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Newton's Apple: 15th Season. Free Educational Materials.Twin Cities Public Television, St. Paul, MN.; NationalScience Teachers Association, Arlington, VA.3M, St. Paul, MN.1997-00-0073p.; Contains large color poster.Twin Cities Public Television, Inc., 172 E. 4th Street, St.Paul, MN 55101; Web site: http://www.ktca.org/newtonsGuides - Classroom Teacher (052)MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.Animal Behavior; Animals; *Biological Sciences; Chemistry;Earth Science; Elementary Secondary Education; Hands onScience; Instructional Materials; Physical Sciences;Robotics; *Science Activities; *Science and Society;*Science Education; Scientific Concepts; *Space Sciences;*Technology*Newtons Apple

This guide helps teachers use the 15th season of thetelevision program "Newton's Apple" in the classroom and lists show segmentson asthma, car engines, glacier climbing, glass blowing, glaucoma, gliders,gold mine, greenhouse effect, kids on Mars, lightning, "Lost World"dinosaurs, mammoth dig, NASA robots, Novocain (TM), pack behavior, pet food,phases of the moon, proteins, robots, scuba diving, smiles, sunken slaveship, white-water rafting, wilderness training, wind blow, and zoo vet. Eachtopic features one main activity and several mini-activities related to thescientific concept it covers. Background information and additional resourcesare also listed. (WRM)

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PUBMC MEI/151011'S FAMHY SCHNCE SHOW

BEST COPY AVAILABLENEWTON'S APPLE is a production of HTCA Twin Cities Public TelevisionSaint Paul/Minneapolis and is made possible by a grant from 3M.

2

Innovation

GREETINGS FROM 3M ANDNEWTON'S APPLE

Science and technology can be fascinating and funespecially when presented with excitement, insight, and astrong understanding of the needs of today's students and teachers. That's why 3M is proud to continue asnational sponsor of NEWTON'S APPLE, the television series that revolutionized science and technology pro-gramming. Now in its 15th season, NEWTON'S APPLE has successfully shown thousands of students howscience can help enhance life, protect people, and preserve our resources.

We're also proud to work with KTCA-TV and the National Science Teachers Association to produce thesespecial classroom materials. We hope these supplements will be a valuable addition to your curriculum. Ourgoal is to help your students approach the world with curiosity and a desire to understand what they can doto create their own future.

L.D. DeSimoneChairman and Chief Executive Officer3M

The NEWTON'S APPLE team shoots

the rapids in Costa Rica, rubs

elbows with the dinosaur celebrities

from The Lost World: Jurassic Park,

mines for gold in South Dakota,

unravels the mysteries of fog in

London, dives the wreck of a slave

ship off the Florida Keys, and more.

Ten years ago, in his debut segment on NEWTON'S APPLE, David Heil plum-

meted through the air in a tandem skydiving maneuver. Since then, David

has shared hundreds of science experiences with viewers. This season, he

continues his intrepid reporting with a white-water rafting trip down the

Pecuare River in Costa Rica, a trip to the dentist's chair for a touch of

painless dentistry, and a look at robots on Earth and in space.

A graduate from the University of California at Berkeley in political science

and ethnic studies, SuChin Pak proves that you don't have to have a degreein science to be interested in how and why the world works. SuChin's sci-

ence exploration continues in season 15 as she travels to South Dakota to

find out what's so bad about the Badlands, how gold miners find the loot,and how wild mustangs are tamed.

Award-winning television journalist Dave Huddleston really knows how to

find the answers to viewers' science questions. On NEWTON'S APPLE, he has

traveled the world to learn about sharks, tattoos, the postal service, and

more. During Dave's third season, the adventures continue as he dives the

wreck of a sunken slave ship, takes off in an engineless glider plane, digs

for massive mammoth bones in Hot Springs, S.D., and more.

1

With a background in musical theater, Eileen Galindo is not what people

and chocolate.ty,

think of as the typical science scholar. But the newest member of the

NEWTON'S APPLE team has learned that science is fun and interesting. In

her second season with the show, Eileen gets up close and personal with

the ferocious dinosaurs from The Lost World: Jurassic Park ride at

Universal Studios. She also finds the answers to questions about

glassblowing, virtual reality,

1

Brian Hackney became interested in science as a child while playing with a

telescope in his back yard. After receiving degrees in electrical engineering and

physics, he became an on-air meteorologist and science reporter. In his third

NEWTON'S APPLE season, Brian ("Sherlock") travels to England to unravel the

mysteries of London fog. Then he visits the Waltham Pet Center where dog and

cat foods are developed and tested in a completely humane way.

We ,encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with the National Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant Iron 3M. 3IBESTCYVVAVAII A F

Innovation

How to use the NEWTON'S APPLE

Yozchor's ai z

This guide was developed to help you

use the 115.2h season of HIEWTOKS

APPLE in your classroom. Follow these

steps to get the most from the show

and the guide in the classroom.

1. Check the season 15 index or the alphabeticalScience Subject Index to find the show in whichyour desired segment appears.

2. The guide is organized in show number order. Flip tothe show number to find your segment.

3. Use the Getting Started activity and questions toengage your students before you watch the segment.

4. Watch the segment. Look for opportunities to incor-porate the Main Activity or the Try This activities intothe viewing of the segment. Tailor the use of video,lecture, and activities according to your teaching andyour students' learning styles.

5. Use the Overview section as background foryour lecture.

6. Use the Resources section to find further information.We've listed books, magazine and newspaper articles,software, and Web sites that are not only helpful foryou but also provide your students good sources foradditional information.

7. Pose the Connections questions to your students toprompt discussion of extension subjects and to pro-mote independent learning.

8. Use the Main Activity and Try This sections withinthe lesson in the classroom or as take-home activities.

Finding NEWTON'S APPLE

NEWTON'S APPLE allows three-year, off -air recording rights for educational pur-

poses. Tape the show, or have your resource center tape it directly off the air and use

it in the classroom as often as you like for three years.

The 15th season of NEWTON'S APPLE will air on most PBS stations beginning in

October 1997 (check your local PBS listings for exact air dates and time). If you

don't find NEWTON'S APPLE listed in your local TV or PBS viewer's guide, con-

tact your PBS station to find out when the 15th season will air in your area. If you

cannot tape it off the air, call 1-800-588-NEWTON to purchase a tape.

Public television stations depend on what they hear from viewers to help make their

programming decisions, and as an educator, you are one of public television's most

important constituents. If your public television station is not running NEWTON'S

APPLE, you must let them know that it is important to you and your students. If

your station is running the show, call them and let them know how much you

depend on it in the classroom.

If you have any comments or questions, please write to:

Director of Outreach & Promotion

NEWTON'S APPLE

172 4th St. E

St. Paul, MN 55101

e-mail: [email protected]'S APPLE Teacher's Guides also are available on the Web at

http://www.ktca.orginewtons

We encourage duplication ..f.o.r educational non-commercial use.Educational materials 'developed with the National Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by alrant frore3M. 4 a'J' v Innovation

INDEX TO THE 15TH SEASON

LESSON PAGES

There are two ways to locate any of the 26 lessons in this guide: Check the alphabetically arranged subject index found on theinside back cover or look through the numerically arranged show index on this page.

Either way, once you've identified a topic you'd like to explore, look in the upper right corner of each lesson page for theNEWTON'S APPLE show number (e.g., 1501, 1502) that corresponds to that topic. We've also included the segment'sapproximate running time in the same corner.

In the center of this book, you will find a guide to the past four seasons of NEWTON'S APPLE. These episodes may berebroadcast on your local PBS station throughout the year, or you may purchase them by calling 1-800-588-NEWTON.We hope you will continue to use them in your classroom.

1501

GlaucomaLost World Dinosaurs

11502

Scuba DivingSunken Slave Ship

1503

Gold MinePhases of the Moon

1504Pet SpecialPack BehaviorPet Food

1505

AsthmaWhite-water Rafting

1506GlidersNovocainTM

1507

Adventure SpecialGlacier ClimbingWilderness Training

11508

Glass BlowingSmiles

1509

Greenhouse EffectMammoth Dig

1510

Kids on MarsWind Blow

115111

Car EnginesZoo Vet

1512

Robots SpecialNASA RobotsRobots

1513

LightningProteins

We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with the National Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. 5aa Innovation

SCIENCE SUBJECT INDEX

Here is an at-a-glance index of the science disciplines dealt with in the NEWTON'SAPPLE lesson pages, incorporating the National Science Teachers Association's Scope,

Sequence, and Coordination of Secondary School Science model.

We've also listed some extended concepts.

2.

E0

00.0

60

1..0180

00

0C

Asthma 1505 6 Medical Science

Health

Car Engines 1511 0 Engineering

Glacier Climbing 1507 0 ....0 0 0 Geology

Glass Blowing 1508 C) t10 16Engineering

Glaucoma 1501 6 toMedical Science

Gliders 15060 0 0 Engineering

Gold Mine 1503 0 6 Engineering

Geology

Greenhouse Effect 1509 10 6 Environment

Meteorology

Kids on Mars 1510 0 6 Geology Computer Science

Topography

Lightning 1513 6 6 0 Meteorology

Lost World Dinosaurs 1501 ID 0 0 to Paleontology Engineering

Computer Science

Mammoth Dig 1509 6 I) 0 Paleontology

NASA Robots1512 ,

u:,

Computer Science

Engineering


6ILNEWTON'S APPLE is a production tf sTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grarom 3M. *YiL Innovation

SCIENCE SUBJECT INDEX

Here is an at-a-glance index of the science disciplines dealt with in the NEWTON'SAPPLE lesson pages, incorporating the National Science Teachers Association's Scope,Sequence, and Coordination of Secondary School Science model.

We've also listed some extended concepts.

160.COB

0150

00.00

Novocain 150615 0 11?

Medical Science

Pack Behavior 1504 Zoology Animal PsychologyGenetics

Pet Food 1504 to 0 a-1

Zoology Food Nutrition

Veterinary Science

Phases of the Moon 1503 0 6 Astronomy

Proteins 1513"1 0 0 7

Microbiology

Robots 1512 6 10 0 Engineering

Computer Science

Scuba Diving 150211) 75 to Oceanography

Smiles 1508 6 Psychology

Sunken Slave Ship 1502 0 tip Archaeology

White-water Rafting 1505,

Fluid Dynamics

Engineering

Wilderness Training 1507 10 VP a'i

Ecology EnvironmentFood/Nutrition

Wind Blow 1510 `', 6 ti?

Ecology Environment

Zoo Vet 1511 6 Veterinary Science


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant trom 3M.

Innovation

'GLAUCOMAWhat is glaucoma and how do people g,et it?

Brian takes a closer look into the eye of glaucoma.

":=7,-, ceiling OM/Mk*

Begin the lesson by asking students, "Do you knowthat everyone is a little bit blind?" Then instructthem to conduct the following experiment to findtheir normal blind spot.

On a piece of paper, draw two small stars aboutfour inches apart. Cover your left eye and hold the

paper at arm's length. With your right eye focused

on the left star, move the paper slowly towardyou. What happens? Switch eyes and do it again.

Where did the star go? Why do you think thisis happening?

Overdetv

Most of us have thought about how difficult dailylife would be if we were blind, so we're careful to

protect our eyes. Yet for a million Americans, there

is a sneak thief at work, slowly and silently stealingtheir vision. The thief is so clever that the victimsdon't even know their eyesight is in danger.

The thief is a disease called glaucoma, a painlessaffliction that is the second leading cause of blind-ness in the United States. Glaucoma is a disease ofthe plumbing system of the eye, a system that mostpeople don't even know they have. A normal eye is

filled with a fluid, called aqueous humor, that con-stantly flows through the pupil (the dark, centralpart of the eye that lets in light) and over the iris(the colored ring of tissue around the pupil thatgives our eyes their color). The fluid, producedinside the eye by the skin of the ciliary body (focus-ing muscle), nourishes the cornea (the clear frontlens of the eye) as it flows out of the eye through ameshwork of tiny drainage openings at the baseof the iris (where it joins the outside edge of

the cornea).

There are several types of glaucoma, but the mostcommon kind occurs when the drainage openings

http: / /www.ktca.org /newtons

slowly become blocked over many years. Since there

are no pain-sensing nerves in the region, theincreasing pressure of the fluid is painless.

Even when the drainage openings are almost corn-pletely blocked, the ciliary tissues keep producingfluid. As a result, pressure from the backed-up fluidstarts building inside the eye. This increased pres-sure pushes on the optic nerve at the back of theeye, distorting, compressing and, over time,destroying it, one nerve cell at a time, until blind

spots form.

The loss is usually slow, with ever-increasing dim-ming of vision creeping in from the side, as if youwere looking through a narrowing tunnel or the

room lights were dimming. Many people don'tnotice this loss in their peripheral vision, evenwhen 50 percent of the nerves are destroyed. Whenthey go to an eye doctor and discover they haveglaucoma, further loss of vision can be prevented,but nothing can be done to restore the eyesight

already lost.

Glaucoma can't be cured, but doctors can preventfurther damage by using drugs in the form of eye-drops or pills to lower the pressure in the eye. Ifdrugs don't work, doctors can use laser surgery toopen the drainage system and allow the fluid topass out of the eye. If that fails, microsurgery isused to create new tubes to allow the fluid to drainout. The best way to deal with the disease of glau-coma, however, is to detect it early, before much

vision is lost.

1. If you were blind, how do you think your lifewould be different? How would it be the same?

2. Do you get a glaucoma test when you visit theeye doctor? How do you think the test works?

BooksBantam medical dictionary. (1996)

New York: Bantam Books.

Barnes & Noble concise medicaldictionary. (1995) New York:

Barnes & Noble Books.

Computer software:The Learning Company: Mosby's

Medical Encyclopedia. CD-ROM for

Macintosh or Windows.

Interactive Ventures Inc.: Mayo Clinic

Family Health. CD-ROM for Macintosh

or Windows.

Dorling Kindersley Multimedia: TheAmerican Medical Association FamilyMedical Guide. CD-ROM for Macintosh

or Windows.

OrganizationsThe Glaucoma Research Foundation

490 Post Street, Suite 830San Francisco, CA 94102

(800) 826-6693

http://www.glaucoma.org/grf/booklet.html

Prevent Blindness America

500 E. Remington RoadSchaumburg, IL 60173

(800) 331-2020http://www.prevent-blindness.org

Web sitesAmerican Academy of Ophthalmology

http://www.eyenet.org

Glaucoma Foundation

http://www.glaucoma-foundation.org

Ophthalmic Consultants of Boston

http://www.eyeboston.com/glaucoma.html

NEWTON'S APPLE videocassettes and educational materials

provide further information about thisand other topics. Call 1- 800 -588-

NEWTON or check out our Web site at:http: / /www.ktca.org /newtons

We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed wit 'tie National Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of ATCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1501Glaucoma

Glaucoma first stealssight by taking away

peripheral vision. To getan idea of what that islike, take a black piece

of construction paperabout the size of regularnotebook paper and rollit into a tube. When youhold it in your left handand look through it with

your left eye, it's likelooking down a dark tun-

nel. That's how manypeople with advanced

glaucoma see. Now holdyour right palm midway

along the tube in front ofyour right eye. What do

you see in your palm?

On a dark evening, gooutside and try to look

at familiar objects. Canyou see them better if

you look straight at themor if you look just to the

side of them? Why doyou think that is?

Vt717

Look at one word onthe page of a book.

Without movingyour eyes from that

word, how muchcan you read?

Conduct interviews to determine which older friends and family are at risk for glaucoma.

faun agilh7hvNk*Between two and three million Americans have glau-coma, and worldwide it is the second leading causeof blindness. Glaucoma also is the leading cause ofblindness in African Americans. Some people have amuch higher risk of getting glaucoma than others.While glaucoma is rare in young people, some of theadults you know may be suffering from the "silentsneak-thief of sight."

In this activity, you will develop a "glaucoma risk"

questionnaire, then interview at least three adults todetermine if they should be extra vigilant about get-ting their eyes checked for the disease.

Materials

pen or pencil

notebook or other paper on whichyou can take noteslist of questions (you will develop thequestions) to ask the people youinterview

Between 20 and 25 percent of people with aclose relative who has glaucoma will get the dis-ease themselves, especially if both are female.

Some people with normal pressure in their eyescan have glaucoma, and some people with highpressure in their eyes don't get glaucoma.

The risk of developing glaucoma ifyou have afamily history of the disease is nearly 10 timesgreater than someone without a family historyof glaucoma.

About 80 percent of people with glaucoma areover age 60; 31 percent are between 45 and 60years old; less than one percent are under 45 years

of age.

People who suffer from diabetes or whowear thick glasses for myopia are morelikely to get glaucoma.

People who have had an eye injury aremore likely to get glaucoma in that eye, even

many years later.

2. Interview at least three adults, making sure torecord their age, family history of disease,

ethnic background, when they lasthad their eyes checked, and anything

else that might put them at a higherrisk for glaucoma.

3. Figure out a system to write down and keeptrack of each adult's risk factors. Determine whichof them is most likely to develop the disease.

Based on the facts listed below

and other information you gatherfrom the resource material on glaucoma,develop a list of questions designed to determine aperson's risk of getting glaucoma.

A normal, healthy 65-year-old eye only sees 20percent of the light that a teenager sees. Anyloss in light sensitivity will further diminishnight vision.

Glaucoma is seven times more likely to occur inblacks than in whites. People of Asian descent arealso at a higher risk than those of Europeandescent.

People over the age of 65 are seven times morelikely to get glaucoma than those under 65.

Only 15 percent of people with glaucomago blind.

Questions

1. Is a person who wears glasses or contact lenses

more or less likely to have an undetected case ofglaucoma? Why?

2. Are there other eye diseases that are hard todetect, yet also damage vision?


NEWTONS APPLE is a production or KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant tram 3M.

Innovation

LOST WORLD DINOSAURSHow. were realistic dinosaur& created for Jurassic Park: The Ride?

Eileen goes to Universal Studios to get a behind-the-scenes look at the famous ride.

essign REIFgOd

Begin the lesson by asking these questions: Haveyou seen the movies Jurassic Park or Lost World?How real did the dinosaurs appear to you? Whatmakes them seem real? Have you ever seen modelcreatures that didn't seem real? What was the dif-ference? What were the moments in the moviesthat were most striking? Why?

How would you like to come face to face with aT rex or Ultrasaurus?Of course, the dinosaurs inJurassic Park aren't real. Despite Jurassic Park's sci-

ence fiction about recreating dinosaurs throughmodern science, we are still left to imagine howdinosaurs really looked, sounded, and felt. So howdid they build Jurassic Park: The Ride? How didthey get the dinosaurs to move so realistically?How did they make an environment that repli-cates the one scientists believe the dinosaurs livedin? How do paleontologists know what environ-ment would be the most realistic?

41,vernevy

The Jurassic Park ride at Universal StudiosHollywood was in development even before thefirst frame of film was shot for the first movie,Jurassic Park. The creators spared no expense tomake the park as lifelike and realistic as possible,right down to the scripted "disaster" that happensin the middle of the ride. The designers of the ride(who came from every area of the science andtechnology community) based the ride's environ-ment on the most current knowledge about whatthe dinosaurs looked like and how they behaved.

