DOCUMENT RESUME RC 015 116 · 2014. 3. 30. · curs. When public concerns appear to correspond with the responsibilities of several agencies, no one agency may identify specific concerns

ED 252 358

AUTHORTITLE

INSTITUTION

SPONS AGENCYREPORT NOPUB DATENOTE

AVAILABLE FROM

PUB TYPE

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

IDENTIFIERS

DOCUMENT RESUME

RC 015 116

Butler, Lorna Michael; Howell, Robert E.Community Needs Assessment Techniques. Coping WithGrowth.Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. Cooperative ExtensionService.; Western Rural Development Center,Corvallis, Oreg.Extension Service (DOA), Washington, D.C.WREP-44Oct 8023p.; For related documents, see ED 225 754-755, andRC 015 106-117. Document printed in colored inkthroughout.Western Rural Development Center, Oregon StateUniversity, Corvallis, OR 97331 ($1.00).Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)

MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.Advisory Committees; Biographies; Case Studies;Census Figures; *Community Change; *Community Study;Community Surveys; Content Analysis; *Coping; DelphiTechnique; Leaders Guides; Meetings; *NeedsAssessment; Participant Observation; *PopulationGrowth; Public Opinion; *Research Methodology;Resource Materials; Rural Areas; Social Networks*Impact Studies; Key Informant Approach; NominalGroup Technique; Vital Statistics; Washington

ABSTRACTDesig-ed to help local government officials, agency

perronnel, and member; of citizen groups involved in the planningpr ss for a rapidly growing community, this introduction tocommunity needs assessment provides background information on thereasons for conducting community needs assessment, guidelines fordetermining which techniques are most appropriate, and a briefdescription of 13 different needs assessment techniques. Advantagesand disadvantages of each method are given plus a list of references.The techniques include use of census and vital statistics records,content analysis, participant observation, case studies, socialnetwork analysis, surveys, key informants, life histories, nominalgroup process, delphi technique, advisory groups and tan forces,community forums, and community impressions. Although a communityneeds assessment is an excellent means of involving the public inproblem solving and developing local goals, the guide stresses theneed to use multiple methods when carrying out a needs assessment--ormany people and potential problem areas will fall through the slats.A brief, closing example illustrates how needs assessment techniqueswere used in Creston, Washington. (BRR)

***********************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.***********************************************************************

f

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

ED CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This document has heon reprodvced asrocuivad from the person or organizationoriginating itMinor changes have been made to improvereproduction quality

Points of view or opinions stated in thii documerit do not necessarily represent official NIE

position or policy

CommunityNeedsAssessmentTechniques

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

4

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC."

N.,

Lorna Michael Butler,Extension CommunityDevelopment Specialist,andRobert E. Howell,Extension Sociologist,Washington State University

WREP 44 October 1980

\\IAV/17Western Floral Development CenterOregon Stale UniversityCorvallis 011 37331(5n3.7S4 36211

A regional center for applied social science and community developmentcooperating with Land Grant Universities in

Alaska. Arizona. Califor ma. Colorado, Guam. Hawaii, Idaho. Montana.Nevada. New Mexico. Oregon. Utah. Washington. Wyoming

BEST COPY Alita,7:7;

Responsiveness to citizen preferences, concerns,and needs IF a basic fundamental of American de-mocracy In II situations, law requires that theneeds of a COMIllt.IIIIty he studied prior to the devel-opment of policies and programs in areas such asland use, transportation, and health care planning.

This introduction to community needs assess-ment provides background information on the pur-poses for conducting a community needs assess-

ment; guidelines for determining which techniquesare most appropriate; and a brief description of 13different needs assessment techniques, includingthe advantages of each method and a list of refer-ences to which the reader can go for further infor-mation. It should be helpful to local government offi-cials, agency personnel, and members of citizengroups involved in the planning process for a rap-idly growing community.

Purpose

There are several reasons why citizen groups, pub-lic officials, and agency representatives should se-cure accurate information about the needs of a

community,All communities are in a continual state of

changethrough births and deaths of citizens,through people moving in and out, and through thenatural growth and development of each individualcitizen over time. As a consequence, what once mayhave been an appropriate policy or program cansoon become inappropriate. The character or moodof a community can make many shifts as a result of

the interplay of social, cultural, and economicchanges.

The needs of different groups of people in a

community are difficult to identifyand frequentlyinterrelated. In many instances, people do not ex-press their attitudes and feelings openly; sometimescommunity needs are not revealed until a crisis oc-curs. When public concerns appear to correspondwith the responsibilities of several agencies, no oneagency may identify specific concerns or needs ashigh priority, and the result may be no action.

The needs of people in rapidly growing commun-ities may be overwhelming. Local government re-sources may be limited and public demands may be

high. This makes priority setting and long rangeplanning essential. However, such planning and ac-tion cannot be carried out effectively without accur-ate and up-to-date information about citizen needs

and preferences.A community needs assessment is an excellent

means of involving the public in problem solvilgand developing local goals. There is a tendency tor

people to resist change- frequently because treyhave inadequate information, or because they havenot been involved in making decisions. A needsassessment can therefore be viewed as a process of

citizen involvement whereby people not only learn

3

more abc,jt the situation, but they also feel that theyhave had a voice in the outcome.'

In a rapid growth situation, needs assessmentscan help local leaders ease the impacts of growth.This information can be especially helpful for:

Learning more about the present residents andhow they will be affected by growthnewcomersin their neighborhoods, new or expanded job mar-kets, crowded schools, new leadership responsi-bilities, changing traffic patterns;Learning more about newcomerswho they are,their specific needs and concerns, how they maybe affected by moving into the community;Identifying needs for new or expanded publicservices:Assessing public opinion about community goalsand priorities:Systematically evaluating existing programs andservices and planning for improvements;Providing justifications or explanations for budgetand grant requests:Increasing citizen understanding of communityproblems and their effects on people and organi-zations in the community;Building increased citizen support for public de-cisions, in that citizens develop a greater "senseof ownership" through involvement;Increasing citizen awareness of community plan-ning, including availability of resources

For additional information, son Nikon M Rosenbaum,Citizen Involvement in 1117(1 Use Governatic, (Washin(Jton DCThe Urban Institute. 1976); George J Warheit. Robert A Pell, andJohn J. Schwab, Needs Assessment Approaches' Concepts andMethods (Rockville, MD: National Institute (.1 Mental Health.1977); (1 S Department of Transportation, rItective Citiien Patfa:Taboo ro framportatton Plat-mint', Vol I. Coneriontty In

volverne.ni Processes and Vol II, A Cataion of T'fennit-ines(Washington, DC. Federal f fighway Administration Sonorooripmic studies Division, 1976); (lobed W Haber;ton. ed ,Pa/Itm'ir in Data: I-/old Methods lot ShotlyinI Onnoinq SocialOrganizations (Chicago. IL: Aldine Publishinc! Co , 1970)

Selecting a TechniqueThu quality of information about a community is onlyas good as the technique or combination of tech-niques used. A single technique may be too narrowin the information it provides; using too many meth-ods may be costly in terms of time and dollars.Different information-gathering techniques are ap-propriate for different needs. Analyze the situationand the most significant questions being asked, thenweigh the advantages and disadvantages of severaltechniques. Sometimes a combination of severaltechniques will provide a reasonable picture of:

What your community is likecharacteristics ofpeople, types of organizations, values, beliefs,goals, concerns, and problems;Comparison with other communities;What is unique about your community.

Alhen gathering information about impacts of aparticular project or population change, remember toinclude data on both the local setting and the sourcesof impact. In a sense, information must be obtainedabout two communitiesthe permanent local resi-dents and the newcomers with a new development.How will the change affect or continue to affect peo-ple in the community?

The following guidelines should be helpful inchoosing one or a combination of several needsassessment techniques.

The problem. Narrow the focus. If tne problem isnot well defined, the study may become unmanage-able. At the outset, particular techniques such as acitizens' advisory group, a steering committee, acommunity forum, or a mail questionnaire can pro-vide a sharper perspective on local concerns. Definethe problem and assess its manageability.6 What do we want or need to know?

