.

2. jump up and down from the floor ,to astarting position (the performer dan startwith the bars low and eventually raisethem to chest height).

Variation1. Planche Dip (see Figure 6)dip with the

legs in a tuck position in front of the Indyand with the hips raised so that the backis parallel to the ceiling. (A lead-up for aplanche would be to just maintain the

. position without dipping.)

ABDOMINAL STRENGTH

Sit-upsThe sit-up is one of the oldest yet most

appropriate developers of abdominalstrength.1. Lie on the floor, with the hands clasped

behind the head, the knees bent, and thefeet flat on the floor.

2. Curl up starting with the head until thechest touches the thighs.

3. Curl down starting with the lower backto a starting position.

Lend-ups1..Do sit-ups with a spotter holding your

- 174 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTQ

wig 4/

.--

/fo/ 1"'",,;;,"

Figure 7. The L-hold.

hands and assisting in raising and lower-ing during the sit-up.

2. Do sit-ups with the hands overhead anduse the momentum of the arms swing-ing forward to help lift the body.

Variations1. Do sit-ups on a slant board with the head

at a low portion of the incline board andthe feet at a high portion.

2. V Sit-upswith the hands behind thehead and the legs straight, lift the headand chest at the same time as when lift-ing the legs to a V balance. (To increasedifficulty of the V sit-up, raise to the Vandlower to an open pos;tion where theshoulders and legs come within inchesof thefloc* but do not touch.)

L-Hold (See Figure 7)1. Sit on the floOr in a pike position.2. Place the hands next to the legs near the

top of the thighs with the fingers point-ing forward.

3. Lift the legs and rear from the floor sothat the entire body weight is supportedon the hands.

4. Hold the position as lorig as possible,118 1

Lead-upPerform the same exercise as above but

with a spotter assisting with balance andsupport of weight by graSping the per-former's toes and lightly lifting upward.

Variations1. Straddle holdsame as the L-Hold ex-

cept the legs are in a straddle positionand the hands are placed between thelegs insk ad of on the outside of the legs.

2. V-hold after achieving the L position,shift the hips forward and the shouldersback to counterbalance and attempt tohold.

Leg Lifts1, Start in a straight body hang with the

hands on a sturdy bar raised highenough so that the feet cannot touch thefloor.

2. Pike at the hips and liffthe legs with theknees perfectly straight to touch the barbetween your hands.

3. Slowly lower the legs back to a hangingposition.

4. Attempt to use the abdominal musclesrather than to swing in this exerciset

TUMBLING 175

Figure 8. The push-out hold.

/ I ,

Figure 9. The body lever.

Lead-upPerform the eAercise as above but raise

and lower the legs only to a horizontal posi-tion. Perform the leg lift with the spotterg.asping under one thigh and helping to liftthe legs and then, if possible, lower the legsalone.

VariationPerform a leg lift in a straddle position so

that when you lift the legs, your feet touchthe bar on the outside of the hands.

GENERAL OVF.RALL BODYCONDITIONING

Ptish-our Holds (See Figure 8)1. Assume a push-up position.2. Gradually extend the shoulder angle

backward, so that the shoulders are

moving farther and farther beyond thehands (the feet will slide slightly back-ward).

3. Continue to push back until the shGul-der angle is as straight as possible andyour whole body as one straight tightunit is as close to the ground as possiblewithout touching (see Figure 8).

Chin-up Pullovers1. Start by hanging by the hands 'n an

overgrip on a sturdy bar raised highenough so that the feet cannot touch thefloor.

2. Bend the arms and pull the chin over thebar.

3. Immediately lift the legs straight up andover the bar you are holding onto, andend in a front support.


4. Bend the arms and slide down the barwith the chest toward the bar to return tothe long hang position.

Body L (See Figure 9)1. From a upine position on the floor and

with the legs straight, the arms straightoverhead, the hands grasping the stablefloor bar or a partner's ankle.,, lift tuckedlegs toward the ceiling so that a partnercan grasp the ankles.

2. Attempt to slowly lower the body as aunit back to a starting position so thatthe feet, legs, and back touch the floor atthe same time. (The only break in thebody line should be at the shoulders.The arms should remain straight.)

LEG STRENGTH AND POWER

Straddle/Pike Jumps1. Alternate jumping into the air with the

legs straddled on the first jump and thearms stretched sideward to touch thetoes.

2. On the second jump, lift the leg straightforward to a 900 angle pike position withthe arms forward.

Running1. Running is still one of the best leg

strength- and power-developing exer-cises. To increLse leg strength and powerit is best to do quick, short sprints, oralternate jogging with quick burstsprints.

SAFETY

Tumbling is an activity which permits aperson to experiment and discover theouter limits of hislher movementcapabilities. As such, those who participatein the sport often find themselves movingthrough space or performing in a way thatis unfamiliar to them. While experiencingsomething for the first tinle can be exciting,it can also be risky unless we take theproper precautions to protect ourselves.

Being cautious in tumbling means threethings. First of all, it means being aware ofthe possible outcomes of an ackpity. Sec-ond it means being awam of the Proceduresthat can be used to eliminate any negativeoutcomes associated with that activity and

third it means being alert and practicingsafety.

For your safety and for the safety of thosearound you, become familiar with thesafety checklist that follows and resolve topractice it regularly.

BFFORE PERFORMANCE

Clothing CheckRemove all jewelry, including rings andearrings when you perform.Be sure your hair is worn so that it doesnot block your vision or hamper yourspotter's performance.Be sure to wear appropriate footwear.Heavy sneakers or shoes can be ex-tremely dangerous to you and your spot-ter.Never have anything, i.e., gum, candy, inyour mouth.Wear clothing that will allow you to per-form freely.Wear clothing that is comfortable but notbaggy. Baggy clothing makes it difficultto. spot.Be'sure your clothing is free of belts, but-tons, rivets, or zippers.Eyeglasses should be secure.

Performance Area CheckBe sure the area is sufficiently matted forthe skill you are going to perform. As ageneral rule, the less familiar you arewith the skill andJor the more difficult itis, the more matting you should have.Check the matting to be sure that it is notslippery and that it is free of faults such asrips or gashes.If using more than one mat be sure theyare securely fastened together.Check the landing surface to ensure thatit can absorb the weight of a landing orfall. After years of use, mats lose theirresiliency and landing on them is likelanding on the floor.Be sure tumbling strips or individualmats are placed in such a way as to per-mit ample space between each area fortraffic or spotter movement.Be sure that mats are located a sufficientdistance from walls or other pieces ofapparatus.Check the area to be sure it is free ofequipment that is notin use or is inap-

propnate, i.e., scooters, balls, equipmentcarriers.

g- :Be sure the pathway you jriave chosen foryour tumbling run doe0ot cross anyoneelse's pathway.When yuu are not performing be sure tofirst yield the right-of-way to performersusing vaulting runways, tumbling areas,and landing mats.

Performer and Spotter CheckDo not attempt a skill with a studentspotter unless your instructor has &ivenyou permission to do so.Twcrspotters-should be used at all timesunless the use of two people interfereswith the safe flow of movement.Be sure you have a thorough understand-ing of how to execute the skill.Determine whether you have the neces-sary prerequisites to safely perform theskill.Determine whether you are in the properphysical condition to safely execute theskill. Be sure your body is well-conditioned with regard to strength, flex-ibility, and muscular and cardiovascularendurance. Do not attempt a skill beyondyoui present physical ability.Be sure you understand the proper prog-ression.Be sure your spotter knows what exer-cises You, would like to try and thathe/she knows how to spot the skill.Be sure your spotter is strong enough tospot a person of your size.Be sure you trust your spotter and thatyour spotter is confident in assisting you.

AT PERFORMANCE

Area CheckBe sure the insttuctor is present in thegymnastics area.Be sure the instructor is aware of and hasgiven you permission to attempt the skillyou are about to perform.

Performer CheckWarm up sufficiently.Stop and rest when you or your spotterbecome fatigued.Follow the progression step by step justas the instructor has outlined.Only attempt skills in which instructionhas been given.

TUMBLING 177

Perform at your own level and not above,just because someone else is performinga skill.Always use a spotter.Follow a skill through to its completion;never change your mind in the middle ofa movement, because you could seri-ously hurt yourself as well as your spot-ter.Be sure your spotter knows exactly whenyou are ready to begin.Use gymnastics chalk to keep your handsdry so that you won't slip.

SCORING

The scoring system for gymnastics andtumbling has become quite elaborate, withcompetitors not only receiving credit forexcellence of performance but also for orig-inality and virtuosity. The highest possiblescore on each event is a 10.0. A woman canreceive a maximum of 3.0 points for thedifficulty of her routine, 0.5 for bonuspoints for original and risky moves, 2.50 forhow well her routine is composed, and 4.0for execution and virtuosity. A man re-ceives 3.4 for difficulty, 1.6 for the value ofhis combinations, 4.4 for his mannet ofexecution, and 0.6 bonus pcints for rare,original, or virtuous moves.

In a national level competition there arefour judges who make deductions as thegymnast performs such errors as formbreaks tindg falls, lack of amplitude (whichincludes stretch of the body and height ofeach move), insufficient difficulty, and lackof originality. The score of the high and lowjudge are dropped and the middle twoscoresgre averaged o derive the gymnast'sfinal score.

At the conclusion of the meet all thegymnasts individual scores (4 for womenand 6 for men) are added to determine whatis called the gymnasts' all-around score.Next time you see a high level meet see ifyou can come up with a score by deducting.1 fo: every small error observed such as afie*.ed foot or a slightly bent knee, .2-.3 for amedium error such as a large arm bend or avery low leap and .5 for a major error suchas a fall from the apparatus, then compareyour score to the flashed score.

Ats

cardiorespiratory fitness (p. 180)duration of training (p. 181)flexibility (p. 184)frequency of training (p. 180)frostbite (p. 10)heat exhaustion (p. 187).heat stroke (p. 187)individualization (p. 181)intensity of training (p. 181)muscular strength (p. 184)progression (p. 184)

INTRODUCTION

The jogger, once a rarity, has become acommon, sight on American streets. Thedecade of the 1970s witnessed a pheno-menal growth in jogging participation,which has continued at a rapid pace. Ap-proximately 30 million Americans jog regu-larly. Girls, boys, men, and women in allparts of the country have been attracted bythe benefits of jogging, and can be seenloping on city streets, through suburbanneighborhoods, and down country roads.indeed, a visitor from a foreign countrymight well conclude that America has be-come a nation of joggers!

Jogging has become such a widespreadfitness and recreational activity because ofits great benefits for those who properly useit. However, like any activity, jolt: ing canbe misused or used without positive ef-fects. The purpose of this chapter is to pro-mote jogging and to provide the readerwith the basic information necessary to de-sign an effective jogging program. Follow-ing the guidelines outlined in this chapterwill ensure the reader of jogging safely andin an enjoyable and beneficial manner.


FUNDAMENTALS OF JOGGING

Jogging is a familiar activity, and fortu-nately one which requires minimal skill.Jogging is slow running. It is similar to run-ning in that, during each stride, both feetleave the ground for a brief period. In walk-ing, one foot is always in contact with theground (see Figure 1). Thus, unlike walk-ing, both running and jogging have a"flight phase" (see Figure 2).

There are many different, individual,.styles of jogging. While there is no single

-

,

CHAPTER 12

jogging

RUSSELL R..PATE,University of South Carolina,

Columbia, SC

correct way -to jog, there are certain basicprinciples which proper jogging styles havein common:1. In jogging, as the foot comes forward to

strike the ground, the heel should makecontact first. Often this is difficult to seewith the naked eye and it may appearthat the foot is flat at contact. Oneshould avoid "running on the toes"which involves contacting the groundwith the ball of the foot. Such an ap-proach can cause soreness and lower leginjury.

2. The jogger should maintain an erectOeure, neither leaning backward norekessively forward. The muscles of the

Figure 1. In walking one foot is always incontact with the ground.

1s6


Figure 2. In jogging and running, both feetleave the ground during a "flight phase."

trunk and neck should be as relaxed aspossible.

3. The arms should be kept at a low car-riage and should be permitted to movefreely and to travel slightly across thefront of the body. The arms, hands, andfingers should remain as relaxed as pos-sible.

4. With jogging, only a moderate knee liftis required. The high knee lift used bysprint runners is too vigorous for longduration activities.

5. The jogger should breathe in a relaxed,natural manner. It is not necessary toconsciously regulate breathing. Oneshould breathe through both the noseand the mouth.

a BENEFITS OF JOGGING

There are many reasons why jogging hasbecome one of the most popular fitness ac-tivities in America. One of the most impor-tant reasons is the increased recognition bythe American public of the health benefitsof regular aerobic exercise. Millions ofpeople have initiated jogging programs be-cause they feel that it can help redUce therisk of developing chronic diseases such ascoronary heart disease, make them feelmore ely and energetic, burn extracalories during a weight control program,

t

and improve their body composition andappearance.

The health benefits of aerobic exercisesuch as jogging are quite significant (seeChapter 1 for a more detailed discussion).Nonetheless, one might wonder why jog-ging, in particular, has become so popular?The answer may lie in the practicality ofjogging: -

I.. Jogging is an,easy skill. Nearly everyonecan jog because running is one of thefundamental movement patterns thatcan be learned as a child.

2. Jogging is inexpensive. The only signifi-cant expense associated with jogging isthe cost of proper running shoes. Noexpensive equipment or club member-ships are needed:

3. Jogging is an individual activity. While itmay be fun to jog with a partner orgroup, no partners are really needed.This means that one can jog whenever itis personally convenient without worry-ing about coordinating the activity Witha friend. This is the major advantagejogging has over many other sport ac-tivities.

4. Jogging requires no special facilities. Onecan jog virtually anywhere: home;school; work. The only facilities neededare a place to change clothes and a facil-ity in &Mich to wastrafter jogging. Withproper dress, jogging can be done out-side ear-round in most parts of theUnited States. Thus, no special tracks,gymnasia, machines, or courts areneeded.

DESIGNING A SUCCESSFUL JOGGINGPROGRAM -

A basic goal of any jogging program is toimprove or maintain cardiorespiratory fit-ness. To achieve this goal a jogging pro-gram must be organized in accordance withcertain basic principles of twining. Impor-tant considerations are the frequency, du-ration, and intensity of exercise.

FrequencyResearch evidence indicates that one

Must jog on an average of three or moretimes per week to be sure o: developingandlor maintaining a good level of car-diorespiratory fitness. Two sesSions per

187

week Lan help mamtam a given fitness levelfor several weeks but w ill only improve fit-ness in persons who are originally verysedentary. A training frequency of less thanhip(' sessions per week is unlikely to causemuch improvement or to maintain a goodlevel of cardiorespiratory fitness.

Frequencies of training higher than threesessions per week are recommended forpersons who are already accustomed tojogging. Many people enjoy a daily joggingsession and find that such regular exercisehelps them to feel more energetic and re-laxed. Certainly, for most persons, partici-pation in daily exercise such as jogging is areasonable and worthy goal. Persons whoattain this goal arc almost certain to main-tam an exLellent level of carchorespiratoryfitness and a fine body composition (%body fat).

DurationTo optimally benefit from jogging, the

duration of each jogging session should beat least 20-30 minutes. Ideally, the exerciseshould be continuous, i.e., without re-covery breaks. However, studies show thatlittle is lost by taking periodic rest breaks aslong as the total jogging time is at least 20minutes. Jogging longer than 30.minutes isfine for persons who already have goodcardiorespiratory fitness and who enjoylonger.runs. Many persons, however, findthat a jogging session of approximately30 minutes is ideal since it involves a rela-tively small time commitment and is suffi-cient to maintain a good level of fitness.

IntensityTo derive the health benefits of a jogging

program, only a moderate intensity of exer-cise is required. The appropriate level ofexertion will cause the heart rate, i.e., pulserate, and breathing to increase somewhatand may cause sweating. It is important tonote that exhaustive exeroge is not required toimprove carthorespiratory fitness. With jog-ging the intensity of exercise is directly re-lated to the speed of movement: the fasterthe jog, the higher the level of exertion.There are several ways to determine howfast pne needs to jog to improve his/herfitness. All the methods involve individ-ualization, that is, selection of a jogging

JOGGING 181

pace w hich is right for the individual.. Thekey is to find one's own best pace, whichmay or may not be the same as someoneelse's. Successful jogging requires that par-ticipants do their own thing!

One of the most widely accepted tech-niques for selecting a proper jogging pace isto use heart rate as a guide. As was dis-cussed in Chapter 1, a proper training heartrate can be computed, if the individual'sresting and maximum heart r?te are knownor estimated. After determining Oap targetheart rate fOr training, it is necessary toexperiment to determine the pace of jog-gingyv hich w ill bring one's heart rate to thisdesired level. This can be accomplished bychecking the heart rate after 3-4-minutes ofwalking or jogging at various paces. It isbest to begin with a slow pace and to in-crease the pace every three or four minutesuntil the proper heart rate is obtained. Notethat, after the first 2-3 minutes of jogging ata particular pace, heart rate remains rela-tively constant for many minutes. Thus,once a proper pace has been identified,there is no need to check the heart rate morethan once or twice per training session.

Another simpler method by which tomonitor intensity of exercise is to use the"talk test." A proper jogging pace willcause the rate and depth of breathing toincrease but should not cause such breath-lessness as to prevent easy speech. Thosejogging faster than necessary ,will fail thetalk test, and should slow to a more corn-

. fortable pace.

Putting It All TogetherSuccessful jogging programs involve

proper combinations of training frequency,intensity, and duration. As summarized inTable 1, 'joggers should exercise at leastthree times per week, for at least 30 minutesper session, and at an appropriately indi-vidualized pace. Many combinations of

Table 1. Guidelines for designing a joggingprogram.

Frequency of Training3 or more sessions per week

Duration of Training20 or more minutes of sustained activity

Intensity of Trainingjogging pace which elevates heart rate to 70-85%of maximum

1 8 8

182 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR ME SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

frequency, intensity, and duration of jog-ging will successfully maintain a good levelof cardiorespiratory fitness. The key is tofind a jogging, routine which generallyadheres 'to the recommended guidelinesand which is practical and enjoyable.

As the fiinesJ level improves, it may benecessary to adjust the jogging program Inparticular, the pace of jogging must be in-creased to achieve the selected trainingheart rate. This is expected because one ofthe effects of aerobic exercise training is areduction df the heart rate at any particularlevel of exertion, ie., jogging pace. Also,joggers may find they can comfortably in-crease the duration of the jogging session,and may wish to increase training fre-quency. Such adjustments are fine if theyoccur gradually and contribute to the en-joyment of the activity.

BEGINNING JOGGING

The critical phase of any physical fitnessprogram is the first few weeks, because thebody must adjust to a significant new stres-.sor. If that stressor, the exercise, is properlyapplied, most persons can rapidly adapt toit. If it is incorrectly used, negative effectssuctt as, injury, illress, lack of improve-ment, 6.1 failure to adhere lo the programcan result. Thus, in starting a jogging pro-gram it is crucial that certain basicguidelines be followed.

First, it is very important to begin a jog-ging program with appropriate and rea-sonable expectations in tr.ind. Jogging cancause important health benefits such asweight loss and improved cardiorespira-tory fitness. However, jogging is not a"miracle cure" that will produce overnightresults. As with any proper form of exercisetraining, the beneficial effects of joggingoccur gradcally and require several weeksor months to mature. It must also be recognized that a proper jogging program in-Volves work. The work should not beexhaustive, but, for the beginner, joggingdoes require discipline and perseverance.For the experiented exertiser, jogging maybe "effortless:. and "exhilarating." Suchfeelings, however, should not be expeLtedin the early stages of a jogging program.

There is no effortless way to build fit-nessso it is best to begin a jogging pro-gram knowing,that the major benefits are afew weeks and miles "down the road."

Golden RulesFor the beginning jogger there are two

"golden rules": the program should start ata level which is approfniate for current fit-ness status; the training dose should prog-ress very gradually during the first fewweeks of the program. The guidelinesprovided earlier in this chapter should aidin designing a program which Starts at anappropriate level. Maig persons shouldbegin a jogging program by not jogging atall, but, ratherrby walking. Walking is lessIntense than jogging and is less stressful forthe bones, joints, and muscles. Thus, par-ticularly for older adults, it is often best tostart with a few weeks of walking or alter-nate walk-jog exercise. A gradual build-upto continuous jogging is a good way tomaximize enjoyment and to minimize thechances of injuries. Tables 2 and 3 presenttwo suggested beginning jogging pro-grams: The program outlined in Table 2 is

Table 2. Suggested jogging program for oldera nd,or previously sedentary beginners.

Week Activity Duration Intensity

(min.), (% Max HR)#

1 Walk 15 60-702 Walk 20 60-703 Walk 20 70-754 Walk/Jog 20 70-805 Walk/Jog 25 70-806 Walk/Jog 30 70-807 Walk/Jog 30 70808 jog 20-30 70-809 Jog 25-30 70-80

10 Jog 30 70-8011 Jog 30 70-8012 jog 30 70-80

Three sessions per week on non-consecutive days.# See Chapter 1 for estimation of maximum heart

rate .

ret.ommLndLd for older, previously seden-tary persons, begins at a lower level, andprogresses more gradually than the pro-gram prescribed in Table 3, which is appro-priate for younger and.'or already moder-ately active persons.

1 Q9k

Table 3. Suggested jogging program foryounger andior previously moderately active

beginners.

Week* Activity Duration Intensity

(min.) (% Max HR) #1 Walkgog 20 70-752 - Wa1k/Jog 25 70-75

_ 3 Walkgog 30 70-754 Walkgog 30 70-805 Jog 20 70-806 Jog 1,5 70-807 Jog 30 70-808 Jog 30 70-809 Jog 30 70-80

..10 Jog 30+ 70-8011 Jog 30+ 75-8512 Jog 30+ 75-85

Three or more sessions per week.# See Chapter 1 for estimation of maximum heart

rate.

In beginning a jogging program it may behelpful to exercise with a partner or group.This helps the beginner to adhere to theprogram and can make &initial stages of atraining regimen more enjoyable. Despitethq partnership, howq. ver, it is crucial thateaeh jogger run ara pace and for a durationappropriate for him/her as an individual;helshe should nbt itrive to compete or keepup with a more highly trained person.

Shoes for JoggersAnother important tip for the beginning

jogger is to obtain appropriate footgear.Good running shoes involve a significantexpense; however, experience indicatesthat the investment is worthwhile. The keyis to obtain a pair of shoes which properlyfit and which have been designed specific-ally for running. Good running shoes (seeDiagram 1) have several basic characteris-tics. Among these are:

Heel Collar

Heel Counter

JOGGING 183

1. A moderately elevated heel'consisting ofmaterial with good shock-absorbingqualities (the jogger should be able tocompress, with the fingers, the sole por-tion of the heel).

2. The heel should be well-padded andshould fit so that little or no slippage ofthe foot occurs during running.

3. The toe portion of the shoe should bedeep enough to avoid rubbing thetoenails and shouid fit so that the toes donot contact the front,of the shoe duringrunning.

4. An arch support should be included andshould be aligned comfortably with thearch of the foot.

5. The outer sole of the shoe should bemade of a very sturdy rubber materialwhich will withstand many miles of jog-ging. Most joggers find that the heel por-tion of the outer sole wears first and thisarea should be reinforced to give longerwear.

6. The front part of the shoe should besnug enough so that very little lateralfoot movement occurs.

Medical Clearance for BeginnersMost persons can safely begin a jogging

program without formal medical clearance.For persons in certain age and health statuscategories, however, a physician's exami-nation is a wise way to begin a fitness pro-gram. In general, a doctor's clearance isrecommended for previously sedentarypersons over age thirty-five and for any-one, regardless of age, who has a personalhistory of coronary heart disease or otherdiseases of the cardiovascular system, e.g.,

Aich Support

Padded Tongue

Upper

Heel Wedge

Toe &ix

Padded Lining

Diagram 1. Characteristics of a good running shoe., 1

, 1 9 0


high blood pressure, rheumatic fever, heart 1.

murmur. Table 4 presents guidelines fordetermining whether a person needs to seehisher doctor before beginning a jogging.program.

Table 4. Recommendations regarding theneed for a medical clearance before beginning

jogging.Category Under Age 35

Normal individual, Unnecessaryphysically activeat least threedays per week

Normal individual, Unnecessaryphysically activeonce per week

Normal individual, 'Suggestedsedentary

Individual with Highlyrisk factors for recommendedcoronary heartdisease*

Individual with Mandatoryknown heartcondition orsymptoms ofcoronary heartdisease

Over Age 35

Optional

Suggested

Highlyrecommended

Mandatory

Gradual progression in training. A primarycause of many jogging injuries is toorapid a progression of the training dose.Jogging is a weight-bearing activity plac-ingconsiderable stress on the bones,joints, and muscles of the leg. Givenadequate time, these tissuds can adapt tothe stresses of jogging. But it is crucialthat beginners progress very graduallyand that experienced joggers avoidrapidrincreases in training intensity ordigation.

2. Proper footgear. During jogging the footis required to withstand the forces gen-

, erated during.each stride. In a sense, the/foot is the boIly's "shock absorber." Be-

', cause of this, many running/jogging in-juries occur in or around the foot, Otherinjuries to the leg or back are caused by

1 anatomical and mechanical problems in

Mandatory

'Major CHD risk factors are cigarette smoking, highblood pressure, and high levels of blood cholesterol

PREVENTING AND TREATINGRUNNING INJURIES

As mentioned previously, jogging cancontribute significantly to health enhance-ment. However, it also must be recognizedthat jogging, if improperly employed, cancause or aggravate certain health problems.Of particular concern to joggers are injuriesto the bones, joints, and soft tissues of thefeet and legs. 'This section presents ihfor-mation which should help the jogger pre-vent such injuries, or to treat them properlyif they do occur.

PREVENTION OF RUNNING INJURIES

Certainly it is preferable to prevent in-juries rather than to attempt to treat themafter thè.,y have occurred. Experience indi-catds thht adherence to the followingguidelines will minimize the risks of de.-veloping orthopedic, i.e., bone and joint,injuries while jogging.

the foot. Proper running shoes, as de-scribed earlier in this chapter, pryvidethe foot with the support needed tofunction properly during jogging. It ishighly recommended that the jogger ob-tain running shoes. In certain instances,special shoe inserts Or arch supportsmay be needed, however, these shouldbe prescribed by a physician.

3. Maintenance of muscular strength and flexi-bility. Jogging develops cardiorespiia-tory fitness and maintains good bodycomposition. It will not, however, de-velop muscular strength or flexibility.This is unfortunate, since cerSain in-juries to joggers are associated with poor:,strength ànd/or flexibility in the musclegroups of the legs. Specifically, the jog-ger should be concerned with maintain-ing adequate strength in the muscla onthe front of the abdomen.and leg, andshould:work to maintain good flexiBilityin the muscles of the lower back and the -rear portion of the legs. The principles ofdeveloping strength and flexibility havebeen discussed in Chapter 1. Figures 3and 4 present sorn2 exeitises which,arehighly recommended for joggers. °Ideally, these exercises should be per-foxmed before and/or after each joggingsession.

4. Know your limits. Perhaps the best ad-vice for preventing injuries is to use

191

. "

JOGGING 185

a. Low back stretc,

, b. .14amstring stretcher.

c. Calf and Achilles tendon stretcher.

Figure 3. Static stretching exercises for joggers.

9


Figure 4. The sit-up (strengthening exercise for joggers)..

common sense and "listen to yourbody." Each individual has a certain tol-erance for exercise stress. If that limit isexceeded, fatigue, muscle soreness,minor aches, and/or injuries will occur.The jogger should be sensitive to thesesignals and should respond to them byreducing-the training load and, possibly,seeking proper treatment.

TREATING RUNNING INJURIES

Injuries can occur in some joggers evenwhen all the proper precautions have beentaken. When injuries occur, it is importantthat they be promptly and appropriatelytreated. With proper treatment most in-juries will heal quickly, allowing the joggerto return to normal activity within a fewdays.

Most injuries to joggers involve pain inthe foot or leg region. A complete descrip-tion and discussion of the various injuriesoccurring to joggers is beyond the scope ofthis chapter, these general procedures arepresented as appropriate responses to mostjogging injuries:1. Recognize the injury. If injuries are recog-

nized and treated promptly, their nega-tive effects can be minimized. The joggershould respond to any severe pain or to

*

a moderate pain which persists for morethan a day.

2. Rest. Most injuries respond to reducedactivity or complete rest. f the injurycauses only moderate dislomfort, thejogger can often continue ith a reducedtraining .program, e.g., horter dis-tances, fewer sessions per eek, slowerpace. If the pain is severe o if a moder-ate pain persists for more han.a fewdays, complete rest is recommended.

3. Program modification. Jogging injuriesare likely to recur unless the cause of theinjury is addressed. Thus the injuredjogger -should be prepared to modifyhislher training procedures to eliminatethe cause of the injury. Often, recur-rence of an injury can be prevented byreducing the training program, increas-ing strength or flexibility, or obtainingdifferent footgear.

4. Physician's care. When injuries persistfor more than a few days, the treatmentof a physican should be sought. Usuallythe jogger is well-advised to seek out theservices of an orthopedist or podiatristspecializing in sports medicine.

5. Return to action. Following recoveryfrom an injury, joggers should returnvery gradually to a normal level of activ-

A rapid return to normal activity canaggravate an injury.

193

SAFETY

Proper jogging is, a very safe activity.However, there are two major hazards thejogger should recognize and endeavor toavoid: automobile traffic; stressful en-vironmental conditions, e.g., heat andcold.

AUTOMOBILE TRAFFIC

Automobile traffic is potentially the mostlethal hazard confronting the jogger. Thesafest recommendation is to simply avoidjogging in heavy traffic areas. if this is notpossible, the jogger should take the follow-ing precautions to ensure personal safety.1. Jog in traffic areas only when a sidewalk

or wide shoulder is available.2. Always jog facing ttaffic.3. Always be prepared to give the right-

of-way to the motorist.4. Recognize that the motorist may have

difficulty seeing the jogger and may beunable to quickly react to an unexpectedjogger in the roadway.

5. When jogging at dusk or after dark, thejogger should wear light-colored cloth-ing and reflective materials. Such mate-,rials are invaluable in. alerting themotorist to the presence of a jogger.

6. Obey all traffic laws which apply topedestrians.

7. Be particularly careful when crossing astreet at an intersection since turning au-tomobiles may approach rapidly fromthe "blind side."

JOGGING IN HOT CONDITIONS

Hot aad humid environmental condi-tions can represent a significant healthhazard for the jogger. This is particularlytrue for persons who run at high intensitiesandior for long periods of time. The majorrisks are heat exhaustion and heat stroke.In extreme cases, the latter can result indeath.

During heavy exercise the body gener-ates considerable heat. This heat must betransferred to the environment so that anormal body temperature can be main-tained. In hot conditions heat transfer to

JOGGING 187

the environment is impaired. Heat transferis further limited by high humidity, whichrestricts a necessary factor in the hody:sprimary cooling process, the evaporation ofsweat.

Heat illnesses in joggers can be pre-vented if attention is paid to the followingrecommendations:1. In hot and/dr humid conditions the jog-

ger should reduce the intensity and,perhaps, the duration of the trainingsession.

2. Jogging should be done at the coolesttimes of the day.

3. Minimal clothing should be worn (nosweatsuits or rubber suits).

4. Care should be taken to adequately re-place the fluid lost through sweating bydrinking liberal amounts of water afterexercise. These recommendationsshould be particularly followed by be-ginning joggers and obese persons sincethey are at greater risk of heat illnessthan are more experienced joggers.

5. Competitive running should be avoidedwhen conditions are particularly hotand/or humid.

JOGGING IN COLD CONDITIONS

Cold conditions are far less stressful anddangerous for the jogger than are hot con-ditions. Nonetheless, extreme cold can be ahazard for the jogger. In particular the jog-ger should be alert to the risks of frostbite.

Frostbite-occurs when body tissues areexposed to subfreezing temperature§ forlong periods of time. Particularly vulnera-ble WI frostbite are the fingers and ears,since blood flow to these tissues is reducedduring cold exposure. Thus the winter jog-ger should wear gloves anl a hat to protectthe ears.

When jogging in the cold the joggershould wear sufficient clothing to maintaincomfort after the warm-up. Normally, two orthree layers of light clothing are adequate.In the coldest conditions more layers and awindbreaker may be needed. Clothingshould be of_a_light_material. which"breathes," so as to avoid an accumulationof sweat on the body surface.

1 94

188 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FO

ROAD RACING

Competitive long-distance running hasbecome one of America's most visible andpopular recreational sports. The develop-ment of competitive road racing has paral-leled the rapid increase in, participation injogging for fitness enhancement. Indeed,many thousands of persons have"graduated': into the ranks of the cornpeti-tive long-distance runners after first l*:;ecom-

ing involved in jogging strictly as a 'itnessactivity. .

Most competitive long-distance runningevents are conducted on roads and thus arereferred to as "road runs" or "road races."The distance of these runs varies from amile or two up to the full marathon distance(26.2 miles). Some road racing events in-clude several races of differing distances.

Road racing has become popular .partlybecause, unlike many athletic activities,long-distance racin provides individuaichallenge. In any g ven road race, only asmall number of c mpetitors entertain arealistic expectation of winning the race.However, every competitor can derivesatisfaction in running his or her personalPest time for the distance, or can be proudof simply completing the race. Also, mostraces are truly many races in one, sinceawards are usually given in many age andsex categories.

Joggers who have not,previously partici-pated in competitive road races are wellactvised to begin with shorter distances,and with a_non-competitive attitude. Oneshould acquire experience in road racingbefore striving for optimal performance.Needless to say, a good level of cardiores-piratory fitness should be developed beforeconsidering entry to any competitive roadrace. In addition, the beginning road run-ner should consider the following tips.1. The runner should enter a road race only

if confident o'f hisiher ability to run theentire distance. Thus, it is preferablethat the competitive distance has beenpreviously covered in practice.

2. The race should be run at an approxi-

;-*mately even pace. Particular care shouldbe taken to avoid starting a race at a pacewhich 'is too fast. 0 rt) "

R THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT _

3. In his/her first few races, the road runnershould disregard the other competitorsand focus on running at a proper pace.Racmg should begin only after the run-ner has acquired a complete understand-ing of hislher own abilities.

4. In racing it is crucial that properly fittedshoes be worn. Runners should notwearnew shoes in a race.

Joggers desiring to learn more about roadracing should contact their local runningclubs or write to:

American Running & Fitness2420 K Street, NW

Washington, DC 20037or

Road Runners' Club of America'do Jeff Darman

2737 Devonshire Place, NWWashington, DC 20008

SUMMARY

This chapter has provided the informa-tion needed to design a safe and successfuljogging program. Jogging is an enjoyable,practical activity used by millions of Ameri-cans to develop good cardiorespiratory fit-ness, to control body weight, and to main-tain a high state of vigor. Successful joggingprograms must begin at an individualizedlevel and progress gradually. An optimaljogging program involves three or morejogging sessions per week, for 30 or moreminutes per session at a moderate exerciseintensity.

Some bone and joint injuries have beenassociated With jogging, however, most in-jtines can be preL,ented by following soundtraining procedures. The jogger's safetyLan be threatened by jogging in heavy au-tomobile traffic or by extreme weather con-ditions. Proper preventive measures, how-ever, can minimize these risks as well.

In summary, jogging can serve as thecornerstone of a successful lifetime physicalfitness program., In addition, for properlytrained persons, competitive jogging/running, e.g., road racing, can be a satisfy-ing and enjoyable recreational sport.

TERMINOLOGY

Cardibrespiratory Fitness. The ability to sustainmoderate intensity, wilole body activity forextended time periods.

Frostbite. Freezin"g or partial freezing of a bodypart.

Heat Exhaustion. Extreme fatigue caused byprolonged exercise in hot weather.

Heat Stroke. A failure of the body's temperatureregulating system, associated with high bodytemperature, hot, dry skin, and disorientationor unconsciousness.

Individualization. Design of an exercise pro-gram in accordance with the characteristics ofthe particular exerciser.

Progression. The rate at which the frequency-,intensity, andlor duration of a training pro-gram is increased.

JOGGING- 189

REFERENCES

,Bowerman, W. J., and Harris, W. E. Jogging.New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1967.

Bridge, R. The Runner's Book. New York: CharlesScribner's Sons, 1978.

Cooper, k. H. The New Aerobics. New:York: Ban-tam Books, 1970.

Fixx, J. F. The Complete Book of Running. NewYork: Xandom House, 1977.

Heindnen, J. Running for Women. New York.J. B. Lippincott Company, 1979.

Sheehan, G. A. Dr. Sheehan on Running. Moun-tain View, CA: World Publications, 1975.

ipc

.1,

,

,

>

aiming off (p. 197)attack point (p. 195)contour interval (p. 193)contour line (p. 193)control card (p. 194)control point (p. 194)grid north (p. 193)magnetic needle (p. 191)magnetic north (p. 193)map symbols (p. 193)orienteering arrow (p. 197)orienteering compass (p. 195)quadrangles (p. 193)topographic nwps (p. 191)

_

INTRODUCTION

Orienteering offers the thrills and ex-citement of a track meet and a treasure huntall rolled into one. Orienteering adds newpurpose and interest to jogging. The joggerwho takes up orienteering will find that heor she has substituted the highway fumesand noises for the forest sounds and smellsand has replaced boredom with mentalstimulation. You must be mentally pre-pared to read a map, use a compass, and bephysically able to run the course.

,Orieilteering is often called the thinkingperson's sport. The fastest runner going inthe wrong direction cannot be a winner.Successful participants must solve a Seriesof problems and make a number of choicesbefore they can decide on the course thatthey will take. Orienteering courses can beset up for novices, intermediate, and ad-vanced competitors.

Orienteering probably began as aSwedish military exercise. A runner wouldbe given a map with several destinationsand a message to be delivered. Orienteer-ing is considered a national sport in mostScandinavian countries and iS a requiredsport for students. With the Scandinavianlov e of skiing, it is not surprising thatorienteering began on skis almost as,§oonas it began on foot. Orienteering has in-creased in popularity and spread aroundthe globe. Meets are now conducted onbicycles, in canoes, at night, on cross-country skis, and even underground.Orienteering may be a formal, sanctionedevent, orit may be as informal as a familyouting for the day with a map, compass,and picnic basket.

a

CHAPTER 13

Orienteering

ARTHUR HUGGLESTONEand

JOE HOWARD,Smith EnvironMental Education Center,

Rockville, MD

The first time'that orieWeering is experi-enced yati wain content to completethe course with little regard fdr the tiine ittakes. As you become more skilled inusing the compass, interpreting the map,and observing the geological features,you will be more sure of the best routechoice. With experience, speed and endur-ance will increase, and confidence will behad to tackle strange territory. The pleasureof going around a bend on an unfamiliartrail.and discovering a landmark only seenon a map, or taking a cross-countryshortcut and finding the trail just whereexpected is most satisfying and is all themore exhilarating when the expectedlandmark does not appear. Initially, an un-comfortable feeling may be experienced.There are no road signs, no buildings, nobusses, none of the aids unconsciously de-pended upon to aid you around more famil-iar haunts. However, a quick check of themap and compassrcan get you anywhereyou want to go.

EQUIPMENT

The best way to learn is by doing, biltbefore venturing afield, it would be wise toknow how to use the equipment of orien-teering. The best maps available are thosespecifically designed for orienteering.These maps cover a small area and are verydetailed. Generally, they are topographicmaps that have been enlarged and re-worked by orienteering 9.1bs. There arefew of these maps at the pr9sent time, andmost of them cover parklands that havespecial features of particular interest to theorienteerer. Maps like these are only avail-able yhere orienteering is a very active

193

Maich Column B With A.A

4 _

5 _

a.

b.

C.

d.

e.

Diagram 1. Contour line exercise.

1 9

I.

Solutions:. 1 b.2 e.3 d.4 C.5 f.6 a.

sport. To contact local individuals who areactive in the sport, write to: OrienteeringServices USA, Box 1604, Binghamton, NY13904. They'll forward free information andput you in contact with an orienteer-ing group in your local area. The 6U.S.Orienteering Federation, P.O. Box 1039,Ballwin, MO 63011, can send informationabout membership and local affiliations.Most students, however, will have tb becontent with less detailed but otherwise ex-cellent topographical maps produced bythe U.S. Geological Survey These maps,called quadrangles or "quads," come intwo sizes, 15-minute maps and die moredetailed 71/z-minute maps. The 71/2-minutequadrangle map covers an area bounded by71/2 minutes of longitude and 71/2 mintitsof la itude. Ile scale on this map is1:24,000. This means that one inch on themap represents 24,000 inches or 2,000 feeton the ground. The 15-minute map has ascale of 1:62,500, which means that oneinch on the map represents approximatelyone mile. Wilderness outfitters, sportinggoods stores, or camping stores often sellthese maps for local hiking areas. If a quadcannot be located for a specific area, requesta free topographical map index circular forthat area's state, a free folder describingtopographical maps, and a free topographi-cal map symbol sheet from,: National Car-tographic Information Center, 507 NationalCenter, Reston, VA 22092. When orderingthe particular quadrangles, request a wood-land copy. Mature forests are shown ingreen on these maps.

SYMBOLS

Once the quadrangle is received, study itand become familiar with the symbols.Buildings are shown in black, water is blue.If the map has been updated by aerial pho-tography, all the reLent changes are in a1-lum color. Centours of mountains and val-leys are representRI by brown lines. Theselines indicate equal elevation which meansthat everything on that line is the' samenumber of feet above sea level. The heavybrown lines have numbers written on themwhich makes it easier to determine the ele-vation for the,other contour lines. The con-tour interval is the vertical distance be-

-

ORIENTEERING 193

tween lines and may be.anywhere from 10to 80 feet depending upon the Map beingused. The closer the lines, the steeper theslopes.the farther apart, the flatter the land.If these swirling brown lines are closely ex-amined, a pattern can be seen. The linesconnect to form an irregular shape with oneinside of another and another until thesmallest shape is reached, representing thetop of a mountain or hill. The followingexercise should help test ability to read con-tour symbols (see Diagram 1).

Study the map..Learn as much as pOssi-ble about the area which is going to betraveled through. -Have fun planning dif-ferent routes over the varied terrain. Evenin a very familiar area, things can be discov-ered which you didn't know existed.

SKILLS AND TECHNIQUESIn orienteering, use only' the magnetic

North as 'indicated on the lower margin ofthe map. If it differs from true or gridNorth, it will be seen as an arrow identifiedas "MN" off to either side of the true or gridNorth line which is identified by a star.

MNGN

Diagram 2.

Find the magnetic arrow in the lower mar-gin of the map and draw arrows that areparallel to the magnetic North arrow, ap-proximately one inch apart and extendingthrough the area of travel. If the school orlocal club furnishes a xeroxed section of aquadrangle, the parallel magnetic North ar-rows will probably extend the length of themap. If not, it is easy to put them there.

If a quadrangle is acquired that covers anearby area, some informal orienteeringmay be attempted. Have a friend comealong, tell a third person the starting point,destination, and the latest time expected toreturn. Be surelo check back with that per-son upon return.

20 I

<,

194 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THESECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

Listed below is a list of equipment thatyou should have:1. Mapmost recent edition possible.,

There might be new buildings and roadsand.evgn ponds, but the inountains andvalleys won't change.

2. Compassuse a cord to tie it around thewrist or neck. Don't lose it or use it neariron or steel objects.

3. Wristwatchmake sure this is on theopposite hanct from the one that willhold the compass.

4. Plastic Whistleuse the whistle to sig-nal for help in case there isAri_irijury..Plastic is non-magnetic and will mit af-.fect a compass.

5. Appropriate,. Clothingwear oldclothes that will protect the orienteererfrom thoms, poison ivy, or whatever theterrain .and time of year have to offer.Shoes should be comfortable, supportthe feet,. and give adequate tractionwhen needea.

yhen at the starting point, mark it on themap as the center of a six mm triangle orwith the letter "S." The first leg of the routeshould lead to an easily identified physicalfeature. The end of each leg should be iden-tified on the map by a six mm circle. Use ared pen to mark the circles and to draw asingle line connecting them. Fold the mapscf that it is just large enough for the land-scape to be seen surrounding the directionof travel.

The next step, orienting the map, is animportant one and will have to be repeateddften. Turn the map around until the fea-tures on the map ate in the same relativeposition as those o the land. if there is ahill to the left, then the hill should be to theleft of the position on the map. If there areseveral recognizable features in sight, thiscan be easily done, otherwise use.the com-pass. ;To orient the map using a compass,simply turn the map around until the mag-netic North arrows on the map are pointingin the same direction as the magnetic nee-dle on the compass. Directions on the mapand on the ground will now match.

If heading northward, read the printingon the map. However, if the direction oftravel is southward, the prinfaig will beupside down. This will not affect ability to

read the map, reading the map means in-terpreting the contour lines and symbolsthat repreLsent natural anti human-madestructureg7such as hills and valleys,churches and schools, and streams andlakes. Hold the ;nap in front of you.Turn the map around so that the start-ing point is closest to you and thefirst destination is farthest away. Turnaround until theinap is oriented. The direc:tion of travel is now being faced. Pick outfeatures along the red line that mark theroute from the starting positiQn to the firstdestination. Look up and pick out a distant .landmark that was seen on the map. As thalready identified features are passed, putthe 4humb on the spot where standing,with the nail pointing toward the destina-tion. Track of progress can always be kept ,with this procedure and exact location willbe known. This technique works well aslong as the orienteerer is careful with thethumb and orientation of the map. Whenthe thumb marks'the point where the firstcircle was drawn, the first destinationshould have been attained.

COMPETITION

If participating in an orienteering meet, acontrol point would be at the center of thecircle. The control point refers to a specificplace and is not indicated by a dot. On land,the control is indicatgd- by a flag, a

3-dimensional triangle, or a plastic gallonmilk jug and is almost always red andwhite. The control is eagily visible and ismarked with a number or letter that corresponds to the one on the map for thatspecific location. In an orienteering meet.you have to prove that you hayefound each contiol point. Each competitorhas a control card (see Diagram 3) oftencarried in a plastic envelope or bag alongwith the map. The card will be the docu-ment that proves how long it took to run thecourse and that each of the control pointswere located. The proof may be that eachblock oti the card is marked with a differentcolored pen or special stamp that was tiedto the control, or different code wora thatwere on the control may be written in theblocks.

2 01

.70

.

ORIENTEERING 195

Name Course No.

School orClub

-Name

(Fold and tear along line)Course Tio.

School orClub.

Date . Compass -

Finish

Hours.

MM. Sec.

Start

Time

Penalty

Place

1 A 2

-

B 3 C, 4 D 5 E

6 F 7

.G 8 H 9 I 10 J

11 . K 12 L 13 , M 14 N 15 0

Diagram 3. ContrOl card:

You may also be furnished with a controldescriptiortsheet. This is it list of clues orshorLdescriptions tharwill help to recog-nize tbe control ,point. If the map that isused is _xeroxed, the control descriptionsheet is often put ofi the back. Tablel is anexample of a control description sheet (alsosee Diagram 4 for map).

When traveling from one control pointto another, choose the fastest route. Oftenthe most direct route will not be the fastest.If there, is a, hill between you and thenext con& point, the fastest route may bearound unless you are a strong run-ner. A good trail may be twice as fast as a'rock strewn meadow, three times as fast asan.open forest, and five times as fast asthick 15aish...

If there isn'La landmark close- to a controlpoint, use an orienteering coinpass k navi-

gate from the nearest easily found land-mark called an attack point. Draw a red line,from the attack point to the control point.Put the compass on the map with the longside over the red line that extends from the

Table 1. Summit Lakeprientegring course.Control -

No. Description'

1 A road crosses the buried cable2 A high ground, edge of a clearing3 A boulder4 The highest ground5 Ruins6 Fork in stream7 A ravine8 A spring (good watery9 A building

Note. There will be a. penalty for being late. If youbecome completely lost and wish to drop out Of themeet, head south to Hampton Valley road. Road willbe checked one hour after meet is overdEmergencyphone number: (301) 2719810.

2 U

196 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY.KHOOL STUDENT

...Ir....

...-,,,..,"'l BLUE RwcE SUMMIT QUADRANGEE

,I, I. i i.... M a ty 1 an-d .Pennsylvania/ ""

4- 7-5 Minute Series Mpngraghic)

t- r NWiltwoltbmeg 1 Qadr1.1*i.., 'CO-- ,,/ Gmlibliers If ft,1712S7 ),'" %

r 0 ... Mapped tINke Army Map Strike.

X Edited and pubbshect by the Geoloskai Survey .

SME 1 24 MOtf fitur---nwen=vdsh"-er-4---s--.5rtwe..?,v,,--.,-, .,---,- -----,-----.........:e- --3.--, '

jor Ng r0..1=amez:3,--.rtnta=oce-Ammter,--r.r.--Pv----tr.erel117 "

% CONTOUR DUVAL .10 TUT000 4..... telt.. toil .

Diagram 4.

2

attack point, where you are, to thecontrol point (see Diagram 5). Make surethat the direction )f travel arrow is pointingin the direction parallel with the intendedcourse. Hold the compass base fiimly to themap so that it will not slip as the compasshousing is turned. Turn the compass hous-ing around until the orienteering arrow isparallel and points in 'he same direction asthe North magnetic arrows on the map.Remove the compass from the map. 7.oldthe compass level in front.of you with thedirection of travel arrow pointing straightahead. Turn around until the red orpointing end of the magnetic needle andthe orienteering arrow are pointing in thesame direction. The direction of travelarrow is now pointing to ;he control Point.*Assuming that the control is not in sight,pick a distant Object that is in line with thedirection of travel and head out. If the stu-dent begins to lose sight of that object, usethe compass again. Hold it level and infront of you with direction of travelarrow pointing straight ahead. Remember

ControlPoint #3

444'N'.-- Red Line

Direction ofTravel Arrow

,CompasstBastc-1,.

Compass--Musing

MagneticNeedle

Attack Point

Diagram 5.

'The most common mistake made by the beginner isto follow the magnetic needle. Don't follow this needleunress you, want to go north.

OrienteeringArrow

ORIENTEERING 197

to turn around until the rnagnetiCneedle and the orienteering arrow point inthe same direction. Use the direction oftravel arrow to p'ck out a precise spot in thedistance and head out again. In a thickforest, this process will have to be repeatedoften.

As long as the object or spot can be seen,you will be on course. If you lose sight ofthe object and keep on going withoutchecking ti.e compass, you may lose accu-racy and time. A few extra seconds spentbeing careful with the map and compasswork can save minutes of running and per-haps be the difference between first andsecond place.

If you feel that you may have passed thecontrol point, stay on course. Check themap to see if there are any features youwould come across if you had passed tiv,control point. If there are none, or if one isfound that is not good enough to use as anew attack point, it is time to retrace theroute. Use the compass to do this. Do notmove the compass housing; simply holdthe compass in front of you with the direc-tion of travel arrow pointing straight ahead.Turn around until the red end of the mag-netic-needle and the orienteering arrow arepointing in opposite directions. The direc-tion of travel arrow iscnow pointing to thereturn route.

If a control point is located along a road, acliff, a stream, or' a trail, and you are ap-proaching from a position that is at rightangles or broadside to that feature, try atechnique sailed "aiming off." Instead ofheading directly to the control pOin", aimenough to one side so that when the featureis reached, the other side should be turned,to find the control.

In Diagram 6, the participant at A de-cided to aim off to the left. When the streamis reached, he or she will know to turn tothe right and continue wail reaching thefork in the stream. If control point B is not insight, the fork in the stream can be used asan attack point. If the orienteerer in Dia-.

gram 6,had not decided to aim off, a slighterror in navigation could result :r missingcontrol point B. When the stream isreached, the orienteerer will not know

21 4


Diagram 6.

whether to turn back or follow the stream tothe left or right. Aim off and be sure.

The following exercises should help im-prove skill with the compass.1. Find and face the following directions:

a. 35° c. 165° e. 2700b, 900 d. 1800 f. 3450

2. Place a penny or other small object by thefeet.a. Take a bearing of 600; walk 10 steps.b. Add 120'; walk 10 steps.c. Add 120°; walk 10 steps.d. Look down at the feet; you should be

standing on top ofthe penny.e. Repeat the exercise with 20 steps.f. Repeat the exercise using the follow-

ing three be,arings at 20 paces: 80°:200°; 320°.

g. Try f. at 30 paces.There are many kinds of orienteering

meeV and lots of tips and tricks to learn.Read as much as possible but, most impor-tant, get out and do it.