For example, chemists made materials for thedinosaurs' skin that accurately duplicates skinimprints found with fossils. Botanists selected over100 species of plants to be viewed from the ride.They based their choices in part on fossilizedplants found in Wyoming. An attempt was made


to accurately depict dinosaur behavior, too.Scientists now think that dinosaurs were at leastsomewhat warm-blooded, that some of them (likethe Velociraptor) hunted in groups, and that sometended their hatchlings the way birds do today.Evidence for these ideas comes from a large fossildeposit in Montana, in which dinosaur eggs andbabies were found in nestlike formations, and agroup of Velociraptors was found entangled withthe fossil of an enormous plant-eating dinosaur.

Scientists extrapolated dinosaur movements andposture by studying the size and shape of bonesand connective tissue, and by observing the layoutof fossils that had apparently died in action (run-ning or fighting). Robotics experts at a defensecontractor then modeled these movements withan advanced hydraulic technology first developedfor the space program.

The hydraulics were particularly importantbecause most of the moving models of living crea-tures (animatronics) up until then had been ratherjerky. This new hydraulic system, however, used afluid under pressure to allow very smooth anddetailed movement called compliant reactivity.Combined with computerized instructions foreven the smallest movement detail, such as shift-ing the shoulder slightly when moving an arm ormoving the tail for balance when shifting weightfrom foot to foot, this compliant reactivity is star-tlingly realistic.

CCEfiedINIS4%*1. Why is realism so important to people in a ride

like the Jurassic Park ride?2. How do you think the ride designers are going

to top themselves? How could the next ride beeven better?

kesouvim

Books and articlesAllman, W.F. (1993, June 7) The dinosaur

hunter. U.S. News & World Report,

pp. 62-72.

Homer, J. & Dobb, E. (1996) Dinosaur

lives: Unearthing an evolutionary saga.

New York: Harper Collins.

Thro, E. (1993) Robotics: The marriage of

computers and machines. New York:

Facts on File.

Catalo

The Everything Dinosaur Catalogue

(800) 346-6366.

Web sites

Dinosaur Society

http://www.dinosociety.org

Universal Studios' Jurassic Park:

The Ride

http://jurassic.unicity.com/jurassic.html



NEWTON or check out our Web sire at:http://www.ktca.org/newtons

We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with the National Science Teachers Associlion.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of CA Saint Paul /Minneapolis. Made dossii??M by a grant from 3M.

10 Innovation

VI?

Write a story line for anamusement park ride.

What kind of actionwould you have? How

would you draw the audi-ence into your story?

An online Jurassic Parkgame is available on the

Internet at the addressbelow. Try this game

out. What do you think ofit? How would

you improve it?http://jurassic.unicity.

com/jurassic.html

WIT Vrldo

Raise your arm or leg andnotice what other parts of

your body shift or movealso. Is this movement

consistent? Can youmove a limb without

moving any other part ofyour body?

DINO-MITE: HOW DID THEY DO?

110.zatiCIA4DINOliti u, en imtDetermine how accurate the dinosaur-makers were in creating realistic dinos.

reee,,Lin& Milvilv

The best models show that close attention was paidto small details. See if you can notice these detailsand suggest materials for models.

Materials

video of a dinosaur movie (Jurassic Park or LostWork for example, but also Godzilk or anotherscience fiction movie) and the equipment to playit on, preferably with a stop-motion featureartists' depiction of reconstructed dinosaurs (inlibrary books, magazine articles, or on the Web)natural objects (rocks, flowers) or a small animalsuch as a frog or fish

1. Choose a short portion of the video with adinosaur exhibiting some close-up behavior.

2. Watch the video clip a coupleof times, stopping it to studyindividual movements andmaterials. Can you identifyany clay animation, models,humans in costumes, or com-puter-generated elements? Isthere anything that isn't com-pletely realistic?

3. Compare the video to thereconstruction of dinosaur fos-sils. Can you find mistakes orinaccuracies in your video clip?

4. Take a simple natural objectsuch as a rock or a singleflower, and think about howyou would design a model forit. What materials would youuse? What details would beparticularly important toreproduce? If you wanted todesign a model for a small animal such as a frogor fish, what additional details would you need?Why are moving models more difficult to make?

http://www.ktca.org/newtons

Questions

1. What areas of study are necessary to get a jobmodeling animals and natural elements for themovies or for museums?

2. A science has recently been created that involvescreating faces on human (or human ancestor)skulls. What do scientists have to consider whenreconstructing a face on a skull?

e'ncourage duplication for edlucational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with the National Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE Is a production.ot KTCA SaMtPaul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M.

Innovation

SCUBA DIVING

NEWTON'S APPLE takes the plunge to explore scuba diving.

Sttting St flied.-1414d1*

Scuba diving is more than a sport. It's a sciencethat operationally integrates physics, chemistry,physiology, and oceanography. It's also pretty cool.

Begin the lesson by showing students a can ofcompressed air. "Air blasters" are often available ascommercial dusting sprays at photographic supplystores. Explain that the can contains a large vol-ume of air that has been compressed into a smallspace. Within this space, the gas is stored underconsiderable pressure. When the nozzle is pressed,some of the pressurized gas escapes from the can.

Attach a length of plastic tubing or a nozzleextension to the can. Press the nozzle to demon-strate the directional flow of air. Fill a fish bowlwith water. Position the free end of the tubingbeneath the water's surface. Press the nozzleand have students observe the rush of rising

air bubbles.

Challenge the class to critically analyze theirobservations. What causes the rush of bubbles?What do the bubbles contain? Predict how muchair is stored in the can. Can compressed air sup-port living things that require oxygen?

Scubafrom the phrase "self-contained underwa-ter breathing apparatus"refers to a type of div-ing in which an individual carries his or her ownsupply of air. This air supply is stored within asteel or aluminum cylinder called a scuba tank. Adevice called a regulator "taps" the pressurized airand adjusts its flow for breathing.

Prior to the dive, a mechanical compressor fillsthe tank with a large volume of air. The pressureproduced by this compressed air can exceed 200


times the standard atmospheric pressure! As adiver breathes, flow-adjusting devices called stagesdrop the flow pressure. Air that is exhaled doesnot return to the scuba tank. Instead, it is releasedand observed as the rush of rising bubbles. Sportdivers can safely dive to a depth of about 39meters (130 feet) or five atmospheres of pressure.

Although the first crude scuba apparatus wasinvented over 150 years ago, it was Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan who perfectedthe modern day Aqua-Lung. Unlike the "hard-hat" divers that relied on a surface air hose,Cousteau (in the early 1940s) had attaineduntethered freedom.

Jtunections1. Suppose a balloon filled with air was released

from the sea bottom. How does the surround-ing pressure change as the balloon rises? Whatis likely to happen to the balloon before itreaches the surface? Explain.

2. The bends is a life-threatening illness thatresults from too rapid a return to surface airpressure. During ascent, nitrogen dissolved inthe blood stream comes out of solution as lungbubbles that can block the flow of blood tocritical body organs. When construction ofunderwater foundations for the BrooklynBridge was underway, laborers worked in pres-surized chambers. Upon a rapid return to thesurface, many suffered from the bends. If youwere in charge of this construction project,how might you protect these workers fromdecompression sickness?

Our featured contributor is the National Association of Black Scuba Divers (NABS) (800) 521-NABS http://www.nabsdivers.org/

Resources

Books and articlesBerg, C. (1993, Dec) Another look at the

mysterious closed system. Science

Teacher, pp. 44-48.

Frazier, R. (1995) A philosophical toy.

Available at:

http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/courses/

C1241- scienceSp95/

resources/philoToy/philoToy.html

Mang R. (1990) The history of under-

ground exploration. New York: Dover

Publications, Inc.

Computer softwareChariot: Eco-Adventures in the Oceans.

3.5 disks for DOS or Macintosh.

(619) 298-0202 or

http://www.chariotcom

Edmark: Destination: Ocean. CD-ROM for

Macintosh/Windows. (800) 320-8379 or

http://www.ed ma rk.com

The Learning Company: Operation

Neptune. CD-ROM for Macintosh or

Windows. (800) 852-2255

Web sites

Divers Alert Network (DAN)

(800) 446-2671

http://www.dan.ycg.org/

Scuba! On-Line Interactive Magazine

http://www.scubaon-line.com



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Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1502Scuba Diving

Contact a local diveshop and invite oneof the divers to visit

the class. Ask thediver to bring and

demonstrate theproper and safe use

of scuba equipment.

M

Put on a pair of safetygoggles. Then, pour a

small amount of vinegarinto a small beverage

container. Place about ateaspoon of baking soda

into a balloon. Slip theneck of the balloon over

the neck of the bottle.Pick up the balloon so

that the baking sodafalls into the vinegar.

Observe what happens tothe balloon as the pres-

sure within the containerincreases. Can this

observation be applied todiving? If so, how?

Research the depthlimits associated with

scuba diving. Whycan't divers descend

past a certain depth?How can dolphins andwhales dive to incred-

ible depths whilescuba divers are

restricted to the nearsurface waters?

UPS AND DOWNS OF DIVING1!A e n.

Create a Cartesian diver and watch what happens when you put it under pressure.

NNOIRiimillAmyot

Imagine entering a freshwater pond or lake. Take adeep breath and you're likely to float. Exhale, andyou'll probably find yourself sinking. These "upsand downs" depend upon the amount of air in yourlungs. As the volume of this gas increases, youbecome more buoyant. As the gas volume drops,you lose buoyancy and begin to sink.

In this main activity, you'll construct a device calleda Cartesian diver. Like a floating person, this diverhas a buoyancy that depends upon its volume oftrapped air. As you explore itsbehavior, you'll uncoverthe relationship betweenpressure andvolume.

Materials


Can you explain the connection between thischange in volume and the behavior of the medi-cine dropper? What happens to the bubble's vol-ume when you release your grip? How does a

change in volume relate tothe movement of themedicine dropper?

0

0

plastic 1- or2-liter soda container with ascrew-on lidglass medicine dropper

1. Fill the container with tap water.2. Lower the medicine dropper into the container.

Squeeze the bulb slightly so that the glass tubebecomes partially filled with water.

3. Set the dropper floating within the container.Add more water to the container so that thelevel of water rises to the brim.

4. Screw on the container lid. The seal should betight enough to prevent the leakage of water.

5. Squeeze the center of the plastic container. Whathappens to the medicine dropper? Release yourpressure. What happens now? Note: If the drop-per remains afloat, you'll need to open the con-tainer and fill the dropper tube with more water.

6. Take a close look at the air bubble trapped with-in the medicine dropper. What happens to thebubble's volume as you squeeze the container?

Extend the activityCan you modifythe design of yourmedicine dropper

so that it can recov-er items that are scat-

tered at the bottom of thecontainer? First, design a diverthat can retrieve paper clips and

other objects attracted to magnets.Then, redesign your diver to "recover" tar-

gets that have eyelet-like handles.

Is it possible to make a Cartesian diver out of othermaterials, such as the plastic cap to a pen, weightedwith a bit of clay? See what objects will work.

Questions

1. Does squeezing the bottle force more water intothe air or compress the air, making the diverheavier and causing it to sink?

2. How do these demonstrations relate to scubadiving equipment? How do they explain freedivers' use of stones for weight as they dive?


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. 133N1 Innovation

How and what can Iwe learn from a shipwreck?

Dave dives a wreck and learns how scientists investigate it.

-,,,,,,51eMag Mc:Med

Divide the class into teams. Give each team a pho-tograph of an ocean floor or desert scene and apiece of graph paper. Ask them to imagine they arearchaeologists who are looking for treasure underthe sand or sea. Have them decide what the trea-sure is and how it ended up there. Then have

them plot a map of exactly where they think thetreasure might be located. Be sure to draw anylandmarks that will serve as reference points. Askone student from each group to explain their

graph and what they hope to find.

Ask these questions: How is the work of marinearchaeologists different from the work of dry landarchaeologists? How do you think marine archae-ologists preserve the integrity of a site and its con-tents during and after the initial discovery?

The Henrietta Marie's trip began in 1700 inLondon. The ship stopped in Africa to trade glassbeads, guns, and pewter to tribal chiefs inexchange for a human cargo of 190 African slavesand continued on to Jamaica and sold the slaves toplantation owners, but never returned to Londonfrom there. It was overtaken by a violent stormand went down off the Florida coast.

We know the details of the Henrietta Marie's voyage

as a direct result of a painstaking sleuthing of marine

archaeologists and historians. Marine archaeologistsunearthed the ship's artifacts in 1982. Using items

such as the bell and shackles, historians piecedtogether the ship's saga, providing a rare look at how

slave ships operated.

The first step for archaeologists was to establish abase line and grid on the ocean floor aroundthe wreck to serve as reference points.

Ihttp://www.ktca.orginewtons

Then they began mapping out where artifactswere discovered.

Some of the 7,500 artifacts were covered with lay-ers of encrustation made up of the tiny skeletons

of microorganisms. As one group of the organismsdied, another would attach itself on top of theoriginal layer. Other ship artifacts were preservedby layers of sand, creating an absence of oxygenthat protected them from microorganisms thatfeed off organic matter, waves, and other forces ofnature. Conditions such as the depth at which thewreck was found and the cold temperature of theocean also helped to preserve the artifacts.

After carefully gridding, tagging, and excavatingartifacts from the site, conservationists removedsand and small shell encrustations. Then, in a lab,they removed any rust from metal artifactsthrough a process of electrolytic reduction, wherethe oxidation (or rust) process is reversed. Someartifacts are beyond help for this method to work,but if the layers of encrustation are thick enough,they can be filled like a mold with an epoxy resinto create casts or replicas of the pieces.

What is finally preserved provides us with a timecapsule, a glimpse into the past, particularly theconditions of the slave trade during that period.This glimpse may help us to understand our histo-ry and move more wisely into the future.

C@INIed©HO

1. Archaeological discoveries like the HenriettaMarie change the way we view history. How dothey affect our view of the present and future?2. How do recent discoveries like those made byastronomers about the surface of Mars or by biolo-

gists working in Antarctica and the Amazon rainforest change our understanding of life on Earth?

Our featured contributor is the National Association of Black Scuba Divers (NABS), (800) 521-NABS, http: / /www.nabsdivers.org/

esources

We encourage duplication for educational nonEducational materials developed with he National Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTEA dint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M.14

Books and articlesMarx, R. (1990) The history of under-

ground exploration. New York: Dover

Publications, Inc.

Sullivan, G. (1994) Slave ship: The story

of the Henrietta Marie. New York:

Cobblehill Books.

Computer software

Clearvue: African-American History:

Heroism, Struggle, and Hope.

CD-ROM for Macintosh/Windows.

Available through catalogs.

Scholastic: Exploring the titanic. CD-

ROM for Macintosh. (800) SCHOLASTIC or

http://scholastic.com

Organizations

Mel Fisher Maritime Heritage Society

P.O. Box 511

Key West, FL 33041

(305) 294-2633

Web sites

Connections: A Culturally Historical

Perspective of West African

to African American

http://asu.alasu.edu/academic/

advstudies/home.html

Marine Archaeology Home Page

http://www.marinearchaeology.com

The Mystery of the Pipe Wreck Home Page

http://copernicus.bbn.com/vq/pipewreck/index.html




-commercial use.

Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1502Sunken Slave Ship

Dr. MadeleineBurnside, executivedirector of the Mel

Fisher MaritimeHeritage Society,

asserts, "I really feelthat (the discovery of

the Henrietta Marie) is animportant event histori-

cally. There's somethingabout not just being

able to hear stories, butto touch and feel thetangible objects, that

allows you to close thebook. It's over. You've

brought it to conscious-ness and you can say,'We'll never let anyonedo this to anyone else

again."' Debate whyyou agree or disagree

with this statement.

Gather several differentmetal items. Place eachitem in a numbered and

covered glass or clearplastic container filledwith saltwater. Record

how much water and howmuch salt you placed in

each container and whichitem is in each container.

Check each containerdaily for a week and

record your observations.Do you see signs of rust?

On which metals? Howcan you explain your

observations?

LOST AT SEAKiatl HI Student Activity

Become underwater detectives as you investigate the site of a sunken ship.

AdIvtv11**

Work in teams to create the story and site of ashipwreck in a tub or aquarium filled with sandand water. Explore another team's site to grid, tag,and excavate the artifacts. Record informationabout each item as you excavate and analyze it,then present your findings to the other teams ofmarine archaeologists.

Materials for each team

modeling clay

a variety of small objects with different shapes,including marbles, safety pins, hairpins, Popsiclesticks, coins, metal and rubbers washers, screws,pencils stubs, wrapped hard candy, beads, cheapjewelry, etc.

40 x 80 cm plastic tub, disposable aluminumroasting pan, plastic shoe box, or aquariumsand to make a 5- to 8-cm layer on bottomof containerwater to fillcontainerplastic knives,spoons, forksgraph paperstringtoothpickspencil/papermagnet

1. Work in teams tocreate a story of a ship-wreck: What kind of shipwas it? What was it carrying atthe time it sank? How and when did it happen? 2.

2. Gather a variety of objects that represent whatmight have been on the ship. Make a detailedlist of your artifacts, including size, shape, 3.and material.

3. Cover each one with clay to represent theencrustations on artifacts encountered by

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

00


marine archaeologists.

Cover the bottom of your container with a layerof sand. Fill with water.

Arrange your artifacts in and under the sand.Move to another team's site to explore and exca-vate their artifacts. (That team should keep thestory it wrote secret for nowthe new teamexamines only the artifacts.)Use string tied to toothpicks to set up a grid inthe sand around the site or main artifacts.Record the grid on graph paper, and thenrecord the location where each artifact isdiscovered.

Use a data log to record a description of eachitem as you find it. Think about what informa-tion is important to include.Use plastic utensils and water to carefullyremove any encrustation found on the artifact.

Record your findings.

10. Observe your artifacts and analyze yourdata log. Write a story that might be con-

sistent with the artifacts you found.Present your findings and interpre-

tations to the other teams ofmarine archaeologists. Howclosely does your story com-

pare to the one devised bythe team that created the site?

1.

Questions

How does the process of discovery by excava-tion compare to the investigative process usedby other scientists?

What "experts" could help marine archaeolo-gists determine the nature and historicalcontext of their discoveries?

How might a metal detector aid in theinvestigative process?


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M.

15Innovation

GOLD MINEHow is gold found in the ground?

Su Chin digs deep to explore how gold is panned and mined.

'*94fittIng RiotedNAk*In a pie pan, mix a few small copper BBs (available

in a sporting goods or discount store) with a handfulof glass beads of about the same diameter (approxi-mately 5 mm, available in an art supply store). Addtwo or three cups of water. Over a colander, swish

the mixture in a circle, sloshing some over the sideeach time. Ask students: Do the glass beads or thecopper BBs rinse out more easily with the water?

Why is this happening?

Ask the following questions to prompt discussionbefore watching the segment: How do prospectorsand geologists find gold? How is it mined? What are

those small bits of yellow metal you sometimes see

in rocks? Why are people so crazy about gold?

©verde

When you think of the gold rush days in the OldWest, you probably picture the miner as a grizzledprospector with his mule and pickax. Gold mining

today, however, is a scientific process that uses com-puters, geologic data, chemistry, microbiology, andsophisticated refining equipment to extract traceamounts of gold from rock blasted out from deepunderground. If you look at a map of an under-ground mine, such as the one that the HomestakeMining Company operates in South Dakota, itlooks like a very orderly ant farm, with rooms carved

out of the solid rock for machine shops, laboratories,

and other facilities.