Why do we want to know it?How will the information be used?Where can we find the information needed toanswer our questions?How can we obtain this information?What useful information sources already exist atlocal, regional, state, or federal levels?How can the data we obtain be organized, an-alyzed, and presented?What people and organizations should be in-volved in gathering the information? Why? How?

The cost. Try to determine how much it will costin time, dollars, and other resources to obtain theneeded information. Consider what money is avail-able. or where financial help could be obtained.Also, estimate the availability of human resources--for planning, compiling, analyzing, an I presentinginformation. If citizen volunteers are the primarymeans of c,rrying out the study, they may need tobe reimburs)d for their expenses, their time may be

and they may need guidance and support.On the other hand, highly skilled researchers can be

found in the volunteer community. Do not overlookagencies, organizations, and businesses that may heinterested in the problem. The total community is apotential resource.

The leader. Even though the needs assessmentproject may have capable steering committee orthe support of local officials, it needs leadership.Determine who is available to assume responsibilityfor thE. needs assessment and what their capabilitiesare to get the job done. Someone needs to be re-sponsible for ail the tasks associated with planning,defining the problem, monitoring the expenditure offunds, organizing a plan of operation, guiding thedata collection, and serving as liaison. Leadershipalso includes overseeing data analysis, its presenta-tion, and its use.

The leader does not need to have all the answersor do all of the work. However, he/she should beable to organize, know how to maximize the involve-ment of all community resources, and understandthe research methods used in conducting a needsassessment. At nc time is a leader a substitute forcommunity participation. With the right kind of lead-ership, occasional consultant help, and willing citi-zens, a community can produce a useful needsassessment for very little money.

The population. When deciding which assess-ment technique is best, take into account the popu-lation or organization it will describep'Sorne methodsare more suitable for obtaining information aboutminorities while others may have a tendency to en-courage responses only front highly educated peo-ple. For example, the key informant method, wherebya few local people serve as long-time informantsabout the community, may be a way to build trustover time in a culturally isolated community. Al-thoug'l it is time-consuming, this method may be theonly way to find out how a Native American commun-ity really feels about a proposed new industry.

It is critical that care be taken to anticipate whothe people are that the needs assessment will de-scribe. Community researchers should use caution ingeneralizing that all people in the community arealike. Specific groups are unique in the way theirmembers will respond to an interviewer, an observer,a group discussion., or a mail questionnaire. Humansensitivity provides the best clues for determiningthe most appropriate methods for a specific usehow respondents will react to the needs assessmentmethod and the person nnnducting it. This consider-ation alone may justify the use of more than onetechnique The method selected should be "morelike an umbrella of activity beneath which any tech-nique may be used for gaining the desired informa-tion, and for processes of thinking about tnis inky-mation."2

Schal/ini.in and Am.;(.1111 I R,((/10.4,;(,(;(/Stialcw:; for Sociology (Englewood Cliffs, NJ .

Prentice-Hall, Inc , 1973), p. 14.

TechniquesUsing Existing Information

In every community there is a wide variety of infor-mation available if you know where to find it. Beforenew data 'a collected, C., thorough check should bemade of what is already available. This may not onlyadd to your early understanding of the problem. butit could save timo and money later. Existing recordsoften provide insiOts into the community that cannotbe observed or noted in any other way. This informa-tion can be found in document form, as reports, his-torical accounts, minutes of meetings, letters, rec-ord:3, and photographs.

The usefulness of existing sources varies de-pending on accescibility and awareness of availabil-ity. There are two types of documents: (a) primarydocuments, which are eyewitness accounts writtenor developed by people who actually experiencedthe particular event firsthand; and (b) secondarydocuments, vvnic,I1 are developed by people who re-ceive information from an eyewitness or by readingabout it. For example, an autobiography is a primarydocument, while a biography is a secondary docu-ment.

The Census andvital statistics records

fit U.S Bureau of the Census conducts a popula-tion census every 10 years. Four volume-, are publ; shed about each state's population, including sta-tistics about townships. municipalities, counties, andmetropolitan areas. These volumes contain informa-tion on the structure of a population (size, distribu-tion. and composition) and on demographic proc-esses (fertility, mortality, and migration). General so-cial, eionomic. and other descriptive information isalso piesent,..y,i. i3esides the decennial information,monthly and occasional data is available in CurrentPopulation Surveys, available from a library or by..;iibse!iption Isom: Superintendent o1 Documents. U.S.Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

Census information is available for public usein a variety of forms, including bound publications.microfilm, and computer tape. In addition to theCensus of Population, there are also Censuses ofAgriculture, Housing, Business and Manufacturing,Government, and Transportation.

County and City Data Books are available fromthe U.S. Bureau of Census in computer tape andbound form. These combine manageable data fromthe censuses of population, housing, governments,and manufacturing.

faeht 1 AdvAntarrs and disadvantages of the Census andvital '.1atistics records tax community needs assessment

Advantages

Headily available at mini-mal cost if any (Mc-Ault)

et ftional henriesIFthntisi". rind agencies

Data available on a widevarwly of characteristicspo:rition. lieu sled,

gent tl, ecn.lowichl'i!th in sine es manufaeturnip govc?rements. andtranspot hifonAvaCable a'; bound vet

ccmputer tape. and

roan ho '.J11--.,;crhod to on acontinuing basis

Disadvantages

Data rellccts only informa-tion that the respondenthas been willinn to sharewith the governmentData tends to be descriplive and may require theuser to discriminate, sort,and correlateSome figures may repre-sent estimates or pre!ec-lions as opposed to actualaccountsDoes not reveal individualvalues. beliefs. or reasonsunderlying current trendsGreat quantity of data mayoverwhelm the user unlessselectivity is exercised

ocal community data isfrequently limited and notalways current

Vital statistics information is compiled from local,state, and national records of births, deaths, marri-ages, divorces, and sometimes health. If vital statis-tics information is used along with census data, thiscan ,irovide good background on many of the factorsassociated with population growth and decline.

Census and vital statistics records can be usedin community needs ass(,,-,sments in many ways.They can provide an accurate description of howmuch the local population has grown during a cer-tain period---and whether population growth is duetc natural increase (births). or due io people movinginto the community (migration).

These records can also be used to determinewhether there has been a change in the number ofhouseholds or in household composition

Census arid vital statistics can be used to forma detailed breakdown of community residents ac-cording to such characteristics as ethnic back-ground, age. sex, marital status, income. education,etc_

These records can also be used to make com-parisons between your community and other com-munities undergoing similar patterns of growthorto determine whether your community is unique orfollows state arid national trends.

Sources of additional help:library Census Dahl for Community Acmon. U S Bureau of

the Census Washington. D.0 . U.S GovernmentPrinting Office. 1975.

Census reports arid current population, reports (vari-ous topics and continuing dates) t1 S Bureau ofthe Census. Washington. D.C: U S GovernmentPrinting Office

County arid CO Data Books Federal. state, andcounty vital statistic:; reports

Reports and bulletins by county and state agi_inciesdealing with planning, community affairs. employ-ment, education, and health (Bureau of Labor Sta-triticis Reports; Vital and Health Statistic's Series.Department of Health. Education, and WMfaro pub-lications)

Loca. Public librariesOffices of city. county or regional planning commis-

sionsCounty Extension ollicesSchool district officesCollege or university departments (sociology. demog-

raphy, po;ihcal science. planning. public health.library)

f-inancial institutionsUtility companiesChambers of CommerceAgencies and organizations repontubl!' for health,

rehabilitation, law enforcement and protection, re-cording vital statistics.

Con tent analysis

The aim of content analysis is to take existing docu-mentary information, particularly that which is notstatistical, and organize it into a more useful form.Content analysis can be applied to personal docu-ments such as letters, diaries, private papers, orphotographs; or to administrative records such asreports, proceedings of meetings, or hearings pro-ceedings. It can also be applied to the analysis ofnewspaper articles or editorials, photographic col-lections, political records, or historical documents.