TERMINOLOGY

Aiming off. A technique that may be usedwhen the target is located on a feature such asa river or ridge which is at right angles to thedirection of travel. The orienteerer willairn offto one side of the target and be certain whichway to turn when helshe reaches the feature.

Attack Point. An easy-to-find feature fromwhich the orienteerer will carefully navigate.

Bearing. A direction of travel measured fromNorth.

Contour Line. A line on a map representing aniniaginary line on the ground that connectsareas of equal elevation. -

Control. An easily visible marker that can beseen from any angle and has a means of prov-ing the visit.

Control Point. A specific locationldentified on')the map by a 6 iiiinircle 5ifea letter or anumber; on the land it is identified by a con-trol; on the control description sheet it is iden-tified by a description of the feature.

Elevation. The height (vertical distance) abovesea level.

Feature. A land form or structure, that is identi-fiable on the map.

Legend. An illustrated description of symbolsused on a map. It is most often located on thelower margin of the map.

Minute. A geographical unit of measure equalto 1/60th of a degree.

North Grid. The vertical grid used as a zero'-reference.

North Magnetic. The particular direction indi-cated by the needle of the compass.

North True. The direction of the North geo-graphical pole.

Quadrangle. A topographic map produced bythe U.S. Geological Survey.

Ravine. A depression larger than a gully andsmaller than a canyon.

Topographic Map. A map that shows physicalfeatures in minute detail.

REFERENCES

Andreseti, Steve. The Orienteering Book. Moun-tain View, CA: Andresen World, 1980.

Bengtsson, Hans, and Atkins, George. Orien-teering for Sport and Pleasure. Battleboro, VT:The Stephen Green Press, 1977.

Chapman, J. R. Orienteering: an Aid to Training.London, England: Cadet Supply Department;1968.

Disley, John. Orienteering, Harrisburg, PA:Stackpole Books, 1973.

Disley, John. Your Way with Map and CompassOrienteering. Wiliowdale, Ontario, Canada:Canadian Orienteering Services, 1973.

Geary, Don. Sfrp in the Right Direction: a BasicMap and Compass Book. Harrisburg, PA:Stackpole Books, 1980.

Kjellstrom, Bjorn. Be Expert with Map and Com-pass. New York: Charles Scribnees and Sons,1976.

Pirie, Gordon. The Challenge of Orienteering.Kent, England: Pelham Books, 1968.

Riley, Michael. Basic Orienteering. Chicago, IL:Contemporary Books, Inc., 1979.

Watson, J. D. Orienteering: Know the Game.Wakefield, Yorkshire, England: E. P. Publish-ing, Ltd., 1975.

...020 (7' -A

c- o

back fall (p. 207)back trip throw (p. 219)bear hug (p. 213)falling (p. 205)flying mare (p. 218)front choke hold with two hands (p. 213)front fall (p. 207)front wrist breaker (p. 214)hand blows (p. 207)heel kick (p. 210)hip throw (p. 218)knee kick (p. 210)rear choke hold with two hands (p. 214)rear choke with two arms (p. 214)rear wrist breaker(p. 217)side fall (p. 207)side thrust kick (p. 210)snap kick (p. 210)

.,stance (p. 203)tapping (p. 202)two-hand wrist release (p. 211)wrist release (p. 211)

2 u 5

,

INTRODUCTION

Self-defense is, unfortunately, a much-needed course. The violence that exists incommunities indicates the need for peopleof all ages to be capable of defending- theM-selves. Appropriate physical skills mustfrequently be used in time of personaldanger or danger to others. However, per-sonal physical skills alone have limitedvalue. Mental and psychological prepara-tion is equally important. One must knowwhen to use the many defensive te.chniquesavailable and be able to select the best ma-neuver for the danger situation that is en-couptered. It is equally important to under-stand when physical force may or should beused.

There is a difference between skillslearned in self-defense and the skillslearned in most other physical educationcourses. It is .hoped that you will neverhave to use the self-defense skills. Inother courses, tffe goal is to develop skillsthat will be used on a consistent basis, whilein school and throughout life. Self-defensemust therefore be approached from an en-tirely different perspective. The skillslearned are to be used only in emergencysituations when personal safety or thesafety ot another is threatened.

Developing skills of self-defense is bene-ficial in many ways. Confidence will, begained in defending oneself and satisfac-tion achieved from knowing that danger-ous situations can be handled. Physica:skills such as agility, balance, and bodycontrol will improve as techniques of self-defense are practiced.

Techniques for defending oneself havebeen used as long as history has been re-corded. Defensive techniques were neces-

CHAPTER 14

Self-defense

KENNETH G. TILLMAN,Trenton State College,

Trenton, NJ

sary for survival in ancient times and werelearned-by airdia at iThrly age. Thisneed decreased as civilization progressedinto modern times. However, there has al-ways been a need to develop skills that canbe used in times of danger. Practicing self-defense techniques develops physical skillsand the mental alertness which is neededwhen threatened with violence by anotherindividual or group of people.

Violence causes many problems.in theUnited States and throughout the world. Aperson who is skilled in self-defense shouldhave a deep sense of respect for others andwork hard to decrease the amount of vio-lence that is found,in almost every commu-nity. It is very important for people skilledin self-defense to do everything withintheir power to avoid a situation in whichviolence will result. This' is the first rule tofollow. The second rule is to walk, or run,away from danger situations that are de-veloping. This is the attitude toward vio-lence that must form the foundation forlearning self-defense.

Why learn self-defense skills when onecould learn judo, karate, or some othermartial art? There are basically two advan-tages. First of all, using a com1;ination oftechniques is better than being restricted toone style. The other reason is that an activ-ity such as karate requires a much higherlevel of coordination, strength, and agility.It takes years of practice to become skilledin using karate self-defense techniques andthe high level of skill that is needed forsuccess requires continued practice. Re-member that judo and karate are more thanself-defense techniques. They are excellent

h.sport activities that are fun to learn andprovide enjoyable competition.

2u 6


CAUTIONS

People have a right to defend them-selves. Everyone should be able to live a lifefree from the fear that accompanies intimi-dation and physical abuse imposed byothers. It must be remembered that self-defense techniques should not be used toviolate the rights of others or to injureanother peponTnile-ss personal welfare orsomeone else's well-being is threatened.

Lawsgoverning the actions people maytake in defending themseFeivary fromstate to state. In general terms, a victimmust believe that bodily injury is about tooccur and there must be apparent danger tothe victim, his or her property, or anotherperson. In these situations, all force andmeans that are considered necessary toprevent injury may be used. The sameprinciples apply when saving a third partyfrom death or injury. Deadly force may beused only if life is in danger, not in defenseof property. Retaliation can be used only upto the 'point necessary to stop the attack.The intended victim is not permitted to useexcessive force for defense or for punish-ment. Verbal abuse is not a legal cause forphysical retaliation unless an act isthreatened which justifies a defensive ac-tion.

A person has the responsibility to avoidviolence whenever possible. Legally, how-

ever, this does not mean that one has ,toretreat before protecting himself/herself.The following principles should be kept inmind:

anticipate dangerous situations and useevery possible measure to prevent themfrom occurring;walk away from dangerous locationseven if it is ego-deflating;run from danger rather than get into asituation where self-defense tactics arerequired.

SAFETY

There are a number of safety guidelinesthat must be considered when learningself-defense. These guidelines are to be fol-lowed at all times.1. Work slowly when learning the tech-

niques. The skill must be learned beforemovements can be controlled duringpractice. Speed can be increased as con-trol is developed.

2. Tap for safety. Tapping is the universalsignal to stop. It is not necessary to suf-'fer extended periods of pain to becomesuccessful in executing self-defensetechniques. Tap the rnat, a partner, oroneself to stop the action. It is impera-tive that participants stop instantlywhen the tapping signal is given.

Figure 1. techniques.I f

a

3. Learn how to fall properly. Skill in fal-ling is crucial for learning self-defensetechniques safely.

4. React properly to pressure that isexerted. Go w ith the pressure whenpossible.

5. Never try to injure a partner ip practicesessions. Full scale self-defense ma-neuvers should be used only when ac-tually defending oneself or someoneelse from bodily haim.

6. Body blows and jabs can never be prac-. ticed at full force on a partner.7. Do not wear jewelry or other acces-

sories.8. Wear .comfortable physical education

clothing that does not have buckles orother items that can cause injury to one-self or a partner when practicing self-defense techniques.

LEARNING PROCEDURE

Work with a partner when learning self-defense skills. A partner should providefeedback to give an accurate evaluation ofsuccess in executing the skill being prac-ticed. Start off with each partner practicingthe self-defense move that is being learned.When both can complete the move prop-erly, one will be the attacker and the otherwill use the self-defense technique. Thenalternate roles. Start by going through theskills slowly and gradually increase speeduntil running through the maneuvers at fullspeed. Remember that all dangerous skills areacted out; they are never carried out with fullforce against a partner.

After learning several self-defense skills,develop a fight routine with a partner. Usethe skills learned in class and practiceroutines as close to full speed as possible.Naturally, most of the skills in the routinecannot be completed because they wouldcause an injury. Develop the routine so thata different maneuver is moved to beforethere is the danger of an injury. The con-stant repetition of moving from one skill toanother develops competency with theskills and increases ability to use self-defense tactics as effective fighting tools.

This chapter is arranged to cover themajor categories of self-defense skills. After

SELF-DEFENSE 203.-

learning the proper stance and gaining abasic knowledge of the vulnerable bodyparts, begin practicing the basic skills foundin each section of this chapter. Hand blows,kicks, techniques for breaking holds, wristbreakers, and throws form the self-defensecategories. Learn skills in each category. Itis best to learn, one or two techniques ineach area rather 1 hap covering all the tech-niques in one category before moving to thnext.

STANCE r'/A well-balanced stance should be prac-

ticed. The feet should be about shoulderwidth apart with the knees slightlyflexed.Keep the weight over the legs.provides a firm base for executing the basicmovements of self-defense. The armsshould be in front of the body with theelbows flexed about 900 and the handsslightly cupped. The feet should bestaggered with one foot slightly in frOnt ofthe other. A comfortable stance should beassumed so that one can defend himself/herself and attack when necessary. The

Figure 2. Basic stance.

2 J8


stance should permit rapid movement and 6.give the best possible protection to parts of 7.the body that can be easily injured. 8.

9.10.11,12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.27.28.

VULNERABLE BODY PARTS

Be aware of the vulnerable parts of thebody. This knowledge is important for de-fensive maneuVers as well as for offensivetactics. Applying blows to the eyes, instep,groin, ,kneecap, kidney area, windpipe,and the bridge of the nose can have a dis-abling effect. Other areas of the body alsocause extensive pain.

Figure 3 illustrates the parts of the bodythat are most vulnerable. Memorize each ofthese vital areas and know how to best at-tack each one.

1. temples2. eyes3. bridge and tip of nose4. side of neck5. under nose

8

11

14,

17

19

chinAdam's applecollarbonearm-pitheartsolar plexusunder last ribstomachgroininside edge of thighkneecapside of kneeshinsinstepearbase of skullback 'of neckunder shoulder bladesmall of backkidneyselbowstailbonewrists

/ f

Figure 3. Vulnerable parts of the body.

..*

29. fingers30. behind knees31. Achilles tendon

Blows with the fist, heels of the hand,and a knife-like slash with the side of thehand can all be effectively.used on the vul-nerable areas. Extended fingers to the eyesor throat will also stop an assailant. Sharp,

'forceful strikes with the knee or foot areequally'effective on the lower extremities'and when the attacker is on the ground.Force from a kick or bloAr to a joint can alsoimmobilize an attacker. Pressure should beexerted against a joint whenever possible.

FALLING

Fall:ng techniques are important tolearn for self-defense. The ability to prop-erly fall will prevent many injuries, willmaintain body control, and will even at-

SELF-DEFENSE 205

tain an offensive advantage after complet-ing a controlled fall. Be able to properlyexecute the forward, backward, shoulder,and forward dive rolls before learning ad-vanced falls. These rolls are covered in basictumbling classes. If uncomfortable per-forming these rolls, practice them during -the early part of the personal defensecourse.

Always practice falling on thick mats toprotect from injury and to give confidence

' when learning falls. Develop proper formby practicing e h fall slowly and thenspeed up as prop technique is learned.Remember that a-f4 should not be brokenby reaching out with the hand. The ob-jective should be to spread the impact offalling over a larger surface of the body andto develop the ability to relax the bodyrather than stiffening it.

--Figure 4. Side fall from squat.

Figure 5. Side fall from stand.

210

S.

206 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT )44

,

,

.1..,

Figure 6. Front 21.1 1.

V*

Side FallThe side fall is a frequently-used fall. It is

an effective means of avoiding injury w henthrown to the ground or floor.

A good way to learn this fall is to start in asquatting position with one leg crossed infront of the other. The forward leg is movedforward and the arm on the falling sidebrought up in the air as balance is lost.When landing, distribute the force of thefall from the foot tb the shoulder and slapthe mat with the palm of the hand to breakthe, fall. The arm should be extended andthe fingers slightly spread. Keep the headoff the mat and slap the mat vigorously.After the side roll is mastered from a squat,gradually start farther from the mat untilcapable of falling from a standing position.Practice rolling to the stomach by bringingthe bent leg over the straightened leg. Usethis maneuver to move away from the op-ponent and come to the feet.

Figure 5 illustrates the side fall techniquefrom the feet. Standing with the weightevenly distributed, kick the foot across thebody (see Figure 5) and fall to the side. Theright arm and leg are raised as the rightbuttock hits the mat; roll back to the shoul-der and slap the mat with the right hand.The head stays off the mat at all times andthe legs should be raised when the fall iscompleted.

Front FallLearn the froht fall by beginning in a

kneehng position on the mat. As the bodyfalls fo-rward, slap the mat with both handsslightly cupped. The force of the fall is ab-sorbed with the hands and forearms. Keepthe hands and forearms straight.

SELF-DEFENSE 207

When the, front fall can be performedfrom the knees without jarring the body,move to a standing position. Fall forwardsmoothl),. from a relaxed position and makecontact with the mat simultaneously viththe hands and forearms. Keep the bodystraight when falling forward, only thehands, forearms, and toes should be in con-(act with the mat when the fall is finished.Do not hit the mat with bent wrists.

Back FallLearn the back fall by beginning in a

sitting position. Have the back slightlyrounded and the head tilted forward.Round the back and roll back with an easymotion as the arms and legs are raised. Slapthe extended forearms and hands to themat as the upper back hits the mat. As withother falls, keep the head from hitting themat.

The next step is to begin the back fall froma squatting position. Roll onto the backwhile tucking in the buttocks to avoid shockto the back. The movement after makingcontact with-the mat with the buttocks isthe same as when starting from a sittingposition. Finish by slapping the hands andforearms against the mat. Keep the chintucked to the chest. The legs should beraised in the air when finished.

HAND BLOWS

There are several different hand posi-tions that should be learned. One of themost effective positions for delivering ablow is to hold the hand straight, with thefingers together and extended. Then strike

Figure 7. Back fill from sitting position.

21

208 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT'Y

Figure 8. Eye.jab.

a vulnerable area of the opponent's bodywith the fleshy outer edge of the hand. Thebridge of the nose, the Adam's apple, theside or back of the neck and the stomach aregood examples of body parts where thistype of blow is very effective.

A closed fist can also be used to makecontact with vital areas. When delivering ablOw with the fist, make contact with thesecond knuckles of the first and second fin-gers. It is also possible to extend theknuckle Of the middle finger and use thisweappn against unprotected body parts.Remember thathe fist is used primarily onsoft body parts of the opponent. If bonyareas are hit there is a risk of breaking a boneor bones in the hand. A backhand motion is

another way the fist can be used. This is aparticularly good way to strike the face ofan attacker.

Extension of the fingers on the handmakes a good fingejtip jab weapon. Spread

vf

the fingers when poking the eyes and keepthem together when jabbing other vulnera-ble body parts such as the groin or solarplexus. Deliver blows withthe fingers byusing short, rapid jabs. This will keep theattacker off-balance and cause a great dealof pain.

The heel of the hand is one of the bestweapons when an attacker is getting close.Drive the heel of the hand sharply to thechin of the attacker. The secret is to strikethe chin as sharply and as forcefully as pos-sible. This blow can also be used if the at-tacker's arms are around the victim's body.Use the heel of the hand of a free arm to ripinto the chin or nose of an attacker.

These hand blows should be practiced ona dummy, padded wall, or some other resil-ient material. Remember never to use fullforce against a hard surface or an injurymay occur to the hand or fingers. Work oncorrect form at first. Never practice theseblows on a partner.

21 3

'

SiLF-DEFENSE 209

Figure 9. Heel of hand blow.

DFi&ure 10. Snap kick using the bottom of the foot.

214-


Figure 11. Heebkick to tile groin.

KICKS

Self-defense situations call for differenttypes of kicks. The toes, heel, ball, side, andbottem of the foot can all be used fOr kick-ing. The shoe will protect the foot and causeadditional pain to the attacker. Do not kickwith the toes if they aren't protected with a .hard shoe. Use the ball of the foot instead.When the bottom of the foot (shoe) is used,turn a side to the attacker and make ashort, powerful snap kick to the knee.

The snap kick can also be effectively usedwhen facing the attacker. Again, aim thekick at the knee and use a fast action so thatthe attacker cannot grab the foot or step outof range. Do not kick higher than the kneeunless highly skilled. in using leg kicks be-cause the attackeway grab the foot.

A side thrust kick is similar to the snapkick. The main difference is that the oppo-nent is smashed with the side of the footrather than the bottom. To properly use this

0 kick pivot so that a side is facing the as .sailant, draw the knee of the kicking leg tothe body, and then vigorously extend the

leg and make contact with the side of thefoot.

The heel kick should be practiced to makecontact with the shin of the person whoapproaches from behind. The heel shouldalso be used to come down forcibly on the

tinstep of an attacker who grabs from be-hind.

The heel kick can also be an effectiveweapon when vigorously propelled to thegroin of an attacker who is behind the vic-tim. It must be carefully timed to be usedeither when breaking away from an at-tacker or stopping an assailant's chargefrom behind. This must be a speedy kick sothat the kicking foot will not be grabbed bythe attacker.

The knee kick is another effective self-defense tool. It is used when facing and inclose contact with an attacker (see Figure12). A gap should be created between thevictim and his/her attacker. Drive the kneesharply to the groin area. There will usuallybe room to use the knee kick because mostattackers will be using their arms to try to

2 1 5

Figure 12. Knee kick to the face.

control the arms and upper body. It may beoecessvy to force the hips away to haveenough room to tise the knee.

If the assailant is bent down or the victimis able to deliver a blow to the back of thehead to put the attacker's face within kneerange, a vigorous knee kick to the face canabruptly stop the attack. Attempt to drivedavn on the head at the same jime that theknee is being kicked upward. This will in-crease the power of the blow and will pre-vent the head from being pulled out ofrange of the knee.

As with hand blows, kicks should bepracticed on dummies, padded walls, orsome other padded surface. Work on speedof execution after developing correcl bOdyposition and balance. Emphasis sliould beplaced on contacting the shin, knee, andgroin area.

?BREAKING HOLDS

Wrist ReleaseThe natural reaction when someone

grabs the wrist is to pull back. This is exactly

SELF-DEFENSE 211

what the attacker wants the victim to do.The appropriate action is to drop the elbowforcefully and use a twisting action to exertforce against the attacker's thumb.

The same action is used when the assail-ant haS a hand on each of the wrises. Twisteach wrist toward the attacker's thumb.Immediately move to a good 'defensivestance or attack if the assailant is off-balance or in a position where the victimcan use a kick or hand blow.

Two-hand Wrist ReleaseIf an attacker grabs one wrist with both

hands, release can be gained by graspingthe fist of the grasped arm with a free handand pulling it sharplyupward while lower-jrig the elbow of the held arm. Lower thebody weight to give additional leverage andmaintain a balanced position when the armis freed.

Another release technique, when one of, the wrists is controlled, is to deliver a blow

to the attacker's throat, mouth, nose, oreyes, with the free hand. Use the extendedhand position and expend all force possible

21 6

-o

212 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND S/PORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

cf

1

.

FiOre 13. Single wrist release.t

Figure 14. Two-hand wrist release.

to slash into the attacker with a choppingaction. Repeat the blow rapidly if the at-tacker remains in a vulnerable position bymaintaininghold of the wrist.

Bear HugSeveral different ways should be learned

to break free from a bear hug. The bear hugprevents the victim from moving awayfrom the attacker and limitslhe blows thatcan be used to overcome the attacker. It istherefore important that one know how tobreak free from a bear hug.

Several techniques were covered in theseoion on kicks. The shin can be kickedwith the toe or scraped with the side of theshoe. The groin can be kicked with theknee. One can also lean back and give ahand chop to the throat or a vigorous smashto the chin with the heel of the hand:

If the bear hug is from behind, kicks andblows are again effective. A kick to the shin,stamping on the instep, or stepping to theside and striking the groin with the hand

1

SELF-DEFEN$E 213

are all effective methods. Grasping a fingerand pulling back with all possible force andbiting a hand or arm across the face shouldalso be considered.

Two other techniques that can be usedgainst the bear hug are to butt forcefullyInto the opponent's face and pinch tightlyon the inside of the thigh. Against a maleattackertgrab -the scrotum, squeeze, andjerk,

Front Choke Hold with Two HandsIf the attacker grabs the neck with both

hands and begins choking, react rapidly.The first action to release the grip is to claspyour hands and drive the arms up betweenfhe attacker's arms. This Will release thegrip. Immediately go on the offensive bysmashing the hands over the bridge of theattacker's nose or use another striking orkicking movement to disable the attacker.

Another technique to use is to raise yourarms above Our head outside the attacker'sarms and twist rapidly to.apply pressure on

Figure 15. Chop release forlwo-hand wrist grasp.

2,14 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

Figure 16. Arm shoot to release choke hold.

Figure 17. Rear choke lift and duck release.

the attacker's wrists. This will release theneck grasp and.pioVi'de an opening for acounterattack.

Rear Choke Hold with Two HaasThe double arm twist also works effec-

tively to counter a rear choke hold. As soonas you turn and free yourself look for anescape route or strike a vulnerable part ofthe attacker's body.

Rear Choke with Two ArmsWhen the throat is encircled from be-

hind, act rapidly , Tuck-the-chin-into-thechest to take pressure off the throat. Graspthe assailant's right elbow with your righthand as shown in Figure 17. The left handgrasps the attacker's right wrist. Lift on theelbow, push down on the wrist, and duckunder the arm. Keep control of the arm ifpossible and pull it behind the attacker'sbody where it can be twisted or jerked up-ward to control the assailant.

WRIST BREAKERS

Front Wrist BreakerGrasp the .assailant's right hand with

your left (or the assailant's left hand withyour right). Place your thumb on the cen-ter of the knuckles and grab the palm of thehand near the thumb with the fingers. Pullthe attacker's hand to the inside so that thefingers point straight up. While turning thehand, place your right thumb on the knuck-les next to the attacker's left thumb andgrab the pAjrn of the hand near the littlefinger with the fingers on your right hand.

Note that the fingers meet in the palm ofthe assailant's hand and that the little fin-gers are near the wrist. When the hands arein position, immediately drive the attack-

_ er's fingers straight up and push hard withyour thumbs to cock the wrist as'far as it willgo.

Keep the wrist cocked and turn the palmof the attacker's hand to the outside. Keeppressure on the wrist as your body Weightis shifted forward; pivot your hips towardthe attacker's free arm and drop him/her tothe ground with the pressure being placedon the wrist.

1 (

,

*

,SELF-DEFENSE 215

Figure 18. Hand position for front wrist breaker.

. -- -

22u

II

b i ill / ..

Ill. 111,11111v

1 / A...,4i

./ e f 411%, ' 4

k T i,'/ .'/ / ;

fit. j//: A

i --4-_

, -

1,, 1,

- A

. ft,

,..,.., ,

if 4 for , 77

li / // ,

, i ..otfl. '/ , / ,,, 9 , , //

ki,., 1

, *I 19/ fali

41 .

41 . .

41 41

SELF-DEFENSE 217

Figure 22. Rear wrist breaker.

Rear Wrist BreakerA technique similar to the front wrist

breaker is called the rear wrist breaker.Reach across the attacker and grasp his/herright hand with your right hand or his/her

-left hand with youileft hand. The thumb isagain placed in the center of the knucklesand the little finger side of the hand isgrasped with your fingers. he attacker'shand is then twisted to the outside and thewrist is cocked.

The other hand is then placed in a similarposition with your thumb on the knucklesand your fingers clamped on the thumbside of the palm. Place the second hand inposition as soon as possible. Turn the' at-tacker's hand to the outside of his/her body;

, then move your body to a rear position (see.Figure 22). Point the fingers of the attacker.straight up by putting pressure with thethumbs and pulling in vigorously with thefingers. This is a very painful hold. Theattacker can be driven to the ground; controlcan be maintained by extending your arms

rt:k

and increasing the leverage beingplaced onthe wrist. The correct leverage is being

, applied if the .knuckles are being driventbward the elbow.

.THROWS

Throws should not be considered a firstline of defense. To throw someone the vic-tim must be close to that person. This leavesthe victim vulnerable to blows, chokeholds, and kicks. It is best to use a defensivetactic whiCh will keep the victim out ofrange of the assailant. Throws require skilland an attacker can sometimes neutralizethe skill with strength and brute force.Learn throws only after knowing how tofall properly.

It is important to learn some basic throwssince there will be times when the victimfinds himself/herself in a position where athrow is the best defensive technique.

218 PHYSICAL E9UCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

Figure 23. Hip throw.

2 .4

Throws are also good to practice since thevictim learns to fall correctly and recoverrapidly after being thrown. In many roughand tumble fights, throWs to the gibundwill be used. The victim must know hovcrtoreact.

Hip ThrowThis throw is used when the victim is

close to the attacker. Grasp the attacker'sright arm with the left hand and slide theright arm around the waist. Simultane-ously place the right foot next to the insideof the attacker's right foot. The victim thenpivots on the right foot and steps back sothat the attacker's body will be across thevictim's hip. To initiate the thrbw, the vic-tim bends the knees and then springs up.This will pull the attacher off the mat. Thevictim.completes_the_throw by_bringlng theopponent forward over the victim's hip andfollows to the mat.

Flying MareThis is a technique to use when grabbid

from the rear with a choke hold.

2 3Figure 24. Choke hold position.

`

Reach both hands up and hold as high aspossible on the attackeis upper arm. Keepgood balance with a low center of gravity.With the attacker's weight on the victim, anexplosive forward and downward 'motionof the head should be used to bring theassailant over the victim's head and ontothe mat. A vigorous downward motionshould be used while the arm is Fulledhard.

Using the flying mare will free the victimand-provide an opportunity to escape oruse one of the disabling techniques oncethe opponent is on the ground.

Back Trip ThrowIf the attacker's arms are around the

waist, drive forward to destroy hislher ba-lance. It is important to maintain a positionabove the attacker if at all possible. Shift the-hips quickly to the sideistep the insidelegbehind both legs of the attacker, push vig-orously at the shoulders while siinulLne-ously kicking the attacker's leg upward.This will drop the attacker to the ground

SELF-DEFENSE 219

with .sufficient force to provide the victimwith an opening to attack with a kick orblow.

ADVANCED SKILLS

There are many other more advancedskills that can be learned after developingthe ability to use the skills in this chapter.Various types of advanced blocks, trips,throws, and holds will provide a continu-ing challenge.

Now that the basic self-defense tech-niques are known, consider different typesof danger situations where each can best beutilized. Continue to practice the skillslearnedto be Fepared for any danger situa-tion that may be confronted.

Always remember that self-defensetechniques are used only when absolutelynecessary. Every measure is used to avoidphysccal encounters. Blows, kicks, andother types of force are used only when

Figure 25. Flying mare being executed.

224


Figure 26. Back trip throw.

such action is clearly indicated because lifeis endangered or a hazardous situation

r exists.

2')

REFERENCES

Burg, Kathleen Keefe. The Womanly Art of Self-Defense. New York: A dr Ar Publishers, Inc.,1979.

Conroy, Mary, and Ritvo, Edward R. CommonSense Self-Defensea Practical Manual for Stu-dents and Teachers. St. Louis, MO: The C. V.Mosby Company, 1977.

Farkas, Emil, and Leeds, Margaret. FightBacka Woman's Guide to Self-Defense. NewYork: Holt/Rinehart and Winston,-1978.

Heyden, S. Margaret, and Tarpenniqg, Allan V.Personal Defense for Women. Belmont, CA:Wadsworth publishing Company, Inc., 1970.

Hudson, Kathleen. Every Woman's Guide to SelfDefense. New York: $t. Martin's Press, 1977.

Hyams, Joe. ,Playboy's Book of Practical Self-Defense. Chicago, IL: playboy Press, 1981.

Kaufman, Doris A.; Rudeen, Robert D.; andMorgan, Carol Anne. Safe ioithin Yourself.Alexandria, VA: Visage Press Inc., 1980.

Neff, Fred. Everybody's Book of Self Defense. Min-neapolis, MN: Lerner Publications, 1978.

Pacala, LynnSelf Defense. Santa Monica, CA:Goodyear Publishing Company Inc. 1980:

Seidler, Armond. Defend YourselfScientific Per-sonal Defense. Bostone. MA: Houghton MifflinCompany, 1978.

Tegner, nice. Bruce' Tegner Method of Self-Defense: 10 Lessons for Home Study, 2d ed. Ven-tura, CA: Thor Publishing Company, 1971.

Willard, Nancy; Cameron, Richard; andChenell, Bruce. Realistic Self-Defensea Roadto Escape. Dubuque, IA: Kendall1Hunt Publish-ing Company, 1974.

Wyness, G. B. "Jerry." Practical Sdf Defense. PaloAlto, CA. Mayfield Publishing Company,1975.

'4

avoida bri hinder (p. 231)back court (p. 231)back wall shot (p. 230)ceiling shot (p. 230)change-of-pace serve (p. 227)cross-court serve (p. 225)drive or power serte (p. 225)drop shot (p. 229)fist ballTp. 230)foot faults (p. 231)front court (p. 231)game (p. 231)handshake grip (p. 224)hinder (p. 231)kill shot (p. 228)lob serve (p. 226)long serve (p. 231)match (p. 231)order (p. 231)out (p. 231)

passing,shot (p. 228)ready position (p. 223)the serve (p. 225)service box (p. 231)service line (p. 231)service zone (p. 231)short servelp. 231)short service line.(p. 231)striking position (p. 224)unavoidable hinder (p. 231)volley (p. 230)Z serve (p. 226)

226

CHAPTER 1

Racipetball / Handball

INTRODUCTION

Racquetball and handball are courtgames that can be learned with relativeease. As with other sports, performancecan be progressivelyimproved and enjoyedwith planned practice and play.

Early forms of handball have beenhistorically traced to the thermae of ancientRome. The present American game can betraced back to the mid-1800s. Handball-can

------;_be.played.on_courts of one, three, and fourwalls by two, three, Or four players. Itrsquires only the playing surface, ball, andprotective gloves. Protective glasses arerequired in youth competition and arestrongly Tecommended for the safety ofplayers of all ages. The goal of the game isfor the players to alternately strike the ballwith the hand causing it to strike the frontwall and then bounce twice on the floorbefore the opponent can successfullyreturn it to the front wall. The game isplayed to twenty-one points, with only theserving side or player eligible to score.Handball play -is governed by the unifiedrules adopted by the AAU, YMCA, USHA,and the Jewish Welfare Board;

Racquetball is played on the same courtas handball with essentially the same rules.The use of a paddle to replace the hand canbe traced to Earl Riskey at the University ofMichigan in the 1920s. Joe Sobek\broughtthe strung racquet into the game nearlytwenty years later. The InternationalRacquetball Association and the UniledStates Racquetball Association havepromoted the sport and regulatedcompetition since the early 1970s.Racquetball involves the same strategiesand fitness requirements as handball, butthe use of the backhand replaced the use ofthe non-dominant hand. The backhand, '

JOHN P. SMYTH, *

The Citadel,Charleston, SC

the larger striking area, and the absence ofdirect contact between the ball and thehanc1 are differences which might leadnovice players to choose racquetball overhandball.

The added weight and velocity of theracqueLadd a potential safety hazard to thegame, an d therefore- grea t cautionrequired when playing a ball near a partneror oPponent,'

Handball and racquetball are good healthfitness activities. The simple rules, shortgame duration, and enjoyable nature of theactivities have made them perhaps thefastest growing American sports of the1970s, with the promise of evdn greaterpopularity in the future.

Four-wall court facilities are rapidlyexpanding in number, but the building ratehas not matched the growth in popularity.The use of one-and three-wall courts foundin Many parks and gyms has helped foprovide modified opportunities to playhandball and racquetball. The game can befun for any age and any skill level. As withmost games, the greatest enjoyment comesfrom participation with and against playersof nearly equal ability.


1106Y POSITIONThe body position fundamen tals of

handball and racquetball follow the generalrules for most racquet sports. The readyposition is a balanced position with the feetspread shoulder width apart, the kneescomfortably bent, the back straight, and thehead held erect. When strokes are executedta flle side of the body, the body should beturned perpendicular to the front wall,permitthlg leverage of the body to assist theprimary ovement of the striking arm and

224 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPO4T FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

hand. Underhand and overhand strokescan be executed while facing the front wallby using the basic throwing positions withthe legs functioning in opposition to thestriking action.

HAND POSITIONThe gloved hand is the striking

implement in handball; therefore, it isimportant to cup the hand to contact theball with the palm of the hand and permit itto roll off the closed fingers.

The grip in racquetball is theconventional handshake grip. The racquetis held with its face perpendicular to thefloor with the grip extended toward thebody. The dominant hand "shakes hands"with the grip. It is important to keep thepalm of the hand parallel with the face ofthe racque4 by keeping the "V" formed bythe thumb and index finger slightly to theleft of the middle position, as the playerlooks down at the grip. It is,equallyimportant to lay the racquet Op atitiss thepalm diagonally from the heel of the-palmto the base of the index finger, permittingthe racquet to become anextension of thearm, as opposed to a segment which joinsthe arm at a right angle. The index fingershould agt as a "trigger finger" on the grip.Beginning players have difficulty inadjusting the grip during play; therefore, aslightly weaker forehand grip, involvingthe counterclockwise rotation of the righthand should be used to assume a positionwhich is more suitable for-the backhand.This modified grip is called the ccintinentalgrip. It is employed by players who tannotor prefer not to switch grips by rotating thehand over the top of the grip to put thewrist behind the backhand stroke.

STRIKING POSITIONThe ready position is the best position to

assume in anticipating the shot of anopponent; it facilitates reactive movementin any direction with the least amount ofwasted motion. The often overlookedability of body position and anticipation isin use between the ready position and thestriking position. The player mustanticipate the speed, direction, and heightof the ball to move to the mostadvantageous position. Much of playing

the bounce is learned through courtexperience, however, there are somefundamental considerations. Optimal courtposition is just behind the short serviceline, because of its potential for courtcoverage. A high bouncing or flying ball isdifficult to strike on low trajectory withoutthe return resulting in a high bounce. Also,forehand shots are generally easier forbeginners to execute. Ideally then, thebeginning player should seek to play theball near center court froin a low positionand when possible with the forehand.Since this position is not always possiblethe player must adjust court position whilethre opponent's shot is heading toward thefront wall or as it rebounds. The feet shouldbe slid or shuffled, rather than using astride in which the legs are crossed. The lastslide step should take the body into aposition perpendicular to the front wall orthe angle of the oncoming ball. The arm andIlancl.mustbe_taken_backin.,the_backswing___position in anticipation of the stroke. Theknees permit adjustments in heightcorresponding to the height of the bounce.The, high backswing arm position isassumed before the ball bounces on thefloor. The hand and wrist are relaxed butcocked in at high backswing position topermit the hand or racquet to hit throughthe ball as the body weight is transferredfrom the back foot to the front. The elbowshould be bent and held slightly away fromthe body in the backswing. The forwardswing should cornbine hip and shoulderrotation with the weight shift and armswing. The ball should be contacted atapproximately three-fourths of an arm'slength and the point of contact should be ata point even with the lead foot. Thefollow-through should be level with theswing and in the direction of the intendedline of flight.

Basic StrokesMost of the basic strokes can be hit from

the forehand, overhead, underhand and,in racquetball, backhand positions. Thegame situation will dictate which shot isemployed. The player's court position, thecourt position of the opponent,,the speed ofthe ball, the court placement oithe ball, the

height of the ball, and a workingknowledge of the opponent's strengths andweaknesses help determine proper shotselection.

THE SERVEThe ball is put into play by a serve. The

server stands within the serving zone,drops the ball, and strikes it on the firstbounce so that it contacts the front wall firstand rebounds past the short service line,either before or after touching one of theside walls. The serve may be played fromany of the hitting positions, but because ofthe power and accuracy, the fotehand in

0 racquetball and the dominant hand inhandVall are frequently used most.

The Drive or Power ServeThe drive serve is the most powerful of all

serves. The serve is struck from a lowbounce and contacted well below theknees. The path of the serve forms a "V."The rebound from the front wall Carries theball toward the-backhand corner at a speedgreat enough so it will get to the corner butnot sufficient for it to rebound from theback wall. Another desirable target is theside wall on thebackhand or nqn-dominanthand side just beyond the short service line,when this spot is hit near the floor ate, theresult is a short low bounce. The purpose ofthe shot is to take the receiver out of

Diagram 1. Drive serve.

RACQUETBALL/HANDBALL 225

offensive position an-d permit a minimumamount of time to react to- the placement.Speed is important, but speed withoutplacement is often counter-productive, asthe ball will rebound off the back wall ingood position for a high percentageoffensive return by the receiver. The servershould select a spot on the front wall as atarget-foroptimal trajectoryancLangle. Theheight of the target should be three feet orless, depending on the speed of the serve.The target is lowered as the server learns togenerate more speed. The serving spotshould be a stationary point in the servicezone, to' add consistency to the requiredangle to the deep corner. The server canmark a target area on the floor with tape, forpractice and self-evaluation. The size andshape of the target will vary with abilitylevel; for beginners a rectangular targetmeasuring three feet by ten feet shouldrepresent a suitable challenge. When thetarget area is hit at a seventy percent level ofaccuracy, the server can,reduce the_targetarea or increase the speed. The beginnershould practice bouncing the ball toprovide proper placement. If difficulty isencountered in making contact, the studentshould practice throwing the ball at atarget, using an underhand motion. Thethrowing drill wjll emphasize properweight shift from the back to front foot, andemphasize the need for hip and shoulderrotation. The follow-through is a<zoodindication of the direction of force, and thelength of follow-through .indicates theextent of force at contact. The server shouldvisualize a full follow-through extendedtoward the line of flight. Some players findthat a step into the serving action aids intransfer of weight and increasedmomentum for the hand ancFarm.

The Cross-court Serve "

The server should stand two feet awayfrom the center of the court, on the same

.side as the target corner. From thisoff-center position, the server can Strike theball against the front wall at a point three orfour feet away from the far 'Side wall,causing the ball to carom at a sharp angleagainst the side wall and bounce deep intothe diagonally opposite corner. The ball

226 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT .

Diagram 2. Cross-court servelrom right or leftside.

should strike the front wall about three tofive feet above the floor with sufficient forceto carry it near the back corner after ohebounce. It should be noted that eachadditional wall the`ball touches affects thespin and reduces the speed of the ball.Accuracy is important in the cross-courtserve to avoid a middle court set-up for thereceiver. If the receiver errs by striking the

..side wall first, then the serve is lost. If theserve strikes threg.walls before striking thefloor, tht server has committed a fault andmust make a second serve. A second faultcauks the server to lose the serve which iscalled side-out. The beginner can mark thefiont wall with an "X" to practice accuratelyplacing the ball in the back corner,permitting the receiver -the lowestpercentage shot. The same serve can be hithigh off the front wall if it is struckwith theproper amount- Of force to cause a highbounce in mid-court and then permitting ith. die in the corner.

The "Z" ServeThe' "Z" serve is a cross-court serve

delivered at a sharper angle than usbal,causing it to strike the floor and-then theside wall deep in the corner. The impact onthe third wall slows the speed of the balland imparts a reverse spin, causing the ballto rebound nearly parallel with the back

wall. This unusuak spin causes beginningplayers some difficulty, but when the Zserve is used against skilled opponents it isimperative to cause the ball to strike thethird wall near the back wall to prevent aneasy return. The serve-will bounce parallelto the back wall if it is-struck hard and if itstrikes the front wall near the corner. Thisserveneeds more than the usual amount ofpractice to perfect. The server should becautioned not to'move too near -the sidewall to achieve the "Z" path of flight,because of the amount of court space whichcannOt be covered to prepare for the returnshot.

Diagram 3. Z serve from right or left side.

The Lob ServeThe lob serve may be struck underhand

or bverhand. The height of the bounceshould accommodate the striking position,that is, a shoulder high bounce- for theoverhand and a bounce belowThe waist forthe underhand stroke. Because of the highbounce and the greater dyficulty inachieving the desirable are` with theoverhana, the underhand is moreappropriate for the beginning ,player. Theunderhand serve shogld be struck withmoderate speed to a point approximatelythree-fourths of the way up the front wall.The ball should arc near the ceiling andbounce near the side wall with the arc of the

230

bounce ending near the back wall. If the ballbrushes the side wall slightly the ball willtend td die in the back corner. The lob serveis easier to keep near the side wall if theserver assumes a position near the wall andstrikes the ball parallel to the side wall, butthis approach leaves much of the courtunprotected for the return shot. It is betterif the serve can be struck from the off-centerposition, but the server must be careful notto select an angle so sharp as to cause theball to strike the side wall early andrebound into center court for an easyreturn. The lob serve can be used to varythe game pace and make a skilled opponentplay a high boundng ball or a corner digshot:-The beginner should practice the lobwith a three fooLlp six foot target box inboth back corners. The serve is executedwith the same mechanics as the underhandthrow. The overhand serve is not used inracquetball.

A Lob setve from off-centerposition.

The Change-of-pace ServeThe change-J-pace serve is executed

with mechanics similar to the lob serve. Thepath of the serve should follow that of thedrive serve. The speed of the servedetermines how high oh the front %v.!! theserve should hit, but the speed and point ofaim shyuld always be coordinated to permitthe trajectory of the bounce to end in thecorner. When the change-of-pace serve is

Diagram 4.

RACQUETBAWHANDBALV 227

executed properly the receiver does notknow if it will carry fo the' bad, watl o: falljust shOrt of the wall. Experienced playersrefer to thrs strategic serve as a hal,:speed orgarbage ser-e, but these terms should not benega tively interpreted. The stra tegy,tirr'ng, anctpldcement of ashange-of-paceserve cause it to be frequently used at allskill levels.. The primary -..iiiantage of thisserve for the beginning playet is that itemphasizes accurate placement rather thanspeed. The de-emphasis of speed isparticularly important, sinc& beginningplayers tend to overhit shots rather thanexecute finesse shots.

Diagram 5. Change-of-pace serve.

Serving Fundamentals ReviewSpeed is limited by the ability of the

Player to use it acCurately. It is the frequentmistake of beginners to overhit all c!.-rolces,including the serve.

Placemeht is determined by the strengthsand weaknesses of both players. Mostplayers are weaker on the backhand orr on-dominant hand side. The opportunity

hit the ball low and end the rallydiminishes in proportion to the distancefrom the front wall andThe increased heightof the bounce. The prime target of the serveis in the backhand corner close to the sidewall. It is generally undesirable to hit theball io hard that it bounces against the backwall and rebounds into mid-court. It is alsQ_undesirable to permit a serve to contacrthe

23

218 -PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

an effective kill .shot. The probability dfexecuting a kill shot with the necessarytrajectory is related to the height of the shotpreceding the, kill. If a playerattempts to killa high bouncing ball at the height of itsbounce, or to kill a shot from an overhandvolley position, the probability of getting-alow bounce from the rebound off the frontwall is much less than it would be forplaying à forehand rebound off the backwall arcalf-height.

The low'shot is ideally suited for a killreturn. Thus, it is crucial to hit an effectivekill shot, or the low ball resulting will besubject to a kill shot by the opponent. Thekill shot may be hit against the front wall torebound al8ng the side wall. An even loWerbounce results from contacting two wallswith the kill shot. When two walls_arecontacted the angle of Ihe bounce is verydifferent when the side wall is contactedfirst from when it is contacted second. Theangle and sReed determine if the ball willcarry to the front.wiall after encounteritigthe resistance of th4- side wall. Corner or"pinch" kill shots tend to rebound out to acenter court position, and must carry a lowtrajectory to be effective. The kill shotshould be struck below the-knees with astroke parallel to the floor. The height of theshot is more important than the speed. Thebeginner should practice ,hittingconsecutive kill shots in a rebound drillfrom the front court, emphasizing the bendof the knees and the swing plane close tothe floor. The goal can be adjusted bylowering the target line on the front wall orby raising the target number of consecutivehits.Thfl Passing Shot

The passing shot is a drive shot that isexecuted when the opponent is in the frontcourt; the angle of the shot prevents theopponent from reaching the ball. Thepassing shot can be targeted down the sidewall when t!...2 opponent is positioned nearthe side wall in the opposite half of thecourt. It is especially impurtant to keep theside wall passing shot off the side wall to,.void an easy return for the opponent. Theside wall passing shot should be struckhard enough to carry to the back wall, butnot so hard that it rebounds back into play.

'side wall unless this contact is early andcauses the ball to rebound toward the backdiagonal corner, or is late enough to causethe ball to take only a yeti, small bounce inthe back court.

The serve must be struck on .the first.bounce. The stroke should be a total bodyactivity much like throwing. If the servestrikes the,floor, ceiling, or side wall first, itis a side-out. If a serve touches three walMin the air,tarries to the back Wail in the air,or fails to carry beyond the short serviceline, it is a fault. Two consecutive faults,constitute a side-out.

GAME SHOTSMany of the strokes made during a rally

are executed with the same mechanids andplaceinent qs the serve. The greaterdifficulty of executing the service-type

-stroke during play lies in anticipating thespeed and direction of the return.Beginning players have difficult-hrvisualizing the rebound from the sideWalls, and often find themselves followingsthe ball too near the back wall to be able toplay it off the rebound. Also, the beginningplayer frequently tends to think of the sportas a "my turn, your turn game wherein'the ball is hit to the opponent on therebound, and the player moves to the sideof the court after each stroke. Thismisconception should be contrasted withthe competitive strategy of hitting the ballaway from the opponent or low enoughthat the opponent cannot play it, afterwhich the player should immediatelyreturn to center court position.. Scoring isgreatly enhanced by a varied repertoire ofstrokes and the ability to execute them insequences which cause the opponent ton:ove the greatest distance between strokesand to hit while moving.

The.Kill ShotThe kill shot is a shot of high velocity and

low trajectory. The name "kill" is derivedfrom the fact that the rally is ended by a shotwhich hits so low on the wall that theopponent has no chance to play it before itbounces twice. An effective kill shot will hitthe wall less than a foot above the floor. Asthe skill level improves this height from thefloor will have to diminish if the shot is to be

2 3 -)

Diagram 6. Cross-court passing Mot.

If the opponent is beside or in front of theplayer, then the ball can be angled off thefront wall to strike the side wall adjacent tothe opponent. The carom from thecross:court passing shot should travel tothempposite corner but not rebound fromthe back wall. If the opponent is near

ont wall, then the shot canbe angled off the front wall with a -carom

cZ7irectly to the back corner. It is importantthat this type of passing shot not hit the sidewall and rebound out to the middle of thefloor.

Diagram 7. Side wall passing shot.


Passing shots should be struck frombelow the waist to produce a bounce thatwill fall short of the back wall. The shot ismost effective when the opponent is hearthe front wall or a side wall. This side wallshould be avoided unless the shot isintended to strike the side-wall-adjacent-tothe opponent while passing the opponenton the way to the diagonal back corner.

A good drill for praeticing the side wallpass is to set up near the Shalt k-iee line,about three feet from the side wall, and hitconsecutive drive shots between thatposition and the wall without reboundingthe ball off The side or back wall§: The drill'should be practiced,from both sides of thecourt., Tlie cross-court:passing shot ispracticed with the drive -serve drill. It isimportant for the player to remember thatthe opponent is generally more difficult topass on the forehand or dominant side, so agreater angle may be required whenpassing on that side.

Diagram 8. Passing off of side Avail.

The Drop ShotThe drop shot is a change-of-pace shot

requiring great touch and finesse. The shotshould be executed by playing the ball at areduced speed into the corner producing alow, short bounce. The shot is mosteffective when the player is in the frontcourt and the opponent is in the back court.It can be played from either.side, and ismore accurate when played at waist level or

2,1 1.-LS


lower. The drop shot is best practiced in aconsecutive volley drill from near the frontcourt into the corner from ten to twelve feetaway from the front and side wall. Practiceat this shot is important as a poor drop shotis almost invariably subject to a kill orpassing-shot-by-the-opponent.

Tht eiling ShotThe ceiling shot is primarily a defensive

shot. The shot should contact the ceilingabout two or three feet from the front wall.In the front court variation, the front wall ishit first, then the ceiling is hit by theupward arc. The front court variatiOnshould not be used from the back courtbecause of the difficulty of achieving thedesirable depth of rebound. The ceilingshot can be struck overhand with moreaccuracy than can most of the other shots.The best target for the ceiling shot is alongthe side wall, deep into the back corner.Like most bad shots, the poor ceiling shot is

-subject lo a high percentage return shotwhen it strikes the side wall. The ceilingshot can be practiced by using the overarmthrowing drill to gain accuracy andconfidence.

is often more desirable to play the ball fromthe back wall than to play it off the frontwall. The advantages of the wall shot arethe reduced height of the bounce, reducedmomentum of the ball, greater time toachieve court and body position, and. the.znovement-of the racquet-or-hand-in-thesame direction as the ball. Beginningplayers often fail to realize that the ball willreturn to them from the back wall and,therefore follow the ball too near the backwall to be able to take full swing. Thebeginner should remember not to get closerto the back or side wall more than one arm'slength. Unlike a tennis ball, the ball willcome back to center court, often with amore advantageous height of bounce.

In execut:1,6 the handball strokes, theclosed fist may be substituted for the openhand technique. The closed fist oftenresults ir a more powerful but lesscontrolled shot. The novice- player oftenprefers this stroke because of the reducedsensitivity of the fist to the impact of theball.

SAFETY---Sgety precaufitais should begin before

the game ever starts. Warmup exercisesshould be planned to stretch the legs, back,arms, and shoulders before stroking theball. Handball players should wear paddedgloves until the hands become accustomedto striking a hard rubber ball. If bonebruises occur, the player must permitsufficient time for recovery by resting. Thefeet should be protected by two pairs ofsocks to minimize friction caused by slidingin the shoe. Shoes should be light toaccommodate the running, but the solesshould be substantial to protect the feetfrom the constant pounding. The eyesshould be protected by eyeguards. Theguards are of great benefit in reducingaccidental contact by the handball,racquetball, racquet, or other players.Players should not turn to face the shotbehind them. The ability to see the ball withperipheral vision, paired with the skill ofdetermining the opponent's position by thedirection of the return should enable theplayer to face the front wall and'reduce thedanger of being hit in the eye by the ball.

Stroke VariationsMost shots can be struck from a variety of

positions and under a Wide variety ofconditions. Three of the more commonstroke variations are the volley, back wallshot, and the fistball.

The volley is a stroke contacting the ballbefore it bounces. Hitting the ball on the flythis way requires quicker reflexes and oftenproduces a higher contact point than isdesirable, but it allows the player tomaintain a front court position instead ofretreating to play a ball from the bounce.The volley should be executed with a short,firm stroke for accuracy. The beginningplayer tends to hit too many volleys,especially from the overhand position. Thevolley should be used to maintain courtposition, or to force the opponent to reactmore quickly to returns which will requireconsiderable court movement.

The back wall shot has much variety.Any ball which rebounds from the backwall before it is struck is a back wall shot4

, Air.

Id

One of the greatest dangers of bothgames is overLswinging at the ball. Whenthe player over-swings there is lessmuscular control and a greater likelihood ofstriking a wall, another player, and evenhimself/herself. When there is the slightestchance of striking an opponent, a "hiridef'should be called, and the point replayed.