Data from geological core samples goes into a com-

puter that makes a drawing of an area (like a con-

nect-the-dot map in three dimensions) and tells theminers where to find gold-bearing rock. The miners

then drill a series of precision holes into the rockface, pack in explosives, clear everyone out, and blast.

After checking for gas leaks, workers reinforce the

walls and ceiling to prevent cave-ins and then hoist

the ore out of the mine through the vertical shafts.


Gold, a pure element identified with the chemicalsymbol Au, exists in nature. (Fool's gold, a com-

pound of iron and sulfur called a pyrite, looks a littlelike gold.) Tiny gold particles are encased in tons ofrock, so the ore first goes to a mill where it is

crushed very fine. The larger particles separate from

the ground rock on a vibrating table that works onthe same principle as panning, in which substancesof different densities separate from each other.

The smallest particles of gold then are dissolved

(leached) out of the ground rock with a weakcyanide solution. This still doesn't get all the gold,and it leaves some very toxic wastewater behind, but

miners have some valuable new helpers for both ofthese problems: bacteria. Some bacteria chew up thecyanide in wastewater. Others chemically alter stub-

born rocks so that the cyanide treatment can bemore effective. This is called bioleaching. A side ben-

efit of bioleaching is the fast production (and conse-quent treatment) of acids that would otherwise leakslowly from the sludge into the environment.

44Connecti us

1. Mining can have significant environmentaleffects, particularly in developing countries with-

out strict environmental monitoring. For exam-ple, cyanide and acid wastes from mines contami-

nate streams. How do you think we can helpthese developing countries, who may be rich inraw materials but poor in cash and education,protect their environment from being degradedby mining operations?

2. We use gold not only for jewelry, money, andhigh-tech products but also as a part of our lan-guage. How many ways do you use the word"gold"? How is this word used in the books you

read and in products you buy?

BESTCOPYAVAILAB E

Resources

ME=

Books and articles

Butterworth IV, W. (1995, Sept) Panning for

gold. Boy's Life, p. 26.

Moffat, A. (1994, May 6) Microbial mining

boosts the environment, bottom line.

Science, p. 778.

Parker, W. (1966) Gold in the Black Hills.

Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Sawa, T. (1996, Dec 30) Yukon alchemy: A

mine raises environmental concerns.

Maclean's, p. 92.

Computer software

MECC: The Yukon Trail. CD-ROM.

(800) 685-6322 or (612) 569-1500

Nissen Ventures: StripMiner for Windows.

(604) 436-5501

Web sites

Homestake Mining Company

http://199.170.0.164/

Info-Mine

http://www.info-mine.com/

Videos (tree) on acid mine drainage are

available on request from:

http://www.info-mine.com/technomine/

enviromine/videos/vmain.html

O&K Gold Mining Game

http://www.oandk.com/ga mel .htm I

Requires Netscape 3.0 plug-in for Shockwave.

Recreational Gold Prospecting

and Mining Page

http://www.dnai.com/wfw

One link goes to a list of organizations

(categorized by state) devoted to

recreational gold prospecting.




We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with the NetioriAl Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of if-1'CA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. 16Innovation

VET INg2

Find out what proper-ties gold has that

make it essential insome industries andmedical procedures.

Find five uses of goldin the world of high

technology, two usesin art or architecture,

and three uses inhealth care. Gold issometimes used in

fooddo youknow why?

The weight of anobject divided by itsvolume will give youits density. How canyou measure weight

and volume? Find outif different metals

have different densi-ties and how metal

densities differ fromnonmetals such

as glass.

Gold has been trea-sured by human

beings since longbefore the Pharaohs

and not just asmoney. Visit a muse-um and look for his-

torical items made ofgold. What did

ancient people dowith gold? How did

they use it? Howwas it a part of

their culture?

UNDER PRESSURE

Design a reinforcement that will help your tunnel withstand collapse.

Add/Cave-ins have always been a serious danger inmines. As the depth increases, the pressure on the 4.walls and ceiling or the mine tunnel becomesenormous. Engineers have worked to design newmethods of reinforcing tunnels so they will notcollapse. Using just paper as a reinforcementmaterial, can you design a good, safe tunnel? Trythis as a contest among several groups of students. 5.

Materials

two cardboard boxes, one small enough to fitinside the other with considerable room tospare, but deep enough to hold several inchesof sand. The small box should have a hole cutat the base in two opposite sides, large enoughfor the experimental tunnels to slide through(see diagram).several pounds of wet sanda big spoon, scoop, or measuring cupseveral sheets of regular white paper orconstruction papertape

1. Place the smaller box, with the open top fac-ing up, inside the larger box. (The largerbox is just there to catchspilled sand.)

2. Design a tunnel,using only paperwith enough tapeto hold it together.Start with some-thing simple like along, narrow boxor tube.

3. Place the tunnel throughthe holes in the small box.(The tunnel must be long enoughto fit through both holes with an inch

6.


or so protruding from each side.)Pour wet sand into the small box in measuredquantities (scoops or cups), covering the tun-nel. Record how much sand is required tomake the tunnel collapse. (You will have tolook through the tunnel from one end todetermine when it collapses.)Design some reinforcements or cross bracesfor your tunnel, still using just paper. Youmight try folding, twisting, tightly rolling, orbraiding pieces of paper to obtain supportswith different strength characteristics.Repeat steps 3 and 4 to test your design again.

Questions

1. Which design best resisted collapse? Was anyparticular cross sectiontriangular, circular,rectangularunusually good at withstandingpressure from all sides? Was any design better

at withstanding pressure from the sidethan from the top or vice versa?What kind of cross braces were

most effective?

2. Miners usually don't build tunnelsand then bury themthey dig tunnelsunderground. Which tunnel reinforce-

ment design would be easiestto install if you packed thesmall box firmly with sandand then dug a tunnel?Can you think of a way todig and reinforce atthe same time?


NEWTONS APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M.

Innovation

PHASES OF THE MOONWhy doesihe moon look different at different-times of the.month?

David examines how the moon looks from Earth.

@Nog R@EIRS4

Darken the classroom but turn on a single, incan-descent light bulb in a corner. Choose someone tohold a ball in the center of the room. Studentsshould then sketch what they see of the ball fromwherever they are sitting. Include the light andshadow on the ball, and the location of their seatrelative to the light and the ball. Turn the lights on,and compare the sketches. What differences arethere? 'What caused the differences?

Why do most newspapers publish the upcomingdates for the phases of the moon and the times ofeach moonrise and moonset? What professionsdepend on knowing this information? Why? Canyou think of any ways the moon's phases affectyour life?

wend=1%*

What you see when you look at the moon dependson its location in relationship to the sun and Earth.The moon never goes away or changes shapewejust see a different fraction of sunlight beingreflected from the moon to Earth.

So how do you explain why this happens? Startwith the facts: The moon is our planet's only nat-ural satellite. Its diameter is about a quarter that ofEarth's. The moon takes about 27.3 days (about amonth) to revolve around Earth, traveling at anaverage distance of about 384,000 kilometers.

We divide the moon's orbital cycle into several seg-ments, or phases. When the sun and the moon areon the same side of Earth, the sun illuminates theside of the moon that faces away from Earth. Wedon't see any reflected sunlight on its front face, soit looks like there is no moon. We call this the newmoon phase. When the crescent moon begins toappear, if you look carefully you may see somefaint illumination of the moon from earthshine


About two weeks later, when the moon and sun areon opposite sides of Earth and all are in a line, the

sun shines past Earth directly onto the full face ofthe moon and we see a "full moon." What happensin between?

As the new moon phase ends, the moon waxes, orappears to grow larger, and we see more of themoon's face. The lighted area increases over timefrom right to left from our perspective on Earth.When the sun-earth-moon angle is very small, wesee only a thin bright curve, called the waxing cres-cent. Over the next seven days the angle betweenthe sun, Earth, and the moon grows to 90 degrees.We see the sunlight spread to cover the right halfof the moon. This is called the first quarter. Thevisible part of the moon continues to wax throughthe gibbous phase over the next seven days until we

see the full moon.

As the cycle continues, we say the moon is waning,or growing smaller. The amount of lighted area wesee decreases, and the darkened area increases from

right to left. You can tell if the moon is waxing orwaning by whether the right side of the moon isdark or light.

Another 14 days pass as the moon moves throughthe waning gibbous phase, then the third quarter,then the waning crescent phase, and seems to final-ly disappear in the new moon phase. Now we'reback to where we started about a month ago!

uons

1. The full moon always rises about the same timeas the sun sets. Why?

2 If the new moon is on the same side of the sunas Earth, why doesn't it block out the sun andcreate an eclipse?

Resources

Books and articlesKoppeschaar, C. (1995) Moon handbook:

A 21st- century travel guide. Chico, CA:

Moon Publications.

Taylor, I.J. (1996, Nov) Illuminating lunarphases. The Science Teacher,

pp. 39-41.

Computer software

Sunburst: Field Trip to the Sky. CD-ROM

for Macintosh and Windows. 800 -321-

7511 or http://nysunburst.com

Organizations

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Teacher Resource Outreach

4800 Oak Grove Drive

Mail Code CS-530

Pasadena, CA 91109

(818) 354-6916 (phone)

http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/

Web sites

NASA Lunar & Planetary Institute

Home Page

http://cass.jsc.nasa.gov/Ipi.html

National Space Science Data Center

http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planets /moonpage.html

Students for the Exploration and

Development of Space (SEDS) presents

The Nine Planets: A Multimedia Tour of

the Solar System

http://www.seds.org

(click on Nine Planets)

Moon Phases

http://www.astro.wisc.edu/dolan/java/MoonPhase.html



NEWTON or check out our Web sire at:h up:// www.ktca .0 n ewt o ns

We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with thefflatigoal Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1503Phases of the Moon

Keep a journal of lunarobservations for two

months. To create yourjournal pages, draw a

10-cm circle on a pageto sketch what you see,

then add a table torecord the date, time,

local weather condi-tions, your location, and

general observations.Make 60 photocopiesand bind them with a

report cover. At the endof the observation peri-

od, read your notes.Can you create a calen-

dar based on yourobservations?

Most newspapers andmany Web sites post

monthly lunar tables.Study a lunar table to

become familiar with thevocabulary. Invite an

astronomer to explain whylunar tables are impor-tantand why they are

published in newspapers.

Iff?y Wi lagA light year is the dis-

tance light travels inone Earth year, ten tril-

lion kilometers. Lighttravels at a speed of

300,000 kilometers persecond. When you seethe moon, it's really a

snapshot of somethingthat happened how

long ago?

Create models that show how and why the moon looks different as it revolves around Earth.

cion adontilv

Work in teams to create 2D and 3D models ofeach phase of the moon. After creating, testing,and refining your models, you'll be able to demon-strate to your classmates what you've learned.

Materials

one 5- to 10-cm Styrofoam ball(the moon)a light source (the sun), suchas an overhead projector orlamp with a 400 -watt bulbroom thatcan bedarkened

For eachgroup ofstudents, provide:chart papermarkersrulers

one 2-cm Styrofoam ballone 4-cm Styrofoam balltoothpickslarge flat sheet of foam core or Styrofoampacking materialflashlight

and Earth during your assigned phase of themoon. Be sure to label the diagram to indicatethe names of each of the bodies as well as thename of the phase.

4. Create a 3D model of your diagram. Use tooth-picks to attach the Styrofoam earth and moonballs to the flat sheet of foam core.

5. Use a flashlight to provide the sunlight.Darken the room when everyone is ready totest their model. Move the balls as necessaryto get the correct phase. Mark and label the

positions of the flashlight, moon,and Earth on the foam

base when the correctphase is attained.6. Now for the realtest: Explain to the class

why we see your phaseof the moon. Use your

diagram and 3D model.Darken the room and role-play

the parts of sun (overhead projector/light

bulb), Earth (volunteer from class), andmoon (the large Styrofoam ball). Do not

state which phase you are demonstrating.Ask a volunteer to guess, based on what he

or she sees on the "moon."

1. As an introduction to this activity, view the

NEWTON'S APPLE video about the phases ofthe moon. Emphasize and review the directionof Earth's rotation and the moon's revolution.

2. Work in groups of three or four. Assign a phaseof the moon to each group:A. New E. FullB. Waxing crescent E Waning gibbousC. First quarter G. Third quarterD. Waxing gibbous H. Waning crescent

3. Use markers to draw a diagram on a piece ofpaper that shows the position of the moon, sun,

Questions

1. What do you think it would be like to haveseveral moons revolving around Earth? Wouldit change your calendar? Poetry? Tides?

2. What views do you think astronauts have ofEarth and moon as they orbit Earth?

3. Would the moon phases change if the moonrevolved around Earth in the oppositedirection? How?



Innovation

PACK BEHAVIOR

Dave talks to the animals to learn more about dogs and wolves,

OTt,);Betting Started

Begin the lesson by asking these questions: Doyou or does someone you know have a dog? Haveyou ever observed how it reacts to you and treatsyou? What does it do when it is hungry? Angry?Frightened? Glad to see you? Do you know of adog that has problem behaviors such as biting?Why does an animal behave that way? How dodogs fit into a family? Do dogs think of humanfamily members as other dogs?

Genetic evidence confirms that dogs descendedfrom wolvesthey are still so close genetically thatthey can interbreed. Even though dogs weredomesticated 12,000 to 14,000 years ago, they stillretain many of the original behaviors of their wolfancestors. Many new pet owners are astonished tofind, for example, that puppies feel safer and moresecureand are easier to housebreakif keptinside a cage part of the time rather than beingallowed to run free. Dogs, like wolves, are den ani-mals; in the wild they sequester their puppies safe-ly in close, dark quarters.

Dogs also conform to a specific social structure,the pack, in which they cooperate to hunt, feedyoung, and defend themselves. There is a chain ofcommand, with each dog dominant or submissiveto other pack members. The most dominant oralpha male leads the pack and keeps everybodyelse in line with nips and other aggressive behav-ior. The alpha male is sometimes successfully chal-lenged by another pack member, and then dropsdown in the hierarchy, but one dog is always incharge.

When dogs began to live with people, they simplytransferred this structuredominance behaviorand allto their human "pack." A dog instinctive-ly defends its human family, but many also try to


establish a rank within that family. (Not all dogswill compete for a higher rank.) The problemsstart if a dog tries to establish dominance oversome or all of the human pack members, resultingin aggressive behaviors such as biting or growling.

Trainers and animal behaviorists concentrate oncommunicating to the dog that it is lower in thehierarchy than the people. Some ways of doingthis include making the dog eat last, restricting itsmovements and sleep areas, refraining from show-ing fear, and encouraging everyone in the house togive the dog commands. This can't remedy all badbehavior, of coursesome dogs have been abusedor bred for aggressiveness and no amount of train-ing can make them reliable pets. Often, however,the trainer can use instinctive pack behavior tosend the dog the message that other family mem-bers outrank it. If this idea is established, the dogusually will accept it.

fOciYI=i

C mations

1 What value can you see to a hierarchical socialstructure? What are some difficulties with it?Do people exhibit similar traits?

2. The famed dog trainer Barbara Woodhouse fre-quently said that the problem was usually notthe dog, but an inexperienced owner. Do youagree? Why?

Resources

0

Books and articlesAmerican Kennel Club. (1991) American

Kennel Club dog care and training. New

York: Howell Book House.

Coren, S. (1995) The intelligence of

dogs. New York: Bantam Books.

The call of the wild: After 70 years, gray

wolves return to Yellowstone. (1997,

Feb 7) TIME For Kids, pp. 4+.

Woodhouse, B. (1982) No bad dogs the

Woodhouse way. New York:

Summit Books.

Web sites

American Dog Trainer's Network

http://www.inch.com/dogs/articles.html

5TOP Dog Behavior and Training site

http://www.suite101.com/topics/cfm/156

International Wolf Center

http://www.wolf.com

SeaThunder's Scratchpad of Wolves and

Wolf-Dog Hybrids

http://home.mem.net/%7Ewhisper/wolves.html





Educational materials developed with the National Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KT6A.Saint..Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1504Pack Behavior

Observe other stu-dents in the cafete-ria. Can you see any

pack structure atwork among other

students? Can yousee behaviors that

are aggressive orsubmissive? Are

there natural lead-ers? Followers?

Methods that theleaders use to keep

the followers in line?Challenges tothe leaders?

Wwv 'Vigo

Visit a dog trainingfacility and watch

how the trainerswork. If you have a

dog at home, trytraining it to sit up

or exhibit a specificbehavior. Is it easyor difficult? Why?

Find out more aboutthe domestication ofanimals. How many

kinds of domesticatedanimals are there?

How do theirrelationships with

people differ?

Create a pack and see if you can live like a social canine.

4,Acfuhy

A good pack structure both benefits and restrictsthe individualeven the leader, who may havemore rights, but also more responsibilities. Designa role-playing game based on a pack.

1. Divide the class up into "packs" of four orfive people.

2. Write up a list of pack rules for each group. Besure to include all the necessary elements: packsmust find food, distribute it, and keep them-selves warm and safe. Examples of specific

behaviors might include how to successfullychallenge the leader, special tasks only the leadercan perform, how to warn of intruders fromother packs, who gets first access to privileges,what tasks should be cooperative, what consti-tutes "food," who feeds the pups, and so on.

3. Establish an initial hierarchy in each pack bydrawing numbers out of a hat, and then beginacting out the pack roles. If a pack memberbecomes dissatisfied (per-haps because thepack is not pro-viding ade-quate

food or protection), he or she may wish to chal-lenge the leader.

4. After playing for a while, stop and discuss howwell the pack worked. How effective was yourpack at carrying out its responsibilities? Dideveryone get enough food? Was everyone ade-quately protected? How effective was the leader?How many times did leadership change hands?If you played both leader and follower, whichposition did you like best? Why?

Questions

1. Do you think humans exhibit pack behavior?What situation can you think of where one per-son becomes the dominant member of a groupand others follow his or her lead? How andwhen does leadership in this kind ofpack change?

2. What kinds of behavior haveyou seen in pet dogs that mightbe explained by their pack ten-dencies? Have you ever had adog consider you the "alpha"member of a pack? How did

it treat you?


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. 21 Innovation

PET FOODw do scientists create the perfect dining delights, for my pet.

Brian investigates how researchers develop yummy, nutritious pet foods.

Olyp.tnEti g %reed

fii44\\*

Begin the lesson by asking students the followingquestion: How do you choose the right product for

your pet from such a wide selection? Gather as manydifferent print ads (newspapers, magazines, promo-tional advertising) for pet food as possible. Collect avariety of sample packages of pet food from your

local pet superstore. Ask students: Which product is

better for your pet? What would you want to know ifyou went to a place where scientists design the foods?

Show the video to the class.

Ucrengq4k

They're cute, most of them are smart, and theymake great friends. No, not the kids in your class.Pets! An estimated 36 million homes in the UnitedStates have at least one canine. About 31.4 millionU.S. homes have at least one feline. That's a lot ofhungry pets to feed. And many pets (except forthose finicky kitties) will eat pretty much anythingwe put in front of them. So how do the pet foodcompanies determine what goes into their products

to make sure your pet can and will eat it?

There are three basic ways to provide food for yourpet: improvise food at home from table scraps, pre-pare pet food from regular food, or purchase com-mercial pet food. But different pets have differentdietary needstheir food must provide the samenutrients found in foods their wild ancestors ate.Commercial pet foods deliver the nutrients and are

convenient.