Advantages and disadvantages of content analysisfor community needs assessment.

Advantages Disadvantages

Allows study of subiectsthat otherwise might be in-accessibleUseful for determiningvalue-interest positions, po-litical climate, public atti-tudes, historical trends orsequencesResearch atmosphere isfree of personality clashes.group pressures. and otherhuman bias factorsInformation is availablelocally--libraries, archives,agency files, or offices: thusresearch may be low-costRequires skills quite dif-ferent from field observa-tion clues' onnaireconstruction, interviewing.etc.Provides opportunity forstudy of trends over timeMaterial to be analyzedmay be of high qualitycompared to poorly writtenquestionnaire responses orPoorly conducted interviews

Time needed for locatingsuitable documents and foranalysisLack of availability of ma-terial suitable for analysisDifficult to detect possiblebias by original authorAnalysis categories maynot accurately representimportant ideasPossibility of recordingirrelevant information, or ofomitting relewInt informa-tion: requires the ability toscanInformation represents onlyverbal behavior (in the caseof written documents) notnonverbal behavior

7

In content analysis, every attention should be

given to objectivity and systematic organization. It

involve; developing a scheme to classify infcriratiol,enabling the researcher to count particular m;rds,themes, or ideas, or to sense sequences, Weals,or causes. Classification schemes can be in th' formof checklists, index cards, or summaries. The c;roat-est difficulty is in scanning and recording onlyinformation which is relevant, while at the same timenot overlooking anything.

Content analysis of documents or records canprovide many kinds of community needs assessmentinformation, including:

Assessment of changes, over time, in public atti-tudes toward a particular development aspressed in newspaper editorials, letters to the editor, hearings proceedings, minutes of publicmeetings;

Analysis of underlying causes of public dissatis-faction over public facilities and services, as

shown in utility company records, agency reports,welfare case studies, tax records.

Sources of additional help:

Library. Pitt, David C. Using Historical Sources ro Anthropol-ogy and Sociology. New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston, Inc , 1972.

Webb, E. J., D. T, Campbell, R. D, Schwartz, and L.Sechrest. Onobtruslyc Measures: Nen-ReactiveResearch in the Social Sciences, Chicago, IL: RandMcNally, 1966.

Bailey, Kenneth D. Methods o/ Social Research. NewYork: The Free Press, 1978. pp. 266-291.

Local: Museums, libraries, church recordsNewspaper archivesCounty offices that record land tenure, titles, sales,

marriages, divorces, deaths, criminal clfenses.ployment

School and hospital re:iisters and filesPlanning commissionsPolitical institutions and organizationsUtility companiesFinancial institutionsBusinessesCommunity organizations with special interest.,Individuals' photograph albums, diaries, or collectionsFamily clippings, obituaries, mementos

CM-

111111!1

4

011,1111141%,,,

MI I

PP-

)11NNE,,ff

TechniquesUsing New Information

It may be necessary to go beyond existing informa-tion to assess the needs and concerns of the com-munity. particularly under the conditions of rapidchange associated with growth. Depending on thekind of information desired, there is a variety of ap-pmaches or combinations of approaches that canbe used

Techniques for collecting new information gen-erally fall into one of three categories:

1 those mainly dependent upon observation com-bined with documentation;

2. those mainly dependent upon some form of ques-tioning of individuals;

3. those mainly dependent upon some form of gath-ering information from a group of people.

No one method of collecting information shouldbe viewed in isolation, for each can be strengthenedby drawing on the qualities of the other methods.The persons designing the needs assessment mustdevelop the best possible technique or combinationof techniques to suit the need.

9

Participantobservation

True participant observation requires the investiga-tor to immerse him/herself in the life of the com-munity being studied. The aim is to participate in thepeople's day-to-day activities, thereby sharing expe-riences, activities, language, and all community con-

Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of participant observa.tign for community needs assessment


Setting is natural, un-structured, and flexible

iestigator may makezi/her identity known to

thr subjects or re-searcher may keep identitya secretInvestigator may choose toactively participate inactivities of those beingobserved, or may observepassively

Extended time duration mayadd to trust le%.e1 anddepth of urde standingCan be combined withother techniques such assurvey. key informant. com-munity impressions, nom-inal group process, therebyadding to data qualityUseful in studying overlong time periodObservations can beorganized in advance tonarrow the problem andmake data more quantifi-able. or the opposite ap-proach may be takenwhere no preconceivedrestrictions are placed onobservation;;A small number of peopleare studied to obtain in-depth informationUseful for studying a"small culture---particularneighborhood. an ethnicgroup, the fire department.planning commission, fac-tory assembly line, ranch-ers migrant laborers.business organization

Natural envir iment meansthe nvestig or has lesscontrol over the situationIf group is aware they arebeing observed, resultingbehavior may be affected

Extensive amount of timerequired may not be prac-tical

Observations may not bevalid for entire populationunless a plan for represen-tativeness is developedKnown observers maydisrupt normal ways ofliving and interactingTraining in observationskills may be essentialSelective perception byobservers may bias or limitinformation obtainedObserver may lose objec-tivity as a result of becom-ing involvedMay yield a massiveamount of data which isdifficult to organize orquantify

Does not usually yield alarge population samplefrom which broad generali-zations can be drawn

-3erns. The observer's aim is to see the worldthrough the eyes of the subjects.

The longer the participant/observer is able toshare the life of the subjects, the better the chancesare to accurately sense residents' perspectives. How-ever, time and circumstances may dictate short, in-termittent observer roles, or some adaptation of theparticipant-as-observer and the observer-as-partici-pant

Information can be collected in a number of ways--by watching, listening, and documenting what isseen and heard; by asking :_luestions and enteringinto discussions; by sharing activities with residentsand noting comments, behaviors, and reactionsora combination of these. The great usefulness of thistechnique is its natural style and flexibility which,over time, can build sufficient trust to reveal insightsthat might otherwise not be obtained. It is essential,however, that observation and documentation becarried out systematically so that the information ob-tained is free of bias and relevant to the focus of thestudy.

Participant observation can be especially usefulin the following needs assessment situations:

Assessment of long term effects on local residentsof a new industry or development;

Determining reasons for community or organiza-tional conflicts or misunderstandings;

Finding new solutions to community problems;

Learning how minorities or culturally different peo-ple feel about a community issue, and finding ac-ceptable ways of involving them in problem solv-ing.

Sources of additional help:Library. McCall, G. J. and J. L. Simmons, eds. Issues in Par-

ticipant Observation: A Text and Reader. Reading.MA: Addison-Wesley, 1989.

Schatzmann. Leonard ad Anselm L Strauss FieldResearch: Strategies for a Natural Sociology. En-glewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall, Inc 1973

Bailey. Kenneth D. Methods of Social Research. NewYork, NY: The Free Press. 1978 pp 215-248.

Edgerton, Robert B and L. L Langness, Methods andStyles in the Study of Culture. San Francisco. CAChandler and Shark Publishers, Inc 1974.

Local College or university departments (anthropology, his-tory. sociology)

Museums or librariesRead a book by a participant-observer describing

field experiences, for example:Wax, Rosalie. Doing Fieldwork. Chicago It The Uni-

versity of Chicago Press, 1971Bowen, Eleanore Smith. Return to Laughter. New

York: Harper and Row, 1954.

10 10

eCase study

The case study is a needs assessment method that-;an do two things: 1) it can provide in-depth infor-mation on a single unit, group, or organization; and2) it can serve as a learning experience for a groupof people who analyze the case situation. It involvesthe description of a few cases for the purpose ofstimulating ideas, defining regularities, or reachingconsensus about what is happening. Through per-sonal discussion, mutual interaction, observation, orreview of existing documents, the reporter capturesthe total sense of the situation. The outcome b;iouldtell a story or convey a picture about what is occur-ring. The case study should include:

history and background;a picture of the present;an indication of relationships between people;

facts taken from the ongoing situation;no judgmental feelings by the reporter.