4. Court. See Diagram 9 for line designa-tions.

5. Order. The player or side first winningthe ball toss becomes the first server.

6. Serving. The server must serve fromthe serlice_zone..(see_Diagram-9).--Theserve must strike the ball on a bounceso that it hits the front wall and on therebound hits the floor in back of theshort line, either with or without touch-ing one of the side walls.

7. Servite Faults. The following servesare faults, and two in succession results

'in a hand-out:a. Foot FaultsA foot fault results:

1. when the server leaves the ser-vice zone before the served ballpasses the short line.

2. when the server's partner leavesthe service zone before the ballpasses the short-line.

b. Short Servea ball which reboundsbefore the short line.

c. Long Servea ball which hits theback wall without bouncing.

d. Ceilinga serve which touches the

RACQUETBALL/HANDBALL RULESOF NECESSITY

The following rules are,the primary onesnecessary for the novice to effectively beginto enjoy the game of racquetball or hand-ball.1. Points. Points are scored only by the

serving side, when it serves an ace orwins a volley.

2. Game. A game is won by the side firstscoring 21 points.

3. Match. A match is won by the side firstwinning two games.

20. '4-- --ow

Diagram 9. The court.

A = Front CourtB = Back CourtC = Servke ZoneD = Service LineE = Short Service LineF Service Box

e. Outany ball going out of the court.f. Three-wall Serveany serve that hits

twoside walls on the fly.8. Avoidable Hinder. Avoidable interfer-

ence, not necessarily intentional, byone player with another's clear shot.The penalty is loss of serve or point.

9. Unavoiditble Hinder. Unavoidable in-terference by one player with.another'sclear shot. This "dead ball" (unavoid-able) hinder causes the point to be re-

10. Volleys. Each legal return after theserve is called a volley. Play during vol-leys must be according to the followingrules:a. One or Both Handsthe ball must be

hit with one or both hands. Switch-ing hands to hit a ball is an out (rac-quetball only).

b. One Touchin attempting returns,the ball may be touched only once bythe player onAhe returning side.

A violation of either (a) or (b) results in ahand-out or point.;.

2 1)


STRATEGY

Court position is vitally important to de-veloping and implementing a game strat-egy. The center court position, just behindthe short serVice line, is considered best. Itis important to hit shots which move theopponent away from the center court posi-tion. The opponent should be moved fromfront court to back court and back again, byhitting shots in combination.

The hitting position should be funda-mentally the same for each shot. It is impor-tant to assume a stance facing the side wall,and to get the hand or racquet back in astriking position while bending the kneesto bring body force into the low swingingaction. Good strategy involves moving theopponent to prevent his/her having time toassume the correct hitting position, or forc-ing the opponent to hit while moving, themost difficult circumstance in which to exe-cute an accurate placement.

The most effective shot selection strategyis to force the opponent to play his/herweakest sttoke most often. Players can alsoaffect tempo and shot control by playinghigh percentage shots from a good lowbounce position. For instance, the timegained by permitting a high flying ball topass by to the back wall will allow theplayer to be set ug/in good position to playthe ball from a much lower position as itrebounds off the back ,wall. In the three-wall or one-wall game, the passing shot canbe used more frequentlytkithout fear ofbringing the ball back to cater court, sincethere is no back Wall rebound.

EQUIPMENT

CLOTHING

The handball or racquetball playershould wear comfortable and cool clothing.A short-sleeved shirt or blo use, gymshorts, cotton socks, and thick-soled gymshoes are best. The uniform should providefor easy movement and the absorption ofperspiration. The shoes should be light, butof sufficient thickness to prevent blisters onthe bottom of the fooi.

GlovesThe racquetball player may select a glove

for the racquet hand for the purposes ofimproved grip and, protection. The rac-quetball glove should be thin and well-tailored for fit. If a wristband is used inconjunction with the glove, the playershoula find perspiration in the glove less ofa problem.

The handball player must wear a gloveon each hand. The handball glove is thickerthan the racquetball glove for protection.Beginning players often choose a paddedpalm model to reduce bruising of the tissueof the palms.

Protective GlassesProtective eyeguards are required for

junior players and strongly recommendedfor adult players. While racquetball hai'thegreater danger of racquet injuries, bothsports generate sufficient ball speed tocause serious eye damage from impact di-rectly on the eye or even on the side of theface beside the eye. Several types ofeyeggards are on the market. All of these atleast slightly reduce the player's ability tosee, but the resulting protection may per-mit the player life-long good vision thatmight otherwise beimpaired by an errantshot.

RACQUETThe racquetball racquet should be

selected for grip size, grip material, overalllength,, head shape, overall weight, andconstruction material. The grip size relatesto hand size, but generally a smaller grip ispreferred to facilitate hand and wrist actionin the sftoke. The grip should provide forfunctional control even when heavy perspi-ration soaks the material. The overalllength is generally from 171/2 to 19 inches.Greater racquet length increases power,12ut redtices control. The weight of the rac-quet depends on the material used in theframe. Select a racquet that is heavyenough to generate power but light enoughto be swunequickly. The plastic racquetsare the lightest, followed closely by alumi-num. Lightweight steel is of mediumweight, the heaviest rackets are those ofwood.

236

BALL

The ball manufacturing industries havegreatly improved the quality otboth hand-balls and racquetballs. A lighter-coloredball has largely replaced the traditionalblack ball in botli games because of theIda WEB marks creatalArrtlietlatic-ball.

Controversy has arisen concerning thetwo,hemisphere ball v the seamless ball, a§ towhich has the liveliest bounce. Both modelshave had some difficulty with early break-age.


Hinder. An accidental or unavoidable interfer-ence with the opponent in the play.

Kill.Shot. A low trajectory shot with no playablereboInid

Lob Shot. A higkarching shot that bounces highto the back

Long Serve. A serve thdrcarries to the back wallon-the_fly.

TERMINOLOGY

Ace. A-legal serve not touched-by-the-rece:verBack Court. The portion of the court behind the

short service line.Backhand. Opposite of forehand side in rac-

quetball.Backswing. The preparatory movement to po-

sition the player for the down swing.Back Wall Shot. Any shot made on a ball re-

bounding off the back wall.Ceiling Shot. A shot which strikes the ceiling.Center Court. The position directly behind the

short line and between the side walls..Crotch Ball. A ball which contacts the crack be-

tween two playing suffaces.Cut-throat. A three-player game wherein the

two receivers compete against the server.Doubles. A four-player game wherein two-man

teams compete,Drive. A powerful stioike agal st the front wall

between the knee and shoulder.Fault. An infraction of the rules. Two service

faults result in a side-out.Fist Ball. Striking the ball with the fist in hand-

ball.Front Court. The portion of the court in front of

the short service line.Game. The ganie is played to 21 points.Hand-out. The loss of servp by one partner for

his/her doubles team.

Overhead. A shot struck at or abe-the shoul-der level.

Passing Shot. A shot out of the reach of th-eopponent.

Rally. A series of shots by the players.Service Box. The 5: x 11/2' area at the side of the 4

service zone wher-e-the_non-serving doublespartner stands during the-serve.

Service Line. The front line of the'tervice zone.Service Zone. That portion of the court between

the service line and the short service line.Short Ball. A serve landing in front of the short

service line.Short Service Line. The back line of the service

zone.Side-out. The loss of service to the opponent(s).Singles. A game of one player versus one other

player.Straddle Ball. A ball passing through a player's

legs.Volley. Striking the ball on the fly, before it

bOunces.

REFERENCES

Beldsoe, Davey. "The Basic Strokes." RacquetWorld Review 2(3): 14-9.

Bledsoe, Davey. "The Basic Strokes." RacquetWorld Review 2(4): 20-3.

LawrOnce, A. Paul. Fundamentals of Racquetball.San Diego, CA: Ektelon, 1976.

-Roberson, Richard, and Olsen, Herbert. Begin-niiirtfand011. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub-lishing Comäny7-Lnc969.

Strandemo, Steve. "Game al is." Racquet-ball 6(2): 10-4.

Verner, BilL Racquetball. Palo Alto, CA: MayfieldPublishing Company, 1977.

Wickstrom, Ralph. "Beginning Syndrome."Racquetball 9(9): 30-4.

237

:defenders (p. 247)dribbling (p. 235)forwards (p. 24?)goalie (p. 246)goalkeeping (p. 246)heading (p. 242)instep pass (p. 236)instep shot (p. 241)major infraction (p. 248)midfielders (p. 247)minorinfractiorr(F-248)offsides (p. 248)oiltside-of-foot pass (p. 236)passing (p. 236)tackling (p. 243)throw-ins (p. 243)trapping (p. 23 7)volley (p. 241)

,."-----

..

..

-

..

a

INTKODUCTION

Sdccer is the world's most popular sport.It is a simple, inexpensive, and safe activitywhich can-'be enjoyed by both boys andgirls regardless of-size or age. 'This teamsport can be played leisurely at a slow de-liberate pace as recreational soccer or at avery fast pace as professional or World Cupcompetition. At all levels eye=foot coordi-nation is a basic part of the game since theball is kicked up and down the field. Fitnesscomponents .such as strength and endur-ance must also be developed along withagility, quickludgment, tactics, and strat-egy.

In earlier times fitness ma have beenstressed in playing soccer,.but due to theriumber of players on a team, other skillsremained undeveloped. For example, inJapan a game called Kemari was playedwhere a leather-filled ball would be kickedfrom one end ofia village to the other with-as many as a few hundred players on ateam. However the modern version of soc-cer originated in England with the forma-tion of Association Football, later shortenedto "Assoc" which became the word "soc-cer." In 1863, the English Football Associa-Hal was organized giving soccer unifiedrules for the fiist time. F.I.F.A. (FederalInternationale Football Association), estab-lished in 1904, has become the governingbody of world soccer and under its leader-ship the U.S.S.F. (United States SoccerFederation), founded in 1913, oversees soc-cer 'organizations in our country.

One of these organizations is the'U.S.Y.S.A. (United States Youth Soccer

CHAPTER 16

Soccer

JOHN F. FELLENBAUM, JR.,Lincoln Junior High School

andFranklin and-Marshall allege,

Lancaster, PA

Association) wjtich, 'since its formation in1974, already represents over two millionyouth soccer players. Soccer is the fastestgrowing team sport in the United Statc.1.

-,SKILLS AND TECHNIQUM

DRIBBLING

Dribbling is the use of soft touches of thefeet to control the ball on the ground with-out the help of a teammate. Three differenttypes of dribbling are inside of the foot,outside of the foot, and with the,sole of thefoot.

With the inside of the foot, the ball isgen tly-touched-at-the-base-ofithcRater toeand pushed along the ground with control.Using the outside of the foot, the ball iscaressed at the base of the small toe andusing the sole of the foot, the ball can berolled forward and backward and in a rightand left direction. In soccer both feet shouldbe used, the ball should be kept close to thefeet, short strides should be taken, and theweight should be carried on the. supportfoot.

Dribbling Exercises1. Dribble in a restricted area, changing di-

rections and speed.2. Dribble around cones or pylons.3. Dribble against a passive defender.4. Dribble against an active defender.

-Self-testing

Place six cones, three yards apart and timehow long it takes to weave around thecones and back again.

4

2'):J


Figure 1. Dribbhng with the inside of the foot.

PASSING

Figure 2. Dribbling with the outside of tke foot.

The outside-of-the-foot pass is done by

Passing is the art of playing the ball fromonc piaxer to another..If is the fastest way toadvance the ball on the field and:therefore,is one of the most important skills to bedeveloped.

To have success, proper coordination be-tween the server receiver is necessary.Timing of the pass, proper pace on the ball,and correct contact with the ball are essen-tial elements in good sassing.

Passing Witii the inside of the foot is themost accurate type of short-pass. This ismade with the inside of the loot just belowthe ankle bone between the big toe and theheel. Points to remember using the inside-of-the-foot pass:

when striking the ball, lock the ankle withthe toes pointed upward;concentrate' on the ball;follow straight through the target withthe kicking foot;contact the ball from the center to the topwith the support foot pointed toward thetarget.

2 u

striking theValhvittrthe-outside-part.of-theinstep. The ball is contacted on the outsidepart of the shoelaces with the support footplaced away from the ball to give the kick-ing leg room to properly kick the ball. Thistype of kicking motion comes from the kneeand is a flicking action of the leg.

A player saves time with this pass sincethe lead foot can be used and it is not neces-sary to set up as for.the inside of the foot. Insoccer, which is a game of time and space, itis important to be able to use this type ofpass. Points to remember using the out-side-of-the-foot pass: .1

keep the ankle ,locked and ate toespointed downward on the kicking foot;concentrate on the ball and followthrough with the kicking foot to thetarget;strike the center to the top half of the ballto keep it low.The instep pass which is executed with

the hardest part of the foot is used forpower irfpassing or shooting. It is geneTally

utilized for long passes downfield or bydefenders to get the ball out ofidanger infront of the goal. Points to remember withthe instep pass are:4 concentrate on the ball;

lock the ankle;follow through to the target;

4 the support foot should be beside the ball6-8" away and pointing toward thetarget,:

Passing Exercises1. TwO playferkpass the ball back and forth

down the fiela using the inside and out-side of the foot.

2. Several pla'Yiers in a cikle 'pass to eachother and follow the pass.

Self-testingPass ten times with each foot through

two cones three y ards apart from a distanceof ten to fifteen yards.

COLLECTING

Trapping or "collecting" is the ability tocontrol the ball on the ground or in the airand stop it close to the body before it is put

SOCCER 237

into play. When a ball is not properly col-lected, possession can easily be lost andtaken by the opponent.

One must be able to collect balls that areon the ground or in the air. With groundballs the sole of the foot, the inside of_thefoot, and the outside of the foot, can be

_used-Aid/as can be collected with varioussurfaces such as the inside and outside ofthe foot, the thighs, and the chest.

Ground BallsThe sole of thd collecting foot is raised

about four_inches.off the, ground with theknee slightly bent. The toes are higher thanthe heel so the rolling ball is wedged in the"V" formed between the sole of the footand the ground. The inside of the foot trapcan be performed the same way as the in-side of the foot pass except the foot is drawnback on contact to cushion the ball. Theankle, instead of being locked, should berelaxed for ball control. The outside of thefoot trap is similar to the outside of the footpass except the foot is relaxed tt; cushionthe ball.

Figure.3. Inside-of-foot pass.

{:

24 1.


a. Put the balance foot aheadand away from the ball sothat there is room to swingthe kicking foot.

Air Balls

b. Point the toes of the kickingfoot down and hold the anklefirm. Kick.with the outside ofthe foot through the center ofthe ball.

Figure 4. Outside-of-foot pass.

In the thigh trap coiled-frig fs done bygetting in. the path of the ball and movingtoward it. Just before the ball arrives, raisethe thigh andmake contact with the insideof the thigh drawing it back and allowingthe ball to drop to the ground.

With the chest trap, once again it isjm-portant to position the body.in the path ofthe ball. Lean back with the chest and, oncontact with the ball, relax the chest andstraighten the body to bring the ball undercontroL Using the instep, get in the ball'spath, relax the instep on contact, and-drawthe ball tosthe ground. Collecting air ballswith the inside and outside of the foot is the5Ame..procedure as when collecting groundballs with the inside and outside of the footPoints to remember in collecting.

body in path of the ball;relax body surface on contact;concentrate on ball;deaden balls on ground as quickly as pos-sible.

2,1r)

,

c. Keep the eyes on the ball andfollow through wiih thekicking foot.

Collecting Exercises1. Two players pass the ball back and forth

while practicing collecting.2. In a circle, practice passing and collect-

ing.3. Two players stand 8 yards apart and

throw the ball underhanded to practicecollecting air balls.

Self-testingOne player throws the ball to the other

receiver who is awarded a point for eachgood trap.

SHOOTINGIn today's game of "t,..tal" soccer, the ob-

jective is for all players to play both offenseand defense. Fullbacks have opportunitiesto score goals and every player, except thegoalkeeper, must learn to shoot withipowerand accuracy. Unless shooting is learned,one cannot be a complete player.

The most powerful type ofshot in soCCeris the instep shot. Contact is made on thehardest part of the foot at the shoelaces.

SOCCER 239

yos

Afri;ok

a. Bring The kicking foot backand keep the eyes on the ball.

b. Hold the ankle of the kickingfoot firm and point the toes,down so that the ball is hit bythe top of the instep.

Figure 5. Instep pass.

.c. Kick through the center of the

ball and follow through withthe toes pointed down.

d. Move the leg foneard andmeet the ball with the insideof the foot.

e. Move the foot back as contactis made to slowthe balldown.

f. Bring the ball far back tocontrol it and stop it dead.

Figure 6. Collecting low balls with the inside of the foot.

2.1 3

6

240 ITYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

a. Meet tile ball in midair withthe thigh.

b. Let the ball land midwaybetween the knee and the topof the thigh.

Figure 7. Collecting high balls with the thigh.

d. Prepare to meet the ball withthe center of the chest. Archthe body backward tocushion the ball.

c. Withdraw the thigh oncontact so that the ball dropsto the groimd.

e. Bend the knees to aid incushioning the ball.

Figurt 8. Collecting high balls with the chest.

2 1

f. When contact is made,straighten the chestimmediately so that the balldrops directly down.

o

The instep shot is done the same way as theinstep pass, only the ball sl,ould be kickedon the top half to keer ti-4 shot low.

One of the most dit.icult shots to doproi--,elly is the volley became of the re-

a. To prepare to kick the approaching ball Le it andpoint the balance foot toward it.

SOCCER 241

quired timing.,The ball has to be struck i;utof the air with the st ?port foot pointedtoward the target; the kicking foot is heldrigid and must hit through the center of theball straight toward the goal.

b. Point the foes down and keep the ankle rigid, asin instep passing. Strike through the center of theball. Put plenty of weight behind the shot bylifting ttw heel of the balance foot at the momentof impatl.

Figure 9. Volley shot using the instep:

c. Prepare to kick theapproaching ball by facing it

:and pointing the balance.foottowahl it

t4444

d. Keeping the toes down and e. Pivot on the balance foot inthe ankle rigid, strike through the direction the shot is to go.the center of the ball. ., Put weight behind the shot by

. .e .lifting the heel of the Valance

d foot at the moment of impact.

Figure 10. Siciew;lys volley shot using the instep.

2 5"I 1 f:. 4 .. ; .'..... A

Sit


Shooting Exercises1. Two lines, one from the left and one

from the right, alternately dribble andshoot at goal from 15 to 18 yards.

2. Two or three players passing the ballbetween them down the field and oneplayer takes a shot at goal from 15 to 18yards.

Self-testingTen balls are placed on the ground in a

semicircle about 15 yards from the goal and. a shooter tries to score using first the right

foot, then the left foot. Continue alternat-ing feet ontil all balls have been kicked.

HEADING

Heading is the ability to control,.pass, ordirect the ball with the head. A completesoccer player needs .to perform heading

, skills to score a goal, collect theball, pass toa teammate, or, as a defender, head theballOut of danger. ,

When heading from a stationary, orstanding position, the feet should be placedshoulder width apart while bending at theknees and waist and arching the back. Thechin should be touching the chest as the

a. Keep the feet shoulder widthapart. Bend the knees andarch the back from the hips.

ittotio

ir

cP.ow

b. Tuck the chin into the chestand whip the body forwardso that the ball is hit with theforehead.

body is whipped forward striking the ballwith the head. On contact, the chin is re-leased from the chest and the bill, hitstraight through to the goal.

In a jumping header, or jumping to heddthe ball, the skill is performed the same asin standing heading, only contact with thebOl is made at the top of the jump. Thetake-off is usually on one foot and the headis snapped through the ball to the target.

Heading Tips1. Got in the path of the ball.2. Concentrate on the ball, keeping the

eyes.open and the mouth closed.3. Strike the top half of the bail to pass oi

shoot, and the bottom half to clear theball out of danger.

4. begin to move the head when the ball i;about 12 inches away and contact theball on the forehead.

Headhlg Exercises1. Practice headirig tc another player 8

yards away. Pass the ball back and forthacross a circle of players.

2. Count the number of times the ball isheaded without touching the ground.

40-4

Figure 11. Stationary heading.

2 1 )

C. As contact is made, releasethe chin and follow throughwith the forehead.

SOCCER 243

a. Keep the eyes on the b.Mlwhile jumping up to meet it.Slightly arch the back.

jINAPWA/444-4 Ja.44.441.44..

b. At the high point of the c. Follow through with the headjump, meet the ball with the and upper body in theupper part of the forehead, direction the ball is to go.

Figure 12. Jump heading.

Self-testingCount the number of times a thrown ball

can be accurately headed to a teammate'sfeet.

TACKLING

Tackling is Zhe act of taking the ball awayfrom the opponent. By making good tacklesand winning the ball all over the field, ateam is ensured of greater success Points toremember on the front tackle:

square up on the opponent;bend the knees and keep a low center ofgravity;block the ball with the tackling foot;keep the weight on the support leg;push the ball through with the tacklingfoot.

Tackling Exercises1. Two players stand 15 yards apart. One

player passes to a teammate who trapsand dribbles the ball while the firstplayer makes the tackle.

2. Two players start in a tackling stance at astationary ball and, on a given signal,each player tries to gain possession ofthe ball.

Self-testingPlay one against one in a small area (10

y ards- bx 10 yards) for two minutes andwhoever has possession of the ball for thelongest time is the winner.

THROW-INS

A throw-in is the method used to put theball into play from the sideline or touchline.For the standing throw-in, the player facesthe field with two hands equidistant on theball. The ball is thrown from back over thehead with a follow-through and both feet incontact with the ground. A running throw-in is done the same as a standing throw-inexcept the thrower runs to gain distance onthe throw.

Throw-in Exercises1. Two players practice throws back and

forth.2. One player runs and the other player

attempts to throw to the moving player'sfeet.

Self-testing1. Mark five targets at various places on the

field.. Attempt one standing throw-inand one running throw-in at each target.Score two points for each direct hit and

2147

'

c

<,


:

a. Block ball with tackling foot. b. Weight on non-tackling leg.

C. Knees are bent. d. Push ball through with tackling foot.

Figure 13. Tackling techniques.

. L.,

.. ,

..

SOCCER 245

a. Use staggered stance with b. Lean trunk backward. Knees c. Bend elbows with ball behind head'feet approximately12 inches are bent.apart.

1

d. Drive trunk forward and straighten arms.

i

e. Follow through to target.

Figure 14. Throw-in techniques. 2 4 9..


one for each near miss (within threefeet).

2. Repeat the same exercise using a movingplayer as a target. A two-point throwwill land just in front of his`her feet. Aone-point throw may be up to four feetin front of the player.

GOALKEEPING

The goalkeeper is the only player on thefield allowed to use the hands and, beingthe last line of defense, serves a very impor-tant function. Not only does the keeper tryto prevent goal-scoring by the opponents,but is also in a position to begin the team'sattack with a quick outlet pass to an un-guarded teammate. Because of their impor-tant team function, "goalies" must learn touse both feet and hands.

Catching Ground BallsWhen catching ground balls, face the ball

with the body directly facing the line of

Figure 15: Positioning and grip.

flight. Bend at the waist allowing the armsto drop with the Palms facing the ball andthe fingers spread. Hands and elbowsshould be held close together. On contactwith the ball give with the hands and bringthe ball up to the chest. The procedure forcatching low air balls is the same as catchingground balls. With the high air balls, anatteinpt should be made to get the chest inback of the ball. Hands should be held closetogether with the fingers spread and thethumbs touching each other.

SAFETY"

Players can protect themselves from in:-jury in soccer by keeping physically fit, bydeveloping proper skills, and bTusing bddyprotectors. Soccer is a vigorous game forwhich the body should be gradually con-ditioned. Warm up completely every daybefore practice or playing a game. Take careof early season blisters and muscle pulls.Alternate tennis shoes with soccer shoesthe first week to help prevent blisters. Kick-ing too haid at the beginning of the seasonoften results in.serious strains in the legs

,and groin.Injury can be prevented by using shin-

guards and guards for glasses (the latter a"must" for the player who has to play withglasses). Shinguards are worn inside knee-length socks.

Shoes are the most important part of theplayer's equipment. Regulation shoes arecleated with rubber to protect the playeragainst slipping.

It is recommended that the goalie wear adistinguishing color to enable forwards torecognize him/her easily as they attack. Theprivileges of a goalie may result in danger-ous maneuvers if he/she is not knoWn dur-ing an aggressive play.

Never kick a ball that is above the hipsand never head a ball 'that is below thehead.

The playing fields or areas should bechecked for holes and cleaned of dangerousobjects*such as rocks and glass.

Shinguards can be worn as optionalequipment to protect the legs from injuries.

25u

RULES

The soccer field is rectangular (110-120yards in length and 55-75 yards in width).The official ball is made of leather or a syn-thetic material. It is 27-28" in circumfer-ence and weighs between 14 and 16 ounces.A soccer team consists of eleven players,divided'among the following positions:

6oalie the person w ho defends the goalagainst scoring attempts. Tbe goalie is theonly play er whc is allowed to touch the ballw ith his:her hands. This privilege is onlyalloW'ed, however, when they are withinthe penalty area.

Corner Area1 Yd. Radius

0.1

Corner FlagsNot Less than

5' High

SOCCER 247

Defenders field players whose task is tohelp defend the goal. They are frequentlyreferred to as wings, the stopper, and the-sweeper.Midfielders players who provide a link be-tween the offense and the defense. Theyare frequently called on to assist both thedefenders and the forwards and must beable to assume either role with equal skill.Midfielders are often referred to ashalfbacks.Forwardsthe scorers on the team. Oftenreferred to as strikers or wings, they alignthemselves in positions to gain_the advan-tage over the defense and score on the goal:

GoalGoal Area /8 Ft. High

r--1

18 Yds.

-- 65-75 Yds. ---)/

Center Circle10 Yd. Radius

GoalArea

GoalLine

HalfwayLine

Penalty Kickmark

20 Yds.

24,J

---- 36 Yds.--- )

Diagram 1. Regulation soccer field.

6 Yds.

252,


The game of soccer consists of two 30-minute halves and is begun with a kickoff inthe center of the field. Every player must bein his/her own half of the field and the initialkick must be forward and move at least onefull revolution before being touched byanother player. Kickoffs occur at the start ofeach half And after each goal. A goal maynot be scored from the kickoff.

After the kickoff, play continues until theball passes out-of-bounds, a penalty occurs,or a goal is sgored. A goal is worth one pointand is credited only when the entire ballpasses over the goalline and into the goal. Aball which is on or only partially over thegoalline will not be considered a score. Agoal will not count if an Offensive player isoffsides. Offsides occurs when an offen-

, sive player is nearer the opponent'sgoalline than the ball unless: the player is inhis/her own half of the field; two defensiveplayers are between The offensive playerand the goalline; the ball was last played bythe other team.

If, during the course of play, the ball pas-ses out-of-bounds on the sidelines, it isawarded to the-team opposite that whichlast touched it. The team awarded posses-sion will then restart play with a throw-in.If the ball passes out-of-bounds at the end-lines, the game is restarted with either agoal kick or a corner kick depending onwhich team last touched the ball. If the of-fense last touched it, then a goal kick isawarded. If the defense last touched theball, the game is restarted with a cornerkick.

When, during the course of play, it be-comes necessary for an official to stop playdue to a rule infraction, either a minor ormajor infraction may be called. A minorrule infraction is penalized by awarding anindirect free kick to the team which wasfouled. If the official views the infraction asa major penalty, a direct free kick may beawarded. A direct free kick, unlike an indi-rect free kick, may go directly into the goalwithout being touched by another player. Ifa major defensive infraction occurs withinthe penalty area, a penalty kick will beawarded. This is a free kick from thetwelve-yard line with no defenders except

r)252

the goalie between the ball And the goal.For a further explanation of the rules of

soccer and the judgment involved in asses-sing penalties, the reader is referred to thevarious soccer rulebooks, particularly theNational Federation edition.

STRATEGY

Currently popular soccer alignments arethe 4-2-4, 4-3-3, and 4-4-2 (see Diagrams2-4, respectively).

1 1

GoalieSweeper

Wingback WingbackStopper

Halfback HalfbackWing Striker Striker Wing

Diagram 2. The 4-2-4 alignment.

GoalkeeperSweeper

Right Back Left Back

MidfielderForward

Stopper-Midfielder

Forward

MidfielderForward


Goalkeeper

Right Back Sweeper Left Back

Stopper

Midfielder Midfielder Midfielder Midfielder

Forward Forward


The 4-2-4 formation lends itself well to themodern concept of complete soccer whereall players are able to play offense and de-fense. A lot of movement and interchangeof offensive players is one way to confusethe defense and create scoring chances. Ifthe offense can force the defense to spread

out then there is more space available forscoring opportunities. Defensively, a teamwants to stay compact and support eachother on the ball, rather than spreading out'to the point that the players are unable tohelp each other.

TERMINOLOGY

Backs. Halfbacks and fullbacks.Center Circle. A circle with a 10-yard radius at

the center of the field.Centerline. A line connecting the two sidelines

at midfield, dividing the field into two equalparts.

Clear. A defensive play moving the ball awayfrom scoring range.

Corner Kick. A direct free kick taken by theoffensive team from within a one-yard arc atthe corner of the field.

Direct. Free Kick. An .unobstructed place kickwhich may go directly into goal.

bispossessing. Taking the ball away from anopponent. Tackling.

Dribble. The act of running with the ball undercontrol using a series of pushes or taps of thefeet.

Feed. To pass the ball to a teammate in positionfor a shot on goal.

Goal Area. A marked area immediately in frontof the goal twenty-four yards wide and sixyards deep.

Goal Kick. An indirect frJe kick taken by thedefense after the ball has passed over the end-line.

Goalline iEndline). The bounjary line markingthe end of the field.

Head. To play the ball with the head.Holding. To restrict an opponent's movement

with the arms or hands.

SOCCER 249

Indirect Free Kick. An unobstructed place kickwhich must be'touched by another player be-fore it can enter the goal.

Instep. The inside portion of the foot from thetoes to the ankle.

Interchanging. Offensive players moving outof regular positions to confuse the defense.

Offside. A ,player who is nearer the oppo-nent's goalline than the ball at the moment theball is played except as provided by the rules.

Pass. To kick or head the ball to a teammate.Penally Area. A marked area in front of the

goal, 44 yards wide and 18 yards deep.Penalty Kick. A direct free kick taken by the

offensive team in response to a foul occurringin the penalty area.

Save. To prevent the ball from entering thegoal.

Striking. The act of kicking or contacting theball.

Tackle. A maneuver used to cause an opponentto lose possession of the ball.

Throw-in. A method of restarting the gameafter the ball has gone out-of-bounds over thesideline.

Trap. A method of bringing the ball under aplayer's control.

REFERENCES

Chyzowych, Wc,Iter. The Official Soccer Book.Chicago, IL: Rand, McNally and Company1979.

Kenney, Gene. Soccer. North Palm Beach, FL.The Athletic Institute, 1977.

Stanley, D. K., and Wagcow, D. F. PhysicalEducation Activities Handbook. Boston, MA:Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1962.

U.S.S.F. Soccer Tips. How to Improve Your Skills.New York: U.S.S.F., 1977.

2,5'1_

.advancve

(P. 26211)

256?back"'

rb (P'-.60255),Paewe

(r-26°'6.0x2.balleK-

25.')

t (P259

bunnd (P'

env:diarno,(feh(npl. 226w,

262)ru (lip.

26011"tinfineinldgfl(py

.225598))

254)

(p)

llead-off(I)

tale (Ia.253)

pitc her's e.n (P'dy

P 59)rea

(-, 266)2

(p. 262)251)signaitch

(1). 2)

slawP

26squeeze,262).steal

I.;260)

261)strike

rapfie (11

25'1

INTRODUCTION

The game of softball is nearly onehundred years old. It has undergonenumerous changes since its first appear-ance on Thanksgiving Day in 188. GeorgeHancock of Chicago, is credited withoriginating the game. Hancock made thefirst ball out of a boxing glove and wrote thefirskset of rules which were modified as thegame spread throughout the United Statesand Canada. Some of softball's variationswere known as Kitten Ball, Mush Ball FastBall, Big Ball, and Diamond Ball.

It soon became apparent that there was aneed to standardize the rules and equip-ment used for the game. The first set ofunified softball rules was established in1933. The Amateur Softball Associationwas created in 1934 and still remains thegoverning body for softball in the UnitedStates. This organization has done much toencourage expanded programs for partici-pants of all ages and competitive interests.Leagues are sanctioned under the sponsor-ship of ASA as well as state, regional, andnational tournaments.

The twelve-inch slow pitch gameemerged in the mid-1950s. This game per-mits a team to be successful without pos-sessing a pitcher who is a fast-ball, strike-out artist. Rules require that the ball bepitched with an arc of anywhere from threeto twelve feet. Slow pitch was first playedprimarily by older players, but this empha-sis has. changed. The fact that there arsgmany hits and runs indicates that the gameis filled with plenty of actiOn.

The ASA has developed a broad youthprogram foliboth fast and slow pifch. Mostlocal communities sponsor summer softballleagues on different competitive levels andfor various'ages. Coed teams are popularfor school intramurals as well as for city

CHAPTER 17

SoftballBECKY L.SISLEY,

University of Oregon,Eugene, OR

league play. There are plenty of opportuni-ties to enjoy the ekiting and challenginggame of softball.


The following basic skills are essential inplaying softball: throwing; catching; field-ing; batting; running. The first three areconsidered defensive skills while battingand baserunning are offensive skills.

THROWING

There are three basic ways of throwing:overhand, underhand, sidearm. Regard-less of which type of throw is used, thesefundamentals should be observed:1. Stand in a stride position with the foot

opposite the throwing hand in front.2. Grip the ball' with the first and second

fingers on top of the ball and with the'thumb under the ball (three fingers maybe used with a small hand). The ballrests only on the finger pads and is awayfrom the palm of the hand.

3. On, the wina-up, rotate the body byturning the glove side toward the direc-tion of the throw. Keep the eyes on thetarget as the body weight is rotated ontikthe rear foot.

4. The elbow should lead the forward armmotion with the hand following.

5. As the throwing arm moves forward, letthe body rotate forward so that theweight is transferred from the rear footto the front foot.

6. Release the ball with the fingers pointingtoward the target.

7. Follow through with the arm in the di-rection of the target.

Each of the throws differ in regard to theposition of the palm of the hand as the ballis released. In the overhand throw the palmfaces down; in the underhand throw the

ri%) t)

N


,

,

Figure:1. Overhead throwing pattern:

2t-'0,du

palm faces up; in the sidearm throw thepalm faces the body.

Since the ball can be thrown farther withthe overhand throw, it should be used bycatchers and outfielders; however, allplayers can use this more easily controlledand accurate throw when they have suffi-cient time to make a play. The sidearmthrow is generally used by infielders whenthey need to throw in a hurry. When tos-sing the bill a short distance to a teammate,use an underhand throw.

The overhand throw is one of the mostused skills in softball. Figure 1 shows thebody action of a skillful thrower. Noticethat the rear leg is under the body, support-ing the body weight, at the beginning of themovement pattern. The weight is trans-ferred to the front foot as the body starts torotate toward the target. It is important thatthe elbow of the throwing arm be held upand away from the body and that the arm isdirected forward in a whip-like action. Thewrist is snapped just as the ball is released.The greater the distance and the faster themovement of the arm, the greater the forcethat can be transferred to the ball.

The following activities can be used toevaluate ability in the overhand throw. .

Throw to a Wall TargetPlace a target consisting of three concen-

tric circles on the wall. The center circleshould measure two feet in diameter, themiddle circle four feet, and the outencircleshould be six feet in diameter. Stand be-hind a line 40 feet from the wall for girls and65 feet for boys. Attempt to throw the ball tothe center of the target. Score five points forhitting within the smallest circle, threepoints for hitting within the middle circle,and one point for hitting within the outercircle. Ten 'rials may be attempted. Scorethe total of all trials.

Velocity ThrowStand in the shortstop position. Field a

ground ball which is thrown by a teammatefiom home plate and throw to first base.The ball must be picked up after it hascrrossed a line between second and thirdbase.

SOFTBALL 253

Throw for DistanceMeasure ,the distance the ball can be

thrown in the air. Make sure that the arm isproperly warmed up before throwing ashard as possible.

CATCHING AND FIELDING

A large part of catching and fielding isbeing in a "ready" position, able to movequickly to react to a hit. In this position thebody is crouched with the knees and hipsflexed. The feet should be comfortablyapart in a parallel position. The handsshould rest on the knees, or the armsshould hang lo,osely toward the ground asthe pitcher begins the delivery. The.eyesshould focus on the pitcher. As the ball ispitched, the weight is evenly distributed onthe balls of the feet, the body leans forward,and the arms are slightly raised, putting thebody in a complete state of alertness. This isparticularly true of outfielders. Infieldersusually have their gloves close to theground as they anticipate the hit.

Fielding Ground BallsLearning how to properly field ground

balls requires much practice. Figure 2shows the position for fielding a groundball. The following cues describe the me-chanics of this skill.

Fipirta;_fielding a ground ball.j


1. The eyes need to watch the batter'sswing and remain in contact with theball throughout the fielding action.

2. The body is moved to center behind theball.

3. The feet should be in a stride positionwith the knees bent and the glove sidefoot forward.

4. The body should be bent at the waistwith the hiPs low to the ground.

5. The arms should be outstretched, andthe fingers pointed 'downward with the'little fingers together. Contact sbould bemade with the ball opposite the g:oveside foot.

6..The arms should "give" as the bM1 is-caught.The following drills can be done to de-

elop ground ball fielding ability:1. Wall rebound fieldingthrow a rubber

ball or tennis ball against a wall. React tothe rebound off the wall to field the ball.The ball' can be thrown slightly to theright or to the left so that the player willhave to move to get behind the ballwrien fielding.

2. Fielding thrown ballshave a partnerthrow ground balls to the right and left. .

Have the balls thrown softly at first andthen thrown harderas fielding abilityimproves.

3. Fielding hit ballshave a batter hitground balls to be fielded. See if ten balls'in a row can be successfully fielded andreturned to a catcher.

Fielding Fly BallsWhen catching fly balls players should

position themselves so that the ball iscaught on the throwing side of the body infront of the throwing shoulder. These cuesemphasize the mechanics of catching a flyball:1. Hustle to where the ball is to be caught.2. Get the body behind the ball and move

forward to catch.3. Have the arms outstretched and make

the catch with two hands at head height.Hands are held with thUmbs togetherand fingers pointed upward.

4. The catching motion blends into thebackswing for the throw as the bodyweight shifts onto the thrdwing side leg.

5. Grasp the ball securely before throwingand make sure the body weight is bal-anced.

Playen- -.lust learn to get a quick startwhen fielding fly balls and also to call forthe ball if rhore than one player is likely totry to make the catch. It is best to clearly andloudly yell "mine" or "I have it."

The following drills will belp to improveskill in fielding fly balls.1. Cotching thrown ballsstand about

twehty feet from a partner. Have the'partner throw the ball, so that it can 13',caught with a forward, backward, orsrdeward movement of tbe body.

2. Turn and catchstand approximatelyten feet from a partner with the back

. turned. Have the. partner toss the ball. high into the air and yell "turn" as they

do so. When the partner yells, turn, lo-cate the ball, move into position, andmake the catch before the ball hits theground.

3. Catch thrown ballsstand?lye feet from apartner who will be the thrower. Runtoward the thrower, tos's him or ber aball, then circle away. The throwershould toss the ball high into the air as ifthrowing a long forward pass. Run outand away, keeping an eye on the ball.Move into position and make the catch.

PITCHING

Another major defensive skill in softballis pitching. As a pitcher, know how.to gripthe ball, release the ball, control the pitch,pitch the ball so that it hits the corners of theplate, and be ready to field a batted ball.The style of pitching will vary dependingon whether fast or slow pitch ball is beingplayed. The pitching rules describe whatmakes a pitch legal. The mechanics pre-sented here will be for fast pitch. Rule dif-ferences which relate to slow pitch are dis-cussed later ;.. il.e chapter.

In m.fung a legal pitch assume a startingposition with the ball held in both hands infront of the body and with both feet touch-ing the pitcher's plate. Tale only one steptoward the batter as the ball is released. Asecond step is necessary to follow throughto regain balance and get the body in a goodfielding position. The quicker thp arm and

ha ndare moving anhe time of- release, thefaster the ball can be thrown. The pitchingmotion can be divided into three distinctphases: the backswing; the forward swingand release; the follow-through.

BackswingSwing the pitching arm backward as far

as possible. try to get the hand up higherthan the shouldel. Let the shoulders andhips rotate toward third base (left-hatidedpitchers toward first base) while cocking,the, wrist. Thrp.ughout this motion theweight should be placed on the hack foot.

Forward Swing and ReleaseThe Weight begins to shift forward as a

step ferward on the,foot opposite the pitch-ing arm is.taken. The shoulders'and hipsrotate back tO their original position so thatthey face the batter. As the pitching handswings past the thigh the wrist snaps fOr-ward and the hand releases the ball.

Follow-throughThe pitching arm continues up and

across the body while the rest of the bodycontinues to face the batter in the readyposition so that the ball can be fielded ifnecessary.

. A good pitcher must practice many hoursto develop speed and control. The follow-ing drills may be of help1. Wall target pitchingplace a target the

size of a normal strike zone on the wall.Boys take their pitching stance 46 feetfrom the wall while girls stand 40 feetfrom the wall. Practice pitching to thetarget using a legal pitching motion.

2. Four cornersfor this drill pitching maybe done to a catcher or a wall target.Practice throwing at the extreme cornersof the normal strike zone Tor the purpose

developing control and accuracy.Sin4 is iJprtant to concentrate onthe catc s target, ifprn to wait off the

d until the catcher is ready. Oncethe catcher is in position step on themound and begin the motion.

3, Calling balls and strikespitch a desig-nated number of innings to a catcherwho is calling balls and strikes. This drillpermits different count situations andgame-like pressure to be experienced.

SOFTBALL 255

BAITING

Batting is a striking activity that involveshitting one moving object with another.The most important factor in hitting a ball isto provide force with the bat. A firm grip isneces3ary to transfer power,and to controlthe bat. In latfing, praeces and drills areessential for developing timing, a levelswing, and a "batting eye." It is selthim thattwo players IN use identical batting tech-niques.

The follbwing fundamentals lead to goodbatting skills:1. Use a harwhich feels comfortable to

swing and is easy to control. Make surethat the weight and length of the bat andthe size of the grip in relation to thesizeof the hands is right. Avoid 'he tendencyto use a bat which is too heavy or toolong.

2. While waiting for the pitcher to deliverthe ball, hold the bat with a firm butrelaxed grip. Hands are together at theneck of the bat. The arin closest to thepitcher should be extended parallel tothe ground. Hold the bat back #nd offthe right shoulder (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Batting stance.

9 e-J

J.


3. Stand in a comfortable position facingthe home plate. Turn the head towardthe pitcher so that the oncoming ball isbeing viewed directly. Remember towatch the ball as it is released by thepitcher and step into the swing with theleft foot.

4. The bat should be swung forward in asmooth motion to make contact with theball in front of home plate. (Note: Thereis a tendency for the inexperienced bat-ter to jerk the bat forward then backwardand then forwari again.)

5. Finish the swing with a follow-throughpast the left hip.

6. The feet should provide a solid base ofsupport with the back foot planted.

As progress is made in the ability to batand as skill becomes more refined thesecues for efficient performance should beemphasized: swiag the bat level; have thearms straight and snap the wrists at thdpoint of contact; keep the body level duringthe swing (no dipping); keep, the step 10-ward the pitcher short and consistent, keepthe head position still. \

There are a number of wpys to work onbatting skill. Some suggestfOns are below.

Mirror SwingStand in front of a mirror and take a nor-

mal swing. Concentrate on the mechanicsof a good swing. The bat can also be swungwipe a partner evaluates form.

Toss BallStand about tcn feet from a net, fence, or

othei impact-absorbing surface A partnerkneels in a facing position so that he/she isopposite the rear foot and well out of swing-ing range. When in position, the partnertosses the ball to the strike zone (see Dia-gram 1). Execute a normal swing at the ball

Baiter4.1'

Tosser

Diagram 1. The toss ball drill.

2 6

It will be helpful to concentrate on one ele-ment of the swing at a time.

Batting Tee HittingHitting a stayonary ball placed at a vari-

ety of heights can be pracyced with the userer.f a batting tee. Practice hitting line drives

\ in all directions as well as distance hitting toall fields. This is also a good opportunity forother players to practice fielding. It is bestto have a catcher nearby to retrieve the ballsthrown in from the field. It is also possibleto work independently with a batting tee byhitting into a screen or backstop.

BUNTING

Fast pitch rules allow the batter to buntthe ball. A bunt is a legally hit ball, notswung at, but purposely met with the batand tapped slowly within the infield. Inmost cases the bunt is used to advance abaserunner from ong base to the next whilethe batter is put out. This i called a sacrificebunt. Some batters can have such accurateplacement on a bunt that they can beat theball to first and thus get a base hit. In addi-tion to the sacrifice bunt my:1.0e bunt for ahit there is the drag btalr'alicl swingingbunt. Foot placement varies with the typeof bunt being executed.

Bunting is an intermediate level skill thatcan add to the strategy used in the game.When performing a sacrifice bunt, the batshouid be held parallel to the ground atshoulder level in front of the body with thearms slightly extended. The batter canpivot into this position with the feet squareto the pitcher when the pitcher starts thearm action. Figure 4 illustrates the battingstance for the bunt. If the ball is low, bendthe knees so that the bat is kept level. It isgood advice to bunt only pitches which arewithin the strike zone. Diagram 2 showsthe best area in which to,place a bunt.

BASERUNNING

Running speed and the ability to usesound offensive judgment are _essentialqualities of a good baserunner. Quickly get-

SOFTBALL 257

Diagram 2. Bunt placement.

Figure 4. Bunting stance.

s., 261


ting mit of the batter's box is very impor-

tant. A common fault made by batters uponhitting the ball is waiting to se. where theball soes before running. To correct thisfault concentrate on finishing the swingand practicing the pushoff start towardfirst base. The batter should run out everyhit because a field error could occur andhe/she may reach first base safely. The.fol-lowing suggestions will help improve

baserunning:1. Keep an eye on the ball and advance

additional bases whenever possible,i.e., when,four. balls are called on thebatter, on a wild throwback from catcherto pitcher, a wild pitch, and on anypoorly thrown ball.

2. Avoid wide turns when rounding thebases.

3. Run on any hit ball when there are twootfts.

4. Lead off after each pitch and advance ifpossible (differs in slow-pitch). .

5. When running out an infield hit staywithin the running lane in foul territorywhich is designated by a while line tothe right side of the baseline about mid-way between home and first base.

6. Run along the foul territory side of theline from third base to home to avoidbeing hit by a fairly batted ball.

7. Know the numbet of outs, innings,score, and count on the bat:en

8. Avoid interfering with a player or theball while it is being fielded.

9. Listen to and watch the bace coaches for

assistance.To work on baserunning skills the follow-

ing drills can be practiced:1. Getting out of the boxpraclice taking a

swing at Pi imaginary pitch then drop-ping the bat, getting quickly out of thebox, and running straight through first

base.2. Around the basesrun all the way around

the bases making narrow turns andtouching the inside.corner of each base.Have someone time running speed with

a stopwatch.3. Stealing a basepractice leaving the base

when the ball leaves the pitcher's handand advancing to the next base beforethe catcher can make the play.

SAFETY

There is much that can be done to ensurethat the game is played under safe condi-tions and that precautions are taken to pre-ven einjury. Proper equipment which com-plies with the rules is mandatory. Thecitcher's mask and chest protector shouldfit properly. The catcher must be wearingthis equipment when a batter is involved inpractice situations as well as in gam,! play.

Bats shculd have grips which help to pre-vent them from slipping out of the batter'shands. Check to be sure that all aluminumbats are of single unit construction. Analuminum bat with a handle that is separatefroiri the barrel is dangerous because iheseelements can separate from one another on

. impact. There must always be a place to putequipment when it is not being used so thatit is not a hazard during game, play or prac-tice.

The softball diamond should be locatedwhere there are no protruding hazardssuch as goalposts, tdephone :poles, orsprinkler heads. The surface must besmooth. Rules state there must be 25 feet of

unobstructed area beyond ach foullineand behind home plate, 'and that thepitcher's plate must be securely fastened

down.It is each player's responsibility.Kwarm

up properly in order to avoid potential in-jury to muscles, joints, and tendons. Warm-

up dniis which include stretching, easythrowing, and running are an essential partof any softball class or team practice. Whendrills are performed it is important to havegroups working in the same direction andwith adequate space. It is also important to

be alert to the direction of the sun, which

can be very blinding at certain times of the

day.Everyone must do his/her part to ensure

their own safety and that of fellow players.Always keep an eye on the ball to be awareof what play is.developing and so that theappropriate reaction can be given. Be alert

for the actions of teammates and opponentsto avoid unnecessary collisions and in-juries. Remember, safe play means fun play

for all.

SCORING, RULES, AND ETIQUETTE

ME GAME

A game of softball is played between twoteams of nine players (fast pitch) or tenplayers (slow pitch) on a softball diamond.Diagram 3 shows the layout for a softballdiamond and placement of the defensiveteam. The extra player in slow pitch usuallyplays in a short field position. The object ofthe game is to score more runs than theopponent in a regulatioti game which con-sists of seven innings. An inning is that partof a game within which the teams alternateon_offense (up to bat) and defense (in thefield) and in which there are three outs foreach team. A run is scored each time abasertinner crosses home plate having le-gally touched all bases before the third outof an inning is made. The home team takesthe field first. For class and intramuralgames the team first in the field can bedetermined by the toss of a coin.

Fast Pitch and Slow Pitch Rule DilferencesThere are several major rule differences

between fast pitch and slow pitch. Most of

CF

4tie.

. SOFTBALL 259

these differences relate to pitching 'regu-lations. Listed below are some of the mostimportant rules which differ.1. In slow pitch the ball shall be released at

a moderate speed and must have an arcof at least. three feet and go no higherthan 12 feet from the ground.

2. The pitching distance for men's andwomen's slow pitch is 46 feet, while thefast pitchdistance is 46 feet for men and40 feet for women. ----

3. At the beginning of the--plia-thepitch pitcher need only have one foot incontact with the pitcher's plate while infast pitch both feet must touch the plate.

4. Slow pitch does not allow any base steal-ing and the baserunner may not leave '

the base until the ball crosses home plateor has been hit by the batter. In fast pitchthe baserunner can take a lead-off whenthe ball leaves the pitcher's hand.

5. While bunting is a major part of fastpitch, the batter is out in slow pitch ifhe/she chops downward on the ball orattempts to bunt the pitch.

6. In slow pitch if a swing is made and athird strike missed, the batter is out

Diagram 3. Softball diamond and players.

2 6 3

PPitcherCCatcher1BFirst Baseman28Second Baseman3BThird BasemanSSShortstopLFLeft FielderCFCenter FielderRFRight Fielder

I "4

260 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOLSTUDENT

whethe; the catcher catches the ball ornot. In fast pitch, if the catcher drops the

third.strtke the batter may run to firstbase With*-tfitr Iiabily to be.put out ifthere are less than twdütsaiidtIibaseis unoccupied. If there are two ohe/she may run whether or not the baseis occupied

7. If a batter htts a foul ball with a tWo strikecount in slow pitch, the batter is out.

Pitching RulesA few of the major rules are listed below.

1. The pitcher must take a stance on thepitcher's plate and present the ball infront of the body before beginning thedelivery.

2. The ball must be thrown with an under-hand motion and the wrist can be no

_farther away from the body than theeltOw-when_te wrist passes below thehip:-

3. The pitcher's delivery motion-ina_Lnotinvolve more than one arm rotation, oinclude _a change of forward motion orrocker motion where both hands returnto the ball.

4. The pitch is co'mpleted when one step istaken toward the batter as the ball. isreleased. In slow pitch a step is not re-quired.

Batting RulesListed below are some of the basic rules

for batting.1. If the batter swings at a pitched ball and

misses, a strike is called.2. If the batter gets three strikes, he/she is

called out. The batter is awarded firstbase if he/she gets four balls.

3. A foul ball is called if a hit ball landsoutside the lines defining the playingfield.

4. The batter may reaeh first base by one ofthe following methods. by hitting theball in fair territory and getting to firstbe se ball, by being hit with apitched ball, by tting a walk when four"balls" have been thrownsby-theitcher;by an error by a fielder, by the catcheThrcatcher's equipment interfering withhim/her.