From a scientific perspective, pet food must containthe correct balance of ingredients for the pet's breed,age, size, physical condition, and lifestyle. It mustbe digestible to ensure that all the nutrition fromthe food is absorbed by the body rather than passedout as waste. Last but not least, it must be appealingand palatable enough to entice the pet to eat it.


To devise the perfect pet food, a great deal of scientific

research takes place at facilities such as the Waltham

Centre for Pet Nutrition (WCPN) in England. Over athousand scientists in the Waltham network aroundthe world conduct pet-friendly research in the areas of

feeding behavior, dietary management, palatability,

raw materials, product performances, and owner/ani-

mal expectations. The WCPNhome to 250 dogs,450 cats, and 400 birdsgenerates more than 15,000pieces of research daily. Many findings are shared with

veterinarians and animal nutritionists worldwide.

In the United States, minimum standards for ani-mals' nutritional requirements are established by the

National Research Council, a federal agency. Based

on research from organizations like the WCPN, the

agency mandates, for example, that dog foodinclude a balance of carbohydrates, fats, proteins,minerals, and vitamins. Even after 5,000 years as

domestic pets, cats are still carnivores, so cat foodmust contain certain amounts of amino acids, tau-rine, arachidonic acids from animal fats, arginine,

vitamin A, and niacin.

Next time you shop for food for Fluffy or Fido,compare the contents listed on the labels, and thinkabout the research that went into putting togetheryour pet's perfect meal. Bon appetit!

NiktZ@HRSCIA@HZ

1. Many product labels now carry a statement indi-cating whether they use animals to test the prod-uct. Do you think animal testing is appropriate?Why? How could animals be protected against

improper testing?2. Pet ownership is a big responsibility. What are

the advantages of owning a pet? Challenges?

Resources

Books and articles

Anderson, N. & Peiper, H. (1995) Are you

poisoning your pets: A guidebook to pet

health and safety. East Canaan, CT: Safe

Goods. (800) 903-3837

Hanna, J. & Mundis, H. (1996) Jack Hanna's

ultimate pet guide. New York: Putnam

Publishing Group.

Roach, P. (1995) The complete book of pet

care: Birds, cats, fish, dogs, guinea pigs,

hamsters, horses, mice, rabbits, reptiles.

Indianapolis: MacMillan General Reference.

Computer software

Dorling Kindersley: Eyewitness Virtual

Reality: Cat. CD for Macintosh or Windows.

Available at retail stores and in catalogs.

Dorling Kindersley: Eyewitness Virtual

Reality: Bird. CD for Macintosh or Windows.

Available at retail stores and catalogs.

Web sites

American Pet Products

Manufacturers Association

http://www.appma.org

American Veterinary Medical Association

AVMA Care for Pets Home Page

http://www.avma.org/care4pets/

NetVetThe Electronic Zoo

http://netvet.wustl.edu/e-zoo.htm

Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition

http://petsource.com/WALTHAM


provide further information about thisand ocher topics. Call 1- 800 -588-

NEWTON or check out our Web site at:http://www.kcca.orginewtons



NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTaA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. 22 Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1504Pet Food

Test your cat or dog (ora friend's pet) to deter-mine whether it is over-

weight. Stand above theanimal to find its waist.

If it is overweight, youwon't see the waist

behind its ribs. Next,use your hands to try to

feel the pet's ribs. If youcan see the ribs, the pet

is underweight. If youcan't feel the ribs, it's

overweight. Check with avet to confirm your

observations.

All pets need plenty offresh water. A dog, forexample, who weighsabout 30 kg and eatsmoist dog food needs

about four cups of watera day. The same dog

would need eight cups ifhe eats dry food. Selecta breed of dog and cal-

culate how much water itwould drink. Next figure

out how much you wouldspend on food for thisdog for one year. Hint:Check package labels

and pet care books to getthe basic information for

your calculations.

WHAT'S FOR DINNER?

Analyze packaged pet food to find the best choice for your hungry animal friends.

AdhavNA*Try being a product analyst, pet nutritionist,and package designer. Create a data log to com-pare the content analysis for several brands ofdog or cat food. Include columns for servingsize, target age, crude protein, etc. Examine theproducts themselves and record and compareyour observations. Decide which one is actuallybest for your pet and which one your pet willmost likely eat.

Materials

variety of pet foods (at least threedifferent types per group) of food for thepet chosenpaper platesplastic forks, knives, spoonspaper, cardboard, rulers, tape, glue, markerspens, pencils

1. Create work groups and select which kind ofpet will be the focus of your productresearch and development.

2. Create a data log to compare the contentanalysis for several brands of dog and catfood. Include columns for price pergram/ounce, serving size, target age, crudeprotein, crude fat, crude fiber, moisture,calcium, phosphorus, main (first five)ingredients, as well as texture,smell, and appearance.

3. Record the data printed onthe packages.

4. Open the packages and exam-ine the products.

5. What differences and similaritiesdo you observe? Compare volume andweight. Are the contents moist or dry?Do they seem greasy? What do theysmell like?


6. Each work group should choose the foodthey think is the healthiest. Does it costmore than the others?

7. Relate the observations to what students inthe class actually serve their pets.

8. Invite a veterinarian to comment on thework groups' choices.

Questions

If you owned a pet food company, how muchwould you budget for scientific research anddevelopment of new products? Raw materials?Would you use "only the best?" How muchwould go into marketing research and containercosts? Explain your budget choices.


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. 23Innovation

ASTHMAhat makesit hard bfor

Brian explores what it's like to have asthma.

v'rf

ening St/444*

To begin the lesson, find out if any students in theclass have asthma. Ask them what it feels like to have

an asthma attack. To give students an idea, tell them

to do the following: Pinch your nose closed, thenbreathe in and out through a straw. How hard is it toget fresh air into your lungs? How about getting thestale air out? Try to breathe Fast, like you do when you

are exercising. What does it feel like to have your

body struKling for fresh air? How do you think yourlife would be different if you always had to worry that

an asthma attack could happen, sometimes withlittle warning?

409N,-=-1 OileniewN4k**About 12 million Americans have asthma, whichmeans someone you know probably has the disease.Even though it is so common, doctors don't knowwhat causes asthma. They do know it isn't conta-

gious. Asthma usually strikes during childhood. Halfthe children who get asthma outgrow it by adoles-cence. The other half spend their lives using medica-tions and avoiding things that trigger attacks.

An attack happens when something irritates an asth-ma sufferer's respiratory system, triggering a series of

events that make it difficult for the sophisticatedstructures within the lungs to get oxygen into thebloodstream. An asthma attack begins by strikingthe bronchi, the two large tubes that connect thewindpipe to the lungs, and the bronchioles, themany little tubes that carry air from the bronchideep into the lungs. In normal lungs, air from thebronchi moves into tiny air sacs called alveoli.Oxygen moves from these sacs into the bloodstreamthrough tiny blood vessels called capillaries. At thesame time, carbon dioxide is removed from theblood and exhaled from the body.

An asthma attack causes the muscles surroundingthe lungs' airways to tighten. The airways can also

a to breathe?


become inflamed and swollen, making breathingmuch more difficult. Finally, the lungs increase pro-duction of mucus that clogs the airways even more.Asthma victims often make wheezing sounds andcough as they struggle to breathe and clear out theexcess mucus. For someone with asthma, breathingout, or exhaling, is as hard as breathing in.

Scientists don't think asthma is inherited, but theysuspect genes that make it easier for allergies andother environmental irritations to develop into asth-ma are passed on from parents to children. If neitherparent has asthma, you have a 10 percent chance ofdeveloping it. If one parent has asthma, your oddsincrease to 25 percent. If they both have it, you havea 50 percent chance of developing the disease.

Many things bring on asthma attacks and these trig-gers vary from person to person. Cold winter air,cleaning solvents, dust, spicy food, aspirin, and ciga-rette smoke can all be triggers. Exercise and strongemotions also can cause attacks. So can viral andbacterial infections. With so many triggers, how canpeople with asthma live normal, active lives? Mostdo by inhaling medications that dilate, or open, con-stricted airways and stop inflammation. They alsolearn what their specific triggers are and try to avoidthem. A cure isn't on the horizon, but people withasthma can control the disease and turn it into aninconvenience, not a barrier to a full life.

COMSCHMS114%*

1. What other diseases affect the lungs and makeit hard to breathe?

2. Would you tell your friends if you had asthmaor some other disease that occasionally affectedyour ability to do things with them? Why?

I I

Resources

BooksHarrington, G. (1992) The asthma sell-

care book. New York:

Harper Perennial.

Rooklin, A. (1995) Living with asthma.New York: Plume.

Sander, N. (1994) A parent's guide toasthma: How you can help your childcontrol asthma at home, school, and

play. New York: Plume.

OrganizationsAmerican Lung Association

1740 BroadwayNew York, NY 10019

(212) 315-8700Free educational material

about asthma.

Asthma Allergy Foundation of America1125 15th Street NW

Washington, DC 20005

(800) 727-8462

Mothers of Asthmatics10875 Main Street, # 210

Fairfax, VA 22030

(703) 385-4403

National Asthma Education andPrevention Program Information Center

4733 Bethesda AvenueBethesda, MD 20814

Web sitesAsthma support group

http://www.radix.net/mwg/asthma-gen.html

National Jewish Center for Immunology

and Respiratory Medicine

http://www.njc.org/MFhtml/RAS_MF.html




We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with the Natignal Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M.24

`rd Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1505Asthma

Ask a local doctor orschool nurse to explain toyour class what asthma is

and demonstrate theinhalers asthma sufferers

use to take their medicine.The doctor might also be

able to let you try a peak-flow meter, a simple

device asthmatics use tomeasure how well their

lungs are working. If anystudents in your class

have asthma, they can, ifthey want to, work with

the doctor in thedemonstration.

Do you suffer from aller-gies? Many people whodon't have asthma are

allergic to grass, differ-ent types of pollen, andeven cat or dog hair. Gothrough magazines and

cut out pictures of all ofthe things that cause

you to sneeze, itch, orbreak out in a rash or

that make it harder foryou to breathe. Paste

them in a notebook andcompare your allergytriggers with those of

your classmates. If thesethings caused more seri-ous problems, like a full-

blown asthma attack,how would you avoid

them? Would you needto change yourdaily routine?

BREATH TEST. .

n.

Experience what it might feel like to strain for air.

**of.din Aday

In this activity you will create a simple modelof the respiratory system. Not only will youmeasure the effect of narrowed airway channels,you will experience it as well.

Materials

notebook, pen, and rulerconstruction paper, scissors,and tapeballoonslarge and round,that blow up to about 25 cm(10") in diameterplastic drinking straws.6 cm (1/4") in diam-eter, cut to 15 cm(6") lengthsrubber bands 2.5-5 cm(1"-2") in lengthstopwatch or watch withsweep second handhoney dispensed from a plasticsqueeze bottle with funneled spout

htcp: / /www.kcca.org /newtons

fourth team member records the data. Wheninflation is complete, pinch the balloon shut.Reset the watch, then release the air from theballoon. Record the time it takes for the bal-loon to deflate completely.

3. When each team member has performed thetrial with a plain balloon, repeat the entire

process with one of the modified balloons.Record the times needed to inflate the bal-loon to 25 cm and to deflate it completely.4. When this trial is finished, each teammember takes the remaining modified bal-loon and squirts about 2 teaspoons of

honey into the balloon through thestraw. Gently squeeze the balloonso that the entire length of the

straw is filled with honey. Inflate the bal-loon to 25 cm as before. Record the

inflation and deflation times.5. Calculate the average inflation

and deflation times for the threetrials performed by your team.Compare the results with those

from the other teams.1. Divide into teams of four. Each team should

use an inch-wide strip of construction paperand tape to make a ring 25 cm (10") indiameter. Each team member will need threeballoons. Two of the balloons will be modi-fied by inserting a 15 cm (6") length ofdrinking straw about 2.5 cm (1") into theopening and securing it with a small rubberband. (About eight twists will make theconnection airtight and still not crimpthe plastic straw.)

2. Each team member takes a turn at blowingup a plain balloon. Inflate the balloon untilit just fills the paper ring, which is held byanother team member. The third team mem-ber measures the time needed to inflate theballoon to the nearest second, while the

Questions

1. In our model, the three balloons represent dif-ferent conditions in the human respiratorysystem. What are they?

2. How did narrowing the passageway andadding a thick, sticky substance affect yourability to blow up the balloon?

3. How do medicines treat an asthma attack?



Innovation

WHITE-WATER RAFTINGw o white-water rafters navigate the ra

David shoots the rapids to learn the physics behind river rafting.

OPpetthlg Stilted

-4,4*Begin the lesson by showing students how compli-cated currents can be. Mix one quart of whiteIvory dishwashing liquid with five drops of foodcoloring. Place several small rocks in a shallowbaking pan, then tilt the pan up at one end. Pourthe liquid in and watch the pattern of currentsflowing around the rocks. The more swirls, themore turbulent the water.

Which currents would push your raft backupstream? Where are the calm areas? How hardwould it be to paddle a raft through the currentswithout hitting any rocks?

Verne

Few sights reveal nature's power as clearly as rapidsin a fast-flowing river. Water pounds against rocks,sprays into the sky, and boils into white froth.The thought of rafting through such turbulence isscaryunless you are an experienced river runner.

Rapids look chaotic, but they are predictable. Thevolume of water, the steepness (or gradient) of theriver, the width of the channel, and the obstaclesin the water all have understandable effects on therapids. Experts can read a stretch of rapids, spot-ting the hazards and seeing the safest way through.

Knowing the amount of water flowing in a river isimportant because the river's speed increases asmore water flows through it. Double the watermeans double the speed, so a mild rapid becomesa dangerous one during the rainy season. Raftersalso must know the flow because water is heavy,weighing 1,000 kilograms per cubic meter (62pounds per cubic foot), and in rapids it exertstremendous pressure on a raft.

Three basic states of flowing water exist: laminar,turbulent, and chaotic. Laminar describes the

ids?


smooth-flowing currents in an unobstructed river.Even these currents can be complicated, for theirspeeds vary. Surface water is slowed by wind, whiledeep currents are slowed by friction with theriverbed. Water in the middle, a few feet below thesurface, usually runs the fastest.

Turbulence occurs when obstacles, such as rocks ora sudden narrowing of the river channel, obstructthe current's flow. Obstacles force too much waterinto too little space, so the water runs faster andlaminar sheets break into individual ribbons ofcurrent. Then things get really complicated. Ifwater runs into a boulder, a turbulent zone is cre-ated where the water and rock collide. The currentruns faster around the boulder's edges, but behindthe rock, it forms an area of backward-flowingwater called an eddy. Shear zones between theeddy and the fast water can be strong enough tokeep a raft from reaching the calm water.

Water crashing over a submerged ledge or rock.becomes chaotic and creates a hole. A hole createsa horizontal vortex underwater that actually rotatesin an upstream direction. A rafter who falls into ahole is pushed back upstream against the ledgethat created the hole, then driven down underwa-ter. Often the only way out of a vortex is to diveto the bottom of the river, where some of thewater crashing into the hole flows under the vor-tex. A rafter who gets into that deep current canfollow it out of the hole and then resurface.

ItAimeEtho

White-water rafters must understand fluid dynam-ics and physics to accurately "read" a rapids. Howmuch and what kind of science must race car dri-vers know? What about other sports?

Resources

Rooks

Bangs, R. (1989) Riding the dragon's back:

The race to raft the Upper Yangtze. New

York: Laurel Expedition.

Bennett, J. (1992) Class five chronicles:

Things Mother never told you 'bout whitewa-

ter. Portland, OR: Swiftwater Publishing Co.

Bennett, J. (1996) The complete whitewater

rafter. Camden, ME: Ragged Mountain Press.

OraaniratlonsAmerican Whitewater Affiliation

P.O. Box 85

Phoenicia, NY 12464

http://www.awa.org/

PeriodicalsCanoe & Kayak

10526 NE 68th, Suite 3

Kirkland, WA 98033

Currents

P.O. Box 6847

Colorado Springs, CO 80934

Publication of the National Organization for

River Sports

Web sites

Cyberwest Magazine

http://www.cyberwest.com






NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. 26 ivy Innovation

WV AMPlan an imaginary

white-water trip on ariver you'd like to chal-lenge. How would you

find out the water levelof the river? What kind

of equipment wouldyou need? Where

would you go for train-ing? How much

would it cost?

Call a local outfittingstore that equips peo-ple for outdoor adven-tures. Ask if they canbring a small white-

water raft to yourclass and demonstrate

how it works. Ask ifthey can provide a

white-water rafter orkayaker who could

talk to your classabout the joys and

dangers of the sport.

f you live near a lake,organize a field trip

with an expert canoeistwho can show you the

different techniques inpaddling that are need-

ed to control a canoe.How much teamwork isneeded to quickly turn,

back and otherwisemaneuver a canoe?

How much harderwould it be if it

was a bulky raft run-ning in rapids?

off',8¢byhy

NO,Materials (For each station)

large aluminum baking pans or plastic storageboxes, approximately 2' long and 1' wideor largerdiatomaceous earth (can be found in aswimming pool supply store)fine sandfood-service glovesdust masktiny scraps of notebook paper or cardboard(enough to fill pan to adepth of approxi-mately 3")pitcherbucket or othercontainer to mix sandbucket or other contain-er to catch waterpaper towels or sponges forcleanupblocks of wood to set pans on(Note that these supplies may beavailable as part of earth-science activities thatexplore river erosion, or you can use a streamtable apparatus.)

the pan and position the drain hole over abucket or other container to catch the water.

3. In the bottom of the pan, mold a river bed thatis about 10 cm (4'') wide at the higher end andthen narrows to approximately 2 cm (1") at thebottom. You can also explore a curving river bedor a river that is deeper in some places than oth-ers, or place a pebble in the river bed so you canobserve eddies forming around it. Draw a sketchof your riverbed in your journal.

4. Then, shoot the rapids! Begin with a smallamount of water. Pour it carefully into the high-er end of your river and watch it flow to the

bottom. Make sure all of the water flowsinto your catch bucket. Then gradually

add more water.5. To see the effect on a raft,

sprinkle some fine bits of paper orconfetti on the water. Increase the

amount of water to make your riverrun even Easter. To see more detail ofthe turbulence in the water, add a few

drops of food coloring into the water asyou pour it. Try other materials as well, such assawdust, and see how they travel.

6. Observe and note in your journal how fastyour model "rafts" move at different points inyour river.

1. (May be done ahead of time) In a large bucket,mix approximately 3 parts diatomaceous earthwith 1 part fine sand and enough water tomake a firm mixture. It will take a few minutesof mixing for the material to absorb the water.If you have sensitive skin, wear disposable food-service gloves as you make this mixture. Also,

pour the diatomacieous earth carefully, to avoidraising clouds of dust, as it may irritate youreyes and throat.

2. In one end of the plastic or aluminum pan,carefully cut a hole so water can drain out. Tilt

Questions

1. What's the relationship between speed and thefeatures of your river?

2. How much does the speed change when youpour more water? How do different kinds ofmodel rafts behave in the water? Whathappens when the channel gets deeper? Whenit gets shallower?

[Adapted from activities from "Lana'firnu and River Cutters, developed by the Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley]


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTSA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M.

27Innovation

o .engmeless .planes sta

Dave takes a flight in a glider to see how it stays aloft.