After the case study is developed, it must be analyzed and diagnosed. Maximum insight will be de-rived from group analysis in vvhich individuals inter-act with one another to answer underlying questions.

Table 4. Advantages and disadvantages of the case study forcommunity needs assessment.


Procedure evolves as workprogresses; therefore. noconfining categories orclassificationsAllows depth of insightinto causal relationshipsand personal feelingsApplied effectively in com-bination with other meth-ods, such as survey orparticipant observationOffers unique opportunityto study an organization. abusiness, an agency divi-sion, pa:Ocular types Offamilies. individual differ-ences, ideas, or principlesGroup analysis can becomea rn or learning expe-nen,:e, potential for insightinto personal ways ofthinking and listening

Requires absolute accur-acy; "improvements" onfacts spoil the c'udyCan be very suojectivetemptation to tell morethan the factsCan be time-consuming;extensive amounts of dataneededFocus is on a limitednumber of cases: cannotnecessarily be generalizedto larger communityNot suitable as a methodin isolation: best for back-ground or as a guide tofurther stud/Best case analysis is doneby a group rather than byan individualFor best analysis. severalcases are needed

Not only does this result in the accumulation of richcase data; it is also a means of obtaining informa-tion from those who are diagnosing the case. By in-volving a citizen group in case analysis. it is possibleto learn a great deal about the community throughtheir interpretations and reactions.

Using this approach, it is possible to develop anextensive description of a few families, communityresidents, plant managers, school principals. or con-struction workers. Ideally, this will include informa-tion about human relationships and interactionswithin these groups. Information can be collectedsolely for the purposes of the case study. or it canbe drawn from existing sources such as employmentrecords, counselors' reports, minutes of meetings,and file documents.

The case study method might be worth consider-ing in the following circumstances:

Several past citizen involvement efforts in plan-ning have taken place, and you want to study thebenefits achieved by the various approaches;The needs assessment problem has not beennarrowed to something specific, such as how un-employed people are responding to new employ-ment opportunities;School children appear to be under stress due toincreased numbers of new students, added teach-er or administration responsibilities, or crowdingof facilities.


Library: Diesing, P. Patterns of Discovery in the Social Sci-ences. Chicago. IL: Aldine-Atherton. 1971.

Pigors. Paul and Thith Pigors. Case Method in Human

Relations: The Incident Process. New York, NY:

McGraw-Hill, 1961.Epstein, A. L. "The Case Method in the Field of Law."

In the Craft of Social Anthropology, A. L Epsteined. London: Tavistock Publications, Ltd, 1967.

Tripodi, Tony. Uses and Abuses of Social Research inSocial Work. New York, NY: Columbia UniversityPress. 1974. pp. 26-29.

Local: Caseworkers or counselors who work with families orother subject groups (Employment Security, Department of Social Health Services)

Business or industry personnel officersClinics, crisis centers, rehabilitation agencies. com-

munity action centers, human service organizationsAttorneys, law enforcement agencies, judicial depart-

mentsRead actual case studies that have been analyzed:

for example:Effective Citizen Participation in Transportation Plan

ning, Vol. I, Community lnvolverer'nt Processes.

Department of Transportation, Washington D C

Federal Highway Administration. Socio-Econr.rnicStudies Division, 1976. pp. 60-129.

Social networkanalysis

Social network analysis is a means of learning moleabout informal relationships between people. It in-volves the systematic recording or diagraming ofthe continuous activity and interaction patterns thathind two or more people together. Using this ap-proach, it is possible to 'rap, over time, social linksbetween people, groups, offices, or organizationsthat might otherwise not be accounted for when ob-serving formal relationships in a social system. Map-

1' ibl and diciadvahlagesanalysis for community needs assessment.

of social network

Adv,intagrs Disadvantagi.,s

provid .11:( wale.detailird information con-r:erning imerle'' -ional rela-tionships over tirnr'May provide additional

into values, beliefs.sccial interaction. and life-styles

A combination approach--participant observation.survey. interview:. use ofexirrting documents--canbe used to obtain a broadbazie of data Interaction ofr-----,03rchor with communityrun add to total under-standing

Can be orneconsuming rnthat data should be col-lected over timeContinual observation andquestioning may makerespondent uncomfortable:may inhibit natural patternsof behaviorRequires a high degree ofaccuracy and planning inadvance

Usually needs to be sup-plemented with other formsof data such as personalinterviews, or interviewswith other informed people.Problern of 'owing what

key individuals to focus on

ping is based on data taken from interviews, obser-vations, documentary analysis. or a combination of(hese sources.

In a rapidly changing conicriiiiii(y. social networkanalysis could be used for the following reasons:

To learn whether friendship patterns and helpingrelationships are h,!ing established between new-comers and long (elm residents:To look at changes in community leadershipwho are the respected authorities, who is soughtfor advice what are the problem-solving networks,who participates in volunteer organizations;To study how a migrant population adapts to thenew communitysupport relationships, friend-ships, ties to old communities, barriers to integra-tion, type of community issues they becomeinvolved in and how;To gain insight into a formal organization and howinformal social systems operate within it, for exam-ple, the planning commission, the planning office,the city council, special interest boards, advocacygroups.

Sources of additional help:Library: Pelto. P--_?riti J. and Crete! H. Pello. Anthropological

Research The Structure of inquiry. Second Edition.Cambridge. NY. Cambridge University Press, 1978.

Mitchell, J C . ed. Social Networks in Urban SituationsManchester. England: Manchester Press, 1969.

Boissevain, Jeremy. Friends of Friends. Oxford, Eng-land: Basil Blackwell and Mott Ltd. 1974.

Local- Professionals trained in sociology, human relations,anthropology, political science, social geography

Citizen participation specialists associated with volun-teer organizations, planning and community devel-opment agencies, special interest groups.

1212

Survey

The survey technique is unique in that it is the onlyneeds assessment methodother than talking to

every citizen -that has the potential of representingall people in the community. In this respect, it is arelatively inexpensive way to gather information from

a large number of people. If a survey is well-designed and implemented, the results can be gen-eralized to a larger population.

The survey is based on information collectedfrom a sample of the total community population. Onthe other hand, a survey can be aaministered to allpeople in a community or organization to provideeveryone with an equal opportunity to express them-selves. The most commonly used survey methods

are person-to-person interviews, drop-off and pick-up questionnaires, mail questionnaires, and tele-phone interviews. While each approach is somewhatdifferent, the format is similar. Each asks an individ-ual to supply attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and at-tributes in response to specific questions.

Survey design offers flexibility in the types ofquestions that may be askedranging from struc-tured yes-no-undecided responses to unstructured,open-ended responses. Therefore, the survey can

.Table 6 Advantages and disadvantages of the survey for

community needs assessment.

Advantages fisadvantages

Can be inexpensiveespecially if volunteers areavailable to conduct thesurvey, or records and dataexist to draw fromA small, randomly selectedsample can provide muchinformation about a popula-tionTechniquesmail survey,telephone survey, personalinterview, drop-off andpick-up surveymay beselected in relation todesired -:ust or responserate

Can be used to survey anentire population and pro-vide an opportunity formany persons to feel in-volved in decision-makingprocessCan be u.-ed to recordbehaviors as well asc:-anions attitudesknowledge, beliefs, andattributesUseful if combined withanother methodsuch asparticipant observation orcase studythat willprovide an interactivej,,e;pectivii or detail

To assure statisticalmeaning, random samplesmust b' carefully selectedResults may not be validif survey is not designedcorrectlyMay require time andexpertise to develop thesurvey, train interviewers,conduct interviews, andanalyze resultsSubject to misinterpreta-tion depending on howquestions and responsecategories are designedTendency for scope of datato be limitedomissionof underlying reasons, andactual behavioral patterns

be sensitive to psychological barriers, such as

length of survey, wording, type of person adminis-

tering it, and confidentiality, that might affect

response.In some situations, there may be opposition to

the use of surveys as a result of recent and continu-ous misuse of the method. People may not be inter-ested in participating in surveys because there havebeen too ninny surveys conducted, many of whichmay have 1.1 poorly designed. Another objectionmight be that people are afraid to talk to interviewersfor fear of fraud, robbery, or assault; or that peopl!ido not want their privacy invaded. Minorities, in

particular, may feel they have been surveyed to death

with few results.The focus of the survey must be kept in mind,

and questions limited to specific and clearly definedinformational needs. For example, a communityneeds assessment survey could be used to:

Search for alterr,ative solutions to communitypre olems;Solicit citizen reactions to specific solutions tocommunity problems and proposals for action;

Solicit citizen opinions concerning proposed goals

for community development;Gather information on citizens' knowledge, atti-tudes, beliefs, and opinions in order to identifyand prioritize community problems;Measure changes in attitudes about an attemptedsolution to a community problem;Attempt to make citizens more aware of commun-ity problems and their ramifications;Assess citizen attitudes about spending publicfunds on specific projects.Community researchers are advised to delay the

construction of a survey until enough is known about

the social and cultural context within the com-munity.