5. The batter is out under these conditions.when a fielder catches his/her fly ball;

When a third strike is caught by thecatcher, or on a third strike when firstbase is occupied and there are less thantwo outs; when a bunt goes foul on athird strike; when the batted ball isthrown to first before he/she arrives;when_a_p_ "infield fly" is hit, if first andsecond baarenccupied and there areless than two outs; when he/she inter-feres With players attempting to make aput-out; when batting out of order;when hitting the ball while standing outof the batter's box.

Baserunning RulesThe batter becomes a baserunner as soon

as he/she hits the ball in fair territory. hereare some important rules which governbaserunning:1. A baserunner may leave the base as soon

as the ball leaves the pitcher's hand (fastpitch).

2. A baserunner is out if he/she interfereswith a player fielding a batted ball.

. -baserunner must run the bases inorder an-drnay-notleave the imaginarythree-foot base pathifiorder712,..a.y.fid

being tagged out.4. A baserunner is out if touched with the

ball While off a base.5. A baserunner may attempt to advance a

base after a legally caught fly ball (fair orfoul) is first touched.

6. Two baserunners may not occupy thesame base'.

ETIQUETTE

Good sportsmanship helps to make thegame of softball fun to play. There are manythings teammates cgn do to display goodsportmanship. It is important to respect the'umpires and to graciously accept their deci-sions. Be sure to give positive encourage-ment to teammates and acknowledge thegood plays of opponents. Pick up thecatcher's mask at the beginning of the in-ning. Remove the bat from home plate areawhen up to bat. Make every attempt toavoid unnecessary collisions. As a

--faaserunner or as a fielder learn how to exe-cute Skills in a safe manner which will help

' to prevent injuries. Congratulate the oppo-site team after the game. Play hard and be agood sport.

2 4

STRATEGY

The game of softball becomes more chal-lenging as basic skills improve and atten-tion is turned to offensive and defensivetactics. Probably one of the most importantelements of strategy is to place the playersin the field in the positions which bestmatch their defensive skills.

In intermediate and advanced level play,much strategy is used in determining theorder in which the players will bat. Thegame situation takes into account thenumber of outs, location of baserunners,and the score Of the game. The inning aswell as the specific skills of fielders andbatters determine the particular strategy tobe employed.

Many of the elements of strategy used inbaseball can be applied to softball. The fol-lowing hints on strategy which relate todefensive play, batting, and baserunningwill be helpful as softball playing ability isdeveloped.

DEFENSIVE PLAY

Defensive strategy results largely fromanticipation, i.e., knowing what to do withthe ball when it comes. Keep these hints inmind when concentrating on the defensiveelements of the game.1. Recognize that the primary task is to

field the ball first and then to make anaccurate throw. Get behind the ball anduse two hands when fielding.

2. Before the ball is pitched, know the playto be made. Mental preparation is im-portant.

3. Always play for one sure out.4. Talk to teammates to build strong team

unity. Remind them of the number ofouts, where the batter hit the last time

,up to bat, and give positive encourage-ment to the pitcher.

5. Know teammates' defensive skills, es-pecially those playing nearby. Be sure toknow how to share responsibilities suchas covering a base or backing up a play.(To back up a play means to be posi-tioned behind a player who is fielding ahit or thrown ball so to be in position toget the ball if it is missed by the firstfielder.)

SOFTBALL 261

6. As a baseman, do not stand on baseunless involved.in a play, because thepositioning could block a baserunner,

7. Learn how to cover a base properly for atag play or a force out.

8. As an outfielder, know the responsibili-ties for backing up hit balls and thrownballs. Effectively communicate withother fielders to avoid collisions. Thebasic rule is to threw the ball one baseahead of the runner un fly balls and twobases ahead on ground balls.

9. Hold up the throw if it will be too late tomake a play. Having good judgmentabout when not to throw is just as im-portant as knowing where to throw.

10. As a pitcher, concentrate on the targetgiven by the catcher. It is best to workon getting the ball over the plate ratherthan trying to strike out opponents.

11. Fielders must be ready to anticipate theplay and react to the action of the of-fense. Intermediate level strategy mayinvolve bunting and stealing.

12. In more advanced play the pitcher willattempt to pitch to each batter's weak-ness and the fielders will adjust theirpositions depending on the batter'sstrengths and the game situation.

BATTING STRATEGY

Some elements of batting can be prac-ticed by performing drills, however, thereal test of offensive power is how well aplayer can produce in a game. Here aresome suggestions:1. Once in the batter's box, be ready, but

relaxed, and concentrate on the pitcher.2. A batter's primary task is to hit the ball.

Be ready to swing at every pitch. Holdup the swing if the ball is not in the strikezone. Know the strike zone.

3. It is best not to swing when there is athree-ball and no-strike count.

4. Be prepared to bunt the ball if there is arunner on first base with one or no outs.

5. If a skillful batter, survey the defensivepositioning of opponents to see an openspace where a bunt or hit may be placed.

6. If playing with base coaches, look for asignal from the coach prior to movinginto the batter's box. In addition to call-ing, for a bunt, other offensive plays sig-

90


naled by the coach in the more advancedgame might be. hit and run (the battermust hit the pitch no matter where it ispitched and the baserunner "Steals"when the ball leaves the pitcher's hand),steal (the batter does not want to hit thepitch because a teammate is stealing abase and the batter must protect thebaserunner); bunt for a base hit (the bat-ter executes a short bunt when the de-fense is playing back).

BASERUNMNG STitATEGY

Aggressive baserunning is an excitingpart of softball. Although the baserunnermay not leave the base prior to the ballleaving the pitcher's hand, which is legal inbaseball, there are many offensive tacticswhich challenge each baserunner's ability.To be a good baserunner be aggressive andconfident. Below are some suggestions fordeveloping baserunning skills.1. Be sure to touch each base in order. Re-

member that second or third base can-not be oVerrun.

2. Take a lead-off with each pitch and beready to advance a base if the ball getsaway from the catcher.

3. Always know the number of outs. Ifthere are two outs, run with the hit. On afly ball hit to the outfield if there is one orno outs, stay near the base, and return tothe base after the ball is caughtaRun tothe next base after the ball is caught iftime permits. A runner on third shouldstay on the base and run home after thecatch. On ground balls with one or noouts, advance to the next base with thehit.

4. Avoid an unnecessary collision with de-.,fensive players covering a base.

5. If on first base in the early part of thegame try to steal second base to deter-mine the throwing ability and alertnessof the catcher.

6. On a bunt play, be sure the ball is hit tothe ground before advancing to the nextbase.

7. In more advanced level play, whencoaches are used to guiding the offen-sive strategy, be ready to follow the sig-nals of the coaches who might call for a

steal, hit-and-Ain, or squeeze play. Atthis leel of play the coaches analyze thedefensive strengths of their opponentsand then call for certain offensive playsdepending on the game situation.

8. It is the responsibility of the base coachto tell the baserunners to slide, stand up,stop at the base, or continue to the nextbase. Verbal and/or visual signals maybe received to indicate what it is thatneeds to be done.

The offensive and defensive strategyemployed in slow pitch is somewhat differ-

.ent from. that described above because ofrule variations. The pitching method con-tributes to more hits and more baserunners;however, some of the more advanced as-pects of batting and baserunning tactics re-lated to stealing and bunting cannot beused in slow pitch. Both games create achallenge to the players as the players at-tempt to apply strategy to beat their oppo-nents within the spirit and requirements9fthe rules.

EQUIPMENT/

The quality of softball equipment usedand its care can have a definite effect on skillperformance. Experience has shown that itis best to buy equipment which is made by awell-known manufacturer and whichmeets the official standards specified by therules. Equipment will last longer if it is ofgood quality.

BALLS

There are numerous brands and kinds ofsoftballs. Those which meet ASA approvalare so marked and have "official softball"stamped on them. The covet of the ball ismade of tanned horse or cowhide. Ballswith a whiter cover are designed for bothday and night use. These often have aslicker surface. Restricted flight balls havered seams. These balls are used for theslow pitch game. It is important that ballsbe kept dry. Once they become wet anddry out, they get heavier and cotild causeinjury to the throwing arm. It is good tohave a supply of rubber-covered balls forpoor weather.

BATS

Bats come in various shapes and sizes. Inrecent years there 11s been more use ofaluminum bats because they last longerthan wooden bats. Bats which meet rulespecifications are marked "official softball"by the manufacturer. It is good to have avariety of bats.

GLOVES

One key to success in playing softball isto have a top quality glove. Rules allow onlythe catcher and first baseman to use mitts.Purchase a glove which has a good pocketand one that can be egSily manipulated inthe hand. Glove oil may be used to loosenup the leather of a new glove. Saddle soapcan be used to clean dirt from the leather.Let a wet glove dry naturally; then oil it anduse saddle soap on it. It is helpful to store aball in the glove with a band to hold it inplace to create and retain the shape of thepocket. Treat a glove with care and it willlast a long time.

CATCHER'S EQUIPMENT

Acquiring the appropriate catcher's gearis a must. The mask needs to be adjustableso that it can snuggly fit the head. There areboth lightweight wire masks and heavierbar-style models. Chest protectors can bepurchased in different moaels and sizes.Here again, it is necessary that the protectorfit properly. For fast-pitch softball, it may

advisable for the catcher to wear shin-gua 1/4. These should be securely fastenedand fit t iJngth of the lower leg. Whenequijiment ixoperly cared for and storedin the a ppropria manner, it will lastlonger.

UNIFORMS

Sharp-looking uniforms can add spice toany team. The better the quality of the uni-form, the longer it will last. Long-sleevedundershirts are an essential part of the uni-form in cooler weather: Sun visors or hatsmay be a necessity. Sliding pads can help toprevent abrasions, especially if players arewearing shorts. Cleated shoes help to en-sure good. footing for baserunning and

SOFTBALL 263

fielding. Both rubber and metal cleats areavailable. Take pride in a uniform and carefor equipment.

TERMINOLOGY

Advance. To run from one base to the next.Backing up. A fielder moving behind another

fielder to stop the ball if an error occurs.Bag. A base.Ball. A pitch which is not within the strike zone

of a batter.Batter's Box. The area on either side of home

plate where the batter must stand when bat-ting.

Battery. The pitcher and the catcher.Bunt. A legally hit ball, not swung at, but pur-

posely tapped with the bat and directed nearthe foullines in the infield.

Cleanup. The fourth hitter in the batting order.Diamond. The area formed by the four bases

(the entire playing field is also considered thediamond).

Double Play. Defensive action which results intwo outs.

Error. A defensive misplay.Fair Ball. A batted ball which is touched or

stops between the foullines in the infield orwhich first lands between the foulline beyondthe bases.

Force Out. A putout on a baserunner who wasforced to advance due to the batter becoming abaserunner.

Foul Ball. A ball hit outside of fair territory.Full Count. Three balls and two strikes on the

batter.Infield Fly. A fair hit ball within the infield area

which can be easily caught by an infielder.With one or no outs and with runners on firstand second or all three bases, the infield flyrule is in effect.

Inning. That portion of a game within whichthe teams alternate on offense and defenseand in which there are three outs for eachteam.

Lead-off. A quick move off the base by a runneronce the ball leaves the pitcher's hand (fastpitch).

On Deck. The next batter to come to bat.Pitcher's Plate. The rubber form, two feet by six

inches, from which the pitcher must pitch.Sacrifice. A batted ball which intentionally ad-

vances the runner, but results in the batterbeing 'put out.

Shut out. A game in which one team does notscore.

Squeeze. To advance a runner home from thirdbase on a bunt.

Steal. To advance from one base to the nextfrom the time the ball leaves the pitcher'shand until helshe is ready to pitch again.


Strike Zone. That area above home plate be-tween the batter's knees and armpits (fastpitch) when the batter is in his/her normalbatting stance. The batter's highest shoulderis the top of the area for slow pitch.

Umpire. The official who calls balls and strikes,makes Judgments as to whether a runner issafe cr out, and assures that play complieswith the rules of the game.

Wild Pitch. A pitched ball which is so high, solow, or so wide that the catcher has no chanceof controlling it.

REFERENCES

Brown, Paul, et: al. Coaching Youth Softball.Chicago, IL: The Athletic Institute, 1978.

Dobson, Margaret J., and Sisley, Becky L.., Softball for Girls. New York: The Ronald Press

Company, 1971.Drysdale, Sharon, ed. NAGWS Softball Guide

January 1981January 1983. Washington, DC:The American Alliance for Health, PhysicalEducation, Recreation and Dance, 1979.

Kneer, Marian E., and McCord, Charles L.Softball Slaw and Fast Pitch. 2d ed. Dubuque,IA: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers,1976.

Walsh, Loren. Inside Softball. Chicago. IL: Con-temporary Books, Inc., 1977.

Whiddon, N. Sue, and Hall, Linda T. TeachingSoftball. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess PublishingCompany, 1980.

back stroke (back crawl) (p. 278)beginning freestyle (p. 269)bobbing (p. 268)breast stroke (p. 283)breathing (p. 267)buoyancy (p. 267)diving (p. 276)dog paddle (p. 269)elementary backstroke (p. 272)

' finning (p. 269)floating (p. 269)-forward glide (p. 268)intermediate freestyle (p. 281)jumping (p. 276)kicking (p. 269)propulsion (p.°287)push (p. 267)recovery (p. 267)resistance (p. 287)sculling (p. 271)sidestroke (p. 283)surface dive (p. 278)treading water (p. 2 72)

2 S

INTRODUCTION

Swimming is an important skill foreveryone to learn. In order to become'a goodswimmer,.one must work hard and practiceoften. It is, however, relatively easy to learnenough of the basics so that the water canbe safely enjoyed.

As in most sports, your learning shouldproceed step by step, especially at thebeginning. ereathing is a more importantfactor in swimming than in any other sportbecause one cannot breathe water. Onemust, therefore, learn when and how tobreathe while in the water. Although thisneed to regulate breathing may seemstrange and troublesome at first, it soonbecomes natural and occurs withoutthinking.

To move through the water, one mustpush in a steady continuous motion. Youpush your hands toward your feet to moveforward, or push down toward the bottomif you want to remain in one place."Recovery" is important as well, since youcan push only so far before the arm or legmust return to a satisfactory pushingposition. Breathing must be regulated asnaturally as possible within thesepropulsive movements. Additional andimportant skills include: getting into thewater by jumping or diving, ability to hold asteady position by treading water orfloating, ability to get underwater quicklyand swim a short distance underwater.When these things can be done smoothly,comfortably, and effectively by combiningmovements into various strokes, you are aswimmer, and titere are worlds of newexperiences open in many aquatic areas.

CHAPTER 18

Swimmin

ANNE ROSS FAIRBANKS,Skidmore College,

Saratoga Springs, NY


IIEGINNING TO SWIM

First StepsThe first part of learning tc; swim is

getting acquainted with the feeling of beingin water, finding out what happens whilemoving in the water. Walk into water up tothe waist. Notice how difficult it is to movethe feet quickly, how heavy it feels to walk.Push with the hands against the water inany direction and notice the pressureagainst the skin. Then go a little deeper, orbend the knees to bring the ivater chestdeep, and let the arms float relaxed on thesurface, feeling their lightness. This is thesupport the water giveg, called buoyancy.

BREATHING

Take an easy breath through the mouth,hold it, and place the face in the water.Concentrate on just holding the breath, andlet the head rest easily so that the watercovers the face but the back of the head isstill out. Hold for a few seconds, then liftthe head again, blowing the air out throughthe mouth as the head is lifted. Practice thiswhile holding onto the side of the pool or afriend's hands until able to stay under forabout ten seconds at a time. A little moreenergy to blow out must be usd than usualsince the water is being blown against,creating bubbles. Try to time it so thatblowing out occurs as the face breaksthrough the surface. This will blow awaymuch of the water which otherwise runsdown the face.

Try opening the eyes while underwater.Everything will be a little fuzzy., but

/2 27o

I


recognizable. To clear the eyes, blink a felatimes after back in the air; do not rub theeyes hard.

When fairly comfortable with the breathholding and submerging, try the sameprocedure while lying flat on the water.First, hold onto the pool edge or someone'shands. Bend the knees and place the headforward into the water. Keep leaningforward until the feet can leave the bottomand allow the legs to stretch out easilybehind the body, then lift the head andstand up. It is important to get the feetunder the body before lifting the head sothat balance can be maintained.

When working on breath control, neverstay underwater until air is desperatelyneeded. This forces the body to rise tooquickly which can throw it off-balance. Abetter plan is to move slowly to recoverfooting just as another breath is needed. Ifyour breath can be held in the water onlyfor a very short time, practice holding itwhile standing completely in the air. Thiscan be done for quite a long time.The morerapid need felt for air when the head isunderwater is really the fear of the newenvironment. The breath can soon be fieldunderwater as long as it can be on hnd.

FORWARD GLIDE

The next step is to practice the two thingslearned: taking a breath; putting the faceinthe water, followed by stretching out withthe face submerged. Can this position beglided into? If near a wall, back away a footor so and glide to the wall while leaningforward. With a friend, it's even better,because a friend can give a hand if ability ismisjudged. Keep increasing the distance,and soon the face can be put in; glideforward, ànd stand up again withoutholding onto anything. Move slowly anddeliberately, and enjoy the supportivefeeling of the water.

BOBBING

The breathing process can be furtherimproved if "bobbing" is practiced. Thismeans moving up and down whilestanding or holding onto the wall, blowingout underwater, and catching a breathagain while in the air. Concentrate onbreathing in.and out continuougly andmaintaining a steady, , relaxt.d pattern. If this'can be comfortably done ten times insuccession, a habit will be eventuallyestablished which will make breathing withstrokes much easier to learn.

'""/ il,1/1, **1

Figure 1.

KICKING

Even before learning to float, hang ontothe wall and kick the feet up and Jown. Asa friend pulls, with the face in, begin tomove the legs up and down, one at a time,making a little but nut tuu muLh splash. Thisis the start of a flutter kick. When able toglide forward alone (prune glide), trykicking a little too,Jetting the legs pass eachother with relaxed knees..

FLOATING

Floating means achieving balance in thewater without movement. It does notalways mean lying on the back with the toesout of the water. Floating can be done onthe face, rolled up in a ball (tuck float),hanging forward (jellyfish), as well as in asemi-vertical position, forward orbackward. One does not have to be able to'float to be a good swimmer, but it helps,and it is nice to feel that one canwithout effort. Almost everyone can leari*to float in some position although somepeople may need to move just a little tomaintain this position.

The forward position can beexperimented with, having the presentknowledge of breath holding and positionrecovery. To try it on the back, stand low inthe water (up to the chin), set the head backgently as on a pillow, and lean back flatuntil the feet can leave the bottom. Do notlift the feet up; let them find the placewhere they balance. This is likely to besomewhere between horizontal andvertical, Meanwhile keep the shouldersback, chest up, arms in a "Y" positron in thewater overhead. Holding the breath willhelp in floating at first. It is best toexperiment with a friend standing by, or atthe corner of a pool, for initial support.

Next see ira back glide can be done. Doeverything as would be done in a back float,except keep the arms at the sides and pushoff from the bottom a little with the feet.When at a stop, sit down, letting the armsreach forward and moving the face forwardin the water. When the feet are under thebody, stand up.

SWIMMING 269 ,

BEGINNING FREESTYLE

The front crawl or freestyle stroke canpow be begun. In the forward glideposition, take one arm at a time and pushdown and back under the middle of thebody. When the arm can go no further,sneak it back close to the body until it isforward again. The arins move one after theother as the legs do when walking. Onepushes back as the other sneaks forward. Inthe push, 'do what is natural; let the elbowbend as it wants to and just push againstthe palm of the hand. This is a "clogpaddle" and is ,much like the underwaterpart of 'freestyle swimming.

Along with the arm movements of thedog paddle, kick the legs up and downeasily. Try to use the whole leg from the ,hips, letting atknees relax a little ana thefeet flap. The feet should just break thesurface behind the body, passing eachother so that there is approximately a foot ofdistance between them at the most (up and

,down distance).It is best to work on this while holding the

brnth with the head in the water all the(ire, stopping *hen air is deeded.Eventually try breathing while swimming,as would occur in bobbing: 'blow outsteadily underwater; lift the head justenough to take in a quick breath and put itright in again and blow out. Be sure to placeit into the water only to the hairline, and notdown so far that the bottom con be seenbelow.

Now try taking the arms out of the waterat the end of each push-back. Bend theelbow first, and swing thern arm forwardeasily to place it in front of the shoulder asshown in Figure 3. The head can be turned ato the side to catch the breath each'time thearm on that side is back. As that same armswings forward, turn the head into- thewater and exhale. Keep the kick goingeasily behind the body. The basiccombination of arms, legs, and breathing forthe freestyle.hps been completed.

P.

KICKING-AND FINNING

To move while on the back/ add Jo .theback glide an easy up and down movement.

a

46


Vi4r/

Ar p. w , .........

a. Horizontalabove average buoyancy.

b. Balancedaverage buoyancy.

c. Balancedlow buoyancy.

d. Verticalminimal buoyancy.

finfaa /07 -'"

deo

e. *0buoyantusing scull apd or kick for support.

Figuret,Buoyuncy.

,

0Center of Buoyancy0Cenkr of Gravity

-71110.`v/Awielf,

#4/4///0 "a/////2//1,9

'/

h,;//7;4540001 / fir/ /

Figure 3. Begin ning freestyle.

SWIMMING 271

with the feet. Let the knees and ankles re-lax, and kick so that the surface of the wateris broken. Always try to stay as flat as pos-sible with the back of the head in the water.Resist the temptation to sit down. Handsand arms can help by pushing water to-ward the feet. Start with the arms at thesides; bend the elbows and slide the handsup close to the body for a short way, fingerspointing toward the feet. Point the fingersoutward, teach out and push the armsstraight back and down to the sides. Thisshould be a small movement, with the kickgoing on all the time, arms pausing for ashort rest at the sides. Make a differencebetween the slide up (recovery) and thepress out and back down (propulsion). Thearm movement being done is called finning(see Figure 4).

SCULLING

A more advanced form of hand-armpropulsi n is called sculling. Here, insteadof slidin the hands up close to the body,leave t e arms fairly straight along thesides. turn the hands over so that thethumb are toward the bottom; then pushout slthtly away from the body. Turn thehan46 over so that the thumbs face upward'and' pull back to the sides. During this thewAsts are extended and firm, fingers to-gether so that the hand is flat; the elbowsare not stiff, but give easily with the move-ment. Thr movement should be almostcontinuous, a ieeling of equal push in eachdirection without slowing down. Scullingis stronger than finning because there isreally no recovery stage other than quicklyturning the hands over.

With the beginning freestyle, and finningor sculling with kicking on the back, a lot ofdistance can be covered. However, be sureto stay in th ?. water not over the head. Trycombining these beginning strokes: startout swimming freestyle; after a few strokes,get a rest by turning onto the back andfinning or sculling. See if this can be doneback and forth without touching bottom inbetween.

7


41/

1166. srIvfi,:"111§11.111:-...,,,ar/Meir. Apia --"e4

Figure 4. Finning.

ELEMENTARY BACKSTROKE

The elemei.tary backstroke is an excellentnext step from finning and sculling This isa stroke on the back with an extended glide.The arms and legs move at the same dine,all under the water's surface. Strokesshould be long and easy, and there is nospecial breathing to learn as the face is outof the water at all times.

ArmsThe arms move as in finning except that

the movement is much longer. Movingclose to the body, both hands move up tothe shoulders, then reach out with thefingertips and sweep just under the surfaceback to the sides. This may be done bypushing down with the forearms fairlyclose to the body, or by straightening thearms a little over the head and i....eepingout and down. The first movement goingup close to the body is slow and easy (re-covery); the push or sweep toward the feetis stronger, and a glide is held in the finishstretch for a second or two.

KickThe leg kick should be carefully learned

since it sets the pattern for the breast strokekick later. From the back lying position,bend the knees, dropping the feet belowthe knees. There should be no turnivilAwL

4N/1///b

(pointing the knees to the sides) though theknees should be three or four inches apartand parallel to each other. Keep the hips upto avoid a sitting position; ifierely relax theknees. Then lift the toes, press the soles ofthe feet a little to the side in a circling mo-tion with the knees spreading apart a littlemore. Continue pressing with the feet asthe legs are straightened and pressed to-gether. Timing is important: ONEeasy,slow knee bend; TWOquicker, strongerpres3 out with the feet through to finishextension. Hold glide at finish.

Together, arms and legs bend and moveeasily in their first actions; then both pushin the direction of the feet, and end as in thebeginning in the extended glide position.As the stroke is improved, start the armrecovery slightly before the leg recovery,then push at the same time with both armsand legs into the glide. Figure 5 illustratesthe movement pattern and sequence of theelementary backstroke.

TREADING WATER

This skill is needed to stay in one place inwater which is over the head. Movementthrough water in a horizontal position hasalready been learned. When at a stop, float-ing can be on the back, or a vertical positionmay be preferred so that people can be seen

SWIMMING 273

Figure 5. The elementary backstroke.

27'6 .

_


,

--

,

Figure 5. (Continued).i

//

and conversation made. Slow arm and legmovements will support the body in thisposition.

ArmsA flat scull is done with the arms, that is,

with the hands fiat and fingers together,move the hands back and forth to the frontand to the side, turning the hands over ateach change of direction so that the palmsalways push against the water. Keep thehands slanted so that a pushing downoccurs slightly at the same time. It is likesmoothing down two piles of sand, onewith each hand. As in all sculling, themovements should be continuous, andconstant pressure should be felt againstthepalms of the hands.

LegsThe leg action in treading water starts

with big slow movements as though ridinga very large bicycle. The legs are under thebody, standing, so that one knee is bent upand the bicycle riding is begun, makinglarge circles and pressing forward-under-back each time. Keep the pushes even sothat balance can be maintained. The flatscull with the hands a little under the wa-ter's surface and the slow bicycle with thelegs should hold the position of the body.The idea is to stay here with as little effortas pos'sible, enough Jo hold Oosition andkeep the chin just above water, no more.

Figure 6. Treading water.

,

SWIMMING 275

There are other ways to tread water, Lat-er, when other types of kicks have beenlearned, a breast stroke kick or scissors kickcombination may be used, rather than thebicycle kick.

In learning to tread, experiment with thehand scull in shallow water. See !f the feetcan be taken off the bottom one at a time,and support the body with the scullingalone. Go under the water and scull backup. Then try the same in water shoulderdeep. Experiment with the legs by holdingonto a pool wall in deep water, one hand ata time, close to the side in water that is justover the head.

If at any time it is felt that the side cannotquite be reached again, hold the breath,drop to the bottom and push to the side.The bottom will be only a few inches away.Let the knees bend after the feet touch, leanforward, and push to a front glide position.This is useful to do at any time when wateris unintentionally over the head.

0

SWIMMING IN DEEP WATER

Having learned to move short distancesthrough the water on the face and back,keep practicing until two or three laps canbe swum across the shallow end of a pool.If swimming at a beach, try to do ap-proxiiiiately twenty strokes (countingarm pulls) with the freestyle or finning,without stopping to rest. Work on thetreading in chin-deep water until easilydone for ten seconds.

Learning the swimming skills in shallowwater, the feet can now leave the bottoniand move through the water well. Whenbeginners first realize that they are "overtheir heads," they sometimes suddenlypanic. Their muscles tense and theirmovements become fast and jerky becausethey are afraid. Always maintain controland move deliberately. Remember that if acertain distance can be swum over shallowwater, the same can be done over anydepth. Also remember sinking will notoccur. Almost everyone balances at thesurface, but sudden jerky movements willmake one bob up and down in the water.

When trying to swim in deep water forthe first time, swim freestyle from deep to

278


shallow water along the side of the pool,then ha!!ow to deep. If possible, trynot to stop and rest along the way. If tired,try turning over to float, or change tofinning and kicking to catch the breath.Sometimes people find that swimming ontheir backs is easier, others like it better onthe face. You should do whichever is easierthe first time an attempt to move in deepwater is made. When relaxed and at easewith swimming one length of the pool,begin to slow down halfway, and try tread-ing water for a short time before resumingthe swim. This will give practice in control-ling the body's position, will strengthentreading, and develop the skill of levelingoff to swim again, all without touching theside.

If outdoors, at a lake or bay, findsomething nearby which can be swum tofor a first deep water swimming. There maybe life lines around the area, or someonewho swims well or who knows safety skillscan swim along side. When it is known thatsomeone is right there, it gives confidenceto try it for the first time even though helpprobably won't be necessary.

GETTING INTO THE WATER

Learning to jump or dive into the water isa sepaiate part of learning to swim. It is aqukk, explive way to get into water.Jumping

Jumping in is the easiest way to startsince the body does not turn over on theway to the water. If starting above waterwhere the bottom can just be touched, stepoff the side, reaching out with one foot, andkeep the head erect so the eyes can lookstraight ahead. Try to put the feet togetherquickly, keep the arms close to the sides,and hold the breath. While going throughthe water, be ready to have the feet touchthe bottom. Relax the knees a little, just as ifjumping down from a bench on land. Thiswill make the head go underwater entirely;then straighten the knees and the body willbe standing with the head above water.When accustomed to this, try leaning for-ward after the bottom has been touched,pushing forward with the arms ahead. Thiswill permit a glide forward to the surfacejust as when beginning to swim. It is called

2-7!)

"leveling off," and means that inshoulder-deep water, it is easy to jump inand proceed to swim.

It is very important to jump into deepwater. Jumping into waist-deep water orless means landing too hard or failing tobend the knees soon enough, the impact onthe bottom may injure the ankles, knees, orback. Jumping into water over the head issafer. The bottom can still be reached and apush off to the top can still be attained inwater which is slightly over the head. Inwater several feet over the head, kicking alittle Ate; a downward momentum hasbeen lost or the use of arms to push towardthe top may be desired. If the body easilyfloats it will easily float to the top.

DivingDiving, or getting into the water head

first, comes next. This skill is important forgaining more distance if swimming forspeed later, for learning to go deeper intothe water, or for spring board diving.

To dive, turn yourself over halfway whenpushing from the side, so that the bodygoes into the water hands first. When com-pletely under, lifting the head and arms willbring the body to the surface. To learn toturn over easily, start sitting on the side, orkneeling on one knee. Bend forward as faras possible without falling in, with the armsin front and together', the ears between thearms. The ..ead should be down, the chinup enough to see the water below and to:..ee the fingertips aiming a foot or two awayfrom the side (see Figure 7). From this posi-

Figure 7. A beginning di,e.

SWIMMING 277

b. Step 2one knee.

c. Step 3tip-in.

..

e. 'Step 5small spring.

,

d. Step 4fall-in.

...----

..---.-----"'""-------"'

f . Step 6spring, arm coordination.

jigure 8. Learning to dive.


nun, roll in, try ing to keep the hands aimedjust where they are, follow the line into thewater, unrolling the body as it falls.

It will be discovered that it is natural tohold the breath while going in. If water isfelt going "up the nose," try blowing out alittle as the body rises toward the surface.Pressure may also be felt around the headas the body goes deeper, perhaps againstthe ears or nose. This is a normal occur-rence as one goes below the surface of water.Blowing out when underwater relieves thepressure, but most people get used to thefeeling and realize that it creates no harm. Ifactual pain is felt, check with the instructorfor procedures which help alleviate thepain for pressure-sensitive people.

liVhen the rolling-in dive is comfortableand successful, do the same thing fromhigher positions with one foot back, kneespartially bent, knees straight, body bentover, and finally, standing up with a pushfrom the feet into a forward arc (see Figure8). Always follow the first instructionsconcerning keeping the head right betweenthe arms, arms straight with handstogether, and aiming for the entry.Experiment w oh how hard to make thepush, where to look fur the entry point, andthe place at which to be straight andholding for a nice entry.

Some people find it very unsettling to beupside down, so here are some things to trybeforehand. Learn to do a handstand onthe grass, or in a gym. Possibly with abuddy, try this in shallow water, with thehands on the bottom. See if a little distan_ecan be swum, then take a breath, duck thehead, bend in the middle and try to touchbottom right below the body. This is thebeginning of learning the "surface dive,"which is the same as a dive from the sideonly it starts on the surface of the water.The surface dive is the way to getunderwater quickly, for swimmingunderwater, or for finding somethingdropped on the bottom. Figure 9 illustratesthe sequence of movements involved in asurface dive.

INTERMEDIATE SWIMMING

As an intermediate swimmer five basicstrokes ahould be performed reasonably

w ell. These are the elementary backstroke,freestyle, backstroke, breast stroke, andsidestroke. The swimmer should becompletely at home in deep water, bothabove and below the surface of the water,and should be able to swim longerdistances.

Backstroke (Back Crawl)

The simplest of the three new strokes isthe backstroke, sometimes called backcrawl. It is similar tothe freestyle only it isdone while lying on the back. The body isflat on the water and the legs move up anddown in a flutter kick. Arms alternate inpushing the water from overhead to thesides of the body and.recovering over thewater to push again from overhead. Figure10 shows the sequence of movementsinvolved in the backstroke.

KickThe legs move up and down past each

other so that there is about 12 inches be-tween the foot breaking the surface and theone below. In the movement of each leg theknees bend a little to finish the downwardmovement of the foot, then straighten onthe way to the surface. The feet are relaxedon the down phase, extended on the up-ward phase. This extension of the feet ismostly a pass-ive action--it just happensdue to the Pressure on the instep. Theknees should not break the surface, the hipsshould stay as close to the surface as possi-ble throughout. Kick timing is steady andcontinuous, with more force in the upwarddirection than the downward.

ArmsAs in the freestyle, the arms move in

opposition to each other. One pushes waterfrom the overhead position to the sidewhile the other recovers above the water toreturn to the overhead position. Taking theaction of one arm alone, the arm is placedoverhead on the water with the little fingercontacting the water first (palm turnedoutward). This straight arm drops beneaththe surface as the hand is pressed against tobegin a push. Allow the arm to drop undera few inches, then direct the push towardthe feet. The hand, as it passes the shoul-der, should move strongly. Ideally the

...i1111111111

SWIMMING 279

a. Pike position.

b. Tuck position.

Figure 9. Surface dives.

,

67%

V74)

2,c3C:;"


110t4//"," ,,,,,

fd.

lAtit1111011W 1

ww/i/ / ,/ 4'1V//a1.14r

, ,f u

Ii

;

100,

,

,.I.,_,1qlor.;,,r

2 c

Figure 10. The back crawl stroke.

elbow bends as the hand pushes itsstrongest. This bend is not a collapse;but afirm position against which the forearm canmove rapidly to the finish at the side withthe arm straight again. Let the body rollslightly toward the side of the pushing arm.This will make the push stronger, and helpthe recovering arm clear the water on theother side. The recovery of the arm is aneasy lift of the whole arm, straight but nottense, up and back to drop easily into thewater again.Together

Arm actions are continuous, one arm al-ways exactly opposite the other. Attentionto this oppositional timing, that is, neverletting one arm begin to "catch up" with theother, makes a cross-balance of power fromone arm to the other and makes a smoothbackstroke. The rapidity of kicking de-pends upon the individual swimmer. Mostswimmers do about three kicks per armpush.

Intermediate Freestyle

As the freestyle learned'as a beginner isworked on, begin to learn these more ad-vanced details.

ArmsAt the start of the stroke, let the arm drop

undgrwater a little. Then by pressing withthe palm and bending the elbow a little andholding the bend firmly, push the waterdown the center of the body toward thefeet. As the hand passes under the body itwill finish pushing at the thigh. At thispoint lift the shoulder and elbow, andswing the arm forward out of the water todrop forward for he next stroke. On thisswing forward lit the elbow fairly higb,relax the forearn and hand underneath.This arm recovery should be as easy as pos-sible, not tense and tight. Hands are firmand flat on the push underwater (not"cupped"), and completely relaxed on therecovery.

One arm is pushing underwater whilethe other is recovering over the water. Tim-ing is best if one arm is exactly opposite theother in a continuous motion, just as in thebackstroke. One arm pushing helps theother to recover. An easy body roll toward

SWIMMING 281

the underwater arm helps in the strengthand balance of the stroke.

Breathing and ArmsFor breathing the head rolls to one side

with the chin up a little and the ear under-water. The intake is quick, through themouth. The head is then turned back intothe Water and air is blown from the mouth.If possible, allow the head to return a littlepast the midpoint. Keep the chin upslightly so the water contacts the head atthe hairline.

To synchronize the breathing with thearms, turn and breathe in on the "openside"; that is, when the arm on that side isback, ready to come forward, then the headwill be moving back into the water as thatsame aan finishes moving forward. Prac-tice putting the breathing together with thearms for every stroke. Find what 'seems tobe a natural side for breathing and practicethis until it is easy. Then try the other side,and ability to breathe alternately (everythird arm pull) should eventually be de-veloped.

Tips and CautionsThe head position is very important. If

the chin is too.low discomfort will resultfrom water getting up the nose. To clieckthis, be sure to keep a generous open spacebetween the chin and the neck.at all times.Do not look at the bottom when the face isin the water, but see the hands as they enterthe water ahead of the body. A big breath isnot necessary. A swimmer can becomequite breathless by taking in too much airand then not having time to blow it all out.Take a small breaththe face will be abovewater again very soonthen blow outfirmly just the amount taken in. If swim-ming is kept easy and 't9irly slow, theswimmer can "pay as he goes" and will notbe out of breath as the strength to covermore distance is developed.

KickThe kicking movement is a total leg ac-

tion all the way from the hips in the up-and-dbwn flutter kick. The knees benddowriWard slightly at the start andstraighten on the upbeat. The ankles re-main relaxed ,att the time, they will move

20 4

r


:o

17,f,z"/////

.

4.

,

'4

110,67.47; '/'/ /")-*,

dodi

,e,P;7:0-11/d1,4-1/0111/1",

44'72;"

;a7,7:TW

4ex

...1111traatin .;://

/

2 Q

Figure 11. The front crawl.

Pet

j 4116.

4.1

e I

because the water pushes against them andshould just flap. The relaxed feel should

:> just break the slirface of the watere Thissteady alternating kick is best at about three.kicks per arm push, bUt there is no rule. It isgood to practice at about threeper arm todevelop a 'steAly- kick at about the rightdepth Then what seems ro p-rovide the bestbalance in the stroke can be determined.,See,Figure 12 for the sequence of move-jments involved in thd fiont crawL

Breast Stioke

In the breashstroke a swhfaer moves inthe. prone position alternating arm pullswith leg kicks and holdinga glide at the endof each whole stroke.

Arms, From a frent lying position with arms

forward in the water and head in the water,press the arms in a sideward-down ard

idirection n a small stroke. Before the rmsreach halfway to the sides (still in a fward

position), the head lifts and a breathtaken in; the elbows drop down, and thehands slide together under the chin. Thenthe head is returned to the water; the armsstraighten ahead and together and are held,t.forward for the glide.,Breath is blown outduring the glide and the first part of thepull.

Legs. The legs are straight and together at thebeginning. The kidk pa ttem is the same asfor the elementary Nickstroke. First theknees bend easily with the legs -slightlyapart. Do not "turn out" the knees, hutpoint them down to the bottom and bringthe heels close the body. This is a slow easyaction. The feet and ankles, relaxed to thispoint, make a quick movement to a flat-footposition (dorsal flexion), then immediatelypress slightly outward and backward in asmall moving circle, straightening andstretching the knees together at the finishand pointing the toes. In the kick as awhole, the knee bending is a sneaking up;the dorsal flexion action of the feet is shortand quick; lhe leg press into the stretchedposition,is strong. The first part, then, isrecovefy; the second part ig a power phase,

-SWIMMING 283

or propulsion. Th iming of the kick isONF÷-bending knees followed by pickingup..,the feet; TWOpress around and backand' together:

4

TogettlerAilms start by presOng; arms and legs

recover at the same time, legs press as armsreach into the stretch position. Hold theglide a second before starting the nextstroke (see Figure 12).

Tips

There are refineswimmer progressesstroke. The palms of.tsoon as possible witsideward. The elbows are held in a slightlybent position on the press, and should beunder the shoulders. The intake of airshould' be briefly done toward the end ofthe arm pull but before the forward reach.The timing of the kick in relation to the armsshOuld give a feeling of kicking into thestretched position of the .whole,body.-

In the kick, the action ,of, the ankles isextremely important. The flat feet Must bepushing into extension thrdughout -thepower phase of the kick, ending in thepointed toe position. If it is being done well,water will press on the palms and on the-soles of the feet. Be sure that both feet aredoing the same thing at the same time. Thestroke will feel like ARMS . . . . LEGS . . . .GLIDE . . . . (holding both steady). .

The breast stroke is thus intermittentwith a rest after each stroke. It can be seenthat this can be a good stroke for resting,even though it can be accelerated foi racing.

nts made as then learning the breaste hands press back as

n the arm stroke, not

SidestrokeThis, along with thebreast stroke, is one

'of the oldest -swimming strokethough it may seem old-fashionetremely useful as a resting ststrengthening the kick for water

and al-, it is ex-oke, fortreading,

for lifesaving carries, and for synchronizedswimming.

The starting position is lying on the sidewith legs stretched and together. The armon the lower side reaches straight overheadon .the surface, and the other is straightalong the side of the body. The head is lyingon the water s9thaf one ear is underwater.

)sualci amSu

//

///m,, , '

///

-11111/4:401-_

4

zy.

'4,10/4p W1111."---70.

o/o

/

I.NaGILLS 100HDS AVGNODaS HH1,21031.210dS QNV NOIlVD11Q3 1VDISAHd

Turn the head slightly toward the back sothat the face is clear. In the process of thestroke the body should remain on the sideand in a straight line.

LegsThe kick provides the power in this

stroke, as it does in the breast stroke. Thearms contribute, but more to balance thanto power, and the 'timing of the two witheach other is important.

From the extended position, bend theknees together, pulling them up into ahalf-tucked position. Then reach forwardwith orie foot and backward with the other,keeping both just under the surface. This isdone in a sweeping rounded action, keep-ing the backward foot pointed and the for-ward foot flat (dorgal flexion), at the start ofthe push. and both feet pointed at the end.The Strong circular sweep is parallel to thesurface in a scissor action (hence called ascissors kick), and finishes as the legs meetagain in a stretched position. The leg mov-ing forward should be the one nearest thesurface of the water. The swimmer may feelas though he/she is reaching in a big stepforward with one leg, and at the same timereaching back with the other one. TheJim-ing' of the kick is: ONEeasy tuckingup of legs togethef; TWOreach up-out-around in one big motion to finishback in the stretched position; THREEhold this stretch for a second (glide).

ArmsThe arm which is stretched overhead

pushes diagonally down toward the body,pushing the water toward the feet. Then itbends and slips back to the overheadstretch. At the same time, the arm at theside sneaks up close to the body to a posi-tion in front of tho face, then pushes outand down to return a) the side. The timingof the arms with each other is like the dogpaddle, one and then the other, each push-ing in.turn toward the feet and then holdingthe stretch for a glide.

Together (see Figure 13)First push diagonally down with the

overhead arm. Bend knees and sneak upwith the arm at the side as the first armbegins its.recovery. Reach out and push

SWIMMING 285

with the kick as the second arm pushesback to the side.

This means that the arms and the legsfinish in the glideposition at the same timeand then return to the starting position.The total stroke timing is really the same as-in the breast stroke. The sidestroke can bethought of as an adaptation of the breaststroke, now lurned onto the side.

GOING ON ...Skill in swimming develops as it is done

for longer periods of time over longerdistances. Long-distance swimming meansdoing strokes over and over many times. Aswimmer will tire easily if there are faults in

-d the strokes. Try to.analyze the stroke as it isperformed. Hav'e someone,wa tch aridexamine the stroke as it is being performed.

The method of breathing is veryimportant, especially in the freestyle andbreast strokes. In all strokes, use littleenergy in the recovery parts of the strokes.Try to relax muscles on the recovering bodyparts, and add strength to those pushingagainst the water. Pushes must be smoothand steady, remembering the nature ofwater, directed always toward the feet withlittle force to the side or up and down. Keepthe main part of the body flat in the water.

iks longer distances are attempted,budget strength evenly over the distance.Don't swim too hard and fast the first partof the swim. Whatever the distance, finishbreathing easily, not out of breath. This islearning "pace,"Ahe ability to distribute

. strength and energy steadily and evenly forthe distance swum.

All information needed to continue intospecialized aquatics has been previouslydisaissed. There are many interestingchoices, opening a world of interestingexperiences.

Safety Training and Certification: trainingin personal safety, lifesaving, and rescue.

Competitive Swimming: adding butterflystroke, racing starts and turns, work onstroke mechanics ancl strength for speedand endurance.

Spring Board Diving. learning control of aspring board in combination with turns inthe air in various directions.

286, PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

0

Figuile 13. The sidestroke.

2r, 9,

Synchronized Swimming: co mbi n i figswimming skills with music includingstunts and figures on and underwater.

SCUBA: learning to sake use ofunderwater breathing apparatus forunderwater sport, exploration, and salvage.

Water Polo: swimming skills put into aball handling team sport.There are also many related activities tochoose from_ around water such ascanoeing, sailing; rowing, water skiing,and motor boating.

SAFETY

Swimming is not dangerous in itself, andfollowing common sense 'rules keeps it

, safe. Disregarding safety rules, however,can cause accidents. One has to respect thepower of wind, waves, and weather.

COMMON SENSE1. Always swim with someone-else, riever

alone.2. Swim in a safe place, ideally with

lifeguards present.3. Before entering the Water, find out how

deep the water is, what sort of bottomthere is, and how much space can beused before the depth is over the head.

4. Be careful if it is quite cold. You can tiremore easily in cold water.

5. Note if there are any special rulesposted, and follow them.

6. For diving, be sure the water is over thehead (or twice the height if diving from alpw board).

7. Never dive without kriowing the natureand depth of the bottom.

8. In open water (lakes, oceans, bays)swim parallel to shore for practice," notaway from shore.

SWIMMING 287

TERMINOLOGY

Buoyancy. The amount of floating possibilityeach person has. Actually it is the amount ofwater volume that wilLhold the swimmer up:your "floatabiity." -

Propulsion. In swimming strokes, the part ofthe movement of arms or tegs which makesthe body move through water; the pushagainst the water.

Recoveiy. In swimming strokes, the part of themovement of arms or legs back to a goodpushing position again. The recovery is themovement from the end of one push back towhere push can begin again.

Resistance. The pressure of water against thebody when moving. This is felt against armsor legs when' pushing or kicking against water(propulsive phase of movement), and holdsone back when feeling this pressure in therecovery parts of strokes. A streamlined bodyposition creates the least resistance to move-ment as a whole. Well-directed stroke move-ments with as little resistance as possible inthe recovery parts make for theincist effortlessswimming.

. REFERENCES

Armbruster, David A., Allen, Robert H., andBillingsly, Hobert S. Swimming and Diving, 6thed. St. Louis,- MO: C.V. Mosby, Company,1973.

Counsilman, James. Tire Science of Swimming.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-l-lall Inc., 1968.

Harris, Marjone M. Basic Swimming Analyzed.Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1969.

Midtlyng, Joanna. Swimming. Philadelphia, PAtW.B. Seunders Company, 1974.

Sports Illustrated Book of Swimming. New York:J. B. Lippincott Company, 1961.

Swimming and Water Safety, Washington, DC.American National Red Cross, 1968.

290

C.

checking (p. 298)circle, dive, or fall shot (p. 292)corner throw (p. 295)fast break (p. 296)free throw (p..295)free throw lbw (p. 293)goal area (p. 292)goalie (p. 301)goal throw (p. 295)

., jump shot (p. 290)penalty line (p. 293)penalty slwt (p. 292)set shot (p. 292)2:4 offensive formation (p. 297)3:3 offensive formation (p. 297)thrOw-in (p 295)wipg's tot (p. 292)

1

19

/

..

.,

Clh.,..---------"'"'"-"M.'..------...-----.MG:...z..

291.4.

..

-

,

INTRODUCTIONr

Team handball is a new sport imergingon the American scene that involves con-tinuous play, high scoring, body contactand graceful, skilled movements by theplayers. It is a permanent Olympic eventfor both men and women. The game hasbeen described as ice hockey without theice and sticks, and as water polo withoutthe water. It also combines skills, rules, andstrategy that are common to basketball andsoccer. Yet, in spite of this seeriiing blend ofmany different sports:team handball re-tains, a unique nature that makes it attrac-tive to players and spectators of all ages.

In Europe, where team handball began,the game is referred to only as "handball."'However, for most of America the name"handball" brings to mind a game using alittle black ball played within a small en-closed, four-walled toom. Thus: inAmerica, we use the name team handball todistinguish a game InvolVing 14 players,including two goalies, ,who, on a courtlarger than a basketball court, attempt toscore by throwing a ball into a goal.

Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Pen-..

mark claim responsibility for the develop-ment of games that closely resemble teamhandball. The game originally was playedduring the early 1900s, on a large outdoorfield, and involyed as many as 22 players(11 per team) at one time. Gradually, 'teamhandball evolved into its present-day a.c-cepted form of 7 players per side, predomi-nantly played on an indoor court, the sizeof which resembles a court somewhatlarger than a basketball court. In 1946 theInternational Handball Federation (IHF)was formed and.the rules of team handballwere formalized. Today there are over 65nations affiliated with the IHF. The United

CHAPTER 19

Team HandballMIKE tAVANkUGH,

United States Team Handball Federation,Short Hills, NY

States Team Handball Federation (USTHF)was formed in 1959 marking the beginningof modern team handball in the U.S.

In 1972, team handball for men was in-cluded in the Munich Olympic Games.

'Four years later in 1976, the Montreal .

Olympic Games saw the addition of wom-en's team handbell. The U.S.Men's Na-tional Team qualified and competed in boththe 1972 and 1976 Olympic Games. Teamhandball is now a permanent Olympicevent for both men and women. There areongoing team handball programs atnumerous high schols, junior highschools, and elementary schools through-Out the United States. Our success in futureOlympic competition will depend upon thesuccess and exposure team handball willenjoy through these various grassroot pro-grams.

While on offense the idea of team hand-ball is to throw a ball ilast a defense and agoalie, into a goal. While on defense, theidea is to defend one's own goal from theattack of the opponent. There are markingson the court that restrict play in the goalArea and therefore influence offensive anddefensive movement. Offensively, the ballis moved priniarily by passing, though aplayer is allowed to dribble freely, run threesteps with the ball, and may hold the ballfor three seconds. While defensive "check-ing and the use of the body to obstruct anopponent are permitted, there are rules re-stricting contact and unnecessary roughplay, making the game sensible and safe forplayers.

-


PASSING, CATCHING, DRIBBLING

Team handball is primarily a passinggame. A variety of passes can be used effec-

29 4,/

&I

290 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR-THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

tively depending on the game situation.The.primaiy pass is.the shoulder pass witheither an -overhand or sidearm delivery.Bounce passes, wrist passes, lob passes,and shovel passes are all effective teamhandball passes. Timing, accuracy, and de-ception are all elements of a good pass. Tocatch a team handball, two hands are usedto both secure possession and cushion thearrival of the ball. To ensure proper han-dling of the ball it should be caught awayfrom the body. Dribbling is a necessary skill.but, again, should not be emphasized inplay. Players should practise dribbling atfull running speed to simillate fast breaksituations. Normal offensive movementsrequire infrequent dribbling but during fastbreaks the dribbling skill becomes very im-portant.,SHOOTING

, The basic concept of the game is to throwor shoot the ball 'into the goal. The most

-effective shots are taken while moving to-ward the goal. To become an effectiveshooter one must develop a quick release,accuracy with corners of the goal, and theability to know when to shoot. By knowingwhen to shoot, a player will know.not toshoot with a defender directly in front ofhim/her when he/she is too far away, or at*an extreme angle from the goal. Rememberthat the defensive opponent mtuft first bebeaten and then you must also la,at thegoalie. The true essence of the game is ashooter waiting until the last possible sec-ond, reading the goalie's position, beforetaling the shot; the goalie must then reactto the shot that has been taken.Types of ShotsSet Shot

Form for a set shot is 6imilar to a baseballthrow. It may be taken overhand orsidearm; it is bounced or shot directly at thegoal.Jump Shot

0In this shot the player attempts to jump

in the air and throw over the defensiveplayers. The ball is thrown' while in the airand usually involves the use of three fullsteps to execute. Jump shooters land on thesame leg from which they initiated thejump.