01 fib,

Gefttong Started

Begin the lesson by asking students how theythink wings help birds fly. Then instruct each ofthem to take a piece of paper and roll it into aball. Let it go and watch how it falls. Then takethe same paper and smooth it out. Let it go andwatch how it falls.

Ask the following questions: Based on your obser-vations, does the weight of the paper have anyeffect on whether the paper falls or floats? Howabout surface area? Explain that the greater theamount of air hitting the bottom of the paper, themore "lift" the air can give it. The wings of birdsare similar to those of gliders. Not only do theyhave a large surface area, but they also have a spe-cial shape that helps keep them afloat.

wenn=Flying a sailplane is probably the closest thing anyhuman will come to feeling like a bird. Poweredonly by gravity and air currents, these glidersmove silently through the sky, often for hours ata time. Because they have no engines, gliders orsailplanes can be thought of as pure flying vehi-cles, staying aloft by balancing the forces of gravi-ty, lift, drag, and thrust.

As you might suspect, if you want to stay air-borne for a long time, the most important forceto conquer is gravity. Lift, the force that directlyopposes gravity, comes from the force of the airon the underside of the wing. In wings, lift iscontrolled by three factors: surface area, shape,and angle of attack

To see how surface area works, roll a piece ofpaper into a ball. Drop it and the paper falls.Spread the paper out and drop it, and it willfloat. The greater the surface area, the greaterthe amount of air pushing up on the wing.

The shape of the wing works because of some-thing called Bernoulli's principle. Most wings arecurved on the top and flat on the bottom. As thewing pushes through the air, the air on top of thewing must move a little faster than the air on thebottom. This creates slightly lower pressure on thetop, which allows the greater air pressure beneaththe wing to push the plane up.

The angle of attack is the orientation of the wingas it faces into the wind. Increasing the angle ofattack means increasing the amount of air hittingdirectly on the bottom, which gives the wingmore lift. Of course, if you make the angle ofattack too big, the wing will blow backwards,and the plane will come crashing down!

In a sense, a sailplane is very similar to a rollercoaster. Both are towed up high and released.They begin to fall and the force of gravity getsthem going. Unlike a roller coaster, which contin-uously loses height, a sailplane can also gain eleva-tion by riding rising currents of air. Known asthermals, these localized updrafts are caused by airbeing heated by the warm ground below. Whenthe sun shines down on a sandy beach, for exam-ple, the sand heats up faster than the water. Asthe air in contact with the sand begins to heat up,it expands and rises. This differential heating iswhat causes thermals and when a glider hits one,it can fly for hours at a time.

(014e.6,-nnecHms

1. How is the flight of a bird similar to the flightof a sailplane?

2. How do birds get their thrust and how do theycontrol their direction of flight?

Resources

ILA

Books

Hixson, B. (1991) Bernoulli's book. Salt

Lake City: The Wild Goose Company.

Hosking, W. (1990) Flights of imagina-

tion: An introduction to aerodynamics.

Washington, DC: National Science

Teachers Association.

Vogt, G. (1996) The space shuttle

glider kit. NASA Johnson Space Flight

CenterEducational Publication349 8-96.

Computer softwareCasady and Greene (1991): Glider4.0 for

Macintosh. (408) 484-9228

OrganizationsVirginia Air and Space Center

NASA Langley Research Center

600 Settlers Landing Road

Hampton, VA 23669-4033

(804) 727-0900, ext. 757

Web sites

Sailplane Construction and Cost

http://www.wiltonct.com/soaringady/gliderbook5.html/

Learning to Fly Sailplanes

http://www.wi Itonct.com/soa ri nga

gliderbook3.html

Sky Sailing: Frequently Asked Questions

http://www.skysailing.com

Soaring Information

http://groupgenesis.com/soachtml





NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1506Gliders

Research how engin-eers use wind tunnels to

test the design of awing, and then try

building and testing oneyourself. Start by build-

ing an experimentalwind tunnel, using an

ordinary house fan blow-ing through an empty

cardboard box to focusthe airflow. Try putting

different-sized card-board inserts in the boxto deflect and focus the

flow and see how itaffects the lift on a

standard paper glider.

VG'

Build a kite from a kitor from plans in a refer-

ence book. Try flyingthe kite on days with

different weather condi-tions. (Watch out for

thunderstorms!) You'lldiscover how wind, ther-

mals, and changingbarometric pressure

have an effect on howgliders fly.

Ultra lights are planesthat combine many of

the design features of aglider with a small

motor to provide contin-uous thrust. Researchthese ultracool flying

machines and see howthey compare to

both sailplanes andconventional aircraft.

THE RIGHT FLIGHTtutteolittikity

Design a glider to achieve maximum glider efficiency.

n@on migilovo'Ry

'04*If you could build your own sailplane, whatwould it look like? Since sailplanes are pure fly-ing vehicles, they have noengines to power them.Instead, they dependon their wing struc-ture and stability tomaintain lift. Seewhat kind of aero-nautical engineer youare by designing andbuilding your own glid-er. Try to set your ownpersonal best formaximum flighttime with your plane.

Materials

standard 8 1/2" x 11" sheetof copy paperpaper airplane book (canbe found in most hobbyor bookstores)stopwatch

1. Discuss how the forces of lift, drag, gravity,and thrust all work together to keep a gliderin flight. Look at one of the basic gliderdesigns pictured above (or get a paper air-plane book with other designs) and constructthe one you think will have the longest timedflight, based on wing shape and structure.

2. Have each team member take a turn flyingthe plane and record all the flight times.Gently throw each plane from the sameplace. (It's essential to launch each trial thesame way.) Compare your flight times with


those of the other groups and discuss how thesize and the shape of the wings may haveaffected the flight.3. After you have evaluated the performance

of your plane, try modifying the design tomaximize your time aloft. Test your planeagain to see if you improved on yourflight time.

Extend the activityHow does your plane behave under dif-ferent atmospheric conditions? Onceyou have perfected your glider, see how

it will work when the air is in motion.Try flying it over a fan or maybe even a

hot plate. Can your plane take advantageof thermal updrafts? Test it out and see.

Questions

1. What were some of the common features ofthe planes with the longest flight times?

2. How did the size and shape of the wingsaffect the way the planes flew?

3. What other materials besides paper mightyou use in constructing your plane to get aneven longer flight time?

4. Gliders are often towed by airplanes andreleased at a relatively high horizontal speed.How could you perform this experimentto measure the effects of thrust on theglider's flight?



Innovation

David explores painless dentistry from the dentist's chair.

ettung gied44.40,

Begin the lesson by bringing in a few samples ofnonprescription products for mouth pain. Makesure the students are not allergic to local anestheticssuch as procaine, benzocaine, or any of the other "-caine" drugs. Let the students use a cotton swab toapply a small amount of the preparation to a quar-ter-sized area of the inner wrist. Ask how it feels. Ingroups, have the students read the labels on differ-ent preparations, write down the active ingredients,and try to find descriptions of those chemicals inreference books.

Ask students the following questions: What doesyour dentist use to numb your mouth when youhave a cavity filled? What is the benefit of thesepreparations? What are some potential problems

) with them? Why do teeth need so many nerves andblood vessels? How does anesthesia work? Why do

we need to feel pain anyway?

vertyfiev?1.144*

Pain is an important safety feature of the humanbody because without it, no one would have anywarning of injury. Nerves transmit pain messages by

a combination of chemistry and electricity. When anerve receives a pain stimulus over a certain intensity,

it "fires" by changing the arrangement of positive andnegative charges across its cell membrane. When the

message reaches the end of the nerve cell, chemicals

known as neurotransmitters spill out into a space

(synapse) and stimulate the receiving areas (receptors)

on the next nerve cell. The signal passes from nerve

to nerve very quickly until it reaches the brain, wherethe message registers as pain (and you say "Ouch!").

Because nerves send messages by a combination ofchemistry and electricity, interference in either area

can relieve pain. Traditionally, dentists have used ashot of lidocaine (a substitute for Novocain) to

-\ numb the tooth so the patient can't feel the drill.

This is a little alarming in itself when the cavity isin a lower jaw tooth; the only available nerve tonumb is way in the back of the mouth, so the nee-dle is several inches long. The numbing effects oflidocaine last a while, too, which can be embarrass-

ing. Ever try to talk when your mouth is numb?

One nonchemical procedure, which dates back tothe 18th century, avoids needles altogether by stim-ulating the tooth's nerve with electricity to numb it.

Although it can't be used for everything, this elec-tronic anesthesia has proven useful for some simpledental procedures. There are generally two elec-trodes, placed inside or outside the mouth (some-times one in and one out). The patient controls thedegree of stimulation by turning a knob on a smallswitch box. When the stimulation is turned off, thenumbness goes away immediately.

Anesthesia works in a number of ways. Some anes-

thetic drugs block certain receptors. Others inhibitbiochemicals that increase the nerve's likelihood of

firing. Scientists disagree on how electrical stimula-

tion works, although some think it somehow resultsin the release of natural painkilling substances in the

brain called "endorphins."

Connections

1. Are you a little nervous about going to the den-tist? Do you think nervousness makes painworse? How can you calm yourself?

2. Some anesthetics have side effects. How shouldthese drugs be regulated?

SI

Resources

Books

Clayman, C. (Ed.) (1994) American

Medical Association family medical

guide (3rd ed.), "Teeth and gums,"

pp. 469-482. New York: Random House.

Computer software

Softkey: Bodyworks, Classic Edition, CD

ROM for Windows. To order:

http://cdrom.softkey.com/products/

bdc3344ae-front.html

Web sites

American Dental Association, Consumer

Information Page

http://www.ada.org/co-menu.html

Dental Breakthroughs and You

http://www.soluna.com/dds/cedata.html

Electronic Dental Anesthesia

http://weber.u.washington.edu/

quarn/eda.html

Pain Lecture Slide Show

http://pain.roxane.com/

index2.html



NEWTON or check out our Web site at:Is trp://www.ktca.org/newtons

We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with the Natio41 Science Teachers Association.


3 aorit Innovation

The next time youbrush your teeth,

look carefully insideyour mouth. What do

you see? Are thereparts that are more

sensitive than others?What does brushing

have to do withgum sensitivity?

Interview a doctor ata pain management

clinic. Are theredifferent kinds of

pain? How are theyclassified? How are

they managed?

Write a story aboutan alien visitingEarth. This alien

has no understand-ing of "pain" and

wonders what it isfor. How will you

explain what itfeels like?

THE PAINLESS GAME

Test different methods to numb your sense of touch.

44111'"13H bkiguNv

Because pain and touch receptors on nerves are 3.closely related, an area of skin more sensitive totouch will often be more sensitive to pain. You caninvestigate some phenomena that cause changes tothe sense of touch; whatever numbs the sense of 4.touch may also be a potential anesthetic.

A classic experiment on the sense of touch iscalled the "two-point discrimination test," whichmeans noticing whether one or two objects arepressed against your skin. More sensitive areas ofskin will be able to tell one from two, even when 5.the two are very close together. Less sensitive areaswill require that the objects be widely spaced. Anumbed area should become less sensitive.

Materials

several toothpicksblindfolds (one foreach personbecareful not to shareblindfolds)rulers

tapeice or ice watera source of fairly strongvibration (personal mas-sager works well)pen and paper forkeeping records

1. Tape two toothpicks to aruler (in the same direction asthe markings). Measure thedistance between them.

2. Touch either a single toothpick or the twoside-by-side toothpicks to a blindfolded sub-ject's inside forearm. Record whether the sub-ject can distinguish between the two.

LX,


Touch with toothpicks that are different dis-tances apart until you can conclude the mini-mum distance for distinguishing one toothpickfrom two.

Try to alter the sense of touch by applying iceor vibration to the same skin area. What doyou notice? What is the shortest distancebetween toothpicks that can be distinguished?Does the ice make the skin more or less sensi-tive? Does the vibration make the skin moreor less sensitive?

Design a similar test for the first finger. Is thefirst finger more or less sensitive than the fore-arm? Does the ice or vibration have more orless of an effect on the finger than on the fore-arm? Repeat the test with loud music or static

sounds. Does this alter the sense of touchin any way?

Questions

1. Why do you think the ice orvibration works to numb your

sense of touch?2. Why are some areas of

your body more sensitive topain than others?


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul /Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. 31Innovation

GLACIER CLIMBING

Four Oregon teenagers climb to the summit of a glacier.

_Op o

ening SNraed

Begin the lesson with the following question:Where is most of the freshwater on Earth current-ly foundin rivers, lakes, or glacial ice?

Explain that glaciers not only are found in polarregions like Antarctica and Greenland, but moun-tain glaciers exist even at the equator. Glaciers canhave an enormous effect on sea level around theworld. Toward the end of the last ice age, 12,000years ago, sea level was almost 300 feet lower thanit is today. If global warming occurs, some scien-tists theorize that melting glaciers in the next cen-tury could cause a rise in the sea level worldwide.

Oovevvtle

Over the last 25,000 years glaciers have had aneven greater effect on our global landscape thanearthquakes, volcanoes, hurricanes, or floods. Butbecause they flow so slowly, they are often over-looked as a significant agent of change.

A glacier is a large mass of ice that acts like a river,

flowing downhill under the influence of gravity.Glaciers are "born" at high elevations where snowbuilds up over many years without significantmelting. In these "accumulation zones," snow atthe bottom of the pile gets compacted by theweight of new snow above, causing it to turn intodense glacial ice. Once the depth of the ice reaches20 to 30 meters (66 to 98 feet), there is enoughpressure from above to cause the ice pack to slowly"creep" or flow downhill. As long as new snow isadded at the top, a glacier will continue to moveforward.

As the front of a flowing glacier moves downhill,it scours the land surface, picking up rock and soiland trapping it in the ice. If snow keeps fallingand temperatures stay cold enough, glaciers willcontinue to move downhill, eventually reaching a

7 11117101* 1E11111 111\1


point of dynamic equilibrium. Here, the rate ofmelting at the front of the glacier is exactly bal-anced by the flow rate of the glacier from theback. While it may look like the glacier hasstopped, the flow of ice is continuous, so largepiles of glacially derived sediment begin to buildup at the foot of the glacier. When the glacierretreats, the deposits become terminal morainesThese telltale signs of past glacial action oftenreach several hundred meters in thickness.

In polar regions like Antarctica and Greenland,so much snow accumulates that individual glaciers

flowing down valleys begin to merge together,forming large-scale continental ice sheets. In somecases, these massive glaciers are more than 1,000meters (3,300 feet) thick and, while they may lookstatic, they too are in continuous motion.

Data seems to suggest that over the course of thelast two decades, global warming may be causingglaciers all over the world to retreat. The fear isthat large-scale melting of glaciers will create adevastating rise in sea level. Only time will tell ifthis is a long-term trend or simply a natural "blip"in the worldwide glacial cycle.

itadfl@HZ

1. What is the current distribution of glaciersaround the Earth? Are there any major trendswhere glaciers appear to be either growing orshrinking at abnormally high rates? What canchanges in glacial distribution tell us aboutchanges in climate?

2. A retreating glacier can leave rich soil behind.What areas of the world benefited from thisglacial activity?

Resources

Books and articles:Hambrey, M. (1992) Glaciers. New York:

Cambridge University Press.

Hostetler, S. (1997, Jan) Near to the edge of

an ice sheet. Nature, p. 393-394.

Kimber, R. (1993, May) The glacier's gift.

Audubon, pp. 52-53.

Lee, L (1994, June) Summer's here: Chill out!

National Geographic World, pp. 10-14.

Pfeifienberger, J. (1997, April) Ice age

journey. Earth, pp. 76-79.

Walker, S. (1990) Glaciers: Ice on the move.

Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

OrifanizationsThe World Glacier Monitoring Service

Wilfried Haeberli and Martin Hoelzle

Department of Geography

University of Zurich

Winterthurerstrasse 190

CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland

http://www.nercbas.ac.uk/public/icd/icsi/WGMS.html

Web sites

Alaska SAR FacilityGreat Glacial Imageshttp://www.a sf. a laska.edu/

Glacier Page

http://168.99.215.253/earth/glacier.html

USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory

http://vulcan.wrusgs.gov/Glossary/Glaciers/framework.html

Whistler NetworksHow to Make a Glacier

httpJ /www.whistler.net /glacier /howgl.html

Whistler NetworksWhat Is a Glacier?

http://www.whistler.net/glacier/whatgl.html






NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KitAtaint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. avN Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1507Glacier Climbing

Although scientistshave been monitoring

the movement of glac-iers for over 100years, there is arenewed interest

because of the fearthat global warming

may be causing awidespread melt-back.Does the data fit this

model? Collect dataon several differentglaciers and chart

their progress over thelast 50 years. A goodplace to start is with

the glaciers in Alaskaor on Mt. Rainier in

Washington State.Data can be obtained

from the Internet(see resources) or

from a regionalU.S. Geological

Survey Office.

Make dirty ice cubesby mixing different

amounts of dirt anddebris in the waterbefore freezing it.Identify which icecube has the least

mass and whichhas the greatest.

Place these two icecubes, plus a third

whose mass is somewhere in between, onan inclined ramp and

allow them to melt.What do you observe?How is this similar towhat happens when a

glacier melts?

Discover how a valley glacier flows by using a superthick, viscous fluid as your model glacier.

oirfti tint

AdiAV

Because it takes an enormous amount of mass tomake a real glacier creep downhill, scientists oftenrely on substitute materials to make a model offluid flow in glaciers. In this activity, you'll make ahighly viscous suspension of cornstarch and waterto simulate a glacier, and track the way that itflows down a "valley."

Materials per group of four students

plastic shoe boxone 16-oz box of cornstarchone to two cups of waterone 2-qt mixing bowl5 wooden toothpicks5-6 large pebblesone 5" x 7" inch index cardpencil

1. Mix the cornstarch and water together in thebowl to form a suspension with the consis-tency of toothpaste. (It should not berunny or wet.)

2. Lay the pencil flat on the table andplace one end of the shoe box ontop of it to give the box a slight tilt.Begin pouring the cornstarch mix-ture into the box at the raised endand observe what happens.

3. After the mixture has flowed throughthe entire box, scrape it up with your handand pile it in the raised end of the box. Usethe index cards to make a "dam" across theshoe box valley to hold the mixture back. Laythe five toothpicks across the front of the mix-ture so that they are one inch apart and parallelto each other. Remove the dam and observe theway the toothpicks move as the glacier flows.

4. After you have tracked the flow of the glacierwith the toothpicks, repeat the experiment, butthis time place a few large pebbles on the bot-

tom of the shoe box to make obstructions inthe valley. Allow the glacier to flow again andobserve what happens when it interacts withthe obstructions.

Questions

1. When the cornstarch mixture initially flowedthrough the box, what shape did the front take?How does this relate to valley glaciers?

2. When you released the mixture from behindthe index card "dam," what pattern did thetoothpick markers make? What do you thinkcaused this?

3. What happens to the flow of the glacier when ithits the obstructions in the valley? Do younotice anything different in the top of theglacier as it flows over the rocks?


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. 33 Innovation

WILDERNESS TRAINING

Pnf';.