Library: Effective Citizen Participation it Transportation Plan-

ning, Vol. 11, A Catalog of ,igues. U.S. Depart-ment of Transportation. Washington, DC FederalHighway Administration, Socio-Economic StudiesDivision, 1976. pp. 240-279.

Warheit, George J., Roger A. Bell. and John J.

Schwab. Needs Assessment Approaches.. Conceptsand Methods. Rockville, MD: National Institute ofMental Health, 1977. pp. 39-49.

Dittman, Don A. Mail and Telephone Survey;;: theTotal Design Method. New York. NY John Wileyand Sons, 1978.

Webb, K. and H. Hatry. Obtaining Citizen FeedbackApplication of Citizen Surveys to local Government.Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute (2100 M Sheet,Washington, D.C. 20037). 1973.

Warren. Roland L. Studying Your Community NewYork, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1955.

Local: Health, social, and health service or planning agen-cies

College or university departments of sociology. com-munity development, Extension

Review actual community surveys that have beendone.

13 13

Key informant

The key informant method is based on obtainingintorniation. over time, from a community residentwho is in a position to know the community well. Theperson of persons selected io he key informants!mist therefore have a broad knowledge of the con.,munity, its services. and its people. It is an excellentway to recover information about past events orways of life that are no longer observable.

The objectives of the needs assessment canhelp determine the most appropriate kind of person(s) to act as key informant. The researcher mightcerHider public officials, longtime residents, busine:,zs managers. administrators, church 'coders, and

I able and disadvantages,method fur community needs assessment

Advantages

of the key intormant

Disadvantages-

()floodlit-11yrapport and trust and thusobtain the insiders viewDepth c.;f information

concerning causes orreasonsP orinits continualclarification of ideas andnforrnation

Can he combin,_,d effec-tively with other techniquessuch as participant obser-v-,Ition. life historycommunity impressions.survey

Permits input from manytilt .ront

Can hr', implemented byc.)rumunity yokinteers,thereby building a citizeninvofyement and awareness1),-,r, not invulve the hirihcost of erinting and dataanalysis

Time required to select thebest informants and tobuild trustPersonal relationship be-tween researcher andinformants may influencetype of data obtainedInformants may interjecttheir own impressions andbiases

Jealousies and resentmenton the part of othercommunity members whoseopinions are not solicitedmay developData may be difficult to

quantify unless welloroani7ed as it comes inShould hr combined withother methods, becauserenrcaentativeness of totalcommunity IS difficult toachieve

F(nN people can sense allthe needs and concerns ofall people in a community

the perspectives of thosewho are less visible maybe overlooked

persons representing A varie'y of life styles, ages,viewpoints, or ethnic backgrounds. Few people in acommunity will be able to speak about everything:therefore, the problem should be in focus before theinfohiant is selected.

The key informant method requires sufficienttime to build a good relationship between investiga-tor and informant The value of the method is thetype of data that can be elicited as a result of thecommunication and tru.,;, that develops between thetwo. The quality of information obtained is dependenton the ability of the investigator to draw out the keyinformant's capabilities in perceiving and communi-cating the information needed,

A variety of methods can be derived for workingwith a key informant, Questions can be developed inadvance, as on a questionnaire or outline, or theapproach can be totally unstructured and spontane-ous. Several methods applied in combination mayproduce the best results, including survey, partici-pant observation, and citizen advisory group discus-sion. Because of its intensive and personal nature,the key informant method is especially useful for:

Obtaining a deeper knowledge of minority view-points, or of silent majority opiniorr,:Involving citizens in public problem-solving whowould be less inclined to answer a questionnaire:Raising citizen consciousness about a communityproblem:

Showing formal community leaders that a citizenorganizatio'. is committed to obtaining their view-points.

Sources of additional help:library Polio. Perth J and Gretol Peho. Anthropological Re-

search. The Structure of Inquiry. Second Edition.Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

Warheit, George J . Robert A. Bell. and John J.Schwab Needs Assessment Approaches: Conceptsnod Mcylliods. Rockville, MD. National Institute ofMental Health. 1977. pp. 20-22

Local People trained in anthropology or ethnography-might he found in libraries. museums schools.universities, or human service organizations

Kgewledgeable local people--such as local officials.religious leaders, bankers, administratorn', leadersof public service organizations. professionals, eth-nic group leaders--who have the respect and ac-ceptance of residents.

1414

Life history

The life history method usually involves the collec-

tion of biographies or detailed histories on a few

selected members of the community. It can also beapplied to the histories of families, organizations, oragency departments. Through intensive interviewswith individuals, supplemented by documentary evi-dence, it is possible to obtain rich data about pastevents and customs, and individual perspectives of

Table 8 Advantd, jes and disadvantages of the hie historymethod for community needs assessment.

Advantages

May motivate the involve-ment of shy or uninvolvedpeople, in that every indi-vidual is an expert when itcomes to his or her own lifehistoryPermits micro-level exam-ination of representatives ofthe population and there-fore great depth of detailCan provide insights intounique variables orcharacteristics to whichlarge surveys may beinsensitiveMay reveal chance factorsor clues that otherwisewould not be identified.such as historic familyjealousies, or childhoodresentments affectingpresent attitudes and beliefsCan be complimentary toother methods, such assurvey, key informant.participant observation

Disathantages

Rarely representative oftotal community or groupTime-consuming if largedata base is developedCan be subjective unlessall lite histories are struc-tured systematically; ex-cessive structure eliminatesthe primary advantage ofopen-ended spontaneityIdeally suited for olderresidents of the populationthus may be biasedaccording to thebackground and values ofthis groupNeed for extremeconfidentialityCan provide such a largeamount of qualitative datathat it may be difficult toquantify resultsRequires a skilledinvestigator who can guidethe informant in revealingsignificant social systemvariables

what the community is like and how his/her life has

been affected by it. It is a unique way of seeing thecommunity through the eyes and feelings of a resi-dent.

The life history approach can reveal a vast

amount of information about such things as: community opportunity structures, social norms, unac

ceptable patterns of behavior, significant life cycleevents, valued community activities and rituals, indi-vidual or family mobility patterns, effects of devel( p-

ments, trends in leadership, power structure, andcommunity factors that might foster social and eco-nomic problemsbarriers to employment, neighbor-hood vandalism, teenage depression, child abuse,family stress, and marital problems.

The use of the life history to study an organiza-tion or gaup should not be overlooked. For exam-ple, the detailed history of a planning commission,city council, or merchants' association can reveal a

lot about the character of the community, residents'social and economic backgrounds, patterns of powerand influence, and possible problem-solving strat-egies.


Library: Langness, L. L. The Life History of AnthropolonicdiScience. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Win-ston, 1965,

Washington State Oral/Rum' History Program Inter

viewer's Manual. Olymph., WA: Washington State,Division of Archives and Record Management, 1974.