2 3

Figure 1. The overhand set shot.

Figure 2. The sidearm set shot.

4.-

......m.-,--"sitz:.Figure 3. The jump shot.

TEAM-HANDBALL 291

-se=sar=e"Wt:

tli

Figure 4. The circle, dive, or fall shot.

291

292 'PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

Circle, give or Fall ShotThis is a spedalty shot usually taken from

the 6-meter line. Upon receiving the ballthe player attempts to dive or fell into thecircl (goal area) and shoots while in the zir.Upon completing the shot, players nor-mally break their fall with their hands and achest slide or by a modified shoulder roll.Wing Shot

Taken from the wing position this spe-cialty shot is actually a combination jumpshot and dive shot. Because of the extremeangle that the wing player is in in relation tothe goal, an atteinpt must be made to jumpinto the goal area and improve the shooting

angle. Recovery for the wing shooter issimilar to the recovery for thc dive shot.Penalty Shot

Taken at the, 7-meter mark, this specialtyshot is actually a comt3ination set shot anddive shot.

BASIC RULES

Diagrams 1 and 2 are examples of a teamhandball court. Diagram 1 supplies the mea-surements of the court, while Diagram 2shows the names of the various lines on thecourt. It is important to note that in Diagram 2the area enclosed by the 6-meter line, orgoal area line, has been shaded. Only the,

Diagram 1.

N \ \\\\

Centerline1.

Free Tlitow Line /9m /

//

1

1

/I

Goalline'

I

1

Pen'altyline +PI7m

1I "

/ 1

/ Goal Area \/ . \

/ \Goal Area Line

6m

SidelineDiagram 2.

GoalWM CM mu I=

EMINIONLIIIIIM1111111111111111111Itomoulmonsrausmunnomimsliminalummo11111111111111111111111Mi

EINIII111191111MINIMINIOIIINE1111111C11111M111MIN111111111191UNINIMIlimmoNists1111111111111111M11111111111111

11111.111111WINIMMIN11111111.119111111111U111

NEWMANN.MIN1111111111

1111111111110..===Front View

Diagram 3. Regulation goal.

gaalie is allowed to stand inside the goalar-ea. However, both offensive and defen-si-ve players have "air space rights" '.nsideti-z..e goal area. While trying to throw the ballirxto the goal, offensive players may jumpimto the goal ea, as long as their take-offw-ms from outside the goal area and theyr-lease the ball before landing in the goalar-ea. Likewise, the defensive player mayji.xnp into the goal arca in an attempt tobLiock a s,hot on goal, but may not touch thebat.31 while in zontact with the goal area.O x-ice play is completed in the goal area,pLayers entering must exit by the shortestpv.ssible route. The goal arca is usually re .fe x-red to as the circle or circle area. The9- xnetei Hne, or free throw line, is usedw 1-len minor penalities are given in thegame. The 7-meter line, or penalty line, isus.ed when major penalties are given. It isirr-Lportant,)to note that a team handballcc:399urt can be adapted to a smaller area otherthLzul the regulation 20 x 40 meters, but thatthLie width of the court is more importantthLan the length.

Diagram 3 is an example of a regulationgc:9-aL Goals are 2 x 3 meters in measure-n-Lent, painted in contrasting colors, andpz-lovided with a net. They are usually madeoE wood or metal tubing.

BLL-the ball used in team handball looks like

a small soccer ball. Men use a ball that

TEAM HANDBALL 293

Side View

weighs 15 to 17 ounces and mea.suresnearly 24 inches in circumference. Womenand youth use a smaller ball that is lighter(12 to 14 ounces) and smaller (nearly 22Inches in circumference). There is an evensmaller ball used for elementary children ina game called mini-handball. While com-mon playground balls are used to play teamhandball the size and dribbling nature of arubber bladder, leather-covered regulationteam handball is recommended for play

DURATION OF THE GAME

There are no time-outs in team handball.Men play two 30-minute halves with a 10-minute intermission, while women andjuniors play two 25-minute halves. Fortournaments and for youth teams, playingtime is often modified to meet the needs ofparticipants.

PLAYERS

internationally, a team is allowed a totalof twelve members. A playing team con-sists of seven players, six court players, andone goalie; there are five substitute playerswho may enter the game at any time froman area called the substitution area, locatedusually between the bench and 'thetimekeeper. Diagram 4 illustrates a com-monly-used offensive formation with thenames of each position 'played.

It is helpful if both the right wing andright batkcourt throw with the left hand,

296

9

1

294 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY 5CHOOL STUDENT

i Left\ Wing\

N. /../

' -... Circle Runner ...-

ALeft

Backcourt

A-Playmaker

Of

Center

ARight

Backcourt

Diagram 4.

and if both left wing and left backcourtthrow with the right hand, so that they may

_ have the best possible throwing angle onthe goal.

......

STARTING ME GAME

Diagram 5 shows the *formation used tobegin a game. A coin flip determines who

, will first have possession of the ball. Thegame starts with the official's whistle andthrow-on. A throw-on consistof a simplepass to a teammate at the centerline. Thisprocedure is .repeated after each "goal isscored. Diagram 5 shows a throw -on, Astarts the game with a pass to B.

GOAL AREA

The arca inside the 6-meter line is calledthe goal arca. We have said that only thegoalie is allowed tci stand inside this area.If, while scoring a goal, the offensive playersteps inside the goal arca or steps on anypart of the 6meter line, the goal does notcount and a line violation occurs. Theplayer may, however, land within the goalarca after.a dive shot as long as the take-offoccurred outside of the goal area. If thedefense likewisesteps in the goal areato ohthe 6-meter line and gains an advantage bydoing so, a penalty thromis-awarded. Aball or player is not considered to be tri thegoal area if it is in the air.

PLAYING ME RAU.

We have mentioned that Players maydribble the ball, and there is not a limit to

the amount of dribbles to be taken. How-ever, double dribbling or touching the ballwith two hands while dribbling, is not al-lowed and the opponents are given a freethrow. It should be noted.that while drib-bling is riermitted it should be discouragedamong new players. ThiCis because teamhandball is a passing game and dribblingslows the tempo and should be ysed onlywhen necessary. Players may not play theball with their legs below the knee. Divingon thoflpor for a loose ball is not allowed.

-

lit

. 17

MAY MAY

TEAM HANDBALL 295

MAY MUST

Playerreceives the ball.

Take 3.

step, .

Dribble -tis many times

as desires).

Take 3more steps.

pass or shoot*Rhin 3 secs.

Diagram 6.

Diagram 6 depicts the possible sequence ofmovement a play er may take upon gainingcontrol of a ball.

CONTACT WITH THE OPPONENT

Players are allowed to use: their bodies toobstruct an opponent with or without theball. A player is not allowed to use the armsor legs to push, hold, trip, or hit an oppo-nent in any manner. Proper checking tech-niques will be covered in elements of de-fense. It is important to note that offensiveplayers are not allowed to charge into adefensive player who is in proper position.In instances of an offensive or defensiveviolation to these contact rules, a free throwis awarded.

THROW-IN

If a ball goes out-of-bounds on the side-line a throw-in is taken. The defense mustbe 3 meters away from where the ball ispassed in-bounds. The player taking thethrow-in stands near the spot u here theball %tent out-of-bounds anti throws theball into play with one or to hands t% ithone or both feet on the ground.

CORNER THROW

A corner throw occurs when any defen-sive player (excluding the goalie) is the lastone to touch the ball as it goes out-of-bounds over hischer own goalline. The ballis awarded to the offensive team, and thecorner throw is executed in the mannershown in Diagram 7. Player A executes thecorner throw by passing to any other teammember, in this case player B.

GOAL THROW

A goal throw otuirs _tt. hen a goalie deElects a ball over the goalline. The goalie

as

puts the ball back into play by throw ing itfrom the goal arca into the playing area.

Diagram 7.

PENALTIES

Wheal n. mr rule violations occur, a freethrow is awarded. The free throw is takenfrom the place st. here the tiolaQn occurredand without Ihe inter% ention of the referee.The defense must remain three metersaway from the player taking a free throw.The thrower may pass to any teammatewithin three seconds while maintainingone foot in contact with the-court. Thethrower may score directly from a freethrow. The majority of minor fouls orcommon fouls occur in the area betweenthe goal area line (6-meter line) and the freethrow line (9-meter line). When this occursthe free throw is taken from the free throwline at a spot directly opposite from wherethe violation cFcarred, as in Diagram 8.

&penalty throw is aivarded for, moreserious or major violations of the rules..Pcnalty throws are usually awarded whenan offensii:e player is in &good shooting

2 9 8


Coal Area Lint(6m Line) X Foul

Free Throw Line(9m Line) X Execution

Diagram 8.

position and has an almost sure chance ofscorint, when fouled. To distinguish be-tween v, hether the foul that occurredshould be given a penalty throw or a freethrow the referee must carefully considerthe position of the offensive play e. that is,whether a dear scaring position had beenestablished and v. hether the foul took thatscoring chance away. If, during a shootingdove by an offensive play er, a minor fouloccurs, w hich does not interfere with theadvantage the shooter may be gaining. thereferee will let play continue. To execi-tethe penalty throw one toot must remain incontaa with the court behind the 7 meterline until the ball is released. All otherplayers must stand behind the 9 meter linewhen the penalty throw is taken. The penalty throw may be taken by any player onthe team that is fouled. Internationally,penalty throws result in a goal nearly eightypercent of the time.

SUSPENSION

If a player is involved in repeated per-sonal fouls the referee will interrupt playand by displaying a yellow card to the re--sponsible player will be issuing a wanintto that player. If that player or any otherplayer becomes inLIlted with un-sportsmanlike ...gland. unnecei-,sary roughplay. or continued intentional fouls, the referee will issue a 2-minute suspension fromthe game. If a player receives a third2-minute suspension or is invoKed in an

29)

unusual rule violation he/she `will be dis-qualified from the' game. When a playerreceives a.2-minute penalty the team mustplay "shoal' (suspended player on thebench) until the penalty time has beenserved.

The preceding pages include informationconcerning the basic rules of team hand-ball. To ensure a, complete and thoroughunderstanding of the rules of team hand-ball you are,urgedlo obtain an official copyof the rulebook issued to the USTHE: by theIHF.

REFEREES

Two referees are used in team handball.They control th egame solely by whistleandhand signals. The referees rarely touch aball, as players retrieve balls to be put backinto play .The referee has a difficult taskbecause of the fag pace of the game and thebody contact that is allowed. While hold-ing. pushing, and hitting are technical vio-lations and result in free throws, individu-als do not carry a limit to the number ofthese violations they can commit. How-er er, repeated intentional violations ordangerous play can lead to a 2 minute sus-pension. A certain to el of contact, holding.hand chaking and, pushing occursthroughout the game and w ill not draw thereferee's w histle,depending on the level ofthe play and operience of the teams in-v olv ed and the degree of the violations oc-cumng. Referees are charged with the con-trol of the game and safety of the players.and must enforce the rules to allow bothplayers and the game to develop.

PRINCIPLES OF OFFENSE

OFFENSIVE STRATEGY FAST RREAK

Offenshe attack is generated by a strongdefense. This is because the defense is in aposition to steal a pass, block a shot, or takeadvantage of an offensive mistake to ini-tiate a fast break attack before a defense cando clop. If the fast break is successful, theeventual shooter should face the goaliofrom dos( range uncontested by a defen-sive player. The goalie is a major factor inthe fast break attack as not only must a shot

be blocked in order to gain possession ofthe ball, but then the ball must be quicklyrecovered before an accurate pass can bemade to breaking players. Wing.play ers areusually the faster players on the court andthey are also usually the players who leadthe fast break.

If the initial fast break does not result in ascore, team strategy then shifts to the re-maining players following the initial break.These trailing players constitute a secon-dary wave of attack and they attempt toattack the defense before they fully recoverto their organized defensive positions.

OFFENSIVE STRATEGYORGANIZED ATTACK

If the primaryrand secondary fast breaksdo not yield a clear shot, the offensive teamassumes their basic positions and begins asystematic attack. Movement and play canbe organized around complex team plays,2- and 3-player combination patterns, to anindividual's free attack. A team handballorganized attack resembles a basketball of-fense in that it incorporates a variety ofscreens or blocks and pick and roll, give,and go movements.

a. 3.3 Attack-wing switi.h. Wings exchange positionsrandomly looking for an opening in the defense for apass and shot.

TEAM HANDBALL 297

A good, organized offensive attackcomes from coordinated movements be-tween backcourt, circle, and wing players.Coupled with this coordinated movement,the team must have quick, accurate pass-ing. Passing enables the offense to force thedefense to shift irito imbalance and thuscreate openings. The key elements in offen-sive attack are passing, movement (withand without the ball), and patience. It isinteresting to note that effective wing andcircle play serves to take defensive pressureoff backcourt players and permits them, inturn, to become more effective in attack.Likewise, effective backcourt play serves toopen up offensive play for the wings andcircle player. A balanced scoring attack isthe ideal situation in team-handball.

PRINCIPLES ay DEFENSE

It has been stated that the basis fora goodoffense begins with a good defense: thedefense in transition becomes a fast break-ing offense. Therefore, tile first responsibil-ity of a defensive team is to stop the fastbreak before becOming organized into theirdefensive formation. The defensive team

b. 2.4 Attack-arcle runner pick for wing. Circle run-ner picks ® . Left backcourt attacks while leftwing cuts off drcle runner pick, and looks for passfrom left backcourt for a shot.

3 0

L.)

8 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL S'TJ.IDENT

mes.k remember that they are basically de-fending the 6-meter or goal area line.Therefore, they should be careful not to letan offensive player get between them andthe 6-meter line unnoticed. If they mustleave the 6-meter to check against a jump orset shooter they need not venture beyondthe 9-meter line, depending upon theshooting ability of the opponent. Once thecheck has been completed the defensiveplayer must immediately return to the6-meter line to once again fill the area leftopen by the checking movement.

Individual defense is played on the ballsof the feet with the knees slightly bent.Hands and arms are held at the sides insuch a manner as to block possible set orjump shots and block any passes to an of-fensive circle runner. Individuals shift la-terally along the 6-meter line to balance anyattack of the offensive players. Defensiveplayers should always assume responsibil-ity for one offensive player and be ready tohelp the players on their sides with theiroffensive opponent. It is easiest tcr think ofteam handball defense as being a zone de-fense until an offensive player with the ballthreatens to shoot. Once a player is in athreatening shooting position, defense be-copies one on one and contaqt should bemade. Proper checking technique is vital toplaying good defense and to the safety of allplayers. Remember, unnecessary roughplay may and should always result in a2-minute suspension. On the other hand, atoo passive defense will allow offensiveplayers to penetrate their line and scoreeasily. It is important when checking an-other player tharyou impress the refereethat you are using your body to obstruct anopponent and reaching for the ball with afree hand. Actually, with good body posi-tion, a defensive player can stop the offen-sive player's progress and reach to controlthe shooter's throwing arm or shoulder.While this is technically against the rulesand results in a free throw , it is also consid-ered good defense, because a priority is tonot let the offensive player even attempt ashot.'

Figure 5 depicts three defensive move-ments. In a. we have a demonstration of adefensive player blocking a jump shot

3 u

using both arms and a slight jump tocounter the offensive player's jump. In b.we have a classic body check of an offensiveplayer who may be in a set shooting posi-tion, note that both players remain on thefloor. Checking a jump shooter is shown inc., note that both players have left the floorand while the offensive player has jumpedhigher, the defensive player can counterthis advantage by controlling the shootingarm To control the offensive circle runnerthe defense usually relies on hand checking(t9,know the circle runner's position, while

,watching the ball) and then by blocking anyattempt to pass the ball to the circle runnerby using their arms or body to deny, posi-tion or the ball. While checking is a part ofteam handball for beginning players it issuggt5ted that strict basketball defense beplayed. Gradually, as experience is gained,hand checking can be introduced and fi-nally limited arm and body checking can beadded.

Diagram 10.

The 6-0 is the basic defensive formation.Diagram 10 iliustrates'the positions of thedefensive players and the paths of theiichecking and shifting responsibilities.Remember, team handball defense is a basiccombination zone that becomes player toplayer as the situatiop requires. Defensiveplayers talk to one another repeatedly to as-sure that each player knows his/her re-sponsibility and to keep close watch on theever-changing position of the offensive cir-

TEAM HANDBALL 299

b.

Figure 5. Three defensive movements.

3 0 2

C.


rfill...,,....,,,,,,..0..ritioaria.llb...,il 1

i

1.:_;:..E.1-_/14711,7..,

_1

'41

.,

II

. , I!0_11

,...

Ii. t. 0 I

I

I

A

17//1

a.

yaw/ NtmWtWimmovIa/ Alma,/ /.41MM1 /NNW( ni

b.,

1/1///h111111/ /11,11molll MINI 4111Mile MEV AMEX/ /Isms 'tit,/ /minim

4. . , MIN11111

ig

I 41.

i

c.

Figtire 6.

3 H

de runner. Defensive phiyers shift alongthe goal area line as the strength of theoffensive team shifts. Again, each defen-sive player must actively assume and an-nounce responsibility of an offensiveplayer. Defensive players should hot ex-change positions in providing defensivecoverage. As the offensive team shifts posi-tions in their movement, the defensiveplayers just shift player responsibility.Team defense is a series of shifting, helpingout, and recovery of _position for the nextthreat. Playing defense in team handballrequires full effort by each individual. Oncecontrol of the ball is obtained and the de-fensive team goes on offense, the team canpace their attack and dictale the intensity ofplay and in doing so, recover from the effortexpended on defense.

GOALIE

The goalie has a major function on bothoffense and defense. On offense the goaliewill initiate the fast break while on defensethe goalie's prime function is to block shots.Quickness, both in thought and physicalreaction, and courage are two major com-ponents needed to play the goal success-;ully. Figure 6 shows three common posi-tions of a goalie. In a. we see the goalie inthe ready position. In b. we see the goalieIllocking a low shot to the corner, while in c.the goalie is blocking a shot to the highcorner.

TEM:I HANDBALL 301

the ball from the goal area into the playingarea,: If a goalie deflects.the ball out-of-bounds across the sideline, the opponentsput the ball back into play by a throW-in InDiagram 11 we see when a shot becomes agoal.

isnammMINE EMINE111 1MIMIIINF"4MINIUMMINIMAillIuuIualIMMUMIMINEN1121111111M.IMNIMINENOwore

II

Diagram 11.

Goal

No Goal

TIPS FOR BEGINNING PLAYERS

1. Court may be modified to suit availablearea indoors or out, width is more im-portant than length. Regulation goals,net, and balls are recommended, butcan also be modified to include avail-

There are several rules that apply to the able equipment.goalie wily. The goalies may touch the ball 2. Do not allow body contact for beginningwith any part of their bodies and can move players.about the goal area without restriction. 3. As team handball is a passing game,However, the goalie cannut leave the goal discourage dribbling for beginningarea with the ball under control. While a players. A leadup game of keep-awaygoalie can enter the phiying area to obtain a,, with no dribbling allowed is ideal torball he/she cannot reenter the goal area with beginners.the ball under controL While in the playingarea with the ball in possession, goaliesmust observe step, dribbling, and 3-secondrules as they apply to court players. A courtplayer cannot throw a ball to his/her owngoalie standing in the goal area; this viola-tion results in a penalty throw. If a goaliedeflects a bait over the goalline the goalieputs the ball back into play by a goal throw.To execute a goal throw the goalie throws when on offense.

t'

4. Do not allow defensive players to pres-sure the offense. As offensive skills areacquired allow hand checking, limitedcontact, and finally arm and bodychecking.

5. Have every player touch the ball at leastonce before a shot is attempted eachtime on, offensei;

6. It is recommended to substitute only

3 4


7. Referees should be verbal with begin-ning players, as well as giving the whis-tle and hand signals.

8. Beginning players have a tendency toshoot at the middle of the goal, rightwhere the goalie stands! Put targets inthe high and low corners of the goal forplayers to shoot at in practice andwarmup situations.

9. Beginning players should be instructedto shout "corner," prior to shooting, asa supplementary reminder of where toshoot.

10. A gym mat draped over the front of agoll will leave only the 'high and lowcorners exposed for beginning playersin practice situations.

11. Have everyone play'the goal for an al-loted time to gain an appreciation of thedifficulty in playing the position.

TERMINOLOGY

Attack. Team attacks when they are in posses-sion of the ball.

Centerline. Divides the court in the center, gamebegins at the centerlii e.

Charging. An offensive player runs into or overa stationary defensive player who is in properposition.

Checking. Obstructing an opponent from tak-ing a shot or establishing position on offenseby using the arms and body.

Circle. Area described by the 6-meter lme, re-fthed to as the goal area.

Corner Throw. When a ball is last touched bydefending players before passing over thegoalline, it is put into play at the point ofintergection between the sideline and goallineby a throw

Free Throw. Play continues after a minor ruleviolation, opponents maintain 3 meters fromthe player taking the free throw.

Free Throw Line. Dashed line at 9 meters usedfor taking free throws following minor fouls'that occur between the 6- and 9-meter lines.Ball 1S put into play at a point on the free throwline directly opposite from the foul, while thedefense must remain 3 meters from the ball.

Goal'Area Line. 6-meter line or circle.Goal Throw. Throw taken by.goalie from goal

area after the goalie deflects the ball over thegoalline out-of-bounds.

Penalty Line. A line one meter in length, 7 me-. ters from the center of the goal. Penalty

throws are taken from this line.Referee's Throw. When players from both

teams infringe the rules at the same time orgain simultaneous possession of a loose ball,the referee will throw the ball to the floor at thespot where the incident occurred; no playercan-be closer than 3 meters to the. referee.

Substitution Area. Substitutes must enter andleave the game from an area 4.5 meters oneither side of the centerline. This designatedarea is located between the substitutibn benchand the timekeeper.

Throw-in. When a ball goes out-of-boundsacross the sideline, it is put back into play fromthe spot where it went out-of-bounds.

Throw-on. The throW-on is taken after the re-feree's whi§tle and is a pass to a teammate atthe centerline to start the game and after eachscored goal.

;

advantage (p. 313)approach shots (p. 315)backhand (p. 308)Continental' grip (p. 310)drop shots (p. 315)Eastern forehand grip (p. 305)fault (p. 313)forehand (p. 305) _

groundstrokes (p. 315) .

half volley (p. 318)let (p. 313)lobs (p. 315)no-ad (p. 313)overhead smash (p. 312)percentage shot (p. 316)ready position (p. 305) )serve (p. 309)

_tennis elbow (p. 312)tie breakers (p. 313)two-handed backhand (p. 308)umpire (p. 314) ..

volley (p. 310)\

o

..

INTRODUCTION

Before you decide that you are going toplay tennis regularly, there are severalthings you should know. The benefits ofplaying tennis are obvious to most people,but the problems of learning to play are notas easily recognized.

Tennis can be fun to play, relatively inex-pensive, good for your health, an indi-vidual or team sport, and one that can beplayedior a lifetime. It can be an activity foran afternoon of recreation with your familyor friends, or a sport played competitivelyfor hundreds of thousands of dollars.

Whatever your reasons for playing, besure you know what you are getting intobefore you get serious about it. Tennis is aphysically demanding game at most levels.It requires a wide range of physical skillsand mental alertness, and can be difficultfor some people to learn. The game lookseasier to play than it is, so it will requireyour utmost attention. You do not have tobe a great athlete to enjoy tennis, but physi-cal skills and mastering techniques can addto your enjoyment. If you decide to playseriously, play often and decide that youare going to run, work hard, perspire, andenjoy doing it.

When Walter Wingfield received a Britishpatent for lawn tennis in 1874, he could nothave imagined what the game would belike today. During The past twenty yearsthere have been some dramatic changes.These include a change from tennis primar-ily being played by a few men in privatedubs to millions of men and women onpublic courts aS well. The ages of players

*Portions of this chapter have been reprinted fromBrown, Jim. TENNIS: Strokes, Strakgy, and Program, ©1980, pp, Chapters 1,2,3. Reprinted by permission ofPrentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

CHAFTER 20

Tennis*JIM BROWN;

Mc Neese State University,Lake Charles, LA

have extended downward to six andseven year-olds and upward to the seven-ties and eighties. The United States TennisAssociation estimatesthat about thir.ty mil-lion Americans regularly play tennis. Otherrecent changes in the game include morevariety in the stxle of play, open competi-tion between amateurs .and professionals,an increase in televised tenhis, andtechnological advances that have producedspace age materials for rackets, balls,strings, courts, and other tennis-relatedproducts.


THE READY POSITION

The ready position is the stance to beassumed while waiting for return shots.Hold the racket out in front of the.body withthe racket pointing toward the opponent orslightly toward the backhand side (a right-hander's left side). Use the non-rackethand to suPport the racket at the throat oron the shaft (the parts between the headand the handle or grip). The racket shouldbe far enough in front of you so that yourweight is thrown slightly forward. This po-sition will force you to put your weight onyour toes instead of your heels, a positionthat should help you react faster to any shot(see Figure 1).

FOREHAND

The Eastern forehand grip is -used bymost players for this shot. Shake hiclswith the base of the racket so that your palmis slightly behind the racket handle, thewrist is a little to the right of the top of thehandle, and the "V" formed by the thamband index finger is above, but slightly to-ward the back part of the grip (see Figure 2).

307


Figure 1. In the ready position, the weight isforward, the racket points to the opponent, and

the knees are flexed.

tz

Figure 2. The Eastern forehand grip. As the. player I .00ks down on the racket, the wristi$ slightly Co the right of the top of the handle.

As soon as you know the ball is going to'your forehand side, begin the backswing.The backswing is made by b.ringing the rac-ket back either in a straight line parallel tothe court or in a slight up, then down loopto a position where thetacket is a bit lowerthan waist high and pointing to the wall orfence behind your baseline (see Figure 3).

As the ball comes to the forehand, moveinto a position so that the left shoulderpoints to the "oall and the feet form a lineapproximately parael to the sideline. Pushoff with the foot farther away from the netand transfer your weight forward as youbegin to swing at the ball.

Swing in a slightly upward motion. Thisupward Nnd forward action bf the racketpermits a hit with a little topspin, which isgood for control and for making the ballbounce high on the other side. Make con-tact with the ball just before it reaches apoint even with the midsection of yourbody. Keep your wrist firmly in placethroughout the stroke (see Figure 4).

Foll Ow through in the direction of thenet, across the front of your body, and high

Figuie 3. Turning your side to the net andtaking the racket back to the fence for the

forehand backswing.

Figure 4. Making contact with thekali for the forehand.

a

Figure 6. The Eastern backhand.

TENNIS 307

Figure 5. The forehand follow-through.

Figure 7. Taking the racket back so that it,pointsto a wall or fence behind you for the backhand.

r 3/19

308 pHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT-

Figure 8. Making contact with the ball for thebackhand.

on the opposite side from which youstarted the swing (see Figure 5).

BACKHAND

There are three acceptable ways to holdthe racket for a backhand shot (one that aright-hander hits on the left side of thebody). The most common grip is the East-ern backhand, in which the right-hander'swrist should be to the left of the top of theracket handle as you look down on the rac-ket (see Figure 6). In this grip the inside part

'of the thumb is in contact with the back, flatpart of the racket handle. The thumb maybe extended or bent to provide support.Players with strong forearms might use theContinental grip. Here the wrist is directlyon top of the racket handle. The thumb hasto provide more sup'poKt from the rear sincethe wrist is not positioned to provide asmuch. Some players use the_Continentalgrip for the backhartd and forehand so theydo not have to change grips between shots.The two-handed backhand is used at alllevels of the game. It provides more sup-port, but it may be difficult to reach someshots, and the racket is hard to manipulate

31 u

Figure 9. The backhand follow-through.

on shots aimed directly at the body. Thereare players who use two forehand grips toattain a two-handed backhand, whileothers change to an Eastern backhandmiththe strong hand and add a forehand gripwith thee other.

However you decide to hold the racket,start taking it back as soon as'you see theball coming. Use the non-racket hand tocradle the racket along the shaft and to helpturn the racRet as you change to the back-hand grip. Take the racket back to a posi-tion pointing to the fence at about waistheight (see Figure 7).

Turn before you hit so that your shoulderis pointing in-the direction you want theball to go. Bend your knees slightly. Leanforward as you swing. You might even takea small step forward with the foot closest tothe net.

Swing in a motion approximately parallelto the court. Keep your wrist firmly in placeas you swing., Make contact with the ballbefore it gets even with the middle of yourbody .(see Figure 8). Follow through outtoward the net, across the front of yourbody, and up to the other side (see Figure9).

Groundstroke TestsMost skill tests are based on the number

of successful attempts in hitting balls into atarget area. This type of test-can be usedwith any stroke in .tennis. Here are someexamples:1. Drop and Elit. Standing .at the baseline

near the center mark, drop and put intoplay asmao,y balls as you can out of tenattempts. Shots that fall into theforecourt area count for one point; shotslanding in the sin les backcourt countfor two points.

2. Toss to Forehand. Standing at the baselinenear the' center mark, rettirn as many

-balls as you can out of tert balls thrownon one bounce to your forehand. Shotsinto the forecourt count one point; shotsinto the backcourt count two points.

3. Toss to Backhand. Same as the previousdrill, except that balls are tossed on...onebounce, waist high to the backhand.

4. Wall Test. Standing behind a linetwenty-five feet from a rebound wall,drop the ball and put it into play. Con-tinue hitting groundstrokes against thewall for thirty seconds. Every shot mustbe hit from behind the line, but shots donot have to be played on one bounce. If ashot does not come back behind the line,the player can retrieve the ball and returnto the starting position before hitting thenext shot. Each hit during the thirty sec-ionds counts for one point.

BEGINNER'S SERVE

The serve is used to begin a point andmust be delivered from behind thebaseline. Beginnerg should hold the racketwith the Eastern forehand grip describedearlier and start with the racket behind theback or head. Stand at about a 45° angle tothe baseline with your weight on the footaway from the net (see Figure 10).

Toss the ball a little higher than you canreach and about a foot in front of you. Try tolift the ball without spin so that when youswing at.it your arm will be fully extended.Remember to reach high to hit (see Figure

0 11). Follow through out toward the net,across the front of your body, and down onthe ot4r side (see Figure 12).

TENNIS 309

Figure 10. Starting the beginner's serve with theracket up and back, and the ball out in front.

Figure 11. Extending the arm upward to hit forthe beginner's serve.

to

ts.

.. i310 PHYSICAUEDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

Figure 12. The follow-through for thebeginner's serve.

Toss the ball a bit higher than you canreach. Reach high to hit and Make contactin front of your body so that your.weightwill move forward with the swing. The 'footthat started out.away frotn the net shouldmove forward and touch down inside thebaseline after you have hit the ball. Thishappens almost naturally to keep your ba-lance after you have reached up and for-ward:to hit. Follow through out, across,and down to the other side, in that order(see Figure 13).

Beginners' Serving TestStanding at the baseline, start with the

racket in the back scratch position and at-tempt to serve ten balls into the servicecourt diagonally:opposite from where youare positioned. Count one point for eachball that -lands in the proper service court.Use the beginners' serving motion and tryonly for accuracy, not power.

INTERMEDIATE AND ADVANCED SERVE

Players with advanced serves usuallyhold the racket with a Continental grip.Some even move their eists a bit towardthe backhand side of the grip. These gripsenable the server to hit with control, pace,and spin, while the Eastern forehand grip ismainly for control.

Stand nt an angle to the baseline de-scribed for beginners, but begin motion

t 312

with the ball against the strings out in frontof your body about chest high. Drop theracket in a pendulum motion by the side ofyour leg and at the same time drop thetossing hand prior toAhe toss. As the racketinoves.up behind you to back scratchingposition, the othertarm begins, to move upto hit the ball for the toss. Move the handsdown at the same time, then up together.

Intermediate/Advanced Serving TestDraw a line across the service court four

feet from and parallel to the service line.Standing behind the baseline and using thefull swing motion, attempt to serve ten ballsinto the proper court. Shots that land infront of the line drawn count one point;shots flitting between the four-foot line andthe-service line count two points.

VOELEY

A volley is d shot hit before the ballboUnces. It is usually hit from a spot in theforecourt. Beginners will be more comfort:able holding a forehand grip ror forehand

olleys and a backhand grip for backhandvolleys. The advantage is comfort in hit-ting, the disadvantage is that there may notbe enough time to change grips betweenshots. Intermediate and advanced playerspse the Continental grip. They sacrificecomfort in order not to have to change gripsfrom the fordiand to the backhand. Theother fundamentals are the same.

Take a short baskswing. There is riotenough time for a big one. Block or punchthe ball in front of and to the'side of whereyou are on the court. Since you will nothave time for a big backswing to providepower, it is important to make contact in-front so that moving your body weight for-ward will helpmake up for the power loss.Step forward if you have time. If you aT)right-handed, step in the direction youwant to hit with your left foot oh forehandvolleys. Step forward with the right foot onbackhand volleys. If you do not have timeto take a step, turn your shoulders beforereaching forward to hit. Keep your eyeslevel With the ball. If it goes low, get downwith it. Finally, ry to hit the ball while it isrising. If you let it drop, you will have tovolley up and hit a defensive shot.

a.

C. d.

Figure 13. Intermediates and advanced players begin the serve withboth hands in front. They then go down together and up together.

Extend your arm to a hit, and follow through, out, acrosS, and down..0,1


Figure 14. Shift your weight forward and reachhigh to hit the overhead smash.

Volley TestStanding approximately ten feet from the

net, attempt to return as many balls as youcan out of. ten shots fed from the baseline.The feeder should mix forehand and back-hand shots. Volleys that fall into the fore-cotirt count one point, and shots that hit thebackcourt area cdunt two points:

f

OVERHEAD SMASH

Beginners seidoM hit overhead smashes,but when they do they usually hold inEastern, forehandizrip. As with the serve,this grip allows for control but does notprovid9 controlled power. Intermediatesand advanced players hold a Continentalgrip for control and power. Take lots ofsteps to prepare for a smash. If you get settoo soon, you may misjudge the ball andbein a poor position to hit. As you get ready tohit, your feet should be staggeredoso that

the-right foot is back and the left foot for-ward. Again, this position allows you toshift your weight forward as you swing.Take an abbreviated backswing. Bring the .racket straight up in front of your body to aposition behind your head.'A full wind-updoes not giie you as much control as thisshort one will. Keep the ball in front of youas.you swing and Teach high to hit, Yourarm should be fullyextended-agyou hit-(seeFigure 14).

SAFETY

Since there is nobody contact in tennis,there is less of a chance for injury thSn insome other spits. There are, however,ways to get hurt 4nd ways to avoid injuries.In practice, stepping on balls scatteredaround the court and getting hit by stray ,

tennis balls is always a problem. Clearingthe couit of extra,balls and being alert canreduce the possibility of getting hurt thatway. Many_players are now using eye-guards to protect themselves againSt ballsthat glance off rackets and strike the eyes.

Blisters, sprains, strains, cramps, shinsplints, and tennis elbow are the most ,common injuries. Gradually increasing theamount of playing time and using the cor-red grip size can cpt down on blisters. o

Sprains are difficult to prevent, but playingwithin your capabilitieS and working'to irn-

prove flexibility may help. Stretching andotheryarmup activities can prevenrpulledmuscIest Good conditioning and maintain-ing a proper balance of potassium, sodium,and water might help you avoid gettingcramps. Shin splints can be cauffied by run-ning on hdrd surfaces; poor conditioning,and poor running techniques, so correctingthose problems might heIR solve the shinsplint problem. Proper hitting technique,,strong muscles, and using tile right racketcan reduce the.possibility of getting tennisk-elbow.

- RULES

STARTING ME GAME

The players or teamsspin a racICet or fliPacoin to decide who serves first. The winner, ,of the spin or flip can choose to serve first,

receive first, to begin the match on eitherside, or to let the opponent make thechoice.

The first serve is made from behind theright side of the baseline between the centerservice mark and the singles sideline. Theserve for the second point is made frombehind the left side of the baseline, and theserver continues alternately serving fromthe righi and left sides of the basefine untilthe first game is completed.

The serve is a "fault" if the server stepson or beyond the baseline before the ball ishit or if the ball does not go over the net andinto the service court diagonally oppositethe server. If the first serve is a fault, theserver gets mother chance. If the secondserve is a fault, the server loses the point.

The serve is a "let" if the ball touches thetop of the net and goes into the properservice court or if the receiver is not ready.If a serve is a let, that serve is repeated.

The players alternate serving completegames. After the first game, the server be-comes the receiver 'and the receiver of thefirst game becomes the server. Changeends of the court (with a 90-second rest)when the total number of games in a setequals an odd number.

A player loses a point if:"0 the ball bouncestwice before it is hit;

the server serves two faults in a row; .a ball is returned so that it hits outside theboundary lines (balls that hit lines aregood);a ball does not go over the net;the ball is hit more than once during astroke or swing;a player touches the net while the ball is inplay;the ball is hit by a player reaching over thenet (unless the wind or spin has carriedthe ball back across the net); ,a player throws the racket and hits theball.

TENNIS 313

decided at the beginning of each set andmaintained until that set is completed.

SCORING

The server's score is always givenfirst. The first point won by a player isfifteen; the second is 30; the third is 40; thefourth-issame-unless the score-is tied...Eachplayer has zero points or "love" at the startof the game. If the score is tied at 40 - 40,the score is deuce and the game continuesuntil one player gets ahead by two points.After the score is deuce, the player whowins the next point has the "advantage."The score can be called "ad in" if the serveris winning and "ad our if the receiver isahead. "My ad" and "your ad" are alsocommon expressions. If the playeewho hasthe advantage wins the next point, thatgame isOver. If not, the score goes back todeuce.

No-ad scoring is simpler and used fre-quently-at-all-levels of-the-games-Instead ofcalling the points love, 15, 30, 40, andgame, the points are called 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4.The first player to win four points wins thegame.-When the score is tied at 3 - 3, theplayer who wins the next point, wins thatgame. At 3 - 3, the receiver chooses theside from which he/she will return theserve.

In both regular scoring and no-ad scor-ing, play continues until a player wins at

cated, but details can be obtained by writ-

in a set. There are two widely used tiebreakers, one consisting of the best of ninepoints and the other the best of twelvepoints. Both systems are rather compli-

ing the United States Tennis AssociationEducation and Research Center, 729 Alex-ander Road, Princeton, NJ 08540.

.8- 6, 9 - 7). A match usually consists oftwo out of three sets.

pleted. If the score is tied at 5 - 5, theplayers continue to play until one gbesahead by two games (for example, 7 - 5,

In most matches and tournaments, "tie-breakers" are used when the score.is 6 - 6

..

least six games and is ahead by at least two(for example, 6 - 0, 6 - 2, 6 - 4).games .

When that happens, a set has been corn-

In doubles, the players on each team take1, turns serving. The order of serving can be

changed at the end of each set. The re-ceivers take turns receiving the serve ineach game. The order of receiving must be

3 '"r.

9-,t)

I


0 Post

4W Al ey

X f,-

0

A LeftService .nCourt

RightService Court

4 21,

Center Service Line

Right 8Service Court k

ingles Side Lines

a 42'

k LeftServi:e Court

4W Alley

Ia

0

(5 Post78'

Diagraml. Diagram and dimensions of a tennis court.

ME COURT

A tennis court is seventy-eight feet longand twenty-seven feet wide for singlesplay. A doubles court is seventy-eight bythirty-six.11e:netis three feet at the centerand three feet, six inChes at the net posts.Lines should be two inches Wide. A dia-gram of a singles and doubles court isshown in Diagram 1.

ETIQUETIE

There are some unwritten rules whichmake the game more enjoyable. Here dresome of them:1. Each player calls shots on his/her side

of the net.2. When al3all is so.close to the fine that

you cqn-not tell whether it is in ur out, itshould be played as good. Give theother player the benefit of the tlqubt.

3. Make verbal calls only when a shot isout. If a shot is close but in, play the ballwithout saying anything.

4. The server should call out the scare fol-lowing each point.

5. Do not Walk behind a court when apoint is in progress.

6. Do not return a ball to another courtduring play.

7. Wait until players are changing sides toask about the score.

8. If there is an unusual delay between thefirst and second serves because of out-side interference, allow the server totake two serves.

9. Do not distract serious rlayers withloud talk or other noise from the side ofthe court. Tennis players react to .sound, and sounds from the side of thecourt might be mistakenly interpretedas calls related to the match.

JO. Do not umpire or coach during a matchunless you are there to act in that capac-ity.

SINGLES STRATEGY

THE SERVE

Stand, near the center of the baseline toserve.

2. Do not waste energy and time trying toserve aces (serves which the receivercannot touch with the racquet).

3. Place serves to your opponents' weakestsides or to an open area in the servicecourt.

4. Serve directly at players who take bigbackswings on their groundstrokes.

5. Do not follow your serve to the net un-less your serve is very good and unlepyou can-volley well.

6. Use more spin and lessTace on secondserved.'

7. Use a variety of serves during a match.

1.

31 G

Returning Serves

1. Stand so that you are in the middle ofthe two extreme sides to which the ballcan be served (usually on orbehind thebaseline one to two steps from wherethe baseline and singles sideline meet).

2. Move in a step or two on second serves.3. Learn to anticipate your opponent's

second serves.4.. Return fast serves with a short back-

swing and a blocking motion. Do nottry to return a hard sefve with a hardreturn.

5. ,Return the ball deep to the cornerswhen possible.

GROUNDSTROKES

1. Stand on or just behind the center ofthe baseline between groundstrokes.2Ns soon as you hit one shot, move backto that position unless you a're in theforecourt.

2. Hit most groundstrokes cross-court,deeply to the backcourt, and high overthe net. That will make your opponentrun to hit shots and to stay in his/herbackcourt. It will also give you moredistance with which to work.

3. to open spots on the court whenyou can.

4. Do not try to put shots awar from aposition behind your baseline.

5. Keep the ball low and wide onpassingshots.

6. Use your best stroke on all set-ups,everi if you have to run around the ballto hit it.

7. Develop a "pattern during a rally; thenbreak it.

APPROACH SHOTS1. Use approach shots on balls that

bouna near or inside the servicecourts.

2. Take a shorter backswing oi approachshots.

3. Use a backspin on most approach shots.4. Hit most approaches down the line to

which you are clowst.5. Do not try to win the point with an

approach shot. Set your opponent up.;then win with a volley.

,

TENNIS 315

, VOLLEYS

1. Play volleys from a position about tenfeet from the net near the center of thecourt.

2. Move closer to the net following a goodvolley.

3. Volley to the open part of the court.4. When you volley a low shot, volley it

deep and down the middle of the court.5. When you volley a high shot, volley at

an angle and go for a winner.6. Cover the open court on your side after

you hit a volley.7. Get set to hit volleys. Do not hit on the

run uriless you have to.

LOBS

1. When you run wide to retrieve a deepshot, lob cross-court.

2. Make defensive lobs go deep and highinto your opponent's court.

3. Use lobs more often when the otherplayer has to look into the sun.

4. Follow offensive lobs to the net.

SMASHES

1. Change the direction of two smashes ina row.

2. Try to put smashes away when you areclose to the net.

3. Do not attempt put-aways from thebackcourt area.

4. Hit 'smashes flat (without spin) whenyou are near the net. Use some spinwhen hitting smashes farther from thenet.

DROP SHOTS

Do not try drop shots from thebaseline, when the wind is at yourback, or against players who can runfast.

2. Use drop shots when your opponentexpects you to hit a deep shot.

1.

DOUBLES STRATEGY

Stand about halfway between the cen-ter mark and the doubles sideline toserve (see Diagram 2).

.4 2. Serve to the backhand or to 'the openpart of the service court.


RI

Si

Diagram 2. Positions for starting a point in doubles. Thereceiver's partner (R1) may want to begin the point on the

baseline instead of on the service line.

31 Let the strongest server begin servingeach set.

4. Receive the serve at a...point where thebaseline meets the singles sideline(see Diagram 2).

5. If the server stays back after the serve,return the ball deep and cross-court.

6. If the server comes to the net followinga serve, return the ball short andcross-court.

7. If the server's partner plays too close tothe net, try lobbing.

8. Occasionally try to pass the server'spartner at the net just so he/she willhave something to thinic about. -

9. When your partner is receiving theserve, stand either even with him orher on the baseline or move up to themiddle o. the service line on your sideof the court (see Diagram 2).

10When your partner is serving, sOndabout eight to ten feet from the net andtwo steps inside the singles sidelinetoward the center of the court (see Dia,gram 2).

11. If_your partnet_has to move off to theside of-the court to retrieve a shot, shiftin that direction to cover the opencourt.

12. When your partner is serving, protectyour side of the court, take weak shotsdown the middle, and smash any lobshit to your side.

13. When you are playing at the net and alob goes over your head, cross to the

Server

other side and fall back to cover theopen cour'. while your partner retrievesthe lob.

14. When volleying, hit for the open part ofthe court or at the closest opPonent ifyou are in an offensive position.

15. Volley to the opponent farther awayfrom you if you are hitting a defensivevolley.

16. When both opponents me at tll\netand you are on the baseline, hit mostshots low and down the middle.

17. Hit most smashes down the middle ofthe cour$.

18. Play with a partner you like and can getalong with on and off the court.

19. Talk.to your partner during the match.20. Let the player with the strongest back-

hand play the left side of the courtwhen receiving serves.

1.2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

3 1 8

GENERAL STRATEGY0

Change tactics if you are losing.Hit toward a general target area insteadof going for lines and corners.Play the ball instead of your opponent,especially in pressure situations.Do not try risky shots on points 'Youcannot afford to lose.Learn what percentage sho6. are anduse them during a match.Concentrate on winning the first pointof evety game and the first game of-every set.

7. Try to be consistent rather than power-ful. Most points are lost with poorshots, not won by great ones.

8. Do not fight power with power.9. Start getting ready for the,next shot as

soon as you have hit the last one.10. Find out what your opponent's

weakest shot is and take advantage ofthat weakness.

EQUIPMENT

RACKETS

Tennis rackets range in price from afew dollars to hundreds of dollars. It isbest not to spend a lot of money on yourfirst racket, but to buy an inexpensive oneuntil you have decided to regularly play thegame. There are several ways to determineif you are getting a godd racket. One way is

if) look on the side of the racket for mark-ings indicating the racket's grip size andweight. Most good rackets will have thosenumbers, but there are other ways to lookfor quality. The general workmanship cantell you a lot About a racket, that is, thequality of the grip, the trim, the markings, .

and the welding or rivets on metal rackets.Getting opinions of other players can helpyou decide if a racket is of good quality.

Rackets are made of wood, steel, alumi-num, carbon, graphite, fiberglass, andother products. Composite rackets aremade of two or more products. There aremany differences in these products, butgenerally, w ooden rackets and rackets withoversized heads give you more .controlwhile rackets made from other productssupply more power.

You will have to decide on the weightand grip size before buying a racket. Tennisrackets range in weight from twelve to fif-teen ounces, and most players use light ormedium weight raclsets (indicated by an Lor M on the side of the shaft). Grip sizesrange from four to five inches. Players withsmall hands would probably use a racketwith a grip size between four and four andone half inches, while those persons withlarger hands might prefer a four and five-eighths grip. If the grip is-too small or toolarge, the racket will slip when contact is

TENNIS 317

made with the ball. One way to decidewhich size is best for you is to hold aforehand grip. The end of your thumbshould touch the first joint in the middlefinger if the grip is the right size.

Strings

Racket strings are either made fromnylon or from beef or sheep muscle tissue.Almost all recreational players and manyadvanced players use nyloh. Nylon strings,are reasonably priced and durable. Begin-ners and intermediates should have theirrackets strung between fifty-one anc1fifty-five pounds of pressure. Mid-sized and.oversized rackets require more pressure,but get the advice of a stringer if you are notsure about what to do.

You can extend the life of your racket andstrings by not storing rackets in extremelyhot or cold places (like a car trunk or attic),by using racket coyers between matches, bynot spinning the racket on the court, bykeeping thesrip clean, and by not throwingor dropping your racket when you areangered.

BALLS

It is important that even beginners,playwith good tennis balls. Brand names canbe deceiving, but Penn, Wilson, Spald-ing, Dunlop, and Slazenger are some of thecompanies that make quality balls. Tennisballs cost from $2.00 to $5.00 for a can ofthree,but you can save money by watchingfor sales, shopping at discount stores, andbuying a dozen or more balls at a time. Askfor heavy duty balls if you are going to playon hard surfaces like concrete. You cannotplay with one can of balls forever. Threeballs may last three or four outings for be-ginners and some intermediates, but after awhile they will begin to lose pressure andbounce, or the fuzz will wear off. Advancedplayers use new balls almost every timethey play. Keeping tennis balls stored in acan and out of the heat will make them lastlonger.

TERMINOLOGY

Ace. A serve which the receiver cannot touchwith the racket.

31 9

318. PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

Ad-in. The score when the player serving haswon the point after the score-was deuce.

Ad-out. The score when the player receiving theserve has won the point after the score wasdeuce.

Alley. The lane or area on each side of the sin-gles court. The alleys can be used fob)] shotsafter the serve in doubles.

Approach Shot. A shot which the hitter followsto the net. It is usually.hit from the forecourtarea.

Backcourt. The part of the court between theservice line and the baseline.

Baseline. The boundary line at the back of thecourt that runs parallel to the net.

Chip. A groundstroke hit with a short back-swing, with backspin on the ball, and one thatusually falls into the opponent's forecourt.

Choke up. To hold the racket at a point awayfrom the base of the grip.

Chop. A shot hit with backspin to any part of thecourt.

Continental Grip. A way to hold the racket sothat the player does not have to change gripsbetween the forehand and backhand. Holdingthe racket so that one edg'e points down; thewrist is directly over the top of the racket han-dle.

Cron-court. A shot hit diagonally from onecorner of the court to the opposite corner.

Deuce. A tie score at 40 - 40 and each tie afterthat in the same game.

Double Fault. When the server does not hiteither of his or her two attempts info theproper court.

Drive. A groundstroke hit with power deeplyinto the opponent's backcourt.

Fault. When the server dbes not serve the ballinto the proper court. -=--;

Flat. A shot hit with little or no spin.Follow-through. That part of the swinging mo-

tion after the ball has been hit.Groundstroke. A shot which is hit after the ball

has bounced.Hilf Volley. A shot hit immediately after the

ball has bounced on the court.Let. A serve that hits the top of the net and

bounces in the proper service court. Let alsomeans that a point should be replayed for anumber of reasons.

Lob. A high, arching shot.Love. A word used meaning zero points.Match. A contest between two players, two

doubles teams, or two teams representingschools, clubs, or other groups.

32

No-ad. A scoring system in which the firstplayer to win four points wins a game. Thescore is counted 1 - 2 - 3 - 4, instead of 15 -30 - 40 - game.

Passing Shot. A groundstroke hit out of thereach of an opponent at the net.

Percentage Shot. The safest, most effective shothit in a particular situation.

Poach. Movement of a player at the net in front..of his or her partner to hit a volley.

Pro Set. A match which is completed when oneplayer or team has won at least eight gamesand is ahead by at least two games.

Rally. An exchange of shots.Receiver. The player who returns the serve.Service Line. The line that is parallel to and

twenty-one feet from the net.Set. That part of a match when one player or

team has won at least six games and i,aheadby at least two games. The set may continuesuntil one player is ahead by two gam"r a tiebreal<er may be played When each player, haswon six times.

Sideline. The boundary line that runs from thenet to the baseline. The singles sideltnes arecloser to the center of the court dim the dou-bles sidelines.

Tie Breaker, A method of completing a set whenboth players or teams !rye won six games.Nine-point (best of nine) Snd twelve-point(best of twelve) tie breakersr.are the mostcommonly used.

Topspin. The spin put on a ball by a racket whenthe ball spins or rolls forward like a car wheelgoing forward.

Umpire. The official for a singles or doublesmatch.

Volley. A shot hit before the ball bounces on thecourt.

REFERENCES

Brown, Jim. Tennis: Strokes, Strategy, and Pro-grams. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,Inc., 1980.

Brown, Jim. Tennis without Lessons, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,.Inc., 1978.

Gould, Dick, Tennis, Anyone? Palo Alto, CA:National Press Books, 1980.

United States Tennis Association Education andResearch Center Publications, Princeton, NJ)1980.