O N'S

Four Oregon teenagers explore what you need to climb a glacier.

etfing Started

Begin the lesson by asking these questions: Doyou like hiking in the woods? What equipment doyou take on a camping trip? Most camping areashave at least some comforts, such as trash removal,trails, and rest rooms, but real wilderness has noneof those things. How would you plan for wilder-ness travel, such as climbing a mountain? Howmuch and what kinds of food would you take?How would you find shelter, build a fire, and staywarm? How would you navigate with no trails orconstructed landmarks? How would you avoidfalling on a steep slope? What specialized equip-ment would you need?

f

verelle

In 1997, four teenagers from Oregon won theOutside Adventure Grant for their proposal toclimb Mt. Sir Sanford, a remote peak in theCanadian Rockies. To get there, these wildernessenthusiasts had to kayak and hike to the base ofthe mountain and then climb up a glacier to thepeak. The group's winning proposal includedtracking and documenting the habits of an endan-gered species of caribou along the way. The grantoutfitted them for their expedition.

As these outdoor adventurers could tell you, alpineclimbing and snow travel require particular skillsand knowledge. Climbers must have goodstrength and endurance. They must work effec-tively in the thin air at high altitude.

Because climbing in the cold uses up caloriesrapidly, these mountaineers need to consumefoods that provide them with the right ratios ofprotein to fat to carbohydrate, but they mustn'tcarry food that's too heavy or perishable.

Successful climbers also must know how to avoidfrostbite and other cold-related problems. The


right choice of fabrics and the right layering tech-niques allow them to stay warm and dry through-out the journey.

Finally, the adventurers need to be skilled at antic-ipating, preventing, and stopping falls before any-one is hurt. Even on a flat glacier, falls are a dan-

ger because of the deep trenches called crevasses(sometimes hidden by snow) in the glacial ice.

How do climbers manage to stay on steep slopes?The idea is to keep three of the four limbs solidlyfixed to the surface at all times. Spiked bootclamps called crampons allow solid footholds,even on vertical surfaces. In addition, climbers

can secure their handholds with special ice axes.

Mountain climbing safety depends on climbersbelaying (securing) each other with ropes. TheNational Outdoor Leadership School identifiesfour elements of a belay: friction, anchors, eachclimber's position relative to the others, and corn-munication among climbers. The terrain to beclimbed is often rated according to its difficulty(rather like the degree of difficulty rank in thesport of diving), so each belay will be a different

combination of the four elements.

Ca radii us

1. There are many different kinds of wilderness.How many can you name? How would youexpect exploration equipment and supplies todiffer for various kinds of wilderness?

2. When a wilderness area is opened to people,the environment often degrades because peopleleave behind trash, pick endangered plants, ortrample sensitive ecosystems. What is the best

way to allow access to wild places withoutdamaging them?

011 ID 19111111111GIIIIT

S

Resources

Books and articles:Angier, B. (1973) Wilderness gear you can

make yourself. Harrisburg, PA:

Stackpole Books.

Boga, S. (1997) Orienteering: The sport of

navigating with map and compass.

Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books.

Dash, 1. (1995, Mar 19) The active traveler:

The adventure guide's hard reality.

Newsday, p. 8.

McManners, H. (1996) The backpacker's

handbook. New York: Dorling Kindersley

Publishing, Inc.

Tilton, B. (1995, April 14) Wilderness U.Backpacker, p. 70.

Web sites

Outside Online

Outside Adventure Grants

http://www.starwave.com

Princeton University Outdoor Action Program

http://www.princeton.eddoa/oa.html

National Outdoor Leadership School

http://www.nols.edu




We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with the Natiorral Science Teachers Association.


Innovation

Design a wildernesstraining ground on the

playground of yourschool. What would be

a good training exer-cise for hiking?

Climbing? Endurance?

Stage a mock-upcamping or climbing

accident and practicefirst-aid procedures

on pretend "victims."What are good first-

aid procedures? Whatare some dangerous

first-aid proced-ures to avoid?

Write your own adven-ture grant. It must be

"wild, original, andmeaningful." It shouldexplain what you wantto do, what equipment

you need, your plansfor training, and howyou will accomplish

your goals.

NEEDLE POINTMANN 46.- NNW

Construct your own navigational tool with some common household items.

.0iiffAlethlt7

Almost a thousand years ago, the Chinese writerShen Kua first described the use of a magneticcompass in navigation. At the time, this "orient-ing" technique was practiced almost exclusively byseafarers. It wasn't until the 1500s that the compassbecame popular as a land-based navigational tool.Its rapid and widespread acceptance among land-lubbers was probably due to its "double duty" asan inexpensive pocket sundial.

The first compasses were most likely made of a

naturally-occurring magnetic rock called lodestone.If allowed to rotate freely, this magnetic mate-rial comes to rest aligned with Earth's mag-netic field. Another valued characteristicof lodestone is its ability to transfer mag-netic properties to iron and other metals.

Materials

permanent magnetstraight sewing needlesmall bowlplastic foam chip orflattened noodle

1. Fill a small bowl withtap water.

2. Magnetize the needle by stroking it 50times with the permanent magnet. Stroke theneedle in only one direction.

3. Position the needle lengthwise in the center ofthe foam chip (or noodle).

4. Carefully lower the chip and needle into thecenter of the water-filled bowl.

5. Observe the movement of the chip.6. Move the bowl-compass to different locations,

near walls, large metal objects, etc. Note in yourjournal what happens in each location.


Questions

1. What causes the chip to move?2. Can you tell which is the north-seeking end of

the needle? Explain.

3. Suppose the needle had been stroked in theopposite direction. Would that affect its point-ing direction? Suppose the needle was strokedback and forth. Would that affect its use as anavigational tool? Explain.

4. In what locations is a compassmost reliable?


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. .)05Innovation

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Bring the world outside into your classroom and give your

students the chance to go on the expedition of their dreams, like

the kids in NEWTON'S APPLE Show 1507.

Presented aOg2C0®by --ww

The Outside Adventure Grants give students between the ages of

12 and 17 the opportunity to dream up, organize, and actually

lead an expedition of their dreams. This unique program invites

students to unleash their imaginations and, in the process, learn

invaluable lessons about teamwork, problem solving, English,

history, geography, and the natural sciences. Fora free teacher's

guide that helps you incorporate this program into your existing

curriculum, send in the attached reply card today.

11.1111MMNI

J '7

)INDEX TO PAST SEASONS kHow to Get Your Hands on NEWTON'S APPLE

As an educator, you may tape NEWTON'S APPLE off the air and use it as many times as you wish for three years. Check

with your local PBS station for their schedule. When they are finished airing the current season (Season 15), they often rerun

shows from past seasons.

If you prefer, you can purchase tapes from any of the seasons listed on these two pages by calling 1-800-588-NEWTON.

10th Season Show 1007 Dweezil Zappa Show 1107 12th Season

HIV/AIDS Ostrich Spotted Owls

Show 1001 Glass Recycling Carpal Tunnel Show 1201

Behind-the-Scenes Special Cement 11th Season Foggy Mirrors Hang Gliding

How TV Works Science Challenge Lizards Karate

Studio Tour Wolverine Show 1101 Robin Leach

Control Room/Editing Rock Climbing Show 1108 Elephant

Satellite Technology Show 1008 Taste Test Archaeology

Cockroaches Monty Hall Mazes Show 1202

Show 1002 Broken Bones Baby Bobcats Dolphins Arctic Expedition Special

Hollywood Stunts Dentist Chair Sled Dogs

Household Chemistry Rhinoceros Show 1102 Show 1109 Arctic Travel

Cream in Coffee Emergency Rescue Firefighting Life in Camp

Musk Ox Show 1009 Black Holes Dairy Farm Arctic Weather

Omnimax Technology Pizza Inventor's Fair

Show 1003 Archery Reindeer Otters Show 1203

Election Polls and Surveys Light Bulbs Aircraft Carrier

Electric Car Condor Show 1103 Show 1110 Brain

Ceramics Chat Memory Bison Roundup Carrier Life

Cougar Show 1010 In vitro Fertilization Heart Attack

Aurora Borealis Goose Bumps Dead Fingernails Show 1204

Show 1004 Air Pressure Hummingbird Chile Peppers Brain Mapping

Monster Makeup Al Gore Garlic

Ozone Piranha Show 1104 Show 1111 Sunscreens

Car Mirror Newspaper The Bends Tasmanian Devil

Artificial Sweeteners Show 1011 Bomb Squad Compact Discs

Traffic Control Echoes Michael York Show 1205

Show 1005 Cryogenics Mosquitoes Wolves Movie Dinosaurs

Oil Spills Static Electricity Bread Chemistry

Diet and Nutrition Russian Kids Visit Show 1105 Show 1112 Scott Hamilton

Crystal Gayle Jumbo Jets Garbage Wallaby

Caribou Show 1012 Meteors Infrared

Locks and Dams Knuckle Crack Shelley Duvall Show 1206

Show 1006 Blood Typing Paper Recycling Polar Bears Movie Sound Effects

Antarctic Special Moles Sun

.journey Penguin Show 1106 Show 1113 Globetrotters

Penguins Windsurfing Mt. Rushmore Hedgehog

Station Show 1013 Permafrost Virtual Reality

Krill Diabetes Tumbleweeds Candles

Seals Galaxy Mapping Zebras Chimpanzees

We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with the National Science Teachers Associate/I. em

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of HTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made pohible.4y a grant from 3M. 38 Innovation

INDEX TO PAST SEASONS (

Show 1207 13th Season Show 1308 Show 1402 Show 1409Dinosaur Extinction Hazardous Materials Tahiti Special Olympic Solar EnergyFloods Show 1301 In-line Skating Sharks SoccerBlue Seas Waterskiing Skin Wrinkling Tattoos TrumpetsSiberian Tiger Reflexes Compost Black Pearls Earthquake Scientists

Escalator CoconutsShow 1208 Fat-free Food Show 1309 Show 1410Internet Human Slingshot Ride Show 1403 Malaria TrackingAntibiotics Show 1302 Bone Marrow Riverboats ClocksPanning for Gold Circus High Wire King's Singers Body Fat Inventor's FairTaxidermy Mummies Rotting Foods Motorcycle Scientists Deformed Frogs

Bug Spray ParrotsShow 1209 Armadillo Show 1310 Show 1411Ethnobotany Wild Lion Vet Show 1404 Post OfficeHubble Telescope Show 1303 Bicycles Hypercoaster GemsInventor's Fair Maya Bike Trek Fish Breathing Nicotine Science Home VideosKomodo Dragon Hearing Insect Warfare Erasers

Parachutes Dance Scientists Show 1412Show 1210 Owls Show 1311 EthanolRaptor Hospital Equator Special Show 1405 BonesPhotography Show 1304 Equator Avalanche Rescue CoyotesSkipping Stones Africa Special Maasai Village Prosthetic LimbsSnakes Balloon Safari Coffee Football Scientists Show 1413

Grasslands Baby Elephants Popcorn H2O SpecialShow 1211 Maasai Mara WetlandsRedwoods Mara Animals Show 1312 Show 1406 Eco-Filtration PondElectricity Bird Songs Andes Special Drinking WaterMonuments Show 1305 Ergonomics Inca Engineering Water TowersRed Fox Ice Surfing Inventor's Fair Quipus

DNA Fingerprinting Scorpions PotatoesShow 1212 Bubble Gum AlpacasPrinting Money Cold Remedies Show 1313Gravity Jungle Survival Show 1407Nature Labs Show 1306 Liver Ski Jumping

Aircraft Fire Rescue Emus Bee StingsShow 1213 Balloons FearBridges Knives 14th Season RuminantsEarthquakes Science Home VideosChromakey Show 1401 Show 1408Grizzly Bear Show 1307 Spelunking Rain Forest Special

Disney World Special Human Eye Rain Forest ResearchersSimulator Rides Betty White SnakesDolphin Communication Elks FrogsParade Technology Leaf Cutter AntsLaser Show

We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with the National Science Teachers Association.'


aN_ Innovation

GLASS BLOWINGHow do they nmalke, glass into d shape

Eileen learns about the art and chemistry of glass blowing.

netting St fed

Begin the lesson by having students dip a chop-stick into a small cup of honey at room tempera-ture. Tell them to try to keep the largest gob possi-ble of honey on the tip of the stick as they pull itout of the cup. They are simulating how a glassblower works with gravity to keep a gob of molten

glass on the end of the blowpipe.

Ask: Is all glass the same? Compare and contrastdifferent type of glass (based on properties such asheat resistance, shatter resistance, and color).

verne

Glass is an amazing substancehard, transparent,capable of beautiful colors and sparkles, strong yetbrittle. Where does this material come from?

A crude version of the material we know as glasswas most likely first produced about 4,500 yearsago. Around 1500 B.C., artisans learned how topress glass in open molds, producing a variety ofshapes and containers. The process, however, wasslow, labor intensive, and expensive. Pressed glass

was considered as valuable as precious metals.

More than a thousand years passed before peoplediscovered how to shape intricate and delicateobjects through glass-blowing techniques.

Today there are a variety of glasses. These materi-

als have ingredients and structures that producedistinct characteristics. Automobile glass (also

called safety glass) is actually two layers of glassthat "sandwich" a layer of plastic. If the glass layersshatter, the pieces don't go flying off. Instead, theyare held together by the plastic. Laboratory glass-ware contains a large amount of silica and boricoxide. These components produce a material thatcan withstand sudden temperature changes.


Perhaps the most common type of glass is calledsoda-lime glass. The basic ingredients include sand(a source of silica), soda (sodium oxide), and lime(calcium oxide). These materials are mixed togeth-er and then heated in furnaces. As the materialsmelt, they combine to form a syrupy liquid. Thismolten glass is then withdrawn from the furnaceand processed in different ways.

Although it is brittle, hardened glass is not a solid.It exists in a slow-flowing state known as a super-cooled liquid. When molten glass cools, there isno "solidifying temperature" at which the batchsuddenly transforms from liquid to solid. Instead,the molten material undergoes a gradual changefrom a free-flowing to a more viscous material.The more it cools, the less it flows. At room tem-perature, the minuscule flow goes unnoticed.

There are several ways to shape glass. It can be

pressed into a mold. This technique producesobjects such as bowls and optical lenses. It can bedrawn through rollers or holes to produce fibers,tubes, and plates. It can also be blown, with or

without a mold.

MSklitrfAfied©NO'Mk*

1. Consider the differences you might findbetween glass created by hand and glass shapedby machine. When might a plastic product

be preferable?2. The use of fiber optics for telecommunications

has become a reality. How many differentobjects can you think of that are made of glass?

kesources

We encourage duplication for educational nVnEducational materials developed with the National Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a gitant Worn 3M.

Books and articles

Carbery, E. (1993) Glassblowing: An introduc-

tion to artistic and scientific flameworking.Marshall, MN: MGLS.

Whitehouse, D. (1993) A pocket dictionary of

terms commonly used to describe glass and

glassmaking. Corning, NY: The Corning

Museum of Glass.

organizationsCorning Museum of Glass

One Museum Way

Corning, NY 14830-2253

(607) 974-8257

National Glass Association

8200 Greensboro Drive

McLean, VA 22102

(703) 442-4890

http://ourworld.compuserve.com/

homepages/nga

Print and AV materials.

Video: Beginning Glass Sculpturing by Bill

Rasmussen (103 min.). Available from Arrow

Springs, (916) 677-9482.

http://www.innercite.com/flameon/

Glass Line magazine

120 S. Kroeger Street

Anaheim, CA 92805-4011

(714) 520-0121

http://www.hotglass.com/

Web sites

Kosta Boda

http://www.kostaboda.se/en/2.html

Scientific Glassblowing Lab Tour

http://www.cem.msu.edu/--kenney/outreach/glasblow/tour/



NEWTON or check out our Web sire at:http://www.ktca.org/newtons

commercial us

Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1508Glass Blowing

Wi? 7 InAo

Observe variations inthe viscosity of honey,

syrup, liquid soap,hand lotion, and milk.

Gather about half acup of each. Dip a

wooden stick intoeach to pull out a

sample. Record yourobservations. Pour

each liquid intoanother cup; record

observations, includ-ing temperature, flow

rate, and color.Change the tempera-

tures of each andobserve changes.What happens to

the viscosity ofeach as the tempera-

ture changes?

VET

Make two batches ofany candy requiring

that the sugar reach aspecific temperature

and candy stage incooking. For onebatch, follow the

recipe exactly. For thesecond batch, heat

the sugar to a differ-ent candy stage

cook either too littleor too much. Whatdifferences do you

observe in the candy?

SUPERCOOL!faitLf;.411Y4l0: Sfudent Act tit

Change the temperature of butter and check out the properties of a supercooled liquid.

Ok-1H 0 0

Nihi\\*

Like glass, butter is an example of a supercooledliquid. Although it appears solid, butter's hardnessdepends on its temperature. As its temperatureincreases, butter becomes less viscous. Eventuallythe butter flows like more traditional liquids. If liq-uid butter is cooled, it takes on the hardened char-acteristics we associate with solids. The colderthe temperature, the more solid thebutter becomes.

Materials

buttertwo 250-m1 beakersfive small test tubestest tube racktest tube holderspatulaice

water

1. Use the spatula to placea marble-sized lump ofrefrigerated butter in thefive test tubes. Label thetest tubes 1-5.

2. Place test tube 1 ina freezer.

3. Place test tube 2 inthe refrigerator.

4. Fill a beakerhalfway with

cold water. Add sever-al ice cubes to form an ice-water solution. Place test tube 3 inthis solution.

5. Fill the other beaker halfway with hot water.(Be careful not to burn yourself.) Place test tube4 in this solution.

6. Keep test tube 5 in the rack at roomtemperature.


7. At the end of the period, examine the buttersample in each of the test tubes. Note andrecord any differences in shape and appearanceand relative hardness.

8. Discard samples 3 and 4. Replace samples 1, 2,and 5 in the freezer, refrigerator, and test tuberack, respectively.

9. Observe samples 1, 2, and 5 on thefollowing day.

Questions

1. Did you observe any relationshipbetween the physical properties of thebutter and the temperature at which it

was maintained? Explain.2. How is the viscosity

of butter and glasssimilar? How is itdifferent?

3. Predict how theshape of a window-pane might changeover many years.

Would this change bemore dramatic in ahot climate or a cold

climate?

Explain.


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from 3M. 41Innovation

SMILES

Dave Huddleston learns how smiling helps us communicate.

ettong Started,\\*

Begin the lesson by having the class make six emo-

tion charts labeled as follows: happiness, fear, dis-

gust, sadness, surprise, and anger. On a pad ofsticky notes, have pairs of students write down asmany other emotions as they can think of, one persticky, in three minutes. Have the students put eachsticky note on the chart that most closely matchesthe emotion. As a group, discuss each chart.

Ask the following questions of the group: Asyou were thinking about different categoriesof emotions, did your facial expressions changefor each? Did you notice changes in yourpartner's expressions?

6erview494W

Have you ever been asked to "wipe that expres-sion off your face" or to "smile for the camera"?Were you able to? Our facial expressions tell oth-ers what we're thinking and feelingand usuallyit's easy to tell when someone is faking an expres-sion. In addition, our facial muscles send mes-sages to our brains so that when we make a facialexpression, our emotions grow stronger.

You have 80 muscles that control what happenson your face. Those muscles communicate atleast 40 different groups of expressionsthe sixprimary emotions and their blends. Using theFacial Action Coding System (FACS), scientistshave observed and analyzed nearly 10,000 facialexpressions by determining which muscularactions produce each expression. By studying themechanics of smiles, frowns, and the thousandsof other "faces" we make, scientists are beginningto understand how people use facial expressions.