Baum, Willa. Transcribing and Editing Oral History.Nashville: American Association for State and LocalHistory, 1977.

Dailey, Charles A. Assessment of Lives. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1971.

Local: People trained in history, geneology, anthropology.counseling, or health sciences

People associated with museums or archivesHistorical societies or groups interested in oral history

and geneology collectionRead an actual life history.

Lewis, Oscar. The Children of Sanchez. New York.NY: Random House, 1961.

15 15

Nominalgroup process

Nominal group process is a structured problem-solving or idea-generating strategy in which individ-uals' ideas are gathered and combined in a face-to-lace nonthreatening group situation. The process is

Table 9 Advantages and disadvantages of nominal groupprocess for community needs asse,7sment


If well-organized inadvance. a heterogeneousgroup can move towarddefinite group conclusionsCan be used to expandthe data obtained fromsurveys or existingdocuments, or can be usedto generate a more specificsurvey

Motivates all participants toget involved because theysense they are personallyaffected

Generates many ideas ina short period of time;allows for a full range ofindividual thoughts andconcernsA good way to obtaininput from r. ople ofdifferent i ackgrounds andexperiencesGives all participants anequal opportunity to expressopinions and idear, 'n anonthreatening suitingAllows individualgeneration of ideas withoutseem-sion by any dominantgroup member

Stimulates creative thinking1.lluctivo dialogue

Allows for clanlication ofideas

Requires a skilled leaderMay be extremely difficultto imp!ement with largeaudiences unless advancepreparation has taken placeto train group facilitatorsand divide participants intogroups of 6-10 membersProcess may appear rigidif group leader does notshow flexibilityencourageagenda building, and showrespect for all ideas andconcernsMay be some overlap ofideas due to unclearwording or inadequategroup discussion"Knowledgeable" individu-als selected to participatemay not represent allcommunity subgroupsAssertive personalities maydominate unless leadershipskills are exercisedMay not be a sufficientsource of data in itself; mayrequire follow-up survey,observations, or documen-tary analysis

Inappropriate techniquefor routine meetings,bargaining, negotiation, orcoordination

used in health, social service, and education fields,as well as in industry and government to maximizecreative participation in group problem-solving. It

assures a balanced input from all participants andtakes advantage of each person's knowledge andexperience, In a needs assessment, it is useful forgenerating and clarifying ideas, reaching consensus,prioritizing, and making decisions on proposed al-ternative actions.

While the nominal group process can be varied,one approach might be for members of a smallgroup to write their individual ideas on paper. Round-robin feedback from each person then follows, witheach person's concerns being listed on a flip chartin full view; next, each idea is discussed for clarifi-cation and evaluation. Priorities are ordered bysilent balloting; group discussion of the ballot re-sults would round out the process.

A community advisory group or task force mightconsider using a nominal group process techniqueunder these circumstances:

To determine what community problems are ofgreatest immediate concern;

To decide on a needs assessment strategy fordealing with the identified problems;

To design improved community services or pro-grams;

At a community forum or town meeting wherebroad citizen input is needed on a proposed plantor land use, transportation, public services, orschool expansion.

Sources of additional help:Library: Delbecq, Andre, Andrew Van de Ven, and David Gus-

tafson. Group Techniques for Program Planning: AGuide to Nominal Group and Delphi Processes.Glenview, IL: Scott. Foresman and Co., 1975.

Van de Ven, Andrew and Andre Delbecq Guidelinesfor Leaders in Conducting Nominal Group Meet-ings. Madison, WI. Center for the Study of ProgramAdministration, 1971.

Local. People specialized in citizen participation. groupprocess facilitation, or leadership training in socialand health services, Extension. education. industry,and planning.

16

DelphiTechnique

The delphi technique is another way of obtaininggroup input for ideas and problemsolving. Unlikethe nominal group process, the delphi does not re-quire face-tn-face participation. It uses a series ofcarefully designed questionnaires interspersed withinformation summaries and feedback from precedingresponses.

In a planning situation, the delphi can be used to:ievelop a number of alternatives;Assess the social and economic impacts of rapidcommunity growth;Explore underlying assumptions or backgroundinformation leading to different judgments;

TAbte 10. Advantages and disadvantages of the delphi tech-nig I le for community needs assessment

/ 'Ivantages Disadvantages

Allows participants toremain anonymousInexpensiveFree of social pressure.personality influence, andindividual dominanceA reliable judgment orforecast resultsAllows sharing of informa-tion and reasoning amongparticipantsConducive to independentthinking and gradualformulationA well-selected respondentpanel a mix of localofficidis, knowledgeableindividuals. members ofimpacted community,regional officials, academicsocial scientists, etc --canprovide a hroaci analyticalborspective on potentialgrowth impactsCan he used to reachconsensus among groupshostile to each other

Judgments are those of aselected group of peopleand may not berepresentativeTendency to eliminateextreme positions and forcea middle-of-the-roadconsensusMore time-consuming thanthe group process methodShould not be viewed asa total solution toforecastingRequires skill in writtencommunicationRequires adequate timeard participant commitment(about 30-45 days)

... .

it, ".. ....

..

';',/<4- 2 . . $i% . k ' '' Y

1".

1>f/1./ syWO

4/ 2 ' <:,.74/?4,. . t,/, '..,, %... Aff4, 4-, / ,, .b

',' ", ' n;4 0,// .. ,1

' li'::4 .: " / '''f',Yi

' /, 1, c'

Seek o t information on which agreement maylater be generated;Correlate informed judgments on a subject involv

ing many disciplines;Educate respondents on the diverse and interre-lated elements of a topic.

The delphi begins with the initial development of

a questionnaire focusing on the identified problem.An appropriate respondent group is selected, thenthe questionnaire is mailea to them. Each participantanswers the questionnaire independently acid returnsit. The initiators of the questionnaire summarize re-sponses, then develop a feedback summary and asecond questionnaire for the same respondent group.After reviewing the feedback summary, respondentsindependently rale priority ideas included in thesecond questionnaire, then ma back the responses.The process is repeated until investigators feel posi-tions are firm and agreement on a topic is reached.A final summary report is issued to the respondentgroup. The delphi can be modified many ways.

In assessing community needs, the delphi tech-nique could be used for many of the same things asthe nominal group process--determining and priori-tizing community problems; setting goals; designingneeds assessment strategies; planning a conferenceor community forum; developing improved commun-ity services; evaluating alternative plans for com-munity development; Cr aggregating judgments ofspecial-interest or mutually hostile groups.


Library: Delbecq, Andre, Andrew Van de yen. and David Gus-tafson. Group Techniques for Program Planning.. A

Guide to Nominal Group and Delphi Processes.Glenview, IL Scott, Foresman and Co., 1975.

Kaufman, Jerome and David Gustafson Multi-Counlyl and Use Policy Formation: A Delphi Analysis.Technical Report of the Department of IndustrialEngineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison. WI,1973.

Etlectiye Citizen Participation in Transportation Plan-ning. Vol. II. A Catalog of Techniques. U S. Depart-ment of Transportation, Washington. D.0 FederalHighway Administration, Socio-Economic StudiesDivision, 1976. pp. 188-212.

Local: College or university departments of sociology, politi-cal science, planning, economics

Major businesses and industries that do forecasting,innovative planning

Governors' offices where task forcoc, ,Ind commis-sions have been initiated to look at the future.

Advisory groupsand task forces

Advisory groups and task forces are called togetherfor a variety of purposes--to represent the ideas andattitudes of a community, group, or organization; tomake suggestions; to generate new ideas; to adviseand to recommend: or to carry out a specific task.Members of such a group may be specially selectedor invited to participate because of their unique skillsor backgrounds; they may volunteer; they may benominated or elected; or the group may be formedby a combination of these processes.

Because advisory groups and task forces areformed in a variety of ways, a rAmber of things!;hould bra considered in advance:

Composition and selection. Will it be made up ofexperts, lay persons, or a combination of both?

Tabs. 11 Advantages and disadvantages of advisory groupsand task forces for community needs assessment.