:

r,

approach (p. 331)arm action (p. 329)baton (p. 324)body alignment (p. 329)border positions (p. 325)check marks (p. 333)conditioning (p. 341)delivery (p. 335)discus (p. 338)distance running (p. 329)foot placement (p. 329)foot plant (p. 331)Fosbuny Flop (p. 330)glide (p. 337)grip (p. 335)hang (p 334)high jump (p. 330)hitch-kick (p. 333)

horizontal jumps (p. 332)hurdles (p. 327)lead leg (p. 327)power position (p. 340)the reverse (p. 338)safety (p. 343)shot put (p. 335)spin (Pp. 340)

sprint relay (p. 324)whits (p. 323)

. the start (p. 321)stride speed (p. 326)take-off7p. 331)trail leg (p. 327)triple jmnp (p. 335)zone awareness (p. 326)

-a

0

INTRODUCTION

"Citius, Aldus, Fortius"Swifter, Higher, Stronger

the Olympic Motto

The first Olympic Games took place in776 B.C. in Ancient Greece. Male athletesparticipated in running events and throw-ing of the discus and javelin. Winners wereawarded.an olive wreath. Women partici-pated in their own festival, the Ilerea,which was held once every five years andfeatured a 100-foot race.

With the emeigence of the Romans, theOlympic Games withered and eventuallybecame a farce in 66 A.D. In 394 A.D., after291 Olympic Games, Emperor Theodosiusof Rome, a Christian opposed to paganspectacles, fornially abolished the OlympicGames.

The Modern Olympic Games were re-vived in 1896 by Baron de Coubertin, whoauthored the Olympic creed, "The impor-tant thing in the Olympic Games is notwinning- but taking part The essentialthing in life is not conquering but fightingwell." His plan wai simple: Amateur

'athletes from all nations would gatherevery four years and compete in varioussports. The champions of the First Olym-piad received a gold medal and an alivebranch.

Baron de Coubertin wished the ModernGames to be similar to the Ancient Gameswhere the exclusion of women, as in thepast, was a basic ingredient. Against thewishes of Baron de Coubertin, women's

CHAPTER 21

Track and Field

LeROY T. WALKER,North Carolina Central University,

Durhatn, NCand

t SUZI D'ANNOLFO,West Hartford Public Schools,

West Hartford, CT

track and field waS initially included in theOlympic Games of 1928. The events in-cluded the400 meters, high jump, discus,400-meter relay, and 800-meter run. In1932, the 80-nneter hurdles and javelin wereadded, but the 800-meter run was deletedbecause it was "too strenuous" for women.The 800-meter run was not reinstated until1960. While the 3,000, 5,000, and 10,000-meter races are collegiate events forwomen, the 1500-meter race was thelongest event for women in the 1980 Olym-pic Games. The 1984 Olympic Games in LosAngeles. will see the birth of the women'smarathon.


THE START

Success in sprinting dvents dependsupon natural speed as well as reaction time.An efficient start can make the difference inany sprint event. The fundamentals of thestart involve three commands: (1) runnerstake your marks; (2) set; (3) go (the gun).

Runners Take Your Marks (See Figure 1h)The runner should stand in front of the

blocks with the left foot about 12 to 18 inchesbehind the starting line and the right footslightly behind the heel oT the left foot. Theright knee should be lowered to the groundnext to the left foot; toes should be in con-tact with the ground. From this position,place the hands behind the starting line; the

322 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOtZ THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

OM

5

a. Take your mark.

4,

b. Set.

Inside of the left elbow barely touches theleft knee. The hands are spread shoulder

width apart with thb thumb and indexfinger placed behind the starting line andthe remaining fingers bunched in back ofthe inde4 finger. The fingers ancl.thumbform a supporting arch. Body weightshould be to the rear.

Set (See Figure 11?)The runner shifts his/her weight forward

over the hands. The hips are raised toshoulder height as the back leg is parallelwith the ground. The eyes are focused 8 to10 yards ahead. Concentrate on the soundof the gun.

PO (See Figure 1c)React as quickly as possible to the sound

of the gun. The rear leg and opposite armexplode forward as the other arm drives tothe rear to hip height. The fiont leg drivesoff the block into full extension. The bodyangle is low and forward for a6out 10 to 15yards. Emphasize force against the pedalsof the-block. Continue to drive the armsvigorously to aid in balance and power.Once a natural upright running position isachieved, elongate.your strides.

Drills1. One on one, coach and athlete with the

coach analyzing the start, from the front,back, side, watches the position of thehead, iegs, shoulders,: and arms.

2. To self-analyze foot placement andstride length; the starter uses chalk onthe feet and works on the start, then bylooking at his/her tracks, analyzes footplacenient and stride length for effi-ciency.

Sprinting consists of two basic principles:stride length; stride frequency or rate ofstride. Sprinting ranges from the shortsprint (100 meters) to the long sprint (400meters).

There are three basic parts of effectivesprinting: the start, efficient running form,the finish. Each of these basic parts of thetotal sprint effort has essential demandswhich the sprinter must execute.

TRACK AND FIELD 323

SpritIting form is a very individual matterbecause of different body builds; howeverfundamental running movements can bedescribed in general terms of correct footplacement, arm action, shoulder 4nd headangles, body alipment, and leg and kneeaction.

Foot-Placement__' Emphasize the toes pointing striightahead as oppbsed to in or out. To illiistratethe importance of this, have the runnerstand toeing mit, arid make a mark on thetrack; now have the runner rock back on theheels, rotaie the toes straight ahead, andmark the track. The runner will see a differ-ence of 1-4 inches between the marks. Effi-_cient running Saves steps.

Arm ActionArms are used for balance. As the right

leg strides forward, the left arm comesforward, while the right arm moves back.The sequenceis reversed when the left legstrides fOTV;."-a-FailvliiKtaiiia constant angleof the 1Rwer arm to the upper arm withthumbsb-p and the mist and hand relaxed.The arm moves, driving the elbow forwardand back, never passing higher than thearmpit on the forward swing and. never.further back than 6 inches beyond the hips.Arms never cross the midline of the body.

ShouldersThe shoulders shoulii be relaxed. There

should be little or no/otation.

HeadThe head should be straight ahead with

the eyes focusing on the finish line. Theface should be relaxed withihe jaw hangingloose.

Body AlignmentHave the runner raise up on the toes and

___leaniorw_g_diust to where a loss of balanceis not being maintained:This is the correctbody lean. Forward lean is greatest whenaccelerating.

Leg-ActionKnee-LiftKnees should come up close to parallel

and straight ahead (don't permit the kneesto rotate out or in). The sprinter should runon the ball of the foot, using a pushingaction to get drive against the surface of the

3 9


track. Mpintain stride length regardless offatigue. Run relaxed. The faster ale run, thelonger the stride. When finishing the sprintrace, run through and lean into the finishline.

Fundamental Drills1. Arm pumping standing still, accelerat-

ing tempoconcentrate on angle andimportance of arm action.

2. Foot placementrun on chalk lines oron a dirt track. Analyze foot placementfor running efficiency.

3. Knee liftslean against thelvall and dohigh knee lifts for improving leg reflex.

4. Do 40-yard sprints concentrating onhigh,knee lift and drive from the track.

5. Quick kneesusing the length of afootball field, pump arms and knees asfast as possible for 5-10 yards; ease orslow to a stop and then repeat drill Untillengdi of football field is covered.

Sprinting Drills and Workouts1. Praclice rblays working in groups of 5 at\ 100-meter intervals. Runners #1 and #5

are at the first station. Runner #1 runs arelay to Runner #2, Runner #2 to #3,Runner #3 to #4, Runner #4 to #5,Runner #5 to #1, and so on. Run relaycontinually over a given distance.

2. Roll-outs or Trains (see explanation indistance running training drills section).

3. Pole Progression or Ladders (see expla-nation in distance runningtraining drillssection).

4. Work from the blocis, accelerate 30yards,:sand lean into the tape.

5. Run gradual downhills.6. Run tall with proper body position.

Sprinting-is-a-coordination-of-the-sta;t;proper running form and all its facets, aswell as the finish: Each must be taughtindividually and built upon- to developproper running form to further efficiency ofstride length and stride frequency.

-Sprint Relay

The sprint relay is an event in itself. Itinvolves four runners, each running ap-proximately 100 irceters. It is importantforthe four runners v!ho make up a relay teamto realize it is the,relay baton which is get-ting timed around the track, not the sum of '

the four runners. The relay team membersmust-possess a-positiveraggressive attitude-toward this race. All four runners need to/understand baton handling, border posi-itions, stride speed, zone awareness, and.the finish.

Handling the Baton , /

So that the runner knows how the batonshould feel in the hand, have;the runnerpick up, the baton naturally from,: theground, using the fatty part of the hand.

a. Palm up.

Figure 2. Exchanging the baton.

b. Palm down.

4 3 9Nilimmm=momm

TRACK AND FIEIDy 325

Figure 3.

The two basic methods of exchanging thebaton are with the palm up;or with the palmdown (see Figure 2). Use the method thatworks bestior the team. ;

In handling the baton, the following twofacts should be rememberetcl at all times: thebaton, is an extension of the arm (re-meMber, the baton is being timed around,the track, not the runners; by using thehaton as an eSdension of; the arm', manysteps can be saved by the incoming and

,outgoing runners); the incoming runnershould always "look" the baton into thenext runner's hand(by keeping the eyes onthe receiving hand of the hext runner un-til the baton is placed firmly into the outgo-ing runner's handdlis Will prevent anymissed handoffs.) --Border Positions

The shortest distance around the trackfor the baton exchange in the sprint.relay isright-left-right-left. Numb4s 1 and 3 run--ners hold the baton in the right hands andnumbers 2 and 4 runners hold the baton in

4

... a

the left hands. Thdre is not a change ofhands by any individhal runner; the handused to receive thee baton is the saihe onethat a partccular runner will use tolnd off.

All four runners run borders of the lane(see Diagram 1). Numbers 1 and 3 runnersrun the curves, and thus, run the insideborder of the lane, as this is tl?e shortes1distance around the track. Numbers 2 and 4runners, who run the straightaways, run,the outside border of the lane. Using borderrunning, the baton is the only thing in themiddle of the lane during the sprinf relay.

. 32 6Diagram 1.

a

a


Stride Speed (Acceleration and Transition)The incoming and outgoing runners

must adjust their speeds so that a smoothbaton exchange takes place. The incomingrunner must keep up a consistent pacewhen approaching the outgoing runner. Atthe same time, the outgoing runner-mu-Ftdeyelop the stride transition from asfandstill to near maximum speed so thatthe' baton exchange does not interrupt therunning (stride) pattern of either the in com--ing or outgoing runner.

Zone AwarenessEach rela).; zone is 22 yards long. The

Wtot) exchange mustbe made,within these22 yar4. _However, the outgOing runnermay begin a running pa:temnyards beforethe official passing zone. This area isknown as the international zone. The batonexthange should be made% as close to thecritical-zone-a sTossible(see-Diagranr2).

Seleciion of PersonnelSolecting the four fastest runners won't

always produce the fastest relay team;rather, it is how well the four runners worktogether. Some will have a natural feel forthe batpn exchange. The following generalpoints should be kept in mind when select-ing and placing relay personnel:#1 Runnerbest starterholds ,baton

weil. in a pod Startegood. curve runneronly in-,volved in one handoff;

#2 Runnergood straightaway runnergood competitorhandlesbaton twice;

#3 Rr nergoodcurverunner handlesbat4Tt,wice;

R-Unnerreliab ecan hold a lead orcome front behindknowsthe importance of running

- throligh the linish line.

Remember to incorporate the mostworkable combinations of runners andtreat the sprintrelay as a separate event.

Drills1. Two students position theniselves in

border positions in a lane. #1 stands onthe inside border; #2 stands on theoutside border], 21 In a stationaryposition, piactice handoffs with twopeople. The #1 runner uses a verbalcommand, i.e., "Red," to alert the #2runner ta position the hand for thebaton exchange.

2. Repeat. the above drill 'using fourrunners. 3 421 Runners 1, 2, and 3 useverbal comrnands to alert the next rtin-ner to position the hand for the batonexchange.

3. In a. stationary position, all fourrunners synchronize arro_p_umpinaction; then kiegin the baton handofffrom the'#1 runner, using a verbal cue.

4. Repeat the above drill but jog aroundthe track in close formation.

5. All four runners position themselves intheir zones 'dround the track. Jogthrough a complete relay concentratingon running borders, using the baton asan extension of ale arm, and lookingthe baton into the next runner's and.

6. Set up in relay zones and jog through acomplete .relay concentrating on thebaton exchange being ifiade within.thepassing zone. The incoming runnershould give a verbal sigbal, "Go," forthe outgoing runner to begin the strideand a second verbal signal, "Red," toprepare the runner 'for the baton ex-change.

7. Repeat the above with increased speeduntil a smooth ba tón exchange is'achieved within the passing zone.

Critical Zone2 Yds.

Intemstional Zone

16 Yds. 4

Passing Zone

Diagram 2.

313j

8. Practice inall lanes so that runners millbe familiak, with zones and runners'positions in relationship to their own.

9'. Practice with people on either side ofthe lane to emphasize the importanceof concentration and focus to the relayteam.

10. Practice Sprint-drills with a baton.

Coaching HintsThe teacher/coach can minimize errors by

observing the relay personnel from allangles. From the front and back anglesobserve:1. border positions;-2. baton exposure (make sure the baton

is the only thing in the middle of thelane);

3. body alignment (make sure the runner isrunnirig straight ahead, watch for bodyrotation);

4. position cf incoming and outgoingrunners;

5. hand position at exchange (the out-going runner must keep a steady handas the incoming runner plants the batonfirmly in his/her hand);

6. front angle (the eyes of the incomingrunner should be on the baton as itextends into the outgoing runner'shand. The teacher should not be able tosee the whites of the incoming runner'seyes);

From the side angle oFserve:1. the stride acceleration and deceleration

of the runners;2. extension of the arm on the baton

exchange;3. timing of the exchange;4. body position.

-HURDLES

Hurdling is a sprint event with seven ormore obstacles. The hurdle race rangesfrom 80 to 400 meters/Regardless of a hur-dler's build, the following three objectivesapply to all hurdlers. to raise the center ofmass as little as possible, to spend as littletime in the air as possible, to return to theground in a position to continue running asquickly as-possible. Remember, it's speedalong the ground that counts, not speed inthe air!

TRACK ANDTIELD 32

Determine a Lead LegUsing a low training hurdle, attempt to

go over one hurdle to see which leg leadsnaturally. If there is no preference, use theleft leg as it will serve as a definite advan-tage when running hurdles on the curve inthe longer races.

Beginner's Drills -

t Walk over a hnrdle; straddle it to see thatthe body fits over it.

2. Walk tall, on the toes with the kneeshigh. This_willfermitthe_hurdler-to-im-

prove posture and by doing so naturallyraise the center of mass; when the hur-dle needs to be cleared, the movementwill be accomplished with greater ease.

3. Wall drills(place tape on the wall,hurdle height). The following drillswork on specific segments of the com-plete hurdling skill:

Lead Legthe hurdler thrusts the leadleg toivard the wall with the heel of.thelead leg placed above the line. 'tmphasisshould be on speed and aggressiveness(see Figure 4a).

Arm Actionadd, arm aCtion to theabove drill. The arms are kept fairly closeto the body and involve a quick move-ment. The drive or lead arm is oppositethe lead leg. The lead ap is broughtslightly across the body as the lead logthrust forward. As the hurd!c clears the

--leallrthe read armexerts a quick movement as if opening adoor. Keep the shoulders square as notto cause rotation of the body.

Trail Legp)ace your hands on thewall for support. Draw the trail leg upwith the knee driving up toward thechest, ahead of the thigh. The toesshould be up to avoid hitting the hurdleon the follow-through (see Figures 4band c).

Trail Leg Drills (work on side of hurdle)Step in front of the kurdle with the lead

leg (see Figures 41 and g). Then drive thetrail leg up toward the chest and snap itdown. Progression of this series of trail legdrills is:1. walk tall with .the knees high-7-

exaggerate a marching motion over theside of the three hurdles;

3

3 9 8

328 PHYSICAL EDUCATION-AND SPORT FOR ME SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

a. b. C.

e. lot

f. g.

Figure 4.

3 ')

11.

2. add arm action over the side of the threehurdles;

3. jog over the side of the three hurdles;4. run over the side of the three hurdles;5. gradually add more hurdles as the hur-

dler progresses.

Lead Leg Drills (work on side of thehurdle)1. With the lead leg, kick out and step past

the side of the hurdle. Emphasize ag-gressiveness and speed (see Figures 4h

2. Add the arm action.3. Add more hurdles as the hurdler pro-

gresses.

Body LeanWhen running over low hurdles, there is

little or no body lean. Adjustments aremade according to the length of the hur-dler's legs.

Complete Hurdle ActionAfter working on the breakdown

segments of tile hurdling event, thestudent is now ready to attempt thecomplete hurdle action. Set up threehurdles at the correct racing distance on thetrack. Emphasize three steps betweenhurdles. The body midline should be in themiddle of the hurdle so that the lead leg is tothe right or left of the middle of the hurdle.This keeps the hurdler well within his/herown lane and avoids possible contact withthe hurdler on either side. Emphasizeacceleration and aggressiveness in thehurdle action. Add additional hurdles asthe hurdler progresses. ,

Coaching Hints1: Work on the start and getting to the firSt

hurdle in control.2. Snap the lead leg down and emphasize a

quick step down with the trail leg toavoid floating or gliding over the hurdle.

3.- Keep the shoulders square to avoidupper body rotation.

4. Throughout- the hurdle race, focusattention on the top of the next hurdle.

5. Do flexibility exercises to increase theefficiency of the trail leg.

6. Remember that hurdling is a sprintevent.

TRACK AND FIELD 329

DISTANCE RUNNING

Distance running ranges from 800 metersto the marathon. In track and field classes,the 800-meter run (twice around the track)and the 1500-meter run (33/4 times aroundthe track) are generally included.

All distance running programs are basedon adapting to graduated stress on theb6dy. Runners should start by building abroad base through slow intervals withshort recovery periods and great quantitiesof ri mnin g_a Lin u c h_shawer_tha n_r_a cingpace. Distance runners silould run relaxed,concentrating on a steady, even-pacedrhythm.

The basic essentials of efficient runninginvolve:1. Foot Placementthe feet should be point-

ing straight ahead, not in or out. Thesequence of the foot striking action is"Ball (outer edge), Heel, Ball."

2. Arm Actionthe arms play a balancingrole in running. The arms should be keptat about a 90° angle with the thumbs up.As the arms move forward and back inopposition, they should never pacshigher than the chest on the forwardmove and never further back than thehip. The arms should never cross themidline of the body.

3. Body Alignmentonce running speed isachieved, the body angle tends towardthe perpendicular. The body is heldalmost erect with the shoulders and facerelaxed. There should be little or norotation in the upper,body.

4. Stride Lengththe slower the speed ofthe run, the shorter. the stride.Conversely, the faster the run, thelonger the stride. Longer strides requiiemore energy.In distance running whereeconomy of energy is important,runners should take natural strides.

5. Breathingthe runner should keep thejaw relaxed and breathe through thenose and mouth simultaneously.

Training Drills1. Train workrunners form a line with

the leader being responsible for thepace. At stipulated intervals, the lastperson in line sprints to the front andsettles into a pace as the leader. The train

33 u

330 Pfli'SICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

continues until _everyofie has been aleader a specifionumber of times or untila specific distance is covered. s

2. Variation of trainssee how manytimes each person can be the leaderwithin a certain distance.

3. Ladders or Poie progressions(a) selecta partner of equal ability and alternaterunning the Wowing distances-100,200, 300, 400, sop; 600, 700, 800, 900 me-ters and reverse beginning with 800 me-ters and Working down to 100 meters (onreverse ladder, change directions). (b)same as "a" but select three other run-ners of equal ability and run in pairs. Thepairs alternate distances witli one pairdoing a 100; as 'soon as they finish, the

' other pair runs it, etc. The rest time foralternating pairs is the distance justcompleted. (c) group all runners by abil-ity (usually three groups) and run ladderdistances one group at a time as fast aspossible. This permits a greater recoveryperiod.

4. Lông sprintsgroup all runners by abil-ity (3 groups). Run 400 meters, onegroup at a time. Repeat 5 times.

(3)Phnt andTake-off

'(2)Inside 4v \Mark NA \

-1(1) IR

(Start) .4c

Diagram 3.

Coaching,Hints1. Although aware of other runners

around, concentrate on maintaining in-dividual rhythm.

2. Pumping the arms will take Considerablestress off the legs and make runningmore efficient.

3. Run relaxed, maintaining stride lengthand stride frequency.

HIGH IUMP

The'Fosbury Flop has quickly become themost popular form of high jumping and

3 3 4

Figure 5. The high jump approach.

,

4

involves four major areas: approach; footplant; take-off; bar clearance.

The high jump basically involves trans-fering horizontal velocity to vertical veloc-ity. The essential movement is upwardrather than forward. Speed and rhythmmust be maintained throughout the entiretechnique.

ApproachThe approach to the high jump follows a

"J"-shaped curve inv,olving 7-11 steps fromthe take-off (see Diagram 3). Three parksshould be established by the high jumper:start, inside mark; foot plant; take-off.

Approximately five steps from the start,the jumper should lean left as curving inbegins, thus bringing the body almost par-allel to the cross bar (see Figure 5). Thejumper should initiate the curve of the ap-proach with the right footso that cross-oversteps on the curve do not have to be used.The next to the last step should be long tolower the center of gravity, and the armsshould be gathering for the double arm lift.

TRACK AND FIELD 331

Foot PlantOnly one foot may be used for the flop

take-off. Most right-handed people pushoff with the left foot. The left foot should beplanted heel first between the near pole andthe middle of the bar; the foot should bepointed toward the far pole.

Diagram 4.

Take-offThe take-off involves converting forward

momentum to upward momentum. At thetime of the take-off, the arms drive up toshoulder height and the bent lead knee(right) drives upward until it is parallel tothe ground. This raises the center ofmass and rotates the body so that the backis to the bar (see Figure 6).

Figure 6. The high jump takeoff. 33 ()fv.

332 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THESECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

Figure 7. Clearing the bar in the high jump.

Bar ClearanceThe jumper arches the back to clear the

bar, going over head first. The )mpershould not reach out over the bar with thehands. As the torso clears, the knees andfeet should be whipped up. When the hipsare clear, it is often helpful to raise the arms,which in turn help to raise the feet. Again,maintain speed and rhythm throughout theentire technique (see Figure 7).

Coaching Hints and Drills1. Raising the centq of mass as high as

possible over the bar is the most'Important factor in the flop. Thus, thetechniques of the approach, plant, andtake-off should be practiced much morethan the technique of bar clearance.(Work on leg and arm lift and boundingdrills on thegrass.)

2. If the jumper is hitting the bar on theway up (caused by reaching maximumheight too soon, hershe is taking off tooclose to`the bar).

33 -)

3. Conversely, if the bar is being hit on theway down, the jumper is taking off toofar from the bar.

4. To eliminate leaning into the bar, thejumper should press the inside shoulderup.

ME HORIZEMTAL JUMPS:The Long and Triple Jumps

The long and triple jumps are quitesimilar to one another, yet the two are insome aspects quite different. Both havefour phases: the approach run; the take-off;in-flight; the landing. However, the triplejump.has three take-off phases, one each inthe hop, step, and jump phases and alsothree in-flight phases.

The ApproachIn both horizontal jumps, the approach

run is most critical. A "succes'sful,well-executed jump cannot be donewithout a smooth, relgxed, and controlledapproach run.

The approach run length varies from 100to 140 feet (with an average of about 120feet). The length of the approach run isinfluenced by the basic speed andquickness of the jumper. The speed of theapproach run is usually about 75-80% ofthe full speed of the jumper with a gradualacceleration from the starting check mark.It is necessary to retain the speed until thetake-off.

Most jumpers in their speedy, relaxed,controlled appeoach run tend to shorten thelast three strides before take-off to avoid astretching action for the board. The stretchaction at the board will place the bodyweight too far behind the take-off foot. Thiswill tend to act as a breaking force to thegood forwarcl speed and will also limit thelift from the take-off boald.

Determining the check mark to guaran-' tee sUccessful striking of the take-off board

requires special attention to detail. Onecheck mark at the beginning of the ay-proath is preferred so that thejumper canconcentFate on.the relaxed sprint effort. Toachieve the end of using only one mark, sixsteps should be followed in determiningthe start of the approach run.1. Measure on the track the number of feet

from a take-off point which according tothe speed of the jumper would berequired for effective jumping. Markthat point on the track.

2. Beginning at the designated point,sprint with gradual acceleration towardthe line which represents the take-offboard. Do this approach a dozen or moretimes, with occasional rest periods topermit time for recovery. Check eachapproach run for relaxation and gradualacceleration at nearly full effort.

3. Mark the strike point near the edge ofthe runwiy nearest to the take-off line.

4. Draw a line where the cluster of marksare made. If the cluster is not in line withthe board, measure the distance fromthe line to the imaginary board.

5. Move the tentative starting check markforward or backward the same distancemeasured from the duster of marks tothe take-off board.

6. Measure the exact distance from thenewly established check mark to the

TRACK AND FIELD 333

take-off point. This is now the distancewhich should be established on therunway.

The Take-offThe jumi5er must attempt to get sufficient

height at take-off to allow time in ithein-flight phase to execute leg extension.However, height alone is not enough. Theaction at take-off is a forward-upwardlift.

Four essential points must beemphasized in executing the take-off:1. The shorter list stride permits a slight

bend of the take-off leg. A powerfulextension of the bent leg provides aforward-upward lift from the take-offboard. .

2 The foot should strike the board firmlyin a "flat foot" position. In this action,the heel Lands first, but there is noattempt to execute a heel-ball-toerock-up action.

3. The body weight should bedirectly overthe board as the take-off foot strikes it,but it should be very slightly in advanceof the take-off foot as the jumper leavesthe board.

4. The final thrust into the air results fromrunning off the board.

The jumper should stride off the board ina sprint action. The body weight must be'moved slightly forward with the head highand with the eyes focused on someimaginary spot high and beyond the pit.The chest should be elevated. The kneeopfiosite,the take-off leg is thrust forwardand high as the arms move vigorously in acounterbalancing action.

FlightThe two styles most frequently used by

jumpers are the hitch-kick (running-in-the-air) and the hang.

Hitch-kick (Running-in-the-air)(See Fig-ure 8)

Running in the air is a reaction fightagainst the downward pull of gravity.There is no gain in the momentum, but thestyle does reduce the difficulty of holdingthe legs up and helps to bring the body tothe correct position at the right time.

The running-in-the-air technique orhitch-kick requi

,

- «.-


Figure 8. The hitch-kick.

1. Driving the knee of the free leg high asthe take-off leg stretches down.

2. Stretching theiree leg straight forward,.down, and then bending it as it passesback under the body.

3. Snapping the take-off leg quicklyforward in the sarae manner as the freeleg was-moved in the take-off action.

4. Bringing the heel of the leg which beganthe running action (free leg at take-off)adjacent to the heel of the take-off leg,holding the head up with the eyesfocused straight forward.

The arms must be 'kept high and movingas they do in sprinting action. The chestmust be elevated. The upper body must be

kept erect and the head high:

4

The'llang (See.Figure 9)The hang style is used mainly by jumpers

with great lift. The hang style requiresexcellent timing.

The flight action in the hang is as follows:

1. The free leg is stretched straight forwardand then dropped beneath the body.

2. The take-off leg is thrust forward fromthe board to a position next to the free

leg.3. The arms drop back to th'e side.4. The trunk is held erect, the head high,

and the chest is lifted.5. The legs whip forward and upward in a

vigorous stretching action.6. The arms press forward and downward

in the landing position.

Figure 9. The hang.

335

LandingIt is important that the jumper,not bend

the trunk toward the thigh until the lastmoment before the legs are extended forlanding. When thew jumper hits the pit, thechest should be thrust forward as the kneesare flexed.. At the moment of contact with thelanding surface, the feet must be extendedas far as possible in front of the body. Thearms should be pres'sed forward anddownward.

ME TRIPLE JUMP

There are some major differences be-tween the long jump arid the triple jump(see figure 10). In'secondary schools, thelong jumper will usually be expected todouble in the triple jump. Therefore, the

'jumper must understand the basic differ-ences in the performance of the long andtriple jump. These differences rust be care-fully practiced after the appro h, take-off,flight, and landing phases of e long jumphave been thoroughly learned.

The developing jumper should carefullyconsider seven basic differences in 'thetechnique of the long and triple jumps.1. The body lean at take-off is more

pronounced in the triple jump.2. The take-off (for the hop) is executed

low with minimum elevation. The headup, and eyes focused forward, arecommon to both.

3. The body position and elevation,changes in each flight of the triple jump

'in contrast to the single flight of the longjump. The changes in the triple jumparefrom a very slight forward lean attake-off in the hop to a nearly erectposition in the jump. With each increasein ,height, careful attention must begiven to sustaiqing. the forwardmomentum.

4. The triple jumper must master acoordinated, synchronized bending andunbending of the knees in the threeflights es compared to the single actionof the long jump.

5. The distance factor in the triple jump isinfluenced by the execution of threedistinct flights instead of one. The stepflight is the one that most often requires

.1

TRACK AND FIELD 335

lengthening. The complete patterh mustbe considered when adjusting any flightdistance.

6. The stronger (best) jumping leg shOuldbe used in the third phase of the jump.Arrange the three phases to place thejumper in position for a strong finaljump.

7. The triple jumper must establish apattern of distance for each phase of thejump. The established ratio for thephases will provide a measuring rod todetermine which phase is inadequate.

SHOT PUT

A good shot put performance demandsan appropriate blend of speed andquick-ness, a high degree of explosive power,great strength, good height, and motiva-tion. Effective shot putting involves a sim-ple and natural movement coupled with acoordinated drive of the legs and thrust ofthe back with arm delivery.

The logical order of progression in prac-tice of the shot put should be. developingthe proper grip; developing the correctstance and making the delivery; practicingthe glide across the circle; injegrating theputting technique.

The Grip -

The shot is held in the hand so that itpresses against the base of the fingers re-ducing tension and permitting the fullrange of the fingers in the snap release. Thefingers may be placed together or slightlyspread. The shot may be gripped byplacirigthe first three fingers together and usingthe small finger and thumb to hold it inposition. The wide finger spread is recom-mended for putters with small hands. Thespread should not be exaggerated to thepoint that the fingers cannot be used to giveimpetus to the shot. Beginners should carrythe shot lower down in the palm of thehahd until greater strength is developed.

The DeliveryEarly practice of the delivery should be

done in a correct stance at the front of theCircle. The delivery is a sequence of coordi-nated movements from the foot to the tip ofthe fingers.

336


'

-

s.

. ,-

cv5ge5sN ,.!:Em-=

Tigure10. The triple jump.,

VI

M

b.

TRACK AND FIELD 337

el ri

'410,/ hip-'M 4A J

, 4 11

4k I / '1,

k )ItI II, C.

Figure-mThe-shot-put-delivery.

The right foot is placed in the middle ofthe circle at approximately a 450 angle to theflight of the shot. The knee is slightly flexedwith the body weight over the right leg,which is well under the body. The center ofgravity is far enough over the right leg formaximum drive (see Figure 11a). The rightleg is vigorously extended to begin the forcewhich moves up the leg, to the hips, to thetrunk, and to the arm for the final deliverywith a snap of the wrist (see Figures 11b-d),

The left leg serves as a brace againstwhich the force is exerted. The foot of theleft leg is against the toe board. The rightfoot remains on the surface and continuesto deliveryower in the delivery.

The G_IideThe glide is used to travel from the rear of

the circle to the correct position for deliv-ery. The glide begins by standing at the rearof the circle with the back tekhe,direction of.`the put. The glide must begin with theathletein_goodkalance

From the erect, relaxed, balanced posi-tion at the rear of the circle (see Figure 12),the athlete lowers the head and shouldersby flexing the hips toa position in which theback is nearly horizontal. The eyes are fo-cused on a ipot directly behind fhe circle;the right knee is bent to a poini which willgive the greateSt lifting power, and rocksforward unjil the weight is over the ball ofthe right foot (see Figure 13a).

d.

Momentum is generated by moving theweight of the body toward the toe board.Additional momentum is gained by drivingoff the right leg and ball of the foot as the

Figure 12,

3 3 8


a. b.

Figure 13.

left leg engages in a piston-like motidn. Thepiston-like motion is achieved .by firstbringing the knee forward, then vigorouslyextending-it straight back and down towardthe toe board (see Figure 13b). The hipsshould remain low. The entire actionshould, be made with the legs rather thanwiththupper body. The, left leg, as indi-cated, lands against the toe board to the left

Figure 14. The shot put reverse.

C.

center of the circle (see Figure 13c). At theend of the slide and turn in positiondelivery, the stance should be the same asthe one assumectat the front of the circleduring earlier practice sessions without theglide (see Figures 11b-d).'

The Reverse (See Figure 14)The purpose of the reverse is to prevent a

foul after completion of a powerful deliv-eV. The reverse is completed by switchingthe feet. The rear foot replaces the,frontlootby placing the outer edge of the rear foot atthe inner edge of the toe board. The bodyweightds shifted back after the landing, butnot until all power is deliVered.

DISCUS

The logical order of progression in learn-ing how to throw the discus is: developingthe proper grip; developing the correctstance and release; practicing the-spinacross the circle; integrating the throwingtechnique. Throwing the discus is a combi-

_nation_of balance, p.ow_Fx,speed, control,,and timing.

The Grip.Have the athlete place the discus in the

non-throwing hand. Place the palm of thethrowing hand on top of and in the middleof the discus. Only the first joints of eachfinger should come over the edge of thediscus. The thumb is placed at the edge ofthe discus but does not come over the dis-cus rim. The thumb in this position is

3 1..)

Figure 15. The discus grip.

pressed against the discus. Basically thereare two ways that the fingers can be posi-tioned 'on the discus. the fingers andthumbs are spread out, the index finger andmiddle finger are placed next to each other

TRACK AND FIELD 339-

with the other two fingers and thumbspread out on the d.ocus (see Figure 15).

Release from the nandPrimarily the discus is released off of the

index finger and the discus rotates in aclockwise mAnner.

Drill. Rolling the discus (using the lineson a football field or any lines on the gym.floor). To do this the athlete takes 4-5 stepscarrying the discus extended down at theside, swings, and releases the discus downthe line. (The action is similar to a bowlingmovement.) The discus'should travel in astraight line. This movement is essentiallythe_same as a release -from-the throwingposition in that it comes off the index fingerlast.

Back of Ring (See Diagram 5 and Figure,16)Both feet are at the back of the circle. The

left foot is placed on the center line insteadof having to straddle the line. Starting off inthis position allows the athlete Jo use moreQf the circle and more of a circular motion,creafing a greatel velocity of the discus.

0

a.Figure 16.

1

b.

34 u

340 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORZ FOR THE,SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

pointing at about 1Ci o'clock. Weight is bal-

.; anced on the flexed right leg. Th'e loft footshould lana in the pocket. The toe of the leftfoot shoukL be ;ust about even with theright heel if not back a little, with the legslightly fiexed and relaxed. The feet are alittle more than shòhlder width ap0 (seeFigure 17a). This is done so that when theathlete rotates the hips, he/she will be opento the throwing area. The hips constitutetke direction of-the discus (see Figure 17b).

,Moving, through the Circle

As the athlete mgves througl; the circle,..,.thätight should be "slow, ther fast with'increasing speed/7 or just"quick.".Be care-

: ful not to decelerate. .;

SpinAlways.stay on the toes and rotate. The

Coaches should note that 76-80% of all athlete must be active with the lower bodymistakes in qv: circle occur in the back ofthe circle.

and passive with the upper.body.4. Swing 'the right leg and foot around,

Power Position keeping the leg ahead of the shoulders.Place the right foot on the middle of the 2. Relax muscles to get 'the right leg

circle. Rotate the foot so that the toe is arourid, keeping the spreatl betWeen the

Back of Ring

'Front of Ring

Diagram 5. ,

Figure 17. The power position for throwing the discus.

right leg and left leg on the first turn(pretend there is a bar between the twoletS like a sprinter's running formseeFigures 18a and b). (a) legs and hipsleadthe movement to the key torqued posi-tion (see Figure 17a), (b) from the bal-ance position, the body is acceleratedacross the ring by driving across the ringwith the left leg.

3. The right foot is put down ora,the centerof the circle. The right foot is turnedupward prior to landing to ensure anearly pivot and to keep the hips ahead ofupper body for torque. (Stay on the toesand rotate.1

4. The hips must remain ahead of theshoulders and the discus, creatingtorque. (Torque: the difference betweenthe hips and the shoulders which buildup or make up an "X.") (See Figure 17a.)

5. Go into the power position. The upperbody and discus are turned toward meright with the discus over the left heel (atorqued position).

6. Then release (see Figures 18c-e).

Finish (See Figure 1801. Finish in a 3600 rotation, facing the front

of the ring with the knees flexed and feetapart.

2. Replacing the left foot with the right footand lowering the center of gravity com-pletes the release.

CONDITIONING

Effective phtsreal-d mental condition-ing provides a solid foundation for successin track and field performance. Three gen-eral areas make np physical conditioning.flexibility; strength; endurance.

FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility or stretching exercises shouldbe done bef2re and after daily activity. Flex-ibility exercises increase the blood supply tothe muscles making them more pliable andresistant to injury. Begin with the head andwork down to the feet, rotating each jointand gradually stretching each large musclegroup.

TRACK AND FIELD 341

All flexibility exercises should be gradualmovements to the point of resistance (slighttightness) and then held at that point for aminimum of 10 geconds. This is known asstatic stretching. Avoid jerky, rapid move-men ts during warming up and coolingdown. Stretching exercises are based onprinciples of progression, from gentle tostrenuous exercises, large muscle areas tosmaller areas, back area before legs. Eachexercise should not be rushed; go throughthe full range of motion. Focus on "feeling"the stretch of each muscle group. The im-portance of stretching during the coolingdown period at the end of activity is toreduce the lactic acid level in the body andto avoid stiffness the following day.

STRENGTH

One of the-major contributing factors inany sports performance is strength. Gainsin strength are-the result of three factors:the amount of stress or work that is appliedto the muscle; the amount of time the mus-cle is under stress; the frequency (numberof times) that stress is applied to the mus-cle. The muscle attempts to build up animmunity to stress or work by becomingstronger.

Weight-training is one of the most popu-lar forms of strength-training. Three resultscan be achieved through weight-training:increase in muscular strength by performing alow number of repetitions with a highWeight; increase in muscular endurance byusing a lighter weight and increasing thenumber of repetitions; improvement inpower using a high weight and low repeti-tion, the lifting movement is explosive. Thisresult is a combination of force and speedand training for it is especially helpful whenjumping or throwing.

Each activity in track and field involvesdifferent levels of streni,:h. Some requiremore upper body strength (throwing) andsome more lower body strength (jumping).However, overall strength-training willcontribute to general sports performance.

ENDURANCE

Endurance can be increased by overload-ing the cardiovascular system (heart) by

3'4 2

°

D SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

C.

1;

c

doing an activity longer than usual and rais-ing the pulse level. Examples of endurancework would include distance running.

Each activity in track and field involvesdifferent levels of flexibility, strength, andendurance. Overall conditioning should bedone by all students with specific addi-tional conditioning for particular events.

MENTAL CONDMONING

, The track and field participant shouldpractice blocking out what is occurring inthe environment and learn to focus on theparticular task or event at hand. He/sheshould learn to "listen" to the body andshould practice visualizing each completeevent prioK to attempting it. At all times,"think positively and try to do your best."

SAFETY

The key to safety in track and field is tolook before you move.1. Before walking onto the track, look to see

that you are not walking into the path ofa runner or hurdler.

TRACK AND FIELD 343

2. Before walking into the throwing area,look to see that someone isn't in the shotor discus circle.

3. Before going into the jumping area,, lookto see that you are not walking into thepath of a jumper.

4. If preparing to throw an implement, lookfirst to see that the area -is clear. Afterthrowing the discus or putting the shot,do not stay out in the field and throw theimplements hack to the next participant.

5. If walking during a recovery phase of aworkout, move either to the outside laneor completely off the track.

6. If sprinting or being timed in the insidelanes and approaching someone eitherwalking or jogging in the same lane,yell, "track," to signal that person tomove to a middle or outside lane.

7. Look before walking between hurdles tobe sure that the hurdler's run is notbeing interrupted.

8. Do not lea ve implements (shot, discus,hurdles, tape measures, or other obsta-cles) on the track or field where someonecould trip on them.

314

attack lines (p. 361)back set (p.350)base defense (p. 359)block (p. 357)crosi-court spike (p. 354)dig (p. 348)dink (p. 355)down-the line spike (p. 354)floater serve (p. 350)4-2 (p. 358)free ball (p. 358)heel plant (p. 354)mintonette (p. 345)off-hand spike (p. 355)on-hand spike (p. 355)opening up (p. 356)oThand floater save (p. 350)overhand pass (p. 348)power alley (p. 360)serve (p. 350)serve reception (p. 355)set (p. 348)spike (p. 352)spike coverage (p. 357)two-foot take-off (p. 354)2-1-3 (p. 360)underhand pass (p. 345)underhand serve (p. 350)W-formation (p. 355)wrist snap (p. 354)

INTRODUCTION

The sport of volleyball was invented inthe United States in 1895 by William G.Morgan while working in' a YMCA inHolyoke, Massachusetts. Morgan needed aless strenuous game to meet the needs ofsome businessmen who would not playbasketball. After experimenting with vari-ous balls including the bladder of a basket-ball, Morgan decided no ball then availablesatisfied the needs of the new game, whichhe called mintonette. The Spalding Com-pany eventually provided the first officialball which was made of soft calfskin. In1896 during a demonstration mintonettegame in a'n old gymnasium at the School ofChristian Workers (now Springfield Col-lege) a faculty member, Alfred T. Halstead,suggested that because the volleying actionwas such a characteristic of game play, thename of the activity should be changed tovolleyball. Morgan accepted this changeand the game of volleyball evolved to itspresent form.

Volleyball can be enjoyed by players of allages. It is one of the few sports in theUnited States that has competitions in vari-ous age groups from elementary to the mas-ters' level. It is also adaptable to manysettingsfrom the informal to the highlycompetitive. Volleyball is the only teamsport which has been professionally playedon> a coed basis. Although Morgan de-signed the game to be less arduous thanbasketball it has developed into a highlystrenuous sport. When played by twoteams dosely matched in ability a five-game match can last for as long as 21/2-3hours. During this time players are con-stantly moving, changing direction, jump-ing, hitting the floor for defensive saves.

CHAPTER 22

Volleyball

BARBARA L. VIERA, 6

University of Delaware,Newark, DE

The addition of volleyball to the Olym-pics by the Japanese in 1964 helped increaseits popularity. Volleyball is high on the listof participation sports in countriesthroughout the world. Over 25 countriescurrently list volleyball as their number onesport.


To be a successful volleyball coripetitorone must be able to perform the five basicskills of the game at an efficient level ofcontrol. These five basic skills are theunderhand pass, the overhand pass or set,the serve, the spike or attack, and the block.The block is only essential when playingagainst a team with strong spiking. Otheradvanced skills including the dive and rollare only essential at higher levels of compe-tition. The soft attack or dink is an excellentchange of pace and can also be mastered atbeginning levels of play.

UNDERHAND PASS

The underhand pass is used to receivethe serve, to play any ball arriving low andwith force, to receive spikes, and to playany ball below chest level. It is an extremelyimportant skill because it is usually the firstcontact made by the team receiving theserve from the opponent. The skill is quitedifferent from any that exist in other sportsbecause the ball is contacted on the fleshypart of the forearms. The hands are grippedtogether and can be joined in a number ofacceptable ways. The two best positionsare. placing one hand across the palm of theother, then cupping both hands so that thethumbs are together and facing up toward

3 6


inigit101111111

,

GAS.,111

a. Cupped h'and grip with thumbs or, top. b. Interlocking hand grip with thumbs on top.

Figure 1. The volleyball grip.

the ceiling (see Figure la), for more ad-vanced players, joining both hands bylightly interlocking the fingers with thethumbs side by side and on top (see Figure1).

It is important that the thumbs do notoverlap, as this creates an uneven surface,causing an uncontrolled hit if the ball isaccidently received on the hands. The el-bows are rotated in, so that the widest por-

, tion of the forearm faces upward. The el-bows may be bent or locked as the ballapproaches but must be loticed at contact.The ball is contacted between the wristsand the elbows. The arms should be heldaway from the body and parallel to thethighs. The back should be erect and lean-ing slightly forward. The knees are bent atapproximately a 900 angle, the feet areshoulder width apart and in a stride posi-tion with the foot which is fartha from thetarget forward. The shoulders should facethe intended direction of the pass. This po-sition of the body in relation to the target is

essential if the player is to successfully di-rect the pass. The player should always es-tablish a set body position bcfore contactingthe ball, rather than passing the bali whilestill moving. As the ball approaches, theplayer gets behind it, so that the ball isplayed between the legs and the player is ina low position. The player's eyes should bekept on the ball until it contacts the arms.The ball should be contacted low betweenthe waist and the knees. As contact is madethe knees are extended and the arms areraised slightly making a punching motionat the ball. The arms should not rise aboveshoulder level on the follow-through. At thesame time the weight is transferred forwardin the direction of the pass. The three mostcommon faults by beginners are too mucharm swing, bending at the waist instead ofthe knees, and a transfer of weight awayfrom the intended direction of the pass.Figure 2 shows the underhand pass in aseries of pictures. Check the followingpoints of emphasis:

VOLLEYBALL $7

Figure 2. The underhand pass..5. 318

,


the position of the body at contact,the point at which the ball contacts thearms;the locked elbows on coptact;the transfer of weight from the back to theforward foot;the extension of the legs and arms,the height of the arms on the follow-through .

Players may not always be able to posi-tion themselves squarely behind an oncom-ing ball. In this situation the ball should be,played outside the body andlor with onearm or hand. If the ball is played with onearm the hand should be held perpendicularto the arm, so that contact is made with theflat surface of the arm at the wrist. If the ball

, is contacted on the hand the player shouldbreak the wrist to help direct the ball. If theball is played to the left or right of the bodywith' two arms the shoulder closest to theball should be dropped or dipped, so thatthe ball will rebound back in the same direc-tion from whence it came. If this is not donethe direction of the ball will not change andit will continue past the player and out-of-bounds.

When any hard-driven ball is received it isreferred to as a dig. A one-armed receptionis also called a dig. The underhand pass isoften referred to as a forearm bounce pass,a bump, or just a forearm pass. These termscan be used interOangeably.

A player should have enough controlover his/her passing to perform the follow-ing tasks:

self pass the ball 15 consecutive times;pass the ball against the wall, to a heightgreater than 8 feet, 15 consecutive times;pass the ball with a partner 10 consecutivetimes;receive 5 out of 10 serves that come di-rectly to the player by passing them to thetarget area with enough height so thatthey can easily be handled by the setter.The target area is the center one-third ofthe court and close to the net.

OVERHAND PASS OR SET

The overhand pass is the most accuratemethod of playing the ball. It is used toreceive any ball chest high or higher and

traveling very ilowly. It is also used as thesecond contact by a team as it sets up its

.offense. When used in this manner, to de-:liver the ball to a slAker, the overhand passis'also referred to as a set.

In executing the overhand pass a 'playermust first move into the correct position. Asin the underhand pass it is extremely im-portant that the player.establish a set bodypositron before playing the ball. Whenexecuting an overhead pass the player'sshoulders' must be square to the desired.direction of the pass. Once in position theplayer should watch the ball closely untilcontact. The hands are raised to a positionjust in front of the forehead, and the playercontinues to look at the ball through thewindow formed by the hands. The ball iscontacted 6 to 8 inches above the forehead.The hands are cupped around the ball, onthe sides of the ball more than directly be-hind it. The thumbs should be closer toeach other than the first fingers. The con-tact points on the fingers are the upper twojoints. The greatest force comes from thethumbs and the first two fingers of eachhand but all fingers do contact the ball. Theaction of the set is a very quick catch-and-throw motion. The angle of the elbowsshould not decrease as the ball is contactedand the fingers should be firmly heldthroughout. The wrists are hyperextendedand the hands and wrists are both relaxed.

The body Should be in an upright Rosi-tion and leaning slightly forward, kneesbent, and back straight. The feet should bein an easy stride position with the footclosest to the net always forward. This pre-vents the ball from going over the net intothe opponents' court.

On contact the wrists flick the ball for-ward as the elbows and knees extend andthe weight is transferred toward the direc-tion of the pass. The arms are fully ex-tended on the follow-through and thehands point in flip direction of the pass. Theball should be directed with good height.Figure 3 shows the overhand pass in aseries of pictures.

Check for the following points of empha-

the position of th hands and arms beforecontact;

31f)

VOLLEYBALL 349

Figure 3. The overhand pass.,11. ..! 3 5 0


the bent position of the knees and elbowsbefore contact;the position of the hands and arms beforecontact;the bent position of the knees and elbowsbefore contact;the fully extended arms on the follow-through.Tlie player can increase the complexity of

sets by varying the height and speed withwhich they are delivered to the spiker. Atbeginning levels of play a high set is rec-ommended almost exclusively.

The set can also be sent backward overthe player's own head to a teammate be-hind the setter. This is called a back set.Everything is the same as with the front setuntil the point of contact. The player archeshis/her back and pushes the ball straight uptoward the ceiling, extending his/her armsand knees. The weight transfer will be backin the direction of the pass. The back Set isvery effective, as it often catches. the oppo-nents off-guard.

All pla yers should be more accuratewhen using the overhand pass than whenusing any other volleyball skill. The setter isthe player who will set the spikers thegreatest percentage of the time, and shouldbe excellent in performing this skill. Allother players must be able to set 'effectivelywhen the setter cannot make the secondcontact. Players should be able to completeeach of the following tasks:

overhand pass the ball successfully tothemselves 20 times;overhand pass the ball to a height of 11feet against a wall consecutively 20 times;complete 20 overhand passes while re-ceiving a tossed ball from a partner with10 tosses made to the passer's right and 10made to the passer's left on an alternatingbasis.

E SERVE

The serve can be one of the most impor-tant skills of the game. If a team is luckyenough to win the first serve and is a goodserving team it could get a good lead oreven win the game before the opponentsare able to serve. There are many varietiesof serves which can be mastered and a

server who has mastered more than oneserve can be extremely effective. Beginnersshould concentrate on performing oneserve until they have 90 percent accuracy.That is, they are capable of making ninegood serves in every ten attempts. Theeasiest serve to master is the underhandserve. Many players feel that the under-hand serve is not effective. This is notnecessarily true. If it is the only serve aplayer can perform with 90 percent accu-racy then the player should use this serveentirely until he/she masters other styles.The underhand serve is hit with less forceand on a higher trajectory than the over-hand or rougdhouse serves, but if hit as afloater it can have a lot of "action" on it and_be highly effective. The floater action issimilar to that of a knuckleball pitch inbaseball. Hit without spin, the ball reactsunpredictably to the air currents, eithercuiving, dipping, or rising.

The underhand serve is hit with an openhand, the major point of contact being onthe heel of the hand. The ball should be hitwith a locked wrist. The body should befacing the net with the feet in a stride posi-tion and about shoulder width apart. Theforward foot should be placed so that thetoe is pointing to the direction of the serve.The foot on the opposite side of the servinghand should be the forward foot. The ball isheld at waist level or lower in the non-hitting hand. The holding hand must re-lease the ball before it is contacted or theserve is illegal. The hitting arm swings back "as the weight is transferred onto the backfoot. As the arm swings forward to contactthe ball the weight is transferred onto theforward foot. The ball should be contactedin a low position and as the handlollowsthrough the player moves forward onto thecourt into a position of readiness to receivethe return.

Far, beginners, it is n9t necessary to dis-guise the direction of the serve. The oppo-nent who knows that there will be a serve tohis/her position feels more pressure thanone who does not expect the ball This oftencauses a reception error.