Why is it important to study facial expressionsand who cares about them? Actors study expres-sions to seem more realistic. Police detectives


look at the faces of suspects and witnesses to helpdetermine if they are telling the truth. Airportsecurity people study faces of travelers to look forclues about danger in the skies. Medical profes-sionals observe facial reactions during physicalexams. Interpreters closely watch the faces ofthe speakers to determine accurately the messageto translate. Reading faces is an importantsurvival skill.

Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology's Media Lab are working on manyprojects that involve computers learning to imi-tate human movement, actions, and even emo-tions. One project involves developing ways forcomputer-generated models to interact with eachother, using speech with appropriate intonations,hand gestures, and facial movements. In another,scientists use algorithms to generate facial anima-tions from speech and are studying how the face,hands, and speech complement each other in ourcommunication. The focus of another projectlooks at how people might communicate withcomputers using speech, gesture, and gazethesame things humans use to communicate witheach other.

So next time you meet someone, take a few sec-onds to think about what that person's face iscommunicating before either of you says a word.Chances are you'll be able to tell what the personis feeling. But rememberhe or she might bedoing the same thing to you!

'4"i?itkOn Wows

1. How do gestures differ from facial expressionsor emotions?

2. How do animals communicate witheach other?

Resources

Books and articlesEkman, P. & Friesen, W. (1984)

Unmasking the face: A guide to recogniz-ing emotions from facial expressions.

Palo Alto, CA: ConsultingPsychologists Press.

Computer softwareMindscape: How your body works. CD-

ROM for Macintosh or MPC. (888) 808-

4311 or http://www.mindscape.com

OrganizationsAmerican Psychological Association

750 First Street NEWashington, DC 20002-4242

(202) 336-5500http://www.a pa.org

MIT Media Lab

MIT Building #E15, The Wiesner Building20 Ames Street

Cambridge, MA 02139

(617) 253-0338http://www.mit.edu/Media

Lab/Research.html

Print and AV materialsMandler, G. (1989) "Notes on emotion,"written for the Rotating Faces Exhibit in

the Traveling Psychology Exhibition of the

American Psychological Association.

The "Rotating Faces" and related activities are

part of the exhibition entitled "Psychology:

Understanding Ourselves, Understanding Each

Other." The exhibition was developed and pro-

duced by the American Psychology Association

and the Ontario Science Centre in cooperation

with the Association of Science-Technology

Centers, the Exploratorium, and The Children's

Museum, Boston. Additional support for the

exhibition was provided by the National Science

Foundation, the William T. Grant and Alfred P.

Sloan Foundations, Harvard University, the

National Institute of Mental Health, and the

Annenberg/CPB Project.




Educational materials developed with the NationabiScience Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint-hie/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant from itty.,r Innovation

VET Infi2Walk for several minutes

with your eyes lookingdown, taking short, shuf-fling steps. Now walk for

several minutes with youreyes straight ahead, tak-

ing long strides andswinging your arms. Does

your mood change?

Human faces are asymmet-rical, and usually the facialmuscles on one side conveymore tension. Ask someone

to take a picture of yourface looking straight into

the camera. When youdevelop the film, ask for

two copiesone from eachside of the negative. Cut

each picture in half verti-cally. Glue the left side of

one to the right side of theother. Repeat with the

remaining halves to maketwo pictures of yourself.What differences do you

notice? Which side of yourface is more expressive?

Communication via emailor in online chat areas

requires creativity toexpress not only your ideas

but how you feel.Emoticons are symbols

that express feelings. Forexample, :-( is a frown and

:-) is an embarrassedsmile. Look at the symbols

on a keyboard and createyour own set of emoticons.If you have a keypal, share

your "faces" and havefun communicating!

FACE TO FACEStAlliErt**7111,,1,..,:obu ent

Find out how the parts of the face work together to express emotions.

Oi!ft?- 0 0 0

AdIVilqV444*,

Does a smile only happen on one part of yourface? Create a face book to find out. By combin-ing different faces, you can identify what emo-tions other people see on each face you create.You'll learn which parts or combination of partsof the face communicate most accurately.

Materials

magazines you can cut upscissors

glue

construction paper or other heavy papermarkers and pensthree 1" metal rings or spiral binding machineand binding material

1. Working with two or three partners,collect large (8.5" x 11") pictures of facesfrom magazines.

2. Glue each face to a page of paper. You shouldhave at least 10 pages of faces. Punch holes ineach page and use metal rings or a spiral bind-ing machine to make a booklet.

3. Make two horizontal cuts through each page,dividing the faces into these parts: brow/fore-head/eyes; nose; and lower face (mouth, chin).Identify each part of each face on the back ofeach section. Example: Face la (eyes), Face lb(nose), Face lc (lower face).

4. Create a table/log to record the face combina-tions and the emotions your classmates thinkeach face communicates. Remember that thereare many more emotions than sad, angry, andhappy. Encourage your viewers to think ofmore complicated emotions, such as satisfied,disgusted, desperate, compassionate, scornful,excited, dull, egotistical, and fawning. Look ina dictionary or thesaurus for some otherunusual or detailed emotions.

5. Flip through the booklet to create facial


composites. Be sure to note in your log whichcombination of parts was used for each faceand each person's response to that face. Askyour viewers how and why they came totheir conclusions.

Questions

1. What do your findings demonstrate about howwe "read" faces? Share your ideas with the class.

2 What features change the expression the most?The eyes? The mouth?

3. Does everyone tend to focus on the same fea-tures? Where do you look first?


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made dossibleby a grant from 3M. 430 Innovation

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

David investigates why the greenhouse effect is bad for our environment.

'-'6.,ettiatgi St rted

To begin the lesson, pose the following situation:On a bright, sunny day, you park your car in thesun and lock it. When you come back later, whathas happened? Have you ever been inside a green-

house when the sun was out? How did it feel? Thisphenomenon is called the greenhouse effect.

Before showing the video, ask the following: Is Earth

enclosed by something? In what ways is Earth like a

greenhouse? What effects will changes in Earth's aver-

age temperature have? How do human activities con-

tribute to this change in temperature? Are we making

Earth too hot to live on? How can we cool off?

Climatethat is, the weather over a long perioddepends on Earth's average temperature. This tem-

perature stays relatively constant because Earth's sur-

face absorbs energy from sunlight, changing it toheat (infrared radiation). Greenhouse gases, particu-

larly water vapor, absorb the resulting heat energy

and hold it in the atmosphere instead of allowing itto radiate out into space. (In an actual greenhouse,the glass windows block the heat's exit.) This green-

house effect keeps us warm, but scientists are con-

cerned that humans may be creating problems byadding certain greenhouse gases to the atmosphere,

such as carbon dioxide (from carbon-based fuels),chlorofluorocarbons (from aerosol cans), and

methane (from cow digestion).

The accumulation of greenhouse gases could resultin global warmingan increase in the average tem-perature that would probably lead to climatechange. If the worst predictions come true, we mayhave to deal with melting polar ice caps; rising sea

levels; uninhabitable coastal areas (where half the

world's population now lives); and wild, unpre-

dictable storms. Agricultural areas might turn to

desert, while barren areas might become fertile.


Researchers have analyzed air that was trapped in

glacial ice 160,000 years ago. By comparing that air

to the air in our current atmosphere, they have dis-covered an increase in carbon dioxide as the use of

fossil fuels has increased.

Some scientists aren't convinced that excess green-

house gases will actually cause global warming.

They point out that cooling effects also are takingplace. For instance, the oceans absorb much of thecarbon dioxide that human activity contributes tothe atmosphere. Higher temperatures cause more

water to evaporate into clouds, which shade Earthfrom sunlight, cooling it. Particulate matter fromvolcanic eruptions and other pollutants deflectssunlight and also contributes to cooling.

The greenhouse effect is a very complex issue.

Much of the information we have about globalwarming comes from computer models that esti-mate climate change. These estimates may be inex-

act because the atmosphere is so huge. In addition,an observed temperature increase may be caused by

something else. Some measurements suggest that

variations in the sun's light output cause tempera-ture changes far more significant than those caused

by greenhouse gases.

,e004,0

1Z@HOTOdO@HS

1. Sometimes a waste product or pollutant can berecycled for another use. Can you think of someother uses for the greenhouse gases?

2. How can we determine if human activity is real-ly contributing to global warming? And if it is,

what should we do about it?

Resources

Books and articlesBotkin, D. & Keller, E. (1995)

Environmental science: Earth as a liv-

ing planet (chapter 21 on climate). New

York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Rawls, R. (1996, Nov 4) Ironing the

ocean: Iron, a micronutrient for marine

plants, may be critical to

global carbon balance.

Chemical and Engineering News, p. 40.

Roleff, T. (Ed.) (1997) Global warming:

Opposing viewpoints. San Diego:

Greenhaven Press.

Sarmiento, J. & Le Quere, C. (1996,

Nov) Oceanic carbon dioxide uptake in

a model of century-scale global

warming. Science, p. 1346.

Computer software

KIDWare: Weather Tracker.(ver. 3.0).

Shareware, downloadable

from http://www.hotfiles.com,

$15 to register.

Web sites

CIESIN (Consortium for International

Earth Science Information Network)

http://www.ciesin.org/

Environmental Defense Fund

http://www.edf.org/pubs/Brochures/

GlobalWarming/a_gwexhibition.html

Environmental Protection Agency

http://www.epa.gov



NEWTON or check out our Web sire at:http://www.luca.orginewtons


Educational materials developed with thp 4sational Science Teachers Association.

NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA acint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by atgrabLfrom 3M. 44 Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1509Greenhouse Effect

Fill a 1-liter beakerwith water. Add 7drops of red food

coloring. This makesa solution approxi-

mately 350 parts permillion (the same as

the carbon dioxideconcentration in the

atmosphere). Canyou still see the red

color? Whatif you double the

concentration?

Carbon dioxide is nota pollutant in the tra-

ditional sense. Allgreen plants need it

to grow. Make a list ofother things that have

this good-in-small-amounts/bad-in-large-

amounts behavior.

Record the tempera-ture outside several

times a day for aweek, at approxi-mately the same

times each day. Notewhether the sun isout. Plot tempera-

ture versus time on agraph. What's the re-

lationship betweentemperature and

sunlight? What's in-fluencing your tem-perature readings?

Use vinegar to identify carbonate-containing materials.

owAdhivity

Carbon dioxide doesn't just take up space in theatmosphere. It's part of the global "carboncycle," in which carbon travels through the liv-ing environment to nonliving things and backagain. You can also find carbon in some rocksand minerals, generally combined with oxygenand a metal in a compound called a carbonate.You can identify carbonate-containing materialsbecause they react with acid to give off bubblesof carbon dioxide. The chemical sentence(equation) that describes this process is:Na2CO3 + 2HC21-1302 > CO2 + H2O +2NaC2H3O2

Materials

white vinegar (a solution ofacetic acid and water)various materials, such as eggshells,chalk, rocks, sand, seashells, bones, bakingsoda, salt, baking powder, and sugar(Caution: Do not test favorite objects, such asprized seashells or your mom's pearls, withvinegar or any other acid. The acid reactionwill damage them.)eyedroppershallow glass or ceramic dishfor testing

Questions

1. Which materials gave a positive test for car-.bonate? How can you be certain that anybubbles you saw were carbon dioxide and notsome other gas? What percentage of thematerial was carbonate?

2. How else could you measure the amount ofgas given off?

3. Does it seem likely that carbonate-containing rock is a source of atmosphericcarbon dioxide?

1. Weigh the material to betested on a balance.

2. Put the material in the dishand place several drops ofwhite vinegar on it.

3. Observe whether bubblesform. If bubbles do form, keepadding vinegar until they stop.

4. When bubbles stop forming, dryand weigh the material (if there isany left).


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made pbssible by a grant from 3M.

Innovation

MAMMOTH DIGWhy are there mammoth "burial grounds"?

Dave checks out a huge mammoth dig.

oteWong Marled

Begin the lesson by getting students to make a listof as many mammals as they can think of that livein your area. Cats and dogs are easy, but what ani-mals live in the woods, in an abandoned dwelling,near wetlands, or on the prairies? Are there mice,raccoons, or bears near you? Which are biggest?Have students research mammals that lived duringthe most recent ice age. Ask: How were these ani-mals different from the ones today? What hap-pened to them? Are any types of mammals stillaround that also lived during an ice age? How didthey survive when so many others didn't?

*OPV8VUOVR7

On a windblown steppe some 11,000 years ago, aherd of mammoths stampeded up a hill as a vastfire set by Paleo-Indians burned toward themacross the grasslands. The panicked giants,elephant-like creatures standing 11 to 13 feet (3.3to 4 meters) high at the shoulder, reached the topof the rise, then fell 50 feet down into a ravine.Out of the drifting smoke appeared a dozen of thePaleo-Indians, carrying spears tipped with sharpClovis points to finish off the mammoths that hadsurvived the fall. Starting fires to stampede largeanimals over cliffs was one of the ways humansused to hunt. Mammoths, with large tusks andabundant meat, were highly prized.

Mammoths were members of the genusMammuthus, a group of several species of prehis-toric elephants that roamed the North Americancontinent from about two million years ago untilbecoming extinct here about 11,000 years ago.Many scientists believe human hunting and cli-mate change combined to kill off the mammoths.

Before human hunters arrived and the climatechanged, mammoths thrived on the plentifulgrasses and other vegetation of the tundra and


steppe. There were several species of the creatures,

including the Columbian mammoth, Jefferson'smammoth, the imperial mammoth, and the woollymammoth. The Columbian, Jefferson's, and imperi-al mammoths were similar to modern elephants inthat they had two large, curved tusks; a long trunk;and little hair. The adults stood about 9 to 15 feet(2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall and had a life span of about50 years. The woolly mammoth, which lived in thecolder arctic tundra, was covered with thick curls ofwool overlaid with long, coarse protective hair.

Mammoths differed from mastodons, anotherelephant-like creature that roamed North Americafrom about 4.5 million to 10,000 years ago.Mastodons were smaller, standing 8 to 10 feet(2.4-3 meters) tall at the shoulder and weighingfour to six tons. The key difference betweenmastodons and mammoths was their teeth.Mammoths had flat teeth designed to grind grass-es, while mastodons had cones on their teeth thatenabled them to feed off shrubs and trees. As aresult, mastodons lived in the tropical rain forestand spread into South America.

Mammoths have ancestral roots going back about35 million years to a swamp-dwelling creature thatresembled a small hippopotamus: During eons ofevolution, an assortment of strange-looking crea-tures came and wentanimals with two or four-tusks, curved up or down, some shaped like flatshovels or corkscrews. Mammoths evolved from thisgroup about four million years ago, but elephantsare the only modern survivors.

.0%Ca nations

1. How could changes in the climate at the end ofthe last ice age push a species toward extinction?

2. What is the biggest threat to modern ele-phantshunting or climate change? Why?

I

L esources

BooksBahn, P. (1996) The Cambridge

illustrated history of archaeology.Cambridge, England: Cambridge

University Press.

Fagan, B. (1987) The great journey: The

peopling of ancient America. New York:Thames and Hudson.

OrganizationsThe Mammoth Site of Hot Springs,

South Dakota, Inc.

1800 Highway 18 By-PassP.O. Box 606

Hot Springs, SD 57747-0606(605) 745-6017

Publishers of booklet entitled Mammothgraveyard: A treasure trove of clues to

the past by R.A. Border (1994).

Web sitesIllinois State Museum

http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/larsonAce_age_animals.html

Swedish Museum of Natural History:Mammoths in Europe

http://www.nrm.se/virtexhi/mammsaga/mammut.html.en



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We encourage duplication for educational non-commercial use.Educational materials developed with'oe higtional Science Teachers Association.

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SURVIVAL OR EXTINCTION?

Graph what might have happened when humans met mammoths.

Invite a geologist, archae-ologist or paleontologist

from a local college orstate geological survey

office to talk to the classabout what the ice ageswere like, why they hap-

pened, and if anotherone could happen. Read

some books about thelast ice age and try to

find some geological evi-dence of an ice age inyour local landscape.

Vuiv VPdo

Copy a picture of a mam-moth onto a sheet of

overhead transparencyplastic. Then project thisimage onto a wall so that

the mammoth appears3m (10') tall. Trace

the image onto strips ofbutcher paper. When thedrawing is complete, cutout the animal's outlineand assemble the stripsinto a complete life-size

representation.

Use modeling clay toconstruct an assortment

of tooth shapes. Theseshapes should includedistinct teeth that areadapted for grinding,cutting, and tearing.

How can these teeth beused to explain the

spread of mastodons,but not mammoths, into

South America?

Vast herds of mammoths roamed the NorthAmerican continent for more than a million years,surviving several ice ages. At the end of the last iceage, about 11,000 years ago, just after the arrival ofhuman hunters, mammoths became extinct. Whilethe changing climate certainly made life more diffi-cult for mammoths, the added threat of humanhunters may have been enough to causethe extinction.

In this activity students divide into small groupsand play two games of survival to see howextinction might have occurred when the humanhunters arrived.

Materials (for each group)

2 sheets of graph paper20 dice for eachgroup (Have stu-dents bring in acouple of regulardice from a gameat home.)

1. Each team beginswith a herd of 20mammoths, each ani-mal being represented by a singledie. The numbers on the dice representthe following events:

1 = Death by starvation2 = Birth of a calf3 = Falls into an ice crevasse of

the permafrost4 = Lives well for one year5 = Killed by giant bears6 = Lives well for one year

2. Each roll of all of the dice represents one year.For each 1, 3, or 5 rolled, subtract one mam-moth from the herd. For each 2 rolled, add a


mammoth. For each 4 or 6, don't changethe number.

3. Roll the dice for 20 turns, representing 20years. Keep track of the births and deathsfor each year, then graph the growth orshrinkage of the herd over time. Did anyof the teams have a herd go extinct? Did thenumber of mammoths go up, down, or stayabout the same?

4. Play the game again, but this time change themeaning of number 4 on the die to "Killed

by Paleo-Indian hunter."Compare your graphsfrom both rounds of the

game with those of theother teams.

Questions

1. Based on your results,would mammoths have

become extinct if humanshad not come to NorthAmerica? Explain.2. Suppose youreplaced the meaningof both the "4" andthe "1" with "Killed

by Paleo-Indian hunter."How would that affect the herd?

What other factors might affect thesurvival of the mammoths?

3. Are there any modern animals that are beingthreatened by changes to their ecosystem? Isthe threat caused by nature, human hunting,or some other human activity?



Innovation

KIDS ON MARSHow do scint

I%rip es for distant planets?

Kids recreate the surface of Mars and design a planetary rover.

4:14411 Startedli4k\**

Begin the lesson with the following comments: Thispast summer, NASA landed the Pathfinder spaceprobe on the surface of Mars. What did scientistsdo before they even attempted such a mission?What are the difficulties they might have faceddesigning and constructing a vehicle to navigate a

foreign landscape by remote control? Watch thevideo to see how one group of science studentsundertook their own "mission to Mars," followingthe same procedures as the NASA space scientists.

rap,"izrlyuewFrom that fateful day back in 1877 whenGiovanni Schiaparelli trained his telescope onthe surface of Mars and identified long, sinuous"canali," people have wanted to get a close-up lookat the "red planet." It wasn't until July 1965 thatearthlings finally got that first look, with the helpof a remote probe called Mariner 4. Then in 1971,Mariner 9 produced pictures confirming that therewere no signs of advanced life on the planet butstrongly suggesting that running water and volca-noes had significantly reworked the surface.