Opportunity to involve avoriety of professional and

Preele from diversebackgroundsI ay people criaN,, sonalternatives that areOverlooked by expertsLocal residents may haveteehnicat expertise,. Orknowledge, particularlyshout the community inwil,ch they live. thatprofessionals do not haveIncreasing numbers ofpeople are demanding to

invniv((d in planning.they cannot he ignoredWhen programs, go wrong.peoele who have beeninvolvod in planning themhave less reason to blameofficials fur the problemsCan he an antidote forf,(e;Ings cif alieniition.futility. and powerlessnessInvolvement in the planning

I-11OP( cc )item assuresarc.,TrAnce in theimplementation phase-1'.11..es flit' pressure off thenx,p,',k, they do not net riI() have all the answersIL.pially results in more

problem solvingMay li(Lo soliilify relation-

perw((en a broad;if(prAtrcians. and lay neoPle

pmregnication barriersare firoke.n down andmutual teiit increases

Maximizing the skills ofgroup members may takeconsiderable and timeconsuming organization.planning, and trainingRequires a skilledfacilitator or leaderMay result in frustration ifparticipants' advice is nevertaken or if they have nojustifiable reason for partici-pationMembers may become dis-illusioned if they have nothad clear instructions forthe reason for participationin the groupDepending upon selection.members may notnecessarily represent allpoints of view or allmembers of thecommunityMay threaten decision-makers. planning officials.and others in formalorganizational rolesSometimes there is atendency to overloadadvisory committees withbusy workViewed from perspective ofa citizen advisory commit-tee, there may he atendency to regard it as theonly means for obtainingcitizen input Should heconsidered as one ofFieveral methkids to obtainpublic participation

18

How will membership be determic-,d? What areadvantages and disadvantages of each person tothe function of the group?Purpose. Will the group be fo, ited for the pur-pose of information dissemination, informationcollection, planning, advising, problem resolution,decision-making, policy-making, technical assist-ance, legitimizing or building support, or creatingpublic awareness?Duration. Will there be a beginning and an end tothe group's responsibilities? How will length ofmembers' service be determined?Method of operation. Will there be regular andfrequent meetings, occasions; meetings, delphi-type communication by mail, conference telephonecalls, or a combination of these? Who will as-sume leadership? How will recommended actionsor plans be implemented?

Motivation and reard. How will participants berewarded for their input? How will their interestin the group's task be developed and retained?

Advisory groups and task forces, especiallythose of a short-term or specific task orientation,can be invaluable to a community needs assessment.Their functions include:

Identifying methods for conducting a needs as-sessment;

Building community awareness of specific prob-lems;

Identifying various population and organizationgroups that should be involved in a communityneeds assessment;Building support for a new public service pro-gram;

Assessing potential impacts of a development;Collecting information;Evaluating a community program or policy:Giving technical assistance or advice.

Sources of additional help:Library r Citizen Participation in Transportation Plan-

ning, Vol. II. A Catalog of Techniques. U S. Departnient of Transportation, Washington. D.0 FederalHighway Administration. Socio-Economic StudiesDivision, 1976. pp. 20-63.

Communication -Key to Participatory Regional Plan-rung The Design of Polley Development Tools.Seattle. WA Puget Sound Governmental Conference. 1970.

Planning and Design Workbook for Community 0.;rlicipation Research Center for Urban and Environ-mental Planning Princeton, NJ: School of Architec-ture and Urban Planning, Princeton University,1069.

Brown. David "The Management of Advisory Committees: An Assignment for the '70's.'' Public Ad,ministration Review. Vol. 32, No. 4 (July-August).1972. pp 334-342

Local Government agencies mandated to involve citizens inplanning, departments of community planning,health and social services, ecology, water re-source:;, highways

Educational institutions. departments arid organiza-tions such as Extension service, libraries. schooldistricts.

Community forum

Table 12 Advantages and dtt;advantwries of the communitytortun for community needs assessment

Advantages Drf-fidvaritages_

Provides an Opportunity forpeople Of diverse Lack-grounds to share ideas andexperiencesCan provide a quick,intensive picture ofcommunity concernsCan effectively involve localcitizens in planningpublicizing. moderating,evaluating, etc.Caves community issuesbroad visibilityLocal citizens feel asthough they have beenheardInexpensiveUseful to identify problems,assess needs, or to suggestquestions requiring furtherstudyDesign is flexibleavariety of techniques canbe incorporated

Hef wires good loadershipand advance or( anizationOpinions obtarJed arelimited to Thor a who attend---all viewpoints may not heheard

s Poor advance planning andadvertising may result inlimited participationIf not well-facilitatedonly the vocal minoritieswill be heardA large turnout mayprevent everyone fromspeaking and may limittime allowed for eachspeakerMay generate morequestions than answersMay raise citizens'expectations and frustra-tions if objectives areunclear, or if expectationsare not met

A community forum is based on one or more publicmeetings to which residents are invited to expresstheir opinions a,:iout community problems and needsWith advance planning and the assistance of a steer-ing committee, an enormous amount of informationcan be obtained in a short lime at minimal cost.Skilled leadership and advance organization is

needed to motivate a representative public turnout,to assure maximum participation. to collect informa-tion, and to know what to do with the informationonce it is collected. Usually, the format incorporatesa number of needs assessment techniques, such asnominal group process, key informant, advisory com-mittee, and possibly a follow-up survey. It has thepotential to narrow the problem on which a latertechnique may elaborate; to build public awarenessof the complexity of an issue; to legitimize the needfor further study; to design improved programs andservices; or to test public views of proposed solu-tions to community problems.


Library. Warheit, George J., Roger A Bell, and John J SchwabNeeds Assessment Approaches. Concepts andMethods. Rockville, MD: National Institute of MentalHealth, 1977. pp. 22-25.

Local: See citations under needs assessment techniquesthat will be used in the community forum

19

Communityimpressions

Lail., 1'1 Advantages and disadvantages of the communityunprot.,,ions technique for community needs assessment

Advantages Disadvantagris

Provides input directly fromciiiopte most likely affectedby developmc of such asneighborhood associations.

ichis business people.the elderly, minoritiesAllows for probinq behindconclusions, resulting in ahotter understanding ofcair.d1 relationships

withi;tatislic it d iota and aornmirilt/ ,orum, providingfiyhor (ldlii base and a

greater validity of findingsIf individual appointmentsare made allows the possi-bility of obtaining inputfrom busy, knowledgeable.and influential peopleCan provide a comfortable.supportive atmosphere inwhich friends discuss anissue together, where itmight not he possible tointerview the sameindividual'; aloneGroup selling may stimulatethinking and discussion

Does not provide arepresentative sample 01altitudesProcess for eliciting thedata requires skillful plan-ning and facilitatingTime is needed lorcompiling dataIn a lace-to-face setting,wide variation in partici-pants' background maysupress contributions ofquieter, less confidentpeople

Data is dependent onwillingness of people toparticipate

The community impressions approach is a small-group strategy for obtaining opinions or impressionsof what the larger community is thinking. It is ratherlike applying nominal group process or delphi tech-niques to a group of key informants. Because theinformants do not necessarily have to meet as agroup, the community impressions approach canalso provide opportunity for extensive taped discus-sions, by appointment, with leaders and influentials.

In a rapidly growing community, the communityimpression approach could be used to solicit expertopinion about anticipated social and economic im-pacts of a development; how to solve a technicalproblem such as inadequate transportation; or howto test the feasibility of a new program or facility.Ideally, the community impressions approach shouldbe combined with another technique that drawsupon more representative data, such as survey,community forum, or existing community documents.

Sources of additional help:Library- Lfloctive Citizen Participation in Transportation Plan-

ning, Vol. ll, A Catalog of Techniques. U S. Depart-ment of Transportation, Washington, D.C. FederalHighway Administration, Socio-Economic StudiesDivision. 1976 pp. 213-239

Wells, W, D. "Group Interviewing," in The Handbookof Marketing Research, R. Ferber, ed. New York,NY. McGraw-Hill, 1974.