The overhand floater serve is similar tothe underhand serve as the player agsumesthe same initial positionbody facing the

3 -)

op\

Figure 4. The serve.

r,

VOLLEYBALL 351

352


net, feet in a shoulder width stride position,non-serving hand "holding the ball, andeyes on the intended target. The holdinghand begins with the ball at chest level orhigher, and tosses the ball in the air slightlyin front of the shoulder of the hitting hand,and 2 to 3 feet higher than head height. Theball is contacted with an open hand, theheel of the hand again being the major areaof contact. The wrist is locked. Thereshould be little to no follow-through. Thehitting action is somewhat like a punchingmotion, and the ball is contacted on thecenter back. The server looks it the ball assoon as the serving motion begins, andshould keep the eyes on the ball until con-tact. As the ball is tossed the weight is trans-ferred onto the back foot. The striking armis cocked back into a throwing position. Asthe arm swings forward toward contact it isextended, reaching full extension at con-tact. The entire action is similar to throwinga baseball. Once the ball is contacted theserver moves onto the court and into his/her playing position. Figure 4 shows theserve in a series of pictures. Note the fol-lowing points of emphasis:

the position of the tossed ball with re-spect to the body;the cocked position of the arm beforecontact;the height of the ball above the shoulderat contact;the full extension of the arm at contact,the server's concentration on the ball,the limited amount of follow-through ofthe arm.

,Servers should have three ptioritiesserving. First, they must be consistent.They must be able to get the ball legally intothe opponent& court on nearly every serve.Secondly, the server should be able to serveto any spot which might be advantageousto hisiher team. Thirdly, the server shouldtry to "put something on" the ball, such as aspin or greater force. Servers should not tryfor the second priority until the first is met.

The most effective serves are directed tothe deep cornersof the opponents' court, tothe seams (the area between two oppo-

-.....ments), or to a weak receiver. Once playershave mastered the first two priorities abovewith one serve they can begin working on

Net

4 3 2

5 6 1

Diagram 1. The volleyball court divided into thesix court areas.

another type of serve. Each player shouldbe able to master each of the followingtasks:

serve 20 consecutive legal serves withouta miss;serve to each of the six court positions inorder for two full rotations;serve to any court positions called out bythe teacher on twelve consecutive serves.

The court positions in volleyball are illus-trated in Diagram 1.

THE ATTACK OR SPIKE,

The spike is the most exciting skill of thegame and at the same time one of the mostdifficult skills to perform. In making a spikethe player must jump into the air and hit amoving object (the ball) over an obstacle(the net) into a bounded area (the court).This task is not easy. Timing is the mostimportant element of the spike. Spiking canbe done on a variety of sets. For discussionhere only the high set will be considered.This set is 7-10 feet above the top of the net.

The approach for the spike begins at theattack line, 10 feet from the net. Movingtoward the net can be accomplished withany number of steps but better volleyballplayers limit themselves to two or threeThe spiker must wait until the ball is set bythe setter before beginning the approach, inorder to go to the spot where the ball willarrive. Once the spiker has reached the cor-

,

;

,

VOLLEYBALL 353-

i

Figure 5. The spiking sequence.

354 ,

o

354 PHYSICAL ,EDUCATION,AND SPORT FOR THE ;ICONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

rect spot hosshe brings both feet together byplanting one heelfirst and closing with theother. All spiking is done with a two-foottake-off. Planting the heels changes for-ward momentum into upward momentum.As the heels are planted the arms swing.down and back to about shoulder height;the :,nees are bent as deeply as they can goand get maximum thrust and control on thejump. As the spiker extends the knees tojump, the aims are swung forcibly, forwardand up. The swing of the arms is very im-portant to increase height on the jump. Thespiker concentrates on the ball as the jumpis made. 'The hitting arm and hand are .

taken back behind the head into a throwingpositioh. At the highest point in the jumpthe spiker swings the arm forward lo hit theball. The arm action is the same as that usedto throw a baseball. The ball is contactedwith force, with an opehhand. As soon ascontact is made there is a snap ofdhe wrist.

. The wrist snap.is very important because itputs topspin,on the bdll, causing it to dipseverely in flight. The hand should be openwide and fairly relaxed at conlact. As withthe serve, the heel of the hand is the mostimportant hitting surface. The ball shouldbe contacted two to six. inches in front of thehitter's ghoulder on the hitting side of thebody. As the ann4 swing is made the non-hit ting arm is dropped forcibly, to theplayer's side. This gives the player greaterreach. The ball should be contacted at thespikes greatest reach. As contact is made r:with the heel of the hand, the hand issnapped forward over the top of the ball toimpart a forward spin on the ball, thus dir*recting it downward. It is extremely impor-tant that the jump is straight up and down.The planting of the heels effectively stopsforward momentum so that no net foul is -

committed.During the follow-through the player's

hIttinghand drops back to the player's side,and the spiker returning to the floor shouldland slrnultaneously on both feet. It is im-portant-that immediately afterJanding thespiker prepare for the next play. Figure 5dernonstrites a spiking sequence. Look for'the following points of emphasis:

the plant of the heels and the two-foottake-off;

355

the high backswing of the player's arms;the forward swing of both ,...rms on thejump;the full extension of the arm on contact;the position of the ball in relation to thespiker's body (it is in fzont of the hittingarm's shoulder.at contact);the snap of the wriSt on contact;the landing of the4spikeisimultaneouslyon both feet.Oncc the player has mastered the.basic

elements of the spike, the angle and direc-tion of the spike shoukt be practiced. Thetwo main directions of the spike are cross-court and down-the-line. A cross-courtspike is hit from the spiker to the oppositecorner of the opponent's court (see Dia-gram 2). The down-the-line spike is hit

Net X Spiker

Diagram, 2. hree different- angles for cross-. court.spiking.

Net

4.

Diagram 3. Path traveled by a down-the-linespike.

4

along the sideline from the spiker to thecorner of the opponent's court on the sameside (see Diagram 3).

Spikes are divided into two maincategories: on-hand spikes; off-handspikes. An on-hand-spike is one in whichthe spiker's hitting arm is on the same sideof the body as the approaching set. Thisoccurs in the right forward position for aleft-handed player and in the left forwardposition for a right-handed player. It is thespike that a player should be best at execut-ing. The ball dr,es not cross in front of theplayer's body before it is hit. An off-handspikels one in which the spiker's hittingarm is on the opposite side of the player'sbody from the approaching set. The ballmust cross in front of the player beforebeing hit. This style is employed when aleft-handed player is in the left forward po-,sition, or a right-handed player is in theright.forward position. The on-land spikeis the preferable spike for most players, butin any case, the spiker should always hit theball with the dominant hand.

All players should be able to master eachof the following tasks:

Spike the balt against the wall at least tentimes. To spike, a player stands 6 to 10feet from a smooth wall, tosses up theball, and spikes it onto the floor close tothe wall. The ball rebounds from the floorand wall and is caught. The spiker thenrepeats the process.Spike five out of ten high sets to the on-hand side into the opponent's court.Spike five out of ten high sets to the off-hand side into the opponent's court.

ME DINK

Another form of attack is the dink. Thedirt< i3 a change of pace play and can beused aa offensive move, to catch theopp.m.nts off-guard, or as an alternativewhen aspike is not possible because of poortiming or a bad set. The dink is most effec-tive when used as an offensive play.

The approach for the dink is exactly thesame as the approach for the spike. In fact,this is essential to disguise the intent of theattacker. At the last minute the spiker holdsback on a powerful swing, reaches as high

VOLLEYBALL 355

Net

Diagram 4. The weak areas of the opponen forthe dink. The left and right areas change de--pending on which side the dink originates. The

center area is the same for both sides.

as possible and with a soft fingertip touchfrom a positicin on the lower back of theball, drops the ball over or by the block sothat it falls quickly to the floor. The dinkmust be high enough to clear the opposingblock but low enough so that it hits the floorbefOre.the opponent's backcourt defensiveplayers can move in to "dig it up." It isessential in dinking that the wrist be heldstraight to avoid the possibility of a carry.'

There are two areas on the court mostvulnerable to a dink: over the bloek anddown the line but in front of the attack line;by the block and to the center of the-courtbut close to the net (see Diagram 4).

All players should be able to master eachof the following tasks: dink five out of tensets so that they clear the block ard land infront of the attack line; dink five out of tensets by the block so they hit the floor nearthe net in the center of the court.

SERVE RECEPTION

Receiving the serve is extremely iriapor-tent. If a team cannot successfully receivethe serve they will never gain the opportu-nity to serve and score theinselves. Servereception is a team effort.

The W-formation is the most commonand most efficient formation for receivingthe serve. In this formation five players areready to receive and one player, the setter,


Net

Diagram 5. The W-formation used for serve re-ception.

avoids receiving unaer any circumstancesand "hides" at the net. Diagram 5 showsthis formation using H's to indicate thespikers and S's to indicate the F.etters. Noplayer should stand directly behind ateammate and all players must have a clearview of the opposing server. Each player onthe court has certain responsibilities onserve reception. First, after the serve is hit,the players must determine who w9l re-ceive .kt. The person receiving should call forthe ball; then all the remaining playersshould turn _and face _the receiver. :This ac-tion is calfid "opening up." Players shouldalso help each other by calling bad servesout-of-bounds. The RF and RB work as ateam calling the right sideline. If the ball isbeing played by one, the other playerjudges the ball's position and calls it out ifnecessary. The LF and LB call the leftsideline. The LB and RB are a team for cal-ling the endline. The CF and CB should.alert their teammates if a serveis short, i.e.,is going to fall in front of the attack line.

In the waiting position for serve recep-tion all players on the left side of the courtshould have the left foot forward in a slightstride, while all players on the right side ofthe court should have the right foot for-ward. The setter standing near the netshould not receive the serve under any cir-cumstances. Any bail shoulder height orhigher as it approaches the forward lineshould be received by a back row player.Any serve shoulder height or higherAs it

Net

-41111---RF

LF CB CF

LB RB

Diagram 6. W-formation when the RF is thesetter. At ball contact by the server, the setter

moves to the center of the court.

approaches a back row player should beallowed to go out-of-bounds. The settershbuld always face the left sideline .withhis/her right side toward the net.

The sequence of action in receiving theserve should be as follows. The receivingplayer passes the ball to the setter at the net,who is facing the LF position. The setterthan sets,one of two hitters, either forwardto the LF or backward to the RF. As soon asthe set is made the whole team moves intospike coverage.

When-the tdain rótates the setter movesto the RF position. The setter must switch tothe center of the court as soon as the ball iscontacted on the serve. Diagram 6 showsthe W-formation when the setter is the RF.

-Net

LE AN.

CF RF

CB

LB RB

Diagram 7. W-formarion when the LF is thesetter. The CF must be ahead of the CB.

The setter hides at the net and the CFmoves toward the right sideline. Theplayers who switch maintai their new po-sitions until the next serve.

The next rotation finds the setter in theLF position. Diagram 7 shows theW-forrnation and the switch when the set-ter is in the LF position. Once the ball iscontacted playerl-may switch to any spoton the court. They should be careful, how-ever, not to change positions with team-mates until the ball has been served. Whenthe setter switches to the center of the courtthe center forward stays near the sidelineand.plays as an outside forward.

SPIKE COVERAGE

The purpose of ,covering the spike is tobe ready to play the ball off the opponent'sblock if that block is suEcessful. If a block issuccessful the ball comes right back at thespiker, usually falling behind him/her.Thus, the area behind the spiker is the oneto be covered. Three players move to form asemi-circle around the spiker and the othertwo players move to fill the remainingspaces. All players must crouch low to havemore time to react to the ball. Diagram 8shows the 'mov ement of ',jay ers when theLF is the spiker.

Net

I I

LB

CB

\RB

RF

1

Diagram 8. Spike coverage for the LF spiker.

Diagram 9 shows the movemenf of playerswhen the RF is spiking.

VOLLEITALL 357

Net

414

LF CBRF

1

1

Re

II.

Diagram 9. Movement to spike coverage whenthe RF is spiking.

The cenrel<rward is customarily the setterand will only be called on to spike if there isa broken play.

THE BLOCK

The block is a team's first line of defense.The best way to stop an opponent's attack isto block it at the net and not allow the ball tocotne onto the side of the court. A singleblock is executed by one player. In a doubleblock the center forward joins the outsideforward on the side of the opponent's spikeand they block together. The purpose of theblock is to lessen the net area available tothe spiker. A double block is of course moreeffective than a single block.

The ready position for a blocker is six totwelve inches from the net, with arms bentat the elbow so that the hands are at shoul-der height and fakly close to the bddy. Theblocker must concentrate on the oppo-nent's play until the ball is set to the oppos-ing spiker. Then the blocker stops watchingthe ball and concentrates on that spiker.The blocker gets into position 4o that one-half of the body overlaps one-half of thespiker's body on the side of the spiker'shitting arm (see Figure 6). The blocker at-tempts to put one hand on each side of thespiker's hand. The blocker times the blockby jumping a split second after the spiker.The blocker reaches as high as possible overthe top of the net and into the opponent'scourt. The shoulders are close to the ears.

3 5 8


Figure 6. The position of the blocker inrelationship to the spiker.

The body pikes slightly to prevent netfouls. The blockees hands are wide openand turned so that the thumbs are up (seeFigure 7). This positioning of the handscovers the maximum amount of space.When the ball contacts the blockees handthe blocker snaps the wrists, causing theball to drop quickly onto the opposingcourt. The blocker must quickly withdrawthe hands so that no net foul will be com-mitted in returning to the floor. After theblock the player should be immediatelyready for the next play:

Figure 8 illustrates the block sequentially.Look for the following points of emphasis.

the starting position of the blocker;the position of the blocker's arms in rela-

tionship to the head;the wide position of the blocker's fingers;

the penetration the blocker makes overthe net;ihe piking position of the body.When blocking in the,outside Tosition

the blocker must be sure to turn the ball into

the Opponent's court. The hand closest tothe sideline should be turned in, so that theball will not rebound out-of-bounds afterhitting the block. Successful blocking in-volves a great deal of practice emphasizingtiming. Many beginning blockers have atendency to rush the block, jump too soon,and miss the ball completely. Each playershould be able to master each of the follow-ing tasks:

block three out of eight spikes off highsets;jump and reach so that both hands arecompletely over the top of the net;watch the spiker rather than the ball onevery spike.

OFFENSE

With the 15asic skills of volleyball mas-tered, the offensive and defensive systemscan be learned. The lea-st complicated of-fensive system is the 4-2. Four players pre-dominantly serve as spikers, and two assetters. The setters are directly opposite-.each other in the lineup, so that there is

always one setter in the forward line. Thesetter in the forward line performs the set-ting task. The other setter plays as a defen-sive player in the back row until rotating tothe forward line and becoming the workingsetter.

There are three different fotma dons usedon offense. They are serve reception, spikecoverage, and free ball. In all of these for-

mations the team is either receiving the ballfrom the opponent or playing it on theirown side. Each of these situations will becovered In -detail when discussing the 4-2offense.

FREE BALL

When the opposing team is unable to setup for a spike they will usually return theball in a manner that makes it easy to han-dle. This is called free ball. When it ap-pears that the opponents are in trouble,imdiediately assume the free ball ferma-tion. The free ball formation is the same asthe W-formation used for serve reception,except tliat the setter does not have to go tohis/her correct rotational position and may

V.

VOLLEYBALL 359

I --

4

4111"-r1-7 T1

a. The incorrect hand position on the block 6. The correct thumbs up position. Note the widerarea that it covers .

Figure 7.

remain in the center of the court. The teamthen proceeds as in the serve reception,try ing to get a three-hit Lumbination pass,set, and spike.

DEFENSE

The best- defensive system to use in be-ginning levels of play is the 2-1-4 defense.This is also called the middle-in defense.This defense is especially strong against ateam with weak hitters, or one that dinks a,good deal.

BASE DEFENSE

When the opponents are play ing the ballthe team should be waiting in a base defen-sive formation. s the opponents attemptto set up a spike, ai the tgam sees that itsfirst action will probab e a b k, all three

forwards place themselves at the net in ablocking position. The center back stays inthe center of the court, and the other backsstay deep. Diagram 10 illustrates the properteam alignment during base defense. Fromthe base defensive formation the teammoves either into free ball formation if theopponents do not spike, or into position toblock.

THE BLOCK DEFENSE

In this defense two players form theblock, one player plays c:ose behind theblock providing dink coverage, and the re-maining three players remain deep to digspikes. As soon as the team knows fromwhich side the opponents will spike, the CFmoves to that side to form a double blockwith the outside forward. Tbe CB movesbehind the block and gets into a low posi-

3 6

,


_

I

Figure 8. The block.

hon. The remaining three players cover therest of the court. The back on the same sideas the block plays close to the line, and isready to dig a down-the-line spike. Theforward, not involved in the block, movesoff the net to the attack line, and is ready todig sharply angled spikes, play dinks to the

NetLF CF RF

CB

LB RB

Diagram 10. Base defense when using2-1-3 defensive system.

the

center of the court, and pick up any spikeswhich roll along the net and fall into thecourt. The back opposite the block plays inthe power alley. This is the part of the courtwhere most spikes are likely to come. Thisplayer lines up off the center forward's in-side shoulder so that the player sees thespiker's hand and the ball. Diagrams 11 and12. show the proper court positions for allplayers when the opposing right forwardand left forward are spiking. The shadedarea indicates the power alley. The areadeep behind the block tends to be the weakarea in this offense. .'

In the beginning levels of play few teamswill spike from the CF position.

SAFETY

Volleyball is a relatively safe game toplay. The only protective measuresuggested is the use of knee pads. As in anysport, a sufficient warm-up bejore begin-ning activity is the best way to decrease

361

x Net

Diagram 11. The proper court coverage whenusing the 2-1-3 defense and the opposing right

forward is spiking.

muscle pulls. The legs and arms are usedextensively, and should be thoroughlywarmed up before play. The best way toprevent collisions on the court is to com-municate with teammates at all times, cal-ling for the ball immediately upon decidingto play it.

RULES

The court has several markings withwhich all players should be familiar. Dia-gram 13 shows a legal voyeyball court andits markings.

The correct height of the net for women is74 1/8" (2.24m), and for. men 7'11 5/8"

Net .X

LF

CFRFCB

RB

Diagram 12. The proper court coverage whenusing the 2-1-3 defense and the opposing left,

forward is spiking.

It '

59' ig

1:g1 41

VOLLEYBALL 361

29'6"

Net

I 910"

Attack Line

Endline 141e 21"1Serving

Area

Diagram13. A legal volleyball courtwith its markings aitd measurements.

(2.43m). The court is 59' (18m) long and29'6" (9m) wide. The attack lines are 9'10"(3m) from the net.

The game is started with a coin toss be-tween the teams' captains. One captaincalls the toss. The captain who wins the tossselects either to serve first or to play on thepreferred side of the court. The other cap-tain gets the remaining choice.

Matches consist of either best of three orbest of five games. Each game is 15 pointsand the winnirig team must win by twopoints. The first serve alternates with eachgame. A second toss is made for the thirdgame or fifth game which will decide amatch.

A playing team is made up of six players.A squad can have no more than twelveplayers. Once the order of service is estab-lished for a game it cannot change until that

362


game is t.ornpleted. Players must be in theircorrect rotational position until the ball iscontacted on any serve. At any other timein the game players may play anywhere ontheir court or off it provided they remain ontheir own side of the net.

There are several ball handling rules:1. No player may hit the ball twice in a row

unless the first contact is a block.2. Each team may contact the ball three

times on its side. if the first contact is ablock it doesn't count as a hit, and threeadditional contacts are allowed.

3. Part of the ball must be on a team's sideof the net before that team may spike;but the team may block a ball attacked bythe opposing spiker before it crosses thenet.

4. Each con tact must give the ball im-mediate impetus. The ball may not beheld, thrown, or carried.

5. The ball may be contacted with any partof .the body above and including thewaist.

Players must be on the court during theservice (the line is part of the court) Playersmay step on or over the centerline, as longas part of the foot remains on or above thatline. It is a fa uit if any other part of the bodycontacts the floor on the opponent's court.

The ball is put in play from the servingarea. It must go over the legal portion of thenet without touching it, and land within theboundaries of the opponent's court. Thelines are considered in-bourtds. The servemust be contacted with one hand or arm Itmust be cleanly hit after it has been releasedor thrown from the hand or hands of theserver.

A team only scores when serving. If theserving team faults, the receiving team getsto serve and no point is made. This action iscalled a side-out. Points are made by theserving team anytime the receiving teamcommits a fault.

A player may not touch the net at anytime during play. . Any ball other than theserve which contacts the net is still in play.If a ball is hit into the net with force causingthe net to hit a player, it is not a net fault. Iftwo opposing players hit the net or crossthe centerline simultaneously, it is a doublefault, and the point is replayed.

Only forwards may block. Backs may notspike from a position in front of the attackline. Players may leave the court in order toplay the ball, but the ball must pass over thelegal portion of the net to be a good return

EQUIPMENT

The best volleyball is made of leatherwith molded seams. It is softer to the touchand does not hurt the arms when played. Agood volleyball will cost at least $20.00.

TERMINOLOGY

Attack. The actof sending the ball to an oppo-nent in a forceful manner. Often usedsynonymously with spike.

Attack Line. The line on the court which is9'10" (3m) from the centerline.

Back Set. A set in which the setter faces awayfrom the intended direction of the ball and setsoverhead to a waiting spiker.

Base Formation. The position of a team whiletheir opponents play the ball and the teamwaits to decide their counter move.

Block. When a player jumps close to the netextending both arms over the top of the netwith the hands in a wide position with fingersspread to prevent an opponent's spike fromcrossing over the net.

Bump. The underhand passing action in whichthe ball rebounds off the forearms and is di-rected to a teammate.

Centerline. The court marking directly underthe net which divides the large court into twoequal sides.

Cross-court Spike. A spike directed diagonallyto the longest part of the opponent's court.

Dig. A one- t,r two-armed defensive save in'which a player has difficulty getting to the balland just passes ft high so that a teammate canplay it.

Dink. A soft off-speed change of pace play inwhich a sinker attempts to catch the oppo-nents off-guard. The ball is hit with the finger-tips of one or two hands so that it just clearsthe block and drops quickly to the floor.

Double Fault. A play in which faults are com-milted by players on both teams at the sametime. The point is replayed.

Down-the-line Spike. A spike directed alongthe sideline closest to the spiker.

Floater. A serve which is hit without spin caus-ing it to move up, down, andlor side to side asit responds to air currents.

Forearm Pass. Same as, bump.Free Ball. Any ball coming from the opponents

which is not a spike or attack.

Heel of the Hand. The solid part of the handwhich is close to the wrist.

Middle-in. A defensive formation in which thecenter back plays directly behind the block tocover against the dink.

Off-hand. A spike in which the ball must crossin fain', of the spiker's body before being con-tacted by the spiker's dominant hand. The setcomes from the spiker's non-dominant side.

On-hand. A spike in w hich the ball is set fromthe same side of the spiker's body as the dom-inant hand.

Opening up. The action of all players duringserlve reception w ho are not going to receivethe serve. They all turn and face their team-mate who is receiving.

Overhand Pass. A pass in which the play erplays the ball with open hands in a position sixto eight inches above the forehead.

Power Alley. That portion of the court wheremost spikes are aimed. It is the diagonal fromthe spiker's hand to the opposite corner of theopponent's court:

Seam. The space between two recew ers dunngserve reception.

Serve. The act of putting the balr in play. Theball is hit from behind the endline and in theserving area so that it clears the net and entersthe opponent's court.

Serving Area. The right one-third of the endline and behind or outside of the court. Theplace from which players Serve.

Set. The placement of the ball to enable thespiker to attack it to hit it into the opponent'scourt.

Side-out. When the ben ing team makes a faultand the receiving team gains the serve.

Spike. A ball w hich is hit w ith great force from aposition higher than the top of the net so thatit drops at a sharp angle to the opponents.

Target Area. The area to w hich the players passthe ball When receiving serve andlor anotherball from their opponents. The setter is usu-ally in the target area. In a 4-2 offense this areais the center one-third of the court close to thenet.

Topspin. A ball which is hit by a player using awnst snap which causes it to rotate away fromthe hitter causing it to drop quickly.

VOLLEYBALL 363

Underhand Pass. The act of directing the ball bybouncing it,off the forearms to a teamMate.Same as bump.

REFERENCES

Bertuca, Bob, ed. Championship Volleyball by theExperts. West Point, NY: Leisure Press, 1979.

Cherebetiu, Gabriel: Volleyball Techniques. Hol-lywood, CA: Creative Sports Boas, 1969.

Coleman, James E. Power Volleyball. North PalmBeach, FL: The Athletic Institute, 1976.

Cox, Richard H. Teaching Volleyball. Min-neapolis, MN. Burgess Publishing Company,1980.

Egstrom, Glen H., and Schaafsma, Frances. Vol-leyball. 3d ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. BrownCo., 1980.

Keller, Val. Point, Game and Match. San Fran-cisco, CA: USVBA Publications, 1977.

Matsudaira, Yasutaka. Winning Volleyball. On-tario, Canada: Canadian Volleyball Associa-tion, 1977.

Peppler, Mary Jo. Inside Volleyball for Women.Chicago, IL. Henry Regnery Company, 1977.

Prsala, Jan. Fundamental Volleyball Contacts. On-tario, Canada. Canadian Volleyball Associa-tion, 1971.

Sandefur, Randy, Volleyball. Pacific Palisades,CA: Goodyear Publishing Co., 1970.

Scates, Allen E. Winning Volleyball. 2d ed. Bos-ton, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1976.

Scates, Allen E., and Ward, Jane. Volleyball. 2ded. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1975.

Schaafsma, Frances, and Heck, Ann. Volleyballfor Coaches and Teachers. Dubuque, IA. Wm. C.Brown Co., 1971.

Slaymaker, Thomas, and Brown, Virginia.Power Volleyball. Philadelphia, PA. W. B.Saunders Company, 1970.

Tennent, Mark. Volleyball Team Play. Ontario,Canada. Canadian Volley ball Association,1977.

Thijpen, Janet. Power Volleyball for Girls andWomen. 2d ed. Dubuque, IA. Wm. C. BrownCo., 1974,

back squat (p. 369)beneh press (p. 373)

breathing (p. 366)chin and lat machines (p. 373)curlsregular and reverse (p. 376)dip (p. 373)frequency (p. 379)front squat (p. 3691grip (p. 366)incline press (p. 373)leg and back strength (p. 369) ,

medicine ball trunk training (p. 379)military press (p. 369)muscularendurance (e. 365)muscular power (p. 365)muscular strength (p. 365)pull-over--straight arm (p. 376)repetitions (p. 379) ,

shoulder and arm exercires (p. 369)sit-ups, variations, r.nd horizontal bar swing (p. 378)

spotting (p. 366)trunk and abdomen exercises (p. 3710'

- ..

34-':-do

INTRODUCTION

Weight-training is one of the most popu-lar forms of conditioning today. A major,reason for this popularity is that weight-training can produce positive changes inthe structure and function of the body ofthe participant. Properly developed, a pro-gram of weight-training can help himber tolook better physically and perform moreeffectively in daily life. .

A CHANGING VIEW ON WEIGHT-TRAINING

The present prominence of weight-training has taken many years to achieve. Agreat many teachers of physical education,as well as coaches, did not approve ofweight-training as part of their programsduring the 1940s and 1950s. In this periodteachers and coaches often even discour-aged weight-training. The reasons theseeducators gave usually related to the sup-posed negative influences that weight-training had on skilled performance. Sincemany of those negative effects were basedsoley on opinion, not scientific investiga-tion, studies were conducted to investigatesome of the important questions involvedin this issue. The positive results of thesescientific investigations 'have led to an in-creasing use of weight-training as part ofthe physical education curriculum in manyschools. It appears at this point thatweight-training is becoming firmlygrounded in the American thought of con-ditioning. Signs today indicate that an evengreater emphasis may be developing in thefuture.

CHAPTER 23

Weight-training

BOB WARD,Dallas Cowboys Football Club,

Dallas, TX

THE TOTAL CONDITIONINGPROCESS,AND WEIGHT-TRAINING

It is important to u0erstand what is tobe accomplished through the conditioningprogram before a systematic program canbe developed to achieve these eng. It isvery important to understand howweight-training serves as an effective con-ditioning tool. The following qualities be-come highly developed through weight-training:1. Muscular powerthe ability to do heavy

-workloads in very short periods of time.The Clean is a commonly used measureof this quality.

2. Muscular straigth the ability to developmaximum force or tension in an exer-cise. This quality is usually measured bydoing a one repetition maXimum (1RM)for an exercise. The dead lift is an excel-lent example of total body muscularstrength. .

3. Muscular endurancethe ability to do anexercise, or series of exercises (circuittraining), with below maximum weight,for a prolonged period of time. Variousexercises can be done for repetitionswith a percentage of the 1RM or a per-centage of body weight.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF AFUNCTIONAL STRENGTH

WEIGHT-TRAINING PROGRAM

PURPOSE OF ME PROGRAM

The first principle in program develop-ment concerns philosophy or purpose

, o 0 r, .

I 0 'id 0


the reasons for action. Participants mustrecognize their present condiioning posi-tion and desrired destination before an intel-ligent program can be developed. Once thegoal is iastablished, it is possible to set in-termediate objectives that are progressivelyattainable and capable of being measuredrelative to the time spent in the program.

ELEMENTS OF A FUNCTIONAL STRENGTH-TRAINING PROGRAM

Studies and coaching experience inweight-lifting and weight-training exer-cises hrwe shown certain elements to beimportant in the development of a totalweight-training program. Several of therecommended elements are given in thefollowing figures, along with the normaltime ranges to be devoted to them. It isrecognized that each individual has differ.-,ent training needs and time available.Therefore, use the information given belowas a guide for constructing an indi-vidualized program.

Element

1. Warm-up1 Flexibility3. Leg and back strength4. Arm and shoulder

pushing strength5. Arm and shoulder

pulling strength6. Muscle endurance

Integrated into eachexercise and/orone day per weekcircuit training.

7. Trunk and abdominal strength8. Warm-down

Recommended %Time

5-10 minutes10-20 minutes10-20 minutes

7-15 minutes

7-15 minutes

5-8 minutes5-10 minutes

IMPORTANT INFORMATION ONBREATHING, SPOTTING, AND THE GRIP

It is very important that the weighttrainer have a good understanding ofproper breathing, spotting, and grippingtechniques before starting a program; con-sequently, it is fitting that these be dis-cussed prior to getting into the actual liftingprogram.

BreathingProper breathing is one of the most im-

portant requirements iniveight-training.

.1

Many weight trainers do not practice cor-rect breathing techniques and limit perfor-mance by so doing. Here are some essen-tials of breathing technique:1. If the exercise weights are light to

medium, br.athing can easily follow thepattern of out on exertion 'dna in as theaction returns the bar to the starting po-sition.

2. The light to medium breathing tech-nique keeps the internal body pressureat a comfortable exercise level.

3. The.lifting of heayy weights, however,demands that the lifter stabilize thetrunk to provide a firm foundation forthe execution of the exercise. Therefore,the air is taken in prior to the lift and heldduring the exertion. However, a forcefulexhalation does help in making closelifts, and also reduces the possibility ofpassing out.

SpottingSpotting is a preventive safety Measure.

Many hazardous situations can be easilyavoided by following proper training pro-grams as well as sound spotting principles.Spotters are persons who stand by the lifterto provide assistance when needed. Theymay help position a heavy weight fof thestart of an exercise, or help remove it after-ward. Their primary function, however, isto prevent injuries by controlling theweight in the event of a slip, or when thelifter cannot complete a lift. Some helpfulprinciples of spotting are given below:1. Follow intelligent training programs.2. Properly use and inspect equipment.3. Pay attention when spotting.4. Use at least two spotters when working

with extremely heavy.,weights.5. Use appropriate lifting racks when lift-

ing extremely heavy weights.

The GripThe grip depends primarily on the type

of exercise or ,ariation being done. Thereare six major grips used in weight-training.These grips are: overhand; underhand; al-ternate; false; hooked, strapped. Some ofthese are shown in the accompanying il-lustrations.

c

, WEIGHT-TRAINING 367

a. The feet are flat on the floor.

b. The arms are fully extended when taking the bar-bell from the spotters.

Figure 1. Spotting for the bench pressl pV kJ 0

368 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECOINDARY SCHOOL STUDENT '

a. Overhand grip. ' b. Underhand gr,ip.

-1

c. Alternate grip.

d. False grip.

Figure 2. Th'e-R.

e. Hooked grip.

t

,

LEG AND BACK STRENGTI:

This is a supportive orfoun&tional qual-- ity. The major objective of these leg andback exercises is to develop tissue strengthin the large muscle gi:Nttr..., of the body. Thisstrength improves the ability to maintainproper body positions in other exercisesand sporting skills. Barbell, dumbbell, andmachine exercises such as knee berids of allkinds are included in programs for the de-velopment of leg and back strength.

Exercise: FrontEquipment: BarbMajor Purpose:

Ssuatell/dumbbell/machine.To develop supportivestrength in the legs andback. Notice that the ver-tical position of the trunkforces the legs to do morework. This exercise alsodeveiops arm and shoul-der girdle strength as asecondary objective.

Steps:1. Assume a stance allowing for a comfort-

able squat to be assumed through thedesired range of motion.

2. Rest the weight on the shoulders bybringing the elbows up.

3. The fingerssnay be looseneho that thebar will primarily rest on the shoulders.

4. The back.should remain tight ard in asvertical a position as possible through-out the squat.

5. A deep breath at the start will assist instabilizing the rrunk and help maintain agood bar position on the wfy down.

6. The depth of the squat shogld be a posi-tion at which the tops of the thighs areparallel to the floor.

7. Force the breath out to help finish thesquat and to avoid passing out.

Back SquatEquipment: Barbell/dumbbell/machine.MajorPurpose. To develop supporting

strength in ihe legs and back.Noticeihat in the back squat,the trunk can move furtherforward without losing the

WEIGHT-TRAINING 369

weight. This greater forwardlean shifts the emphasis to thebuttOcks.

Steps:1. The stance should allow for a comfort-

able squat to be assumed through thedesired range of motion.

2. Rest the weight on the muscle portion ofthe back. It is highly recommended thatthe bar, or back, be padded for comfortand protection.

3. The back should remain tight and keptas straight as possible.

4. A slight turn of tile bar in a downwarddirection makes the squat much easier.

5. A deep breath at the start of thcgift helpsstabilize the trunk and maintain a goobar position on the Way down.

6. The depth of the squat should be t aposition at which the tops of the thi hsare parallel to the floor.

7. Force the breath out to help finis, thesquat and avoid passindout.

SHOULDER AND ARM EXERCISES

There are two basic kinds of sho der andarm exercises: pushing; pulling. T ey com-plement one another when- the shoulderand arm muscle groups are wo ed in op-posite directions, that is, the p hing exer-cises actively extend the aim , While thepulling exercise's actively flex nem. A bal-ance in development i's intained byspehding an equal amount f training timein each of these areas.

Pushing exercises work e shoulder gir-dle and arms with actior that extend thearms, together, or indivi ually, away fromthe body. Jerking motiojis that use the legsare included in this ca gory. Some othercommonly used exere es are the militarypress, bench press, in lineipress, and dip.

The amount of th funttional strengthtime recommended far pushing exercises is7-10% of the total wchout time.

Mil itary PressEquipment:MajorPurpose:

Barbelllclumbbelllmachine.

To develop strength andmuscular endurancein thearms and shoulder Ordie.

370

-

a

AL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

G. A

Figure 3. The front squaQ(

Ga

--,-, -2... 1. --, ,c

WEIGHT-TRAINING 3714 ,

Figure 4. The back squat.


Figure 5. The military press..

k))

1

Steps:"1. The stance should 'be at a comfbrtabld

distance.2. The grip on the bar is slightly wider than

shoulder width.3. Take a deep breath and hold the trunk

tight.4. .Press the bar vertically with the shoulder

and arms.5. Avoid leaning back too far (use a lifting

belt).6. Lock out the arms directly over the

shoulders.7. Force air out to help finish the lift.

Incline PressEquipment.

MajorPurpose:

Barbell/dumbbell/machine/incline bench.

To develop strength andmuscular endurance in thearms and shoulder girdle.

Sfeps:1. The position for this exercise is from a

seateCI or standing incline.bench.2. The grip on the bar is slightly wider than

shoulder width; however, this may varydepending on the objective of the exer-cise.

5. Take a deep breath and hold the trunktight.

4. Bring the bar down with elbows outThis action places the bar in the properposition, high on the chest.

5. Tap the chest and press the bar up andback over the shoulders.

6. Lock out the arms directly ove4 theshoplders.

7. Force the air out to help the finish df thelift.

Bench PressEquipmen t: Ba rbellId umbbell/machine/

bench.

.0 Major Purpose: To develop strength andmuscular endurance in thearms and shoulder girdle.

Steps:1. Position for doing this exercise is from a

bench with the back on the bench.2. The grip on the bar is slightly wider than

'shoulder width; however, this may vary,

WEIGHT-TRAINING 373

depending on the objective of the eier='cise.

3., Take a deep breath and hold the trunktight.

4. Bringthebar down and touch the chest.5. Press the bar up and back over the

shoulders.6. Lock out the arms directly over the

shoulders, or slightly back toward thehead:

7. Force the air out to help the finish of thelift.

DipEquipment: Parallel bar/machine.Major Purpose: To develop the streligth and

muscular endurance of thearms and shoulder girdle.

Steps:1. The width between the bars can be var-

ied) to work different parts of the armsand shoulder girdle.

2. Variouc gripping positions may be usedto'focus on certain Sreas of the ai-ms andshoulder girdle.

3. Additional weight can be added byusing a belt and strap or using a dipmachine.

4. Breathe in going down and out comingup.

S Establish an even rhythm while doingthe exercise.

6. Exercise through the full range of mo-tion.

PULLING EXERCISES

Pulling exercises work the shoulder gir-dle and arms with movemehts toward-thebody rather than away from it, and thus canbe recognized by active flexion of the arms.Chinning, lat pulldown, pullovers, andcurls are examples of pulling exercises.Seven to ten percent of the functionalstrength time is recommended for pullingexercises.

Chin Pullup and Lat PulldownEquipment: Horizontal bar/any hanging

device/lat machine.Major Purpose: To develop strength and fit-

, ness of the chest, back,shoulders, and arms.

374 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT----

,

k

,

a.

C.

3 -Figure 6. Incline press. L)

b. '

r,.... ,

...

r.,

. ,WEIGHT-TiZAINING 375

Figure 7. The bench press.

-


a. Starting positions for the clip on the Nautilusmultiexercise machine.

Figure 8. The dip.

Steps:1. The chin is an excellent exercise to de-

vglop total upper body pulling fitness.2. It is recommended that the chin be done

in front, back, and on the side of thehead with various grips for all-aroundstrength and muscular endurance de-velopment.

3. The use of any horizontal or vertical bar,or any device that can be gripped, willalso provide variety in muscular de-velopment, and also in the training pro-gram.

Pullover-straight ArmEquipment: BarbellIdumbbellImachineMajor Purpose: To develop the strength,

muscular endurance, andflexibility of the shoulders,chest, back, and arms.

1. This exercise can be done on the groundfor beginners,,or on a bench for the in-termediate or advanced weight trainer.

2. Grasp the bar with a normal overhand orfalse grip, slightly wider from hand tohand than shoulder width.

b. Execution of the dip on the Nautilusmulti-exercise machine.

3. Breathe in deeply while moving the barback to the ground. Exhale as the bar isreturned to the starting position.

4. Use light starting weights when firstlearning this exercise. After the scill andstrength begins to develop, it is surpris-ing how strong this action can become.

Curls (Regular and Reverse)Equipment. Barbell/dumbbell/machine.Major Purpose. To develop the strength and

muscular endurance of thearms.

Steps:1. Take a comfortable stance about shoul-

der width.2. Grip the bar about shoulder width.3. Palms are up for the regular curl, and

down for the reverse curl.4. Elbows are positioned at or near the

sides with the arms straight.5. Breathe in just before raising the bar.

Breathe out as the bar is lowered.6. The culling action begins by flexing the

arms, thus bringing the bar to the shoul-

.44

`, 4

WEIGHT-TRAINING 377

1111lteittamiiil I.-41

/ '1011(*teffeatifix,4,60..

soopplev/i,/10146.

0/01111

111, ft

4114111171/

"§,

(ftb- LdAL

Figure 9. The pullover-straight arm.

378

378 PHYSILAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

Figure 10. The curl (regular).

,-,ders with the elbows raised. The armsare then extended, returning the bar tothe completely straightened startingarm position.

7: Body movement will reduce the focus onthe biceps.

- 8. Establish a good rhy thm during the curl.9. Work the biceps both on the way 4own

as well as up, `by letting the bar downslowly. ,

MUSCULAR ENDURANCE

The exercise prescription for, muscleendurance can take many forms. The majorobjective to be achieved by this training is toincrease overall body stamina. It is best to doa series of exercises that work all body mo-tiqns for a balanced program.

There are six principles in establishing amuscle endurance program. These are.

1 Stations or exercises (10-15) that makeup a circuit.

2. Percent of 1RM is usually 50-60%; ho;v-ever, it may be higher or lower, depend-ing on the objective

epetitions should range from 12 -50PIUS, depending on the time assignedqInd the percentage of 1RM used.'

4. Tinie can be related to energy systemsbeing trained, or to specific time framesin the participant's sport, e.g., length of

,contest. A 15-60 minute period coversmost sporting activities.

3.

5. Interval is the time taken between sta-tions or exercises. Normally, a 10--20second workbout is folloWed by a 30-60second interval. It is.tesually good totrain for the specific demands of one'ssport. In sportnike football featuringilterruptions in play, it is appropriate to

for the times of work and rest. Insports that are conitnuous 'in nature,careful study should determine appro-priate work-rest time intervals.

6. Sets refer to the number of times theexercise, series of exercises, or circuit, isrepeated.

TRUNK AND ABDOMEN EXERCISES

The trunk is the largest segment of thebody. It is the crossroad for all sporting skillactions. Therefore, adequate time must beallotted for improving the strength and skillof the many movements it is called upon todo. The recomtriended percentage of thetotal functional strength time is 3-5%.

Sit-ups, Variations, and Horizontal BarSwingMajor Purpose. To develop the strength and

muscle endurance of thetrunk.

Steps:1. Begin sit-up exercises by doing partial

sit-ups with legs straight or bent.2. Force air out a:. the sit-up is being done

to work the total trunk.

3

3. Twisting can be added to all forms ofsi.t-ups to work all sides of the trunk.

4. Advanced trunk training may requirethat the hip flexors be used in the action.Therefore, make sure that sound tech-niques are used, and assure proper con-ditioning before beginning.

5. Keep the low back rounded when doingany sit-up with the feet held down.

6. Return to the upright position as soon asthe ramded low back touches theground.

Medicine Ball Trunk TrainingEquipment: Medicine ball/sand bags/

. weights.Major Purpose: To develop all aspects of

trunk movement.

DEVELOPING A WEIGHT-TRAININGPROGRAM

F . .

FREQUENCY

For most beginning programs, three orfour tithes a week with a day off after eachexercise session is ideal. Since resistancetraining tends to break down muscle tissue,the rest period is essential to its proper re-placement. Time and experience enable theparticipant to establish the best individualtr'aining schedule.

REPETITIONS

The number of repetitions of each exer-cise ranges from as few as -3 to as many as50. The specific number selected for anygiven lift should be bas d on the presentlevel of training and con itioning, the typeof exercise, and the training goal sought. Ingeneral, strength-training is accomplishedwith fewer repetitions (3-8) of a heavierweighf, while endurance work and generalconditioning calls for more repetitions. Agood general guide for beginners is to dothree sets of 3-5 repetitions. When ten rep-etitions can be consistently done at thatweight, it is time to increase the resistance.

<1.

WEIGHT-TRAINING 379

GUIDELINES FOR A SAFE, EFFECTIVE

WORKOUT

1. Lift with a partner. This will permit restperiods, provide a spotter, and allow thepartners to provide information for oneanother regarding proper form andtechnique.

2. Warm up gradually. Prepare the bodyfor the stresses involved in a vigorousweight-training workout.

3. Perform all exercises throughout the fullrange of motion. Atexercises should bedone to the maximum limits of themovement of the joint involved. Re-peated exercise at less tnan a normalrange of motion can result in a restrictionof mobility.

4. Don't cheat. Exercises should always beperformed in the prescribed manner:Cheating or bringing other musclegroups into play in an exercise results inless exercise for the target muscles, andintroduces the possibility of posturaland performance problems.

5. Keep records. An exercise record is animportant -component -of any trainingprogram. It will help progress to beanalyzed and goals to be set. Asuggested format would be:

Dates

Lilt _1

1

1_3

1._5

1

8

1_10

Curl lb. 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

reps. 5 5 3 6 5 4 8 5 5 9 7 7 10 10 9

Press 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 85 85 85..

8 7 7 10 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 lb 5 4 4

6. Iion't get over-confident. More injuriesoccur because a lifter gets careless with aweight that, has been successfully han-dled before than because of attemptingan unusually heavy lift. Remember, ac-cidents are usually a result of careless-ness. Always stay alert. Use spotters onthe lighter weights, as well as those ap-proaching the maximum potential.

36 0

1


-. -8- ArTN., . r,

Figure 11. Medicine ball trunk training.

t. 3 t,

bar arm and half nelson (p. 393)bear hug (p. 386)breakdowns (p. 386)chain wrestling (p. 395)counter to double arm drag (p. 393)counter to head drhg (p. 394)counter to heel pick-up (p. 393)counter to leg dives (p. 393)counter to switcli (p. 394)crotch and half nelson (p. 393)double arm drag (p. 386)far ankle and far arm (p. 388)far ankle and near waist (p. 388)far arm and double bar (p. 388)head drag (p. 386)heel pick-up (p. 386)hiplock and whir.er (p. 390)hiplock escape (p. 390)referee's position (p. 383)single leg dive (p. 384)sit-out (p. 390)sta-nding escage (p. 390)stretcher (p. 388)switch (p. 390)

.three-varter nelsaL(4,3,2,31._'lleop,positiow(p.383)-upright position (p. 383)

,

INTRODUCTION\ 4

Today's youth possess a desire to be cre-ative; to do something different fromothers. Wrestling provides such an oppor-tunity. It:is a sport in which an individualcan not only excel, but one which providesmany psychologicaladvantages as well. )

Wrestling began during what- has beedcalled the "formakion of the world cul-

--1Thre-§7n7b-iittrOrnatrolis711-iiidslie-re:thaF- _ in dividua list ic outlets provided a means of

self-defense as well as a means of recre-.*.ational satisfaction. It was a form of military

combat during medieval conflicks, a meansby which individuals demonstrated the, ,superiority of their strength, stamina, andskill. .

The great thing about wrestling is that itaffords 41dividuals of varied physical qual-ities the opportunity to compete. It is notnecessarily a sport jn which4trength is a .fprerequisite for success. Scientific studieson leverage, balance, and quickness havecldarly illustrated their importance in thesuccess of wrytling.

The creation of a National LesCommih. 'tee in 1927 resulted in a clarification andmodification of the then-existing ryes, and 4

greatly stimulated the grow th ofas a major spectator sport. Wrestli g in thiscountry is primarily freestyle, t at is, it .

permits a contestant to trip and to ise holdseither aboye or below the waist. e objec-tive is topin or hold an opponen 's shoul-ders to the mat, thus terminating the bout.The rules cdhimittee has developed a pointsystem which ,is used to determine winnersin tTouts where no fall occurs as well as aweight classification systep to.. guaranteeevenly matched contests. High sclioolwrestling Iniitches 4re conducted in the fol-low ing,v, eight classes. 98 lb., 105 lb., 112 lb.,

'10

e?

090

119 lb., 126 lb., 132 lb., 138 lb., 145 lb., 155 lb.,167 lb., 185 lb., and unlimited.

CHAPTER 24

Wrestling

IRWIN HESS,Kutztown State College,

Kutztown, PA

SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES...

MiIC STARTING POSITIONS

- There-are. three-basiewrestling .posi tk_answith which you should be thoroughlyfamiliar.

The Upright PositionThere are two basic upright stances.' In

one the wrestler has more of a closedstance but is well-balanced over the kneesand has the arms extended so that he/she isprepared for an offensive move as well as adefensive move. The left foot is slightly infront; thus he/she is able to defend one orboth legs. It is easier to defend one leg thanit is to defend two. The head should be upand the eyes should never be taken off theopponent. The best area to focus on is thepr a directly below the waistline; this is thebri area of the body incapable of beinra idly Moved.

In the other upright stance, the wrestlerlids an operivtance with one foot back. Thisstance permits rapid movement in eitherdirection without changing pogitions firstand thus giving away hisiher intentions.

The "Tie-up" PositionThis teginique is used by wrestler at-

tempting to work at a closer range (gener-ally used by individuals who do not possessthe speed to work from the outside).

The Referee's PositionThe bpttom wrestler b down on all fours

with the palms of the hands 12 inches fromthe knees..The offensive wrestler then as-

- 3 Q 3(...1Om.

-

384 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND S.PORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

a. Tie-up position.

b. heferee's position.

Figure 1. Basic starting positions.

sumes a position on one side of the oppo-nent. One arm must be loosely placedaround the opponent's waist and the otherarm should be placed at the bend in theelbow of the opponent. The offensive wres-tler may have either the front knee or theback knee off the mat if the foot stays out-side the nearest plane of the defensivewrestler. That is, the foot may not cross animaginary perpendicular line from thenearest edge of the opponent's body to thefloor. -

TAKEDOWN SKILLS

There are several ways of taking an op-ponent down to the mat. As skill is gainedyou will want to supplement the skills de-scribed here. As in all wrestling maneuv-ers, takedowns are effective only when youmove rapidly and catch the opponent off-guard_Practiceis required in all thesemovements. Repetition of movements will

create a pattern which will, if done oftenenough, create a reflex within the body;thus the human instinct will take over

when performing a movement. Whenlearning and practicing, have the opponentoffer almost no opposition. As you becoinemore skilled helshe should increase theamount of opposition.

With the exception of a pinning combina-tion, the takedown is probably the mostimportant "maneuver in wrestling. Morepractice time should be allowed for thisphase of wrestling than many of the othertechniques.

Single Leg DiveThe single leg dive is attainable from

either an upright position or a tie-up posi-tion.1. From the upright position make a quick

thrust toward the knees of the opponentand grab behind the opponent's kneejoint. The same technique can be usedfrom the tie-up position. Remember, onall be-up techniques- 'you- -mustshrugyour arra free of the oppcinent beforeattempting to get at his/her leg and bodyarea.

3''')

%

atii*WIill .1-04

itAven.- 474

41*. 701001

"ll -wm

; WOWro;.;if*? ,

_Lagos

,4erv*--414

11111,0v,,


2. Drop(on both knees with your head onthe same side as the leg you grasp. Atthe same time bring your outside legforward and pivot on your knee to movebehind your opponent.

3. Move the left arm up around his/herwaist and straddle his/her right leg ashe/she goes forward to the mat.

Double Ann Drag1. From the tie-up position; slide your left

arm over the opponent's right arm andgrasp_him/her just above the elbow.

2. Bring your right hand across and gra§pthe opponent just below the rightarmpit. At the sdme time slide your lefthand down to the opponent's rightwrist.

3. Pull his/her right arm to your side, ap-plying most of the power with your righthand. At the same time move to his/herright side and hook your right legaround his/her right foot.

4. Release your left hand and grasp his/herright leg at the knee. .0

5. Pull forward and down with your righthand while swinging your left leg overhis/her right leg. You must throw your-self into this maneuwr because yourweight will initiate the opponent's falltoward. the mat to complete thetakedown.

Heel Pick-up1. Grasp the opponent's neck with your

light hand, and .at the same time, slideyour left hand to the inside of his/herright arm and grasp his/her upper arm.

2. Drop to your right knee while graspingthe opponent's left heel with your lefthand.

3. Pull his/her left heel to your left, and, atthe same time, snap down hard withyour right hand on the opponent's neck.

4. As your_opponent touches the mat, re-lease your hold and secure an insidecrotch position or other advantage holddepending on what he/she does. Main-tain leg control over the,opponent, thuspreventing_him/herfrorri regaining hi&her balance and possibly breaking.yourhold.

3

Head Drag or Duck under1. From a tie7up position reach for the op-

ponent's neck with your right hand. Atthe same time slide your left hand to theinside of his/her right arm and grasphis/her upper arm.

2. Holding his/her right arm in place withyour left hand, duck quickly under his/her right arm so that his/her elbow isresting on your neck. You must practicethe ducking phase of this move becauseit enables you to get behind the oppo-nent much easier. Don't try to gothrough his/her arm; go under:

3. At the same time throw your head back,pull down on his/her neck with yourright hand, and swing arouna behind. Ifyou pull hard enough on the opponent'sneck with your right thand, he/she will .go forward to the mat.

Bear HugThis maneuver has recently become very

popular. It is best performed from a tie-upposition.1. The important thing to remember is to

keep the opponent's arms above yours.You must penetrate and grasp yourhands together around the waist if pos-sible; then move your arms as high aspossible without breaking your grip.

2. At this point you can trip your opponentor lift himlher and force him/her to themat.

BREAKDOWNS

From a referee's position on the mat theman with a position of advantage muSt con-trol the defensive wrestler. The objective ofthe bottom wrestler is to rpverse his/herposition and gain control of the opponent.Therefore, it is important to learn basicbreakdowns to bring your opponent undercontrol if you are to obtain a fall. This is thepreliminary step to securing a fall. Yourfirst objective should be to flatten the op-ponent out in a prone position. This pre-vents escaping and puts him/her in a posi-tion which permits you to maneuver for afall. When on top you must remember thewrestler underneath has four points ofsupport. The object is to -destroy one ormore of these supports and get the oppo-

104dtp'ototir

7fr

i 0,_5z/ .

Tr 4/

di, /i /vi;

diii,AIL,

'"f.. , ir,

:4*-0; V 0?-15ImmmridI

A0,4,/ 'MOW

frAlQ;.

s


Figure 4. Far ankle and near waist.

nent off-balance. Use your weight andleverage on the breakdown and constrveyour strength and energy when possible.Keep your body weight over the oppo-nent's hips to tire him/her.

Far Arm and Double-Bar1. From the top position of the referee's

mat position, hook your left leg aroundthe opponent's right ankle. (Remember,always attempt to control the legs ofyour opponent.)

2. Throw your right arm under his/herright armpit and grasp his/her left armju`st below the elbow with your righthand.

3. Pull his/her left arm toward you. At thesame time push him/her forward towardhis/her lefl.shoulder where the supporthas been removed and grasp both handsaround his/her left wrist. Be careful notto roll him/her too far or he/she will rollyou-over.

Far Ankle and Near Waist1. 1each across with your left hand and

grasp the opponent's ankle while plac-ing your right arm around his/her waist.

2. Pull his left ankle forward. This willeither break the ppponent down or keephim/her under control.

Far Ankle and Far Arm1. Hook your left leg around the oppo-

nent's right ankle; shoot your right handacross under the opponent's rightarmpit and grasp his/her left arm justabove the elbow.

2. Pull his/her left arm toward you, grasp-ing his/her left wrist in both hands.

3. Bring your left arm back and grasp theopponent's left ankle, forcing his/her leftshoulder to the mat.

Stretcher1. Hook your left leg around the oppo-

nent's right ankle; put your right leg tothe inside of his/her right leg.

Q

WRESTLING 389

a

Figure 5. Far ankle and 6r arm. 3 i?

a

390 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL Scl'UDENT

2. Step over his)her back and shove yourleft leg inside his/her left leg. Both yourlegs are now inside of his/hers.

3. Pull his/her elbows forward with yourhands as you drive all of your weightforward to flatten him/her: As you liftyour hands, put pressure on the small ofhisther back; he/she will move forward'into a prone position on-the mat.

REWRSES AND ESCAPES

The real test of wrestling aouity is howwell you can perform an underneath es-cape. Escapes are accomplished by luringthe opponent through a series of rapidmaneuvers.

Since an escape counts one point and areversal counts two, it is always importantto combine a reversal or takedown with theescape. Often whenia reverse is secured,the opponent is placed in a situation thatwill result in a fall or near fall. Four basicescapes with teir respective reverses arediscussed below. Additional ones may belearned after the simple ones are mastered.

Switch1. Knock the opponent's left hand off your

leftarm with your right hand.2. Bring your left hand across to your right

side to counter for loss of support.3. Shift all your weight to your left hand

and right foot, raising your right knee offthe mat at the same time.

4. Pivot on your right foot and bring yourleft leg through to your right. At thesame time, throw your right arm overthe opponent's right arm, gnsping theinside of hislher. right thigh.

5. Lean back or. the opponent's right armand swing your body out from under theopponent.

6. Take your left hand and reach for a 'rearcrotch hold, pulling the opponent for-ward as you come on top.

Sit-out1. Bring your right foot forward and shift

your weight to your right foot and lefthand.

2. Throw your left foot forward as far aspossible and drop on your left elbow.

3 u

3. Pivot on your left knee and elbow andturn to face the opponent.

4. Thibw your arms out forward ready foraction.

Standing Escape1. Jump to both feet while keeping both

hands on the mat.2. Grasp the opponent's right hand with

your right hand, being sure to grasp allfour fingers.

3. Stand up on both feet and grasp theopponent's left hand with your lefthand. At the same time hook your rightfoot over his/her right lelso that he/shecan't lift you.

4. Pull the hands apart and face him/her.Immediately take an alert uprightstance.

Hiplock Escape1.. Hook your left arm over the opponent's

right arm.2. Pull him/her forward and down while

snapping his/her right knee eff the matand throwing him/her with your left hip.

3. Pivot on your right knee while the op-ponent is still off-balance and dome evenwith himlher.

Hiplock and Whizzei1. Hook your left arm over the opponent's

right arm.2. Pull him/her forward and downward as

in the hiplock escape.3. Pivot on your left knee, putting your

right arm across and under the oppo-nent's head and left armpit. The right legis straightened out and ready to drive

'off.4. Throw your left leg out from under. At

the same time push with the right lea,forcing the opponent backward and tothe left.

5. As the opponent falls on his/her back,you can hold him/her down with theweight of your body.

PINNING COMBINATIONS

After you have developed a fair degree ofskill in takedowns, reverses, escapes, rides,and breakdowns, you are ready to beginwork on pin holds. It is very important thatyou have control over your opponent be-

.tvwi,

4

gottpI'wA.

earl,10"

4.41ze44 tato

gtotif .7; w

12,11, V.411rovi

YbrOP;

a

%

ai? 7

N.(4

4.10;-;"

P1 is,e"Wat (*"71 ,,P,7

-.Op

:41/44,14Y4170,

411416I 7

4,491/0,041,

/

le r /7 017 //

old /4114411-- I

_mak,

p k

9,Ap, e4,1

17=L-

41,4-1

/tog,41

- ,,siompzg,ilmosa- Jo

fore attempting to pin him;her. Failure todo so may result in a reversal or a wildtumble which will result in you beingpinned. Four of the fundamental pinningcombinations are described here.

Bar Arm and Half Nelson1. From the top referee's position hook

your left leg around the opponent's rightankle.

2. Take the far arm and double bar positiondescribed under breakdowns.

3. Take your right hand off the opponent's!eft wrist and apply a near half nelson toforce the oppondit on hislher side.

4. As you start to turn the opponent onhis/her left side, unhook his/her rightankle from your left leg.

5. Increase the hold to a full half nelson andapply pressure ta force the opponenthis/her left side. The pit of your elbowshould now be at the back of the oppo-nent's neck.

6. Novi grasp his;her left wrist with yourright hand. Both hands are now on his/her leftwrist. Keep driving until both ofhis/her shoulders are on the mat. Keepyour body perpendicular to the oppo-nent and your legs spread. This will pre-vent himlher feom hooking your legswith his/hers.

Crotch and Half Nelson1. From the top referee's position, hook

your left leg around the opponent's rightankle.

2. Pass your right arm across under theopponent's right armpit, grasping his/her left arm just above the elbow.

3. Pull his/her left arm toward you as youreach with your left hand for a rearcrotch hold near the opponent's ri3htknee.

4. Pick the opponent up and put himlheron his/her left side.

5. Use your right arm to place a half nelson,sliding it around the neck uniil you cangrasp his/her left arm with your righthand. At the same time change your lefthand from a rear crotch to an insidecrctch hold.

6. Keep your body perpendicular to theopponent's and your feet well spread. Ifhe1she turns toward you, drive his/her

WRESTLING 393

shoulders back to the mat. If he/sheturns away from you, Oatten himlherout.

Three-quarter Nelson1. From the top referee's position hook

your left leg around theopponent's rightankle.

2. Bring your left arm from around the op-ponent's waist and put it through fromunder his/her right side-so that it comesout on the left side of his/her neck.

3. Grasp your own left with your righthand.

4. Clamp down on the opponent's neck,keeping your left leg hooked aroundhis/her right ankle and at the same timepulling-his/her right foot forward.

5. Keep pulling his/her head downwardand backward and his/her legs forwarduntil his/her head is almost betweenhigher legs.

6. As the opponent's shoulder touches themat, shift your own weight backward toprevent himlher from kicking you over.

COUNTERS FOR TAKEDOWNS

Counter to Leg Dives1. As soon as the opponent drops under

you on both knees, fall on himlher withyour legs straight out and well spread,making himlher carry all of your weight.

2. Grasp his/her farther ankle with bothhands.

3. After he/she is under control, crossher face with your right hand, graspinghis/her left arm above the elbow.

4. Free your leg by pulling on his/her armand leg.

5. Swing behind and straddle to a ridingposition with your right arm across his/her face and your left hand grasping thefarther ankle.

Counter to Double Arm DragAfter the opponent has pulled you for-

ward, step across his/her body with yourright leg, followed by your left leg. This willput your body perpendicular to his/hers.

Counter to Heel Pick-up1. As the opponent ducks higher head

under your right arm to go for your foot,grasp higher right arm.

3 9 3

394 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR TI1E SEtOtiDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

2. As he/she reaches for your left foot withhis/her left hand, pflup on his/her rightarm and grasp hisiher left arm just abovethe elboy with your right hand.

3. Throw, your legs backward with yourweight, causing the opponent to fall onhislher. back.

Counter to Head Drag1. As the opponent ducks his/her head

under ,our right arm to go behind, hookypur right arm around his/her right arm

2. jerk down tabring his/her right shoulaer*5nd hip to the mat. At the same timethrow your.own right leg high over youropponent: followed by your left leg.This is a. good*pinning position iryourbody is perpendicular to the opponent.

Counter to Switches1.a. As the opponent pivots out to switch,

catch hislher near arm at the elbow withyour rigfit hand.

b. As you pull hisTher arm out from underhimlher, throw your left shoulder andleft arm into himiher, "forcing him/herdown on hisfher right side. This is anexcellent position to ride.

2.a. When the opponent pivots out to a posi-

tion where he/she is sitting on hisiherbuttocks, keep your left knee againsthisther left hip, at the same time shiftingall of your weight to your left foot andright hand.

b. As he/she turns to come on top, applythe same pressure to hisIher left arm byprying up on it.

c. Keep your left knee against hisiher hipand off the mat.

d. Start to pivot on your left foot.c. Move your right leg through, putting

pressure on hisiher left shoulder. All ofyour weight is now on your left foot andright hand.

I. As you put pressure on himiher, swingaway from hirmher to Keep him;her fromrecountering. You must put enoughleverage on the opponent's left shoulderto force it to the mat, then swing awaywide and come up on top.

RULES

Scholastic wrestling matches are divided- into three 2-minute periods, the objective

being to secure a fall (or pin)-by.holding theshoulder area of xour opponeni-to the matfor two complete seconds. The first periodstarts from a standing (or neutral) position,with the objective being to get the oppo-nent down on the mat. lf;no fall occursduring the first Period, the second periodthen starts from the "referee's position"which has both wrestlers on the marin akneeling position. If there is no fall in thesecond period, the third period again startswith the referee's position.

The point system used in scoring an indi-vidual bout is as follows:

Two pohits takedown -

Two points reversal front ihe bottom tothe toRposition, called the .position of advantageescape, in wliich the -

bottom wrestler eitherbreaks away from histheioppopent or obtains atneutral posit:onnear-fall in which the 'wrestler in the position ofadvantage is able to holdhislher opponent'sshoulders to the mat, but is t.;unable to hold them foe the -complete two secthlds

One point

Three pointsortwo points

Tem scoring is determined by the out-comc of the individual bouts. Team pointsare awarded the following way:

Six points Fall (pin)Six points ForfeitSix points DefaultSix points DisqualificationDecisionFive points 12 or more pointsFour points 8 toll pointsThree points 8 or lessTwo points Draw

The Rules Committee has established%arious precautions that help prevent seri-ous injuries. These are found in the Na-tional Wrestling Rules Manual under in-fractions and technical rule violations.-

V

STRATEGY

Te make wrestling satisfying and appeal-ing you should learn lust what to do duringa match. First you should be in good physi-cal condition and should master basic skills.An effective conditioning program can beaLLomplished b)T La:isthenks, running,,andwresling. Wrestling must be learnedthrough drills. Holds, riding, and pinningcombinations should become a matter ofreflex to the individual v% rustler. Prat. tiLethe maneuvers with which you Ted confi-dent and learn them well. Some techniqueswill work well for one person and not aswell for another,

Learn the takedowns well, this phase ofwrestlmg will giw you control over the op-ponent. Many wrestling matches are wonby the wrestler who has mastered one ortw takedow n tbniqut.. Do not attemptq lot of different takedowns at the begin-ning; rather, two or three will enabk you toget an opponent to The mat and will in-crease ypur confide:la:in your own ability.Afts:r oil master tlwse feu, )ou Lan add toyour knowledge of takedmvn techniques.When you get control over your opponent

' use your best holds and rides. If .ou karnto control an opponent, you have the op:portunik lu ietax imd Lonserv v .v our energy for later in the makh w hen it is

.inesded .

working on various moves and de-veloping these moves into an automatic re-flex vou will develop the oftensive tech-

.4nip:es that will help you win matches.Main wrestling involves the putting together of a series of moves thaAvill keep theopponent off-guard. Good wreMing is theability to keep the opponent off-balance. Bykarninga-series ofichainseactionsyou_canbecome_ a more effectiv e restler t hether,v Liu are attempting an estApe. rev eNal, Orcontrtg of the opponent. By working lustone maneuver it easy for the opponent tocounteryou and stop you; the more move-ment given hinvher the harder it is to slopyou.

WRESTLING 395

TERMINOLOGY

Arm Bai. A lock oh the 3 rm of an opponentobtained by circling higher arm with yoursand holding you? hand against higher body.

Arm Drag. A quick pull on an opponent's arm,usually above the &tow, in an attempt lb pullhimiher to the mat. -

Breakdown. The top wrestler forcing higheropponent to the mat by taking away his/her'supporting points.

Bridge. Elevating the body by use of the neck.Sometimes calied a wrestler's bridge.

Crotch Hold. Holding an opponent by the upperleg near the crotch.

Drag. A pulling motion on the upper arm in anattempt to either pull the opponen1 to the mator go behind him/her.

Drill. Working on a series of maneuvers.Escape. An action by which the wrestler on the

bottom breaks free of the top wrestler.Fall. Occurs when a wrestler is held in contact

with the mat for an "appreciabk _time (twOseconds in scholastic wrestling).

Half Nelson. A pinning hold that occurs whenone arm is placed under an opponent's armpitand comes out over the top of hisher neck.

Helmet. Pmtedive covering used to protect awreMler's ears from being rubbed, thuseliminating the .'cauliflower can"-

Hold. The technique of grasping an opponent.The grip on an arm or kg which will keep anopponent from moving.

Neutral Position. Both wrestlers are eitherstanding or are locked in the same hold.

Pin. Occurs when both slwulders of a contestantare held to the mat.

Pinning Combination. The technique of secur-ing A "hold" which will result in pin or fall.

Referee's Position. The down position on themat, in whkh the bottom wrestler is on Iligherknees with the palms of the hands 12 inchesfrom th-.! knees. The offensive wrestler is ontop with one knee up or both kneeson the matand one arm around the opponent's waist andhit.her other hand at :he bend of the elbow ofthe opponent.

Reversal. Occurs when the bottom wrestler_ maneu% ers himseltherself to the top position.or the position tlf advantage.

Ride. An action in whkh the offensive wrestkreffectively counters the moves of the dekn-sive-wrestkr.

Sit-out. A maneuver in whiai the defensivewrestler assumes a sitting position to escapeor reverse theopponent, the beginning of achain maneuver.

Takedown. A situation where one wrestler getsthe opponent down to the mat and gains con-trol over hinvher.

Tie-up. Obtaining a hold or graving an oppo-nent to work for a takedown.

3 t.)

396 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT.,,

REFERENCES r

Boring, Warren J. Science and Skills of Wrestling.St. Louis, MO: The C. V. Mosby Company,1975.

Dratz, J.; Johnson, M.; and McCann, T. WinningWrestling. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966.

Kapral, Frank. Championship Wrestling. En-glewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1964.

Sasahara, Shozo. Scientific Approach to Wrestling.Japan: Chuo University Cooperation Press,1960.

,

.

3 2' 6

/:.

o

athletic coach (p. 400)athletic trainer (p. 406)physical education andlor athletic administrator (p. 407)

physical education teacher (p. 406)physical therapist (p. 400)professional athlete (p. 402)recreation leader (p. 400)sporting goods dealer (p. 404)sports journalist or photographer (p. 403)sports official (p. 402)

3 q4

CHAPTER 25

. A Career inPhysical Education and Sport

INTRODUCTION

"What will you do after high school?"You are continually being asked this ques-tion by parents, friends, brothers, and sis-terseveryone! While a large percentageof high school graduates go on to college,almost all of the remaining find the need forsome type of additional training or educa-tion to obtain a career of their choice. There-fore, it is not too early to begin considera:tion of possible career choices, and thepreparation necessary for success. At thispoint, you probably believe that becominga physical education teacher, coach, or aprofessional player, are the only careers in

_

ROBERT D. and JOYCE A. CLAYTON,Ft7e-ollins7CO

%

physical education and sport. Such is notthe case! Table 2 outlines seven differentcategories of positions related to physicaleducation and sport. Some categories re-quire more training than others; some aremore rewarding financially; some havemore opportunities. Regardless, your cur-rent interest in physical education andsport is a beginning toward a meaningfulsearch for a career in this field.

Following Table 2 there are seven tables,each one offering a general description ofcareers in this category, in addition tosummaries of selected jobs. Look at all thetables, you may be amazed at the number ofjobs described.

3_98

TABLE I. TEN CAREER CHOICES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

OCCUPATION BRIEF JOS DESCIVIMON

RECOMUENOf 0EDUCADONALPREPARATION

*COMPENSATIONRANGE

OCCUPADOOMLOUTLOOK

ATHLETIC TRAINER

Works in schods o'd mason orMil prolssoul afftIc teams inWI Crodlow TYKI C.* of 'W."aaaacalead "" a'aaaaaa" at"leim,

co...9. ..,509r0,.., W. 1055040Tray*, Acomban "xi natoralCrobtosson Exonnason.

School* TSMODIS.000 ,

Aretacsolal TomoSt2.000.25 000

.

Goad

SPORTS OFFICIAL

Employed by sctocts, colegos.Hot Mite SAO rsatoon dom.mints lo condtot lahlesc =Motscal sports litoso mill outtlan1evi *Nary may be NOW lot as.

soormontlo protomonal consols,

Training SAO 0.4141ng mamas.bon in each spot Mast holdrnsmbenn0 c OSSIW Manus-lors kr each god.

-

Clito, schools rocromM1 Mots tSIOSO per comost

Protemocal$50-500 po eeriest

Excellent Part.TIme

OROFISSIOSIALATHLETE

PUY 3 PAMAAN. MOW. NMI,'bd. hockey, sobtoll. tack a 61:I.Matt VO. AsSof or bowls MoraponniouGencos

HO 10001 corysk kw mostRots Simms coached srdVoiotia

SZSOO-I00 000*Very tow ooportunItfes, NaryconoeUtton,

RECREATIONLEADER

Orhowits SAO directs Roos sc.Mot . ;MSc pence.. P.Mend vostobons (O. YMCA.Sosteco, churches, cc) 814oaf.potations , Woks loth psi ImoSAO 'mesh,* volumes ard swopvon lbw Vaelec All 41100044$

2-4 year cape Owes si moos-,.., wdle, 004,11.5 00, SIL000.20.000 For

PHYSICALEDUCATIONTEACHER

Prparell team pram and tests,works will serients *oilcansVOA, sportvronehp, MCI MOpartopabon

Posdicc roulade ort, prwmmolIhrough orIA hroki.

01.000-23.000 FarCCAq Moon ridtUturg ockoreals

ATHLETICCOACH

Ccoches loam OrrOv10Ilk.lWI $0.01 .1 94 WWI Or on*Aspect ot a Rod , Pot, ppm,oracbc IlessOns arid *WmMay WO P E., MLR or cRorsuldects, mikes business sroopments, sn ;wen .44m.VWL

Copporlooms eost In Rho*caves commonly a '4 miss.sovlicorts

Conoco, dhow PM cmots cphysicist oluabcc. eRicabon andcosavg 1.(1.4un

SU, (Peary* to S75 OM.EXPN*11 /Of Pan kno, For lore*One

sionrs JOIARIAUSTon PHOTOGRAPHER

Works *RI al mode c curemength 10045 world lo Re otocpro* wrinen.cral or stsuK coo.rnufaCatat

CTCaataslaa UM at t44/ aa b.0cry 5os5950101.7 V, ref* slit,bons. mounts. or se sorts in-501011101 515(101 al cOodes orornromms

cope pg., om coop cCOmfruncac.

Sports *venom. totrot

Phobos" excemnCe

SP.500.30.000 4 Good

SPORTING GOODS

DEALER

Sole sported coods °roomy's adimadment or ROO Fi A Chvgc purchung ard marking,stoormos Moe e:ockyyries andTaaTT DoGonneT ,AK/ MORRO arrivoiscIdoe

co.o. cmgp. p nwppp,w,v....,,,,,,..$Ports extonorco hew

SLOOPTS.000Excellent

PHYSSCAL

'THERAPIST

Works *Ms patents oto hawboon physoary Mobilo/ rowanbal. &elf Of accident EratoMe physicogicat Scams andmewls Itisomme probed", Ice1 Wont

Coley* deDnie ard MR bows,ntI

ISI00-20.000 ' GOOd

PHYSICAL EDUCATIONANOIOR ATHLETICADMINISTRATOR

Org anl V.4)0r.set OW.pIA end/or nWomorol pmgraMillneWs.104011'.49$1,II,C4SIOng.l. "" "Co.MON Oa brocalatcn. bolset,facelos, pescm04. morrow*.thip,p, p.,,, cppu.,,,, p.,lions. P.O. administrates de-salon curriculum, athleticdirector outIcstes In landraising.

.

C0400. &Woes toticoms si ad.nooyobem

&Dolma A ockicarycn vol it.404 64"

SIS,000 -44.000 4 Falr

.

Footnote to Tatrie: VanatOn$ or caConuMcn and oc-rCLOsto.al iolook (aOatrory) detimil on mod /*Me aroaOccopatonal COCO and Way estimates /Ramon Wooerroloymel covicons Swops INT Of 13.

3 (19

TABLE 2. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT.

Performance Communication(Table 3)* (Table 4)*

Performer WriterBaseball NewspaperBasketball MagazineBowling Book Author

ance SPO-rts InformationFootball CollegeGolf Professional TeamsIce Hockey

Sports Official Artist

Baseball IllustratorBasketball PhotographerFieldHockey ArtistFootball

imnastics Broadcaster--ke Hockey Radio

Soccer TVSoftballVolleyball

Sales(Table 5)*

Sporting GoodsRetail,S toresWholesalers

GeneralSpecialty

Sport ClothingRetail StoresWholesalers

GeneralSpecialty

BooksPublishers

GeneralSpecialtr

Management(Table 6)*

AdministratorCollege AthleticDepartments,Professional:reams_

Athle tic DirectorTicket ManagerBusiness ManagerEquipment ManagerFund RaiserSpecial Promotions

Agency

YMCA, YWCABoy ScoutsGirl Scouts

Owner-Operator-Manager

Athletic ClubBowling LanesDance StudioFitness CenterGolf CourseGymnastics SchoolHealth ClubSwimming PoolTennis School

Teaching & Coaching(Table 7)*

Preschool and ElementaryPhysical.EducationAdapted Physical Education

Middleljunior High SchoolPhysical EducationAdapted Physical EducationCoach

High School and College

All jobs aboveResearcherPhysical Education

Administrator.Athletic Director

Private Sport Clubs

BowlingDanceGolfGymnasticsSwimmingTennis

*See table indicated for h general description of careers in this category, in addition to a discussion of specific job titles.

4 LW

Fitness &Rehabilitation Therapy(Table 8)* (Table 9)*

Physical Fitness CorrectiveTherapy

PrivateHealth-SpaCorporationAthletic Club

PhysicalTherapy

DanceAgency Therapy

YMCA, YWCACity

RecreationDepartment

Cardiac-Rehabilitation-

HospitalClinicCollege or

University

Research

ExercisePhysiology

Laboratory

Recreation >Therapist

AthledcTrainer

AdaptedPhysicalEducation (I)Teacher n

a

0

i`)

g


TABLE 3. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES AS A SPORT PERFORMER.

While the goal of many might be to become a well-paid andlor famous sport star, very few

achieve it, and of those who do, very few spend their entire lives in sports. Thus the wiseperson prepares for a second career at the same time he/she is hoping to be'come aprofessional player or official. Even though the need for new players is great, jobs are

limited.

Job Title Description, Employers; and Sources of Information

Performer

Sports Official

Those sports regularly on TV (basketball, baseball, football, soccer,golf, bowling)- provide the greatest opportunity for employment, al-though the odds are several thousand to one that you will make a living

as a performer. While most professional playing careers are short (3-6years), this varies greatly with the sport. Most professional athleteshave at least two years of college. A business background is highlydesirable, as high salaries in the few years of competition create a needfor sound financial planning. Further information can be obtained by

contacting:National Basketball Association,645 Fifth Avenue, New-York,

New York 10022Association of Professional Baseball Players of America, 337

East San Antonio Drive, Suite 203, Long Beach, Califoniia90807

National Football League, 4J0 Park Avenue, New York, NewYork 10022

International Volleyball Association, 1901 Avenue of theStars, Suite 610, Los Angeles, California 90067

United States Soccer Federation, 350 Fifth Avenue, NewYork, New York 10001

Women's Professional Bowler's Assodation, 204 West WackerDrive, Suite 300, Chicago, Illinois 60606

Professional Bowlers Association of America, 1720 MerrimanRoad, Akron, Ohio 44313

Ladies Professional Golf Association, 919 Third Avenue, NewYork, New York 10022

Professiorial GOlfers' Association of America, 804 FederalHighway, Lake Park, Florida 33403

American Hockey League, 31 Elm Street, Suite 533,Springfield, Massachusetts 01103

Association of Tennis Professionals, World Center, Box 58144,Dallas, Texas 75258

AlmOst all officials were once players. Thorough knowledge of rulesplus the ability to be fair, firm, and consistent are essential characteris-tics. Officials in the "major leagues" are well paid, but since mostseasons are only 5-8 months long having additional employment iscommon. Every community needs officbls at the local level. Furtherinformation can be obtained by contacting:

International Association of Approved Basketball Officials,1620 Dual Highway East, Hagerstown, Maryland 21740

National Association-of League Umpires and Scorers(Baseball), Box.1420, Nichita,-Kansas.67201-

National Intercollegiate Soccer OfficialsAssociation, 131 Mof-fitt Boulevard, fslip, New York 11751

U. S. Volleyball Association, P.O. Box 77065, San Francisco,California 94107

4 u

A CAREER IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 403

TABLE 4. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN SPORTS COMMUNICATION (JOUR-NALISM).

Physical education careers in journalism encompass print (writers, book authors), visual(photographers, artists), and audio (radio, TV) aspects. Most sport media positions requiretraining beyond high school. Talent and natural ability are as important as education Thedemand for persons in this field w ill remain steady for the foreseeable future. There arenumerous opportunities for gaining experience, e.g., school and local newspapers, localadio_stationsttc,,before-beginning-formal-training.

job.Title Description, Employers, and Sources of Information

Writer A writer about sports gives the reader a vivid word picture of:au activityBook Author or event. Jobs are found with newspapers, magazines (many of them

specialized, such as Sports Illustrated, Swintnting World, or bliqe),publishing companies (as book authors), and sports information de-partments of colleges or professional teams. There are many moresports writing jobs than in the other areas given below. Further infor-mation can be obtained by contacting:

American Council on Education for Journalism, 563 EssexCourt, Deerfield, Illinois 60015

Photographer, Using camera or physical skill, the visual media specialist enablesArtist, viewers to see what is taking place during physical activity or perfor-Illustrator mance. Jobs are available with publishing companies (magazines,

books, newspapers, and TV stations). Further information can be ob-tained by contacting:

American Council on Education for Journalism, 563 EssexCourt, Deerfield, Illinois 60015

Broadcaster Sportscasters are found on every radio and TV station in the U.S. Theirrole is to accurately describe the action so that listeners or viewers caneasily follow the event. Full-time sports broadcasting is possible only inbigger stations. Broadcasters must be knowledgeable about a widevariety of sport activities. Further information can be obtained bycontacting:

National_ Association of Broadcasters, 1771 North Street,N.W., Washington, D.C. 20056

4 rt

4,


YABLE 5.. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN SPORT SALES.

Salespeople are found in every aspect of modern life. Successful salespeople have athorough knowledge of their product(s) in addition to an eagerness to meet and talk withpeople. There will always be a steady demand for salespersons, with great financialrewards to those at the top. Opportunities for part-time work are great, and stronglyrecommended. While college training is not essential, managers and owners have a busi-ngialAskgro_und

Job Title Description, Employers, and Sources of Information

Sporting Goods Sporting goods salespeople are-found-botlr in retail stores (sellingSalesperson directly to the public), and with wholesalers (traveling salespeople who

call on store owners, buyers, and`coaches in an attempt to convinceSporting Clothing them Of their products' merits). Some companies specialize, e.g., racket

Salesperson sports, warm-ups, team uniforms, gymnastics, dance supplies, etc.,while others offer a full line of equipment (archery, camping, clothing,

Retail Stores wrestling, etc.). Stores are found in almost every city, while wholesaledealers are most often headquartered in large cities. Further informa-

Wholesalers tion may be obtained by contacting:National Sporting Goods Association, 717 North Michigan

Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60611Sporting Goods' Agents Association, P.O. Box A, Morton

Grove, Illinois 60053

Book Salesperson The traveling salesperson visits stores, college and universitbookstores, physical education departments, and sometimes specificsport gioups, e..g., gymnastic schools, to show and to discuss bojikswith prospective buyers. The travel may include a large sales territbry,e.g., part or all of one state or regiOn. Traveling salespeople are/oftenpaid on a commission basis only, having a sales quota to meet. Furtherinformation can be obtained by contacting:

Association of American Publishers, One Park Avenue,,NewYork, New York 10016

A CAREER IN PHYSICAL,EDUCATION AND SPORT 405

TABLE 6. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN SPORT MANAGEMENT.

Sport managers are well-trained and experienced business people first, and sports personssecond. Job security is not great, as profitability is the key element to success. A strongbusiness background is more important than an athletic background, a combination of the

o is best. Formal training (at least a college degree) in one of the business areas (account-ing, personnel management, law, public relations) is necessary to reach the top. Managersalmost always work their way up, beginning with part-time employment. Numerous spottfacilities exist, e.g., dance studios, tennis centers, swimming pools, etc., thus providingopportunity for beginning workers.


Administrator Since Most businesses exist to make a profit, administrators are hiredCollege Athletic for their business skill. General managers, athletic directors, business

Departments managers, etc., are all dependent upon the team's performance in. Professional Teams attracting paying customers. Promotions and public relations experts

are essential. Persons seldom enter the top .management positionswithout experience. Further information can be obtained by contacting:

General manager or athletic director of a high school, college,or professional sports group.

Agency Executive directors of agencies almost always began as physical orYMCA youth directors and were promoted because of personality and busi-YWCA ness ability. They must be skillful in promotions and public relations.Boys' Club Further information can be obtained by contacting:Girls' Club YMCA, 110 N. Wacker, Chicago, Illinois 60606

YWCA, 600 Lexington Avenue, New York, NeW York 10022

Owner-Operator-Manager Sport specialists (SCUBA, gymnastics, dance, etc.) often begin theirPrivate Sport own schools where they can focus their whole attention on a specific

Facilities activity. Virtually all towns have at least a dance studio, while numer-ous "sport schools" exist in big cities. The majority Of such schools areonly marginally profitable, thus requi:ing a sound business approach.Further information can be obtained by contacting:

Owner/operator/manager of any local sport or dance school.

4 I A


TABLE 7. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHINGAND SPORT COACHING.

Teaching sports is the career of thousands of physical educators, whether in elementary orsecondary schools, or in private sport schools. Unfortunately, at the present time, there aremore school physical education teachers than there are jobs, this situation will remain for(ceseran_years., Homver, versatile teachers ones who can teach man activities to variousage groups) will find employment, as will aquatic, gymnastic, tennis, and dance specialists.Job security is great, once a probationary period is passed. Payment for coaching isadded tothe basic-teaching-salary. Muchphysical_stamina is_required.


Physical Education Teacher Teachers instruct persons (mostly ages 5-18) in Various types ofsportslmovement activities. School facilities vary greatly in quality andquantity, as does student enthusiasm. Young children and adults aresometimes more motiyated to learn and to'participate than students ingrades 7-12. Large classes of mixed ability make for difficult teachingsituations. Further information can be obtained by contacting:

American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreationand Dance, 1900 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia 22091

Adapted Physical Education Adapted physical education teachers work specifically with personsTeacher who have physical, social, emotional, or mental problems. The strategy

is to adapt games and activities to whatever the person can do, thuspermitting him to remain with the peer group whenever possible.Small groups and enthusiastic students are common. Further informa-tion (ran be obtained by contacting:

Consultant, Adapted Physical Education, American Alliancefor Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1900Association Drive, Reston, Virginia 22091

Coach A coach develops sport skill and understanding in players. A thoroughTeam Sports background in the sport, plus the ability to teach and motivate, isIndividual Sports highly desirable. Coaching requires an extensive time commitment for

practice, travel, and games, which is the reason why few persons coachmore than 10 years. Further information can be obtained by contacting:

American Alliance for Flealth, Physical Education, Recreationand Dance, 1900 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia 22091

Athletic Trainer A trainer supervises the preventive and rehabilitative programs ofathletes, acting as a liaison between the coach, player, and physician.Special training while in ceilege followed by a national examination, isrequired to become certified. The demand for trainers is great, espe-cially for females. Further information can be obtained by contacting:


National Athletic Trainer's Association, 112 South Pitt Street,P.O. Drawer 1865, Greenville, North Carolina 27834

Intramural Director The intramural director organizes and adipinisters a wide variety ofcompetitive and recreational activities in schools. These are held beforeschool, during lunch, after school, or in the evening. This is an extra jobfor extra pay for elementary, junior high, and high school teachers,while it may be a half- or full-time job in colleges and universities.Further information can be obtained by contacting


National Intramural Recreational Sports'Association, DixonRecreation Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis,Oregon 97331

4 y5


Teacher.Researkber.Sholar A person w ho prefer§ to teachresearch in college physical education(Colleges and departments should possess a Ph.D. or equivalent. He or she oftenUniversities) has a background as a physical education teacher/coach in grades K-12

or in college, but wishes to become an expert in one particular aspect,e.g., sport sociology, sport psychology, motor learning, exercisephysiology. The alzility and desire to do research and write is essential.There will be small but steady demand for such persons in the future.Further information can be obtained by contacting:

The-Phy"sical-Education-Department-at-any-larger-college-or----university, or public school system

College Administrator The administrator (chairperson, department head, dean) of a physicaleduca lion Orgiiiiz.atidiciiivarlably-has-had-experienceln-teaching7Heor she is organized, detail-orienised, and likes to work with people.Administrators are found, in every organization and are the highestpaid members of the faculty. Further information can be obtained bycontacting:

The Physical Education Department at any larger college oruniversity, or public school that requires an administrator

Athletic DirectOr The athletic director administers the policies and budget of the entirehigh school or college athletic program. Almost always, extensiveexperience in athletics is required. This is a part-time job in mostschools, but full-time in large cities, colleges, and universities. Furtherinformation can be obtained by contacting:

American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreationnd Dance, 1900 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia 22091

Private Sport Club A teaching position at a private sport facility, e.g., SCUBA, danceTeacher studios, swim school, tennis center, etc., permits a person to specialize

in one activity. Excellent teaching and personal relation skills are essen-tial, with playing skill being desirable. Salary and fringe benefits areoften lower than in the public schools, unless one is teaching at a veryexclusive sports club. Further information can be obtained by, contact-ing:

Any sport school or dance studio in your area

Physical Education Each school with a staff of two or more has a need for a physicalPublic School ed,ucation department chairperson. Often times this pdsition is not

Administrator compensated, however, good.administrative experience can be gained.Further information can be obtained by contacting:

Your school's department chairperson

4 !G

408 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL ST` DENT

TABLE 8. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES iN FITNESS AND REHABILITATION.

The increased emphasis on physical fitness has created a demand for trained fitnessspecialists. A college degree with specialization in exercise physiology, adult fitness, orcardiac rehabilitation is a necessity. An outgoing personality is desirable, as exercisespecialists must convince their clients that exercise (work) is beneficial. In the foreseeablefuture_theremilLcontime to be many opportunities in this4area.


Physical Fitness SpecialistPrivate Group

Agency Groups

,Cardiac RehabilitationSpecialist

These specialists-AvorLin-fitness_programs.in health-clubs, -athleticclubs, or hospitals. Fitness specialists are also salespersons, as theirjobs depend upon members continuing to pay for the program. Thefacilities tend to be very goodnew equipment, carpeted exerciseareas, music, etc. The programs emphasize fun, enjoyment, And thebenefits of exerdse.

YMCAs, college physical education departments, andgy recreationdepartments alsoemploy fitness specialists. The duties are the same asin other situations, but there is usually less p'ressure to sell member-ships and more emphasis on voluntary participation. Further informa-tion can be obtained by contacting:

YMCA, MIN. Wacker, Chicago, Illinois 60606American Association of Fitness Directors in Business And

Industry, Room 3030, 400 6th Street, S.W., Washington,D.C. 20201

Director, Exercise Physiology Laboratory of college or univer-sity

This person works specifically with patients of all ages who havesurvived a heart attack, or who suffer from heart disease. College ormedical technician training is required, preferably earning a certificatefrom a recognized health-related group. Employment is found in hos-pitals, clinics, and physical education departments of colleges anduniversities. Further information can be obtained by confacting:

American College of Sports Medicine, 1440 Monroe Street,Madison, Wisconsin 53706

Researcher This person combines talent for research, and ability to advise andConsultant teach with a keen interest in cardiorespiratory matters. He or sheScholar attempts to discover new methods of improving the physical condition

of athletes and non-athletes of all ages. A Ph.D. or M.D. degree isrequired. Employment opportunities are found in hospitals, researchlaboratories in college and university physical or athletic training cen-ters. Usually, limited teaching responsibilitiqs are assigned. Consultingwith professional athletes or medical groups is quite common. Furtherinformation can be obtained by contacting:

Director, Exercise Physiology Laboratory of the larger collegesand universities-in the U. S.

American College of Sports Medicine, 1440 Monroe Street,Madison, Wisconsin 53706

American Physiological Society (Education Office), 9650Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20014

4' I ~I-

4

A CARM IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 409

TABLE 9. CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN THERAPY.

Therapy 'te alleviation of illhess or injury' using one or more accepted means of treat-ment. Tht iy positions rgquire a college degree, in addition to 3:24 months of specializedtraining, resulting in a certificate. Licensing by a state or national group is sometimesessential, and available only to certified therapists,

job Title Description, Employers, and Sources of Information

Corrective Therapist

Dance Therapist

Recreational Therapist

Athletic Trainer

Adaptive Phyiical Educator

A correctly e therapist assists either physically or mentally disabledpatients in overcoming or alleviating their handicaps by usingmedically-oriented physical education techniques. Jobs may be foundin hospitals and clinics, governmental agencies, rehabilitation centers,camps, and schools and colleges. Further information can be obtainedby contacting:

American Corrective Therapy Association, 6622 Spring Hol-low, San Antonio, Texas 78249

p.

Using movement and dance a dance therapist helps patients solveemotipnal, social, and physical problems. The purpose of such therapyis to use movenient and dance as a psychotherapeutic means of physi-cal and emotional expression. Jobs may be found in rehabilitationcenters, geriatric centers, psychiatric centers and hospitals, `correc-tional facilities, and mental retardation and developmental centers.Further information can be obtained by contacting:

Dance Therapy Association,Suite 230, 2000 Century Plaza,Columbia, Maryland 21044

Drama, sports, nature, games, arts, and crafts are employed by therecreation therapist to assist persons in developing desirable behav-ioral changes and to promote individual growth and developmentthrough the use of social and physical recreational activities. Positionsare found in child and day-care centers, nursing homes, retirementhomes, city recreation departments, YMCAs, YJVCAs, hospitals andclinics, camps, and agencies. Further information can be obtained bycontacting:

National Therapeutic Recreation Society, 1601 North Kent Street,Arlington, Virginb 22209

See Table 7.

See Table 7.

EXPLORING POSSIBLE CAREERS INPHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

There are at least four steps which shouldbe taken when beginning your search for ameaningful carper in physical educationand sport. Reading about a career and talk-ing to someone in that particular field areloga.al. You also need to look at yourself,merely because a job sounds glamorous (orhigh salaried!) does not mean it is for you.On-the job experience is surely important,while reading, conversing, and self-examination are esspntial steps in careerexploration, experience is even more im-portant.

ReadingThe tables presented earlier contain

sources of information of at least one or-ganization in each job title. Write to thegroup, they usually have informationavailable about careers in theil. fields. Addi-tional sources of information are yourschool counselor, who maintains an exten-_sive library of career materials, pr a localworker in that career, who often has info--mation from his/her association or group.Finally, your school or public library has avariety of matgrials under such topic head-ings as vocations, careers, jobs, and sportjobs.

4 1.18

*

410 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AID SPORT FOR THE SECONDARY Sulam STUDENT

Talking .

Regardless of your so' urce, reading avail-Ate material will provide you with infor-mation to be used as the basis for a discus:sion with somcone who is actually em-ployed in that career. The obvious answers(how-much-ed mation-is-requ ired2rwha'the salary?, what do you db?) may be foundin your reading. You need to personally askif the person likes the job, if there are seri-ous problems, what the future is fa newworkers, and would he or she select thesame job again. These are highly pertonalquestions, ,but you need sdme guidancefrom the best possible source, a pgofes-sional in your potentialeareer.

If there is no local person in your careercategory, consider sending a letter to anearby source, e.g., Sportcaster, Radio Sta-tion, WXYZ, Nearby, AK boob:). Often yonwill receive all the information you seek.

Self-examinationSometime during the exploration ,stage

of reading and talkitig, you should lookcarefully at yourself. What do you wantfrom a career? Would your preferred jab beindoors or out? Would you rather work byyourself, or as a memLer of a group? Wouldit be in a large city or small town, etc.?Answers to these and similSr questions areimportan:..

Often, as part of a career exploration unitin grades 7-10, you are asked to take a vo-cational inventory test. This is usually aseries of questions, in which you make abest choice among two, three, or four items,e.g., would you rather read a book or re-pair a machine? teach someone how todance or dance on the stage? There are noright or wrong answers to these situations,and your results are not graded or com-pared to your classmates. In most casesyour school counselor administers and in-terprets it. You should take a vocationalinventory questionnaire at least once, andpreferably twice, during grades 7-11. Inter-ests change, ancl new career possibilitiesarise.

Such an inventory is onty an indication ofyour interest and!or aptitude for a spedficcareer. Actually, it may tell you more what

ydu do not want to do, and narrows yourpossible (lacationakchoices co 3-5, any oneof which might be appealing. Use it as ageneral guide, rather than as an exact map,to follow.

ExperienceV-Cdilitrie rag ha-g gran-ploy, e-r-t

say, "no experience, no job." The youngm'an in the commerfial then asks, "wherewill I get experience?" This age-old prob-lem has not been solved, but there is.a wayin whiat you might -help yourself. Seeksomeone who is now employed in the field,and offer to assist them% It would be great ifyou-could gel paid, but that is not as impor-tant as the experience gained. Afteiall, youintend to spend Years in a careerwould itnot make-sense to try it out before youspend your money and time in preparation? DePentling upon, the particular job,assisting could range from simple observa-tion for a period of time, to -acivally per-forating part of the job. Regardless, experi-ence will bengfit you in two ways:

give you a chance to find out if the careerstill has appeal;peovide experience for future entploy-ment.

REVERENCES

Either your physical education teadier, coun-elor, or the Khoo! or public library should have

these books ancitor pamphlets. The titles willdye you a general idea of their contgrits.

Each of the below pamphlets discusses thetopic indicated.

Amencan Alliance for Health, Physlcal Educa-tion, Recreation and Dance. Careers in Leisurehnd Recreation. Washington, DC American Al-liance for Health, Physical Eckation, Recrea-tion and Dance, V79.

Careers in Activity and. Therapy Fields.Washington, DC. American Alliance forHealth, Physkal Education, Recreation andDance, 1976. .

Careers in Physical Education and Ssport.Washington, DC: American Altiance forHealth, Physical Education, Recreation andDance, 1977.

Dancea Career for You. Reston, VAzAmerican Alliance for Health, Physical Educa-tion, Recreation and Dance, 1981.

Opportunities in Recreation and Leisure.Washington, DC: American Alliance -forHealth, Physical Edtkation, Recreation andDance, 1978.

.

4

ar


Professional Preparation in Adapted Phys-ical Education, Therapeuht. Recreation, and Cor-rective Therapy. Washington, DC: AmericanAlliance for Health, Physical Education andRecreation, 1976.

Your Future as a Teacher of ElFiTiintarySchool Physical Education. Washington, DC.American Alliance for Health, Physical Educa-tion, Recreation and Dance, 1976.

Each of these directories lists colleges anduniversities that offer programs in the areas in-dicated.

Dance Directory. Reston, VA: AmericanAlliance for Health, Physical Education, Rec-reation and Dance.

Directory of Graduate Physical EducationPrograms. Reston, VA: American Alliance forHealth, Physical4Education, Recreation andDance.

Directory of Professional Preparation inRecreation, Pcirks, aiiKe1ated Areas. Washing-

ton, DC: American Alliance for Health, Physi-cal Education and Recreation, 1973.

. Directory of Undergraduate PhysicatEdu-cation Programs. Reston, VA: American Al-liance for Health, Physical Education, Recrea-tion mid Dance.

Professional Preparation Directory,, forElementary Sctool Physical Education. Washing-ton, DC: American Alliance for Health, Physi-cal Education and Recreationt 1978.

-Each of these AA,HPERD publications relatesferpreparationifor teachrng careers.

Alte4tive Professional Preparation inPhysical Education. Washington, DC: Ameri-can Alliance for ,Health, Physical Education,Recreation and Dance, 1979,

Clayton, Joyce A., and Clayton, Robertt. Con-, cepts and Gareers in Physical Education. Min-

neapolis, MN. Burgess:Publishing ComRany,1977.Chapters 11-13 discuss school;school-rela ted,and non-teaching careers in sports and dance.

Coleman, Ken. So You Want to Be a Sports Broad-.. caster. New York: Hawthorne Books, Inc,

1973.Cornell, Richard, and Hansen, Mary Lewis.

Exploting Dance Cariins. a Student Guidebook.. Cambridge. Technical Education Research

Center, 1976.Information on specific jobs in both dance per-formance and dance education.

Cratty, Bryant. Career Potentials in Physical Actw-ity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:.Prentice-Hall, 1971.Sport careers related to teaching, research,coaching, therapy, recreation, and dance arediscussed. ,

Denis, _Paul. Opportunities in the Dance. Skokie,IL. VGM Career Horizons (National Te:AbookCompany), 1980.Discusses aspects of many can.2rs in this area.

Fordham, Sheldon L. and Leaf, Carol Ann.Physical Education and Sports. an Infr-oduCtion toAlternative Careers. New York: John Wiley &Sons, 1978.For students interested in a physical educa-tion career other than teaching.

Fenten, Barbara. Careers in the Sports Industry.New York: Franklin Watts Company, 1977.Career opportunities for non-athletes insports-related fields.

Heitzmann, William. Opportunities in Sports andAthletics. Skokie, IL: VGM Career Horizons(National Textbook Compiny), 1980.Discusses aspects of many careers in theseareas.

Horton, Louise. Careers in Theatre, Music andDance. New York: Franklin Watts Company,1976.Careeropportunities-in-the-performing-arts.

Humphrey, James H. Physical Education as aCareer. Springfield, IL: C. C. Thomas Com-pany.Sport and dance teaching, and non-teachingcargers are discuSsed, 1978.

Infusing, Career Education into Physicat.Education and Sport . Washington, DC: Ameri-can Alliance for Health, Physical Education,Recreation and Dance, 1979.

Jensen, Crayne R. Recreation and Leisure TimeCareers. Louisville: Data Courier, Inc.Jobs, trends, professional training, and educa-

* tion requirements of many leisure-timecareers, 1976..

McCall, .Joseph R., and McCall, Virginia. YourCareer in Parks and Recreation. New York:ItilianMessner (Simon and Schuster), 1970.

Opportunities in Recreation and Leisure.Washington, DC: American Alliance forHealth, Physical Education, Recreation and

- Dance, 1978.Professional Preparation in Adapted Phys-

*kat Education, Therapeutic Recreation, and Cor-rective Therapy. Washington, DC: AmericanAlliance for Health, Physical Education andRecreation, 1976.

Professional 12reparci lion of, theIntramural/Recreational Sports Specialist. iVash-ington, DC: American Alliance for Health,Physical gducation and Recreation, 1977.

Wearfing Career Education Into PhysicalEducation and Sport: A Haudbook. Reston.American Alliance for Health, Physical Educa-tion, Recreation and Dance, 1980.

Toure, Holima. Careers in Physical Rehabilitation,New York: Franklin Watts Company, 1977.Job desqiptions, educational requirements,and sources of information in the field of re-habilitation Therapy.

4.1 u

Nell J. Dougherty IV

'Neil Dougherty, editor of Physical Education and Sport for the Secondary SchoolStudent, is a full professor and Direttor of the School of Applied Health Sciences atRutgers Uniiiersity, New jersey. A specialist in liability and safety in physicaleducation, Dougherty received his Ed.D. in physical education from TempleUniversity in 1970 and bis Master's in education from Rutgers University in 1965.He ha& served as past president of the New jersey AAHPERD and of the Newjersey Association of Directors of HPER, and from 1980-81 was vice-president ofNAPEHE. Dougherty has lieen recognized with Honor and Merit awards from theEastern District of AAHPERD and with a Distinguished Leadership Award fromthe New fersey AAHPERD, Neil was the editor for The Reporter, the journal of theNew jersey AAHPERD and has co-authored two books.

41 1

Directories of ProfessionalPreparation Programs in

Physical EducationTwo up-to-date directories containing information

about United States' colleges and universities which Offerdegrees in phOcal education and related fields. Informationabout each institution Includes, degrees offered, course re -

quirements, program emphasis, special program options,faculty, degree requirements, financial assistance, and ac-creditation. General information on each institution is alsooffered, including tuition, enrollment data, student housingadmission requirements, and whom to contact for furtherinformation. Additional informatioh on research facilities isprovided for each institution listed in the graduate directory.

For price and order inionnadon:AAHPERD Publication Sales

1900 &sedation WyeReston, VA 22091

(703) 476-3481412

AvailableNOW . . .

Three volumes-of the

Encyclopedia ofPhysical Education,Fitness, -and Spoils

An invaluable reference collection, the mostcomplete ever published in the field. The Encyclo-pedia represents a ten year effort by more than 800experts in every area of physical education.

These beautiful hardcover volumes are fully 9-lustrated with.hundreds of photographs, charts qiddiagrams, and are completely indexed:The t Teevolume set is now available including:

Sports, Dance andRelated Activities

Edited, byReuben B. Frost (1977)

Training, EnNutrition

EditedG. Alan St I (1980)

Philoeophy, PrOgremsand History

Edited byJanei S. Bosco

andMary Ann Turner

For information write: AAHPER Puoiitzoion Sales1900 Association Drive, R ton, VA 220i11

(703)476- 81

3

Documents

DOCUMENT RESUME sp 022 615 - ERIC RESUME. sp 022 615. Dougherty, Neil J., IV, Ed. ... imd ilichard Twitchell, ... the manuscript,