In the summer of 1976, the Viking 1 and 2 space-craft actually landed on the planet, taking the firstcolor pictures and analyzing the soil for life. Thesetwo probes set the stage for the present round ofexploration that culminated in the MarsPathfinder and Global Surveyor missions in 1997.

Mars is geologically similar to Earth. Largeamounts of water once flowed over its surface,carving out deep channels and possibly formingseas in which primitive life existed. Mars also ishome to Olympus Mons, the largest known vol-cano in the solar system (three times as tall asMount Everest). Eruptions from this giant endedmillions of years ago, but the findings suggest thatMars was once a warmer, tectonically active place.


Even though the atmosphere on Mars is onlyabout one percent as dense as Earth's, it still pro-duces weather patterns. If all goes well, the GlobalSurveyor will provide us with detailed weatherreadings over the course of one Martian year(which is actually two Earth years).

In the coming years, NASA plans to send a num-ber of additional unmanned probes to Mars tocollect data on the ice caps and soil chemistry.Sending a spacecraft to analyze a planet that's34 to 240 million miles away is a complex task,requiring an enormous amount of planningand teamwork.

To get a taste of what it's like to be a Mars missionscientist, students from the Marcy Open School inMinneapolis created their own "mission to Mars."The first step in the planning process was to createa model of the planet's surface. The next step wasto design a vehicle that could successfully traversethe landscape without getting stuck or, worse yet,falling over. The students tried rovers with differ-ent numbers of wheels, rovers of varying heightsand widths, and rovers with different kinds of trac-tion. After each test, design changes were madeuntil the final working model was built. The laststep was to create a computer program to actuallymake the system run. Once the program was "de-bugged," the class ran its model trip to Mars.

004.,CIONYBON@FAZ

'44*1. How are photos of Earth from space used to

determine changes in our global environment?2. Recent advances in computer logic have made

it possible for certain robots to "think." Howmight this be used in a space probe exploringthe surface of a distant planet?

-t

Resources

N'S

Books and articlesBurgess, E. (1990) Return to the red

planet. New York: Columbia

University Press.

Fortier, E. (1995, Dec) The Mars that

never was. Astronomy, pp. 37-43.

McKay, C. (1997, Aug) Looking for life on

. Mars. Astronomy; pp. 39-43.

Naeye, R. (1996, Nov) Was there life on

Mars? Astronomy, pp. 33-37.

DrkanizationsLunar and Planetary Institute

3600 Bay Area Blvd.

Houston, TX 71058

NASA Central Operation of Resources for

Educators

NASA CORE

Lorain County 1VS

15181 Route 58 South

Oberlin, OH 44074

(216) 774-1051, ext. 249/293

Web sites

Lunar and Planetary Institute

http://cass.jsc.nasa.gov/Ipi.html

Mars Global Surveyor: NASALIPL

http://mgs-www.jpl.nasa.gov/

Mars Pathfinder: NASA/1PL

http://mpfwww.jpl.nasa.gov/



NEWTON or check our our Web sire at:h ttp://www.ktca.o rg/ new tons


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grdni froj 3M. 48 Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1510Kids on Mars

Using a topographicmap of the moon or

Mars, try building a 3Dmodel of that area's

landscape. First figureout how big you want

your model to be, thendecide on the scale of

the contour interval.Using either foam core

board or corrugatedcardboard, build theterrain and discover

how a model landscapecan be constructed.

Vply V643

In recent years, theGalileo probe of Jupiter

and the Magellanprobe of Venus havesent back enormousamounts of informa-tion. Conduct a little

research on what theseprobes discovered to

find out the latestscoop on our neighbors

in the solar system.

So you want to drive aspace probe but you

don't have the budgetfor it? Try your hand at

building your own"Sojourner" using any

commercially available,motorized building kit

(LEGO, Capsella, etc.).Try testing your vehicle

on different landscapesto see if it "makes the

grade" and if it hasenough traction to stay

in action!

MAP YOUR OWN WORLDNTS t

Discover how changing the scale of a map can either increase or decrease the level of detail you see.

clan /AderRv11/14*1.,

Maps are really models of a place in space. A topo-graphic map uses special lines called "contours" toshow how the ground-surface changes in elevationfrom one place to another. In most cases, whencontour maps are made, the scale that is selectedfor the contour interval is proportional to the scaleused to show distance across the map.In this activity, you'll dis-cover what happenswhen you change themap scale but try tokeep the contourinterval the same.

Materials (per groupof two students)


size, your will have to "scale down" the spacebetween the lines to half the distance. To dothis, use your ruler to measure the distancebetween lines in millimeters and divide by two.

3. Once you have completed drawing your halfscale map, draw a 5-cm square onthe second piece of paper. Followthe same procedures as in step 2,only this time, take the data offthe 10-cm square. Make sure youdraw in every contour line.

Questions

any U.S. Geological

Survey topographic 7.5-minute quad map showingat least 300 feet of reliefmillimeter rulerpencil

sheets of blank 8 1/2" x 11"paper

1. Discuss how topographic mapsare used to show land surfacefeatures and how the scale for the elevation(contour interval) is usually proportional to themap scale. Note the scale used to calculate dis-tance (1: 24,000) and the contour interval(usually either 10 or 20 feet).

2. Use your ruler and pencil to mark off a 20-cmsquare on the topographic map. Take the firstpiece of paper and draw a 10-cm square. Theobject is to recreate all of the same contour linesthat appear in the square on the topographicmap by drawing them in the square on thepaper. Since the square on the paper is half the

1. Make a detailed contourmap of your room or yourclassroom and do the activityagain. Is it harder or easierto change the scale?2. What has happened tothe spacing between thecontour lines as youreduced the scale of themap? How did this

affect your ability to read changesin elevations?

3. When the scale is reduced on a map, whatshould be done to the contour interval?How does this affect the accuracy of theelevation readings?

4. If you wanted to make a detailed map showing1-foot elevation change on the surface of aplanet, what type of scale would you need?



Innovation

WIND BLOWWhat causes wind? Where do air masses come from

Eileen gets blown away to investigate the wind.

Sfivivted

Begin the lesson by asking: What is wind? What doyou think makes it blow? Where does the energy

come from to power the wind?

Explain that wind is moving air, and the energy todrive it comes from the sun. To illustrate, conductthe following experiment: Place an empty balloon

over the top of an empty, clean, 2-liter soda bottle.

Ask the class: What do you think will happen tothe balloon if we begin to heat the bottle with ahair dryer? Heat the bottle until the ballooninflates. Explain that when air is heated, it expandsand becomes less dense. As a result, hot air rises. Inthe real world, the sun heats Earth's surface, which

in turn heats the air.

Rising air is only part of the story of what makes

the wind blow. Watch the NEWTON'S APPLEvideo so you can see the "big picture."

'00?Wilile

Anyone who has ever lived through the fury of ahurricane or witnessed the destructive power of atwister knows just how much punch the wind canpack! What many people don't realize is that whenthey see the wind blow, they're really watching the

power of the sun!

On Earth, our surface is surrounded by an ocean ofair called the atmosphere, which, like water, is quitefluid. Just like there are currents in the ocean, ouratmosphere has wind currents controlled by manyof the same factors, including temperature differ-ences, density differences, and the spin of the plan-

et. Most winds get started because of local changesin the density of air. As with most matter, when airis heated, it expands, causing it to become lessdense. Just like in a hot-air balloon, warm air isbuoyant. Cool air, which is more dense, moves in

and where do they g


and literally pushes the warmer air up, or, incommon terms, the warm air rises. We sense

the motion as wind.

All of the energy to heat the air comes from thesun, but in general the sun heats the air indirectly.

Solar radiation in the form of visible light pene-

trates our atmosphere and strikes Earth's surface,

where it's converted into heat and, as describedabove, begins to rise. Since the surface of the Earthis quite variable in its makeup (rock, tree, water,and pavement), the air is not heated evenly. Instead,

separate pockets of rising warm air masses called

thermals are formed, ultimately driving the local

wind directions.

While small variations in Earth's surface help to

cause localized wind conditions, differential heating

and cooling of the atmosphere generates global-scale winds as well. Hot air rising over the equatorpushes northward and southward. Upper atmos-phere cooling causes the hot air masses to becomemore dense and sink. Once near the warm Earth,

the air heats up and rises again. A vertically circlingflow of air, called convection cells, results. The

cyclic motion of these air masses is further modi-fied by Earth's own rotation, deflecting them to theeast and west. Known as the Coriolis effect, this

rotation deflection is what gives rise to the global

wind belts including the polar easterlies, mid-lati-tude westerlies, and tropical trade winds.

(©illne@iiillong

How did the global wind belts control the routes ofearly explorers and traders who depended on the

wind to move them around? Besides sailboats, how

else was the wind used to power civilizations of

the past?

Resougles

Books and articles

Demillo, R. (1994) How weather works.

Emeryville, CA: Ziff-David Press.

Gipe, P. (1995) Wind energy comes of

age. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Greeley, R. (1994, Jan 21) Wind streaks

on Venus: Clues to atmospheric circula-

tion. Science, p. 358.

Onish, L (1995) Wind and weather. New

York: Scholastic Voyages of Discovery.

Rennicke, J. (1995, Nov) Why the wind

blows. Reader's Digest, p. 82.

Schaefer, V. & Day, J. (1981) A field

guide to the atmosphere (a Peterson

field guide). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Organizations

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration

NOAA Environmental and

Information Services

1315 East West Highway, ROOM 15400

Silver Spring, MD 20910

(301) 713-0575

Web sites

National Weather Service

http://www.nws.noaa.gov/

The Wind: Our Fierce Friend

http://sInii.edu.tfi/units/energy/wind.html



NEWTON or check out our Web site at:http://www. k tca.org/newtons



NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTa Saitil Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant fr5D a°56_ Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1510Wind Blow

How fast does thewind blow in yourneighborhood? Try

your hand at design-ing and building your

own wind vane andanemometer to mea-

sure the direction andspeed of the wind.

(You could use abicycle wheel for youranemometer.) Set up

a mini-weather sta-tion and record the

data for a month.Are there any local

wind patterns?

How does Earth's sur-face control the wind?Set up an experiment

using two identical cups.Fill one with water and

leave the second empty.Place each under a light

bulb for 15 minutes.Use a thermometer tosee which heats fasterand then turn off thelight to see how fast

they cool. How does yourexperiment help explain

offshore winds ?

Long before therewere fossil fuels topower our vehicles,

people used thewind. Design and

build a tabletop windracer that goes with

the flow. Using afan, challenge yourfriends to see who

wins the race.

THE HEAT IS ONtg en

See how heat from the sun creates wind and how Earth's rotation changes its path.

.t,24

AiCAH adMV

Convection cells are circular currents of air thatresult when hot air rises into the upper atmos-phere, cools and contracts, sinks down near theEarth's surface, heats up and expands, and thenrises again. The rotation of Earth causes these airmasses to move in the form of wind. In thisactivity, you'll create small convection cells andwatch their patterns as you put the spin on them.

Materials

2 aluminum pie pansopaque, white dishwashing liquidred or green food coloring with a droppercandle in a holder and matcheswatch with second hand

1. Fill one of the aluminumpie plates with a halfinch of dishwashingliquid. Fill the otherplate with a half inchof water.

2. Using the plate with thedishwashing liquid, placeseveral drops of food color-ing about halfway between thecenter and the edge of the plate.

3. Light the candle and place it in its holder.Hold the plate over the candle so that thedrops of food coloring are directly over theflame. Wait about 45 seconds and observewhat happens to the drops of food coloring.Describe how they look and how they move.

4. When heated, your drops of food coloringact like convection cells that form nearEarth's surface. To see how the Earth's rota-tion might affect these cells, place the first


pie plate into the pie plate containing waterand spin it for about 30 seconds. Describethe patterns that are formed.

Questions

1. How did the shape of the convection cellschange as you heated the plate?

2. The patterns that formed when you spun theplate can be compared to the wind patternsin Earth's atmosphere. Do you think windpatterns flow the same around other planets?Why or why not?


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a'grant from 3M. 51 L Innovation

CAR ENGINEScipliiines work!

N'S

Su Chin looks under the hood to examine the workings of an engine.

14

ettuil Started

Begin the lesson by having small groups of stu-dents do the following activity: Place two tea-spoons of baking soda in a gallon-size, zipper-typestorage bag. Put a cup containing three ounces ofvinegar inside the bag, being careful not to spillany vinegar from the cup. Zip the bag closed.Hold the bag out away from you over a sink orgarbage container. Pour the vinegar onto thebaking soda.

Ask the students the following questions: Whathappens to the bag? What happened inside thebag to cause this reaction? How is this type of reac-tion, where chemical energy is transformed intomechanical, energy, similar to what happens inside

a car engine? How are they different?

It's hard to imagine living in a world where there are

no cars, buses, or trucks. When it comes to impor-tant inventions, the internal combustion engine hasto be near the top of the list. Unlike most steamengines that preceded them, internal combustionengines are small enough to fit in personal vehicles,

such as cars. Unlike electric motors, these littlepowerhouses can travel a long distance on a

compact fuel source.

As with most inventions, the internal combustionengine is really the product of many individualsworking over a long period of time. Early experi-ments with engines that burned liquid fuel startedback in 1838, but it wasn't until 1876 that aGerman engineer named Nikolaus Otto createdone that actually worked.

Little has changed in the Otto-cycle engine overthe last 120 years. The key element behind its powerinvolves igniting a small amount of gasoline inside a

confined space called the cylinder. As the fuel


explodes, it produces a great deal of hot gas, which

presses against the face of a piston, pushing it downin the cylinder. The other end of the piston is con-nected to a piston rod that turns a rotating crank-shaft, which in turn is linked to the car wheels. Theup-and-down motion of the piston makes thecrankshaft turn, just as the up-and-down pedalingturns the crank of a bike. It is this rotary motion ofthe crankshaft that runs the car's engine.

For all this motion to take place smoothly, four dis-

tinct actions or strokes occur in the engine. Duringthe intake stroke, the piston moves down in thecylinder and a mixture of air and fuel enters thecylinder through a valve in the top. In the compres-sion stroke, the valve closes and the piston begins to

move back up the cylinder, compressing the mixture.

Once the piston reaches the top of the cylinder,the spark plug ignites the fuel, which drives thepiston back down. This is called the power strokebecause it's where the power comes from. In thefinal exhaust stroke, the piston moves back upagain and a second valve opens to allow the spentgas to escape. Then the cycle starts all over again.

Typical car engines have either four, six, or eightcylinders. It is important that all of the pistonmovements are timed to move in an orderly way.Otherwise, the engine won't run smoothly.

1.

2.

&muted @

How did the development of the internal com-bustion engine change the settlement pattern of

people over the last 100 years?

What are some of the disadvantages associatedwith the internal combustion engine and how

might they be corrected?

I

Resources

BooksHeywood, 1. (1988) Internal combustion

engine fundamentals. New York:

McGraw-Hill.

Macaulay, D. (1988) The way things

work. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin Company.

Computer softwareMicrosoft Home Essentials:

Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopedia.

(800) 454-9497

OrganizationsSociety of Automotive Engineers

400 Commonwealth Drive

Warrendale, PA 15096-0001

(412) 776-4841

Web sitesSociety of Automotive Engineers

http://www.sae.org

University of Michigan Automotive

Research Center

http://arc.engin.umich.edu

Woman Motorist Magazine On-Line

http://www.womanmotorist.com





NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint,Paunfinneapolis. Made possible by a grant nem 3M. 52 Innovation

SHOW NUMBER

1511Car Engines

For an engine to runefficiently, the motor

has to keep cool.Otherwise, the metal

parts will begin toexpand and eventuallylock up or "seize." See

if you can design a"radical radiator" that

dissipates the heat froma cup of hot water. Try

using flexible plastictubing for the core and

aluminum foil fins.

Car transmissions usegears to speed up the

rate at which the wheelsturn. You can see howthey work by checking

out the gear cluster on a10-speed bike. Turn the

bike upside down. Asyou turn the pedals,

switch gears on the rearwheel. See how the

speed of the tirechanges relative to thespeed of the crank andsize of the gear. Come

up with a mathematicalrelationship to predictthese speed changes?

What role does oil playin an engine and

how do different typesof oil behave? Check outsamples of a 30-weight,

50-weight, and multi-weight oil. How do their

properties compare.

Build a piston system to convert linear to rotary motion.

AdhaV

For a car to move, the wheels have to turn in a rotary 5.

motion. Internal combustion engines are powered bypistons which move in a back-and-forth or linear

motion. By building and testing a model piston/crank-

shaft system, you'll discover how this energy transfer 6.

takes place and learn why there is an upper limit to howfast an engine can run.

Materialstwo 11" x 17" pieces of cardboard or chipboardstrong pair of scissors and glue

three 2" brass paper fasteners2" roofing nail

metric ruler and stopwatch

1. Create a piston by copying and enlarging the illus-

tration below. Cut the parts (piston head, piston

rod, crankshaft, and cylinder sides) out of one of the

pieces of cardboard or chipboard. You will mountthe parts on the other piece.

2. Using the point of the nail, carefully punch out four

holes in the crankshaft, one hole at each end of the

piston rod, and one hole midcenter at the bottom ofthe piston head. Assemble the piston head, piston

rod, and crankshaft using the brass fasteners. Glue

the cylinder sides to your base board, allowing

enough room between them for the piston head to

move up and down without getting stuck. Finally,

punch a hole in the base board so that you can

attach the free end of the crankshaft to it. Make sureyou've allowed enough room so that the piston rod

can turn the crankshaft completely when the pistonhead moves up and down.

3. Gently push the piston up and down inthe cylinder.

4. Using the ruler, measure the length of the strokethat the piston makes during one complete turn ofthe crankshaft. The stroke distance (D) is thedifference between the highest and lowest

point in the piston's head during onerotation of the crankshaft.

Determine the maximum number of completecycles the piston can make in 15 seconds. To do

this, carefully slide the piston up and down asquickly as you can without bending the apparatus.

Now connect the piston rod to the next holetoward the center of the crankshaft and repeatsteps 4 and 5, recording your results. Repeat thisfor all the holes in the crankshaft.

Questions

1. What happened when you attached the piston roddoser to the center of the crankshaft?

2. Was it easier or harder to make the crankshaft

turn quickly?

3. Did the crankshaft get stuck in any part of itsmotion? In a real engine, would this happen, too?Why or why not?

PISTON HEAD

CYLINDER SIDES



3 aa Innovation

ZOO VETHow is a zoo vet different from my puppy s vet?

NEWTON'S APPLE looks at a day in the life of a zoo vet.

Ohne [fled

Begin the lesson by dividing the blackboard inhalf, labeling one half 'Animals" and the other"Needs." Have the students come up with a list ofall the animals that might be found in a zoo.Instruct them to think of all the things that a zooneeds to do and provide for each animal. Next toeach "Needs," write students' suggestions of whocould take care of each task you listed. Ask thestudents: What do you think the role of a zoo isor should be?

OlbigVerde

One of the most important people at any zoo isthe veterinarian. Though zoo vets and domesticanimal vets go to school for the same amount oftime, zoo vets must be familiar with the anatomyand physiology of many more species of animalsthousands in some cases. A zoo