Goldman. A E. "The Group Depth Interview," Journalof Marketing. Vol. 26. pp. 61-68

Local. Rehabilitation and mental health therapists and coun-selors

Social and health service agency personnelProfessionals in business and industry involved in

making consumer marketing forecastsProfessionals in state governrient departments who

organize consumer panels, neighborhood panelsPersonnel officers in private business or industry.

20 2')

ApplicationAs a means of summarizing our discussion of needsassessment techniques, we will apply selected meth-ods to a community setting where rapid growth isbeing anticipated. We will build upon an approachdeveloped by Dillman (1977) and later applied by

Garkovich (1979). Our model is based upon theuse of multiple needs assessment methods as akey component in making data-based policy deci-sions.

In 1976, the Washington Water Power Companyannounced their plans to hopefully begin construc-tion in 1983 on the first of four coal-fired generatingplants in a rural area of eastern Washington nearCreston. Over tne decade of 1983-1993, a sizableconstruction force would be working on the fourprojects, which represent an anticipated investmentof $2-3 billion.

Creston is an agricultural trade center located in

Lincoln County, which has a primarily agriculturalbase. Creston is on a state highway approximately56 miles from Spokane, a major eastern Washington

city.

Contextlegislationsocial changeeconomic changeother externalforces

PolicyDiscussion

elltImpact Information:

As shown in the figure, the context for policydiscussions with regard to the impacts of growthupon towns like Creston also includes legislation andother forces, such as the increasing demand forenergy, in an external environment. In the case ofCreston, the National Environmental Policy Act andWashington state legislation provided a context forgenerating needed information and a framework fornegotiating with the energy developer.

Historically, Creston and the county in which it islocated are quite typical of most American communi-ties which have a primarily agricultural ban, LincolnCounty reached its population peak in 1910 with17,539 residents, and then consistently declinedin population to a low of 9,300 in 1975. Creston,which is one of several small muni,lipalities in Lin-coln County, has had a fairly stable population basegrowing from 308 in 1910 to its present level of350. Creston is 20 miles from Davenport, a commun-ity of approximately 1,600 residents, which is thecounty seat and location of the hospital and majorshopping area for northern Lincoln County.

environmental impact statementother impact documentspublished research

Needs Assessment Techniques:existing informationthe census and vital statistics

recordscontent analysisnew informationparticipant observation 1case study Policy Policysocial network analysis Analysis gimm.m.1°' Decisionsurveykey informantlife history- -- nominal group processdelphi techniquetask forcecommunity forumcommunity impressions

0, Interim Decision it

Data-based policy decisions in rapidly growing communities using needs assessment techniques.

21 21

Creston residents appear tc enjoy life in theircommunity and in rural Washington. There is someconcern, however, about the proposed new energylacilities, the threat of railroad abandonment to theirpresent agricultural economy, the need for morepaved streets, the need for improved mail service,and the need for an improved water system. In addi-tion, prior to 1979, the community did not have acomprehensive plan which could he used as a guidefor local decisionmaking about the community'sfuture.

In 1979, the mayor of Creston, working in cooper-ation with members of the Creston Planning Commis-sion, approached the area Extension agent servingLincoln County about doing a needs assessmentsurvey. Such a survey, they reasoned, could be ameans for getting a broad base of citizen input intothe planning process and provide objective indica-tors of human needs within a community that is an-ticipating rapid growth. Using the resources of Wash-ington State University Cooperative Extension andother educational institutions, a survey was com-pleted in 1979. The survey provided substantial in-formation on citizen attitudes about proposed goalsfor the community, percept;ons about possible andactual community problems and knowledge, beliefsand attitudes about the proposed energy develop-ment, as well as other changes occurring in the area.The survey helped citizens become more aware ofproblems and possible solutions, and provided infor-mation to help planning commission members andelected governmental officials make better policydecisions.

The survey is only one method of generating use-ful information about citizen needs in communitieswhere rapid growth is expected or occurring. In thecase of Creston, a committee of persons represent-ing a cross-section of community members wasformed to help with the process of impact assess-ment and mitigation. The Creston Project Committee,as it has been called, was set up to function as bothan advisory group and a task force. Although im-pact committees of this type can be extremely help-ful, it is prudent to review the advantages and disad-vantages of such approaches. For example, whilemany professionals and laypersons may be involvedon the impact committee, it may be possible thatmembers will not have the necessary time or the ex-pertise to thoroughly assess and understand thecritical fiscal and sociocultural impacts which mayoccur as a result of the proposed energy develop-ment.

As stressed above, information generated byadvisory groups and task forces can be supplemented using other methods, and such groups caremploy many different techniques for generating theinformation which they will then evaluate. The sum-mary figure emphasizes combining existing sourcesof information such as census and vital statisticsdata with new sources of information to aid in theprocess of policy analysis in communities like CreE.-

22

ton. In addition to the use of surveys, several othermethods provide essential supplementary and com-plementary new information for decisionmakers. TheDelphi method can be very useful for obtaining ex-pert opinion on needs and problems related to theimpacts of rapid growth, while the key informantmethod will be useful for identifying the unique needsof minorities, the youth, or the elderly. Communityforums will be helpful for informing people aboutgrowth-related issues and generating further infor-mation about needs and perceptions, while nominalgroup process methods will be helpful in small-groupsettings for obtaining lists of problems, ideas, andproposals for action.

In the case of Creston, the results of these needsassessments as well as the results of the earliersurvey could provide tlie information base for devel-oping subsequent and more refined surveys whichcan be useful when tightening up policies and mak-ing specific recommendations (see Dillman, 1977,and Garkovich, 1979). The bottom line is that multi-ple methods should be used when carrying out aneeds assessmentor many people and potentialproblem areas will fall through the slats.

Sources of additional help:Library: Dillman, Don A. "Preference Surveys and Policy De-

cisions: Our New Tools Need Not Be Used in theSame Old Way," in Journal of the Community De-velopment Society, Vol. 8. No. 1, Spring, 1977; 31-43.

Garkovich, Lorraine. "What Comes After the Survey')A Practical Application of the Synchronized Surve;Model in Community Development," in Journal ofthe Community Development Society. Vol. 10, No.1. Spring, 1979: 29-38.

This publication is part of the "Coping with Growth" seriesproduced by the Western Rural Development Center. Othertitles in the series include:

Evaluating Fiscal Impact Studies: Community GuidelinesMinimizing Public Costs of Residential GrowthCoping with Rapid Growth: A Community PerspectiveInteragency Coordination and Rapid Community GrowthThe Public Policy Process: Its Role in Community GrowthEconomic Multipliers: Can a Rural Community Use Them?Incoming Population: Where Will the People Live?Citizen Involvement Strategies in Community Growth IssuesGrowth Impacts on Public Service ExpendituresAssessing Fiscal Impact of Rural GrowthProgramming Capital ImprovementsWhat Does the Impact Statement Say About EconomicImpacts?

Population Change: Do You Know the Trends in Your Com-munity?

Copies may be obtained from the Extension Service at cooperat-ing inst.tutions or from the Western Rural Development Centerin Corvallis, Oregon.

22

A Western Regional Extension Publication

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work. Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U S. Departmentof Agriculture, Henry Wadsworth, director, Oregon State University Extension Service_ Other western state Extension directors in-clude James W. Matthews, University of Alaska; Craig S. Oliver, University of Arizona; J. B. Kendrick, Jr., University of California;Lowell H Watts, Colorado State University; Noel P. Kefford, University of Hawaii; James L. Graves, University of Idaho; Carl J. Hoff-man, Montana State University; Dale W. Bohmont, University of Nevada; L. S. Pope, New Mexico State University; Clark Ballard, UtahSlate University; J. 0. Young, Washington State University; and Harold J. Tuma, University of Wyoming. The University of Guam Ex-tension Service, Wilfred P. Leon Guerrero, director, also participates. Extension invites participation in its programs and offers them toall people without discrimination.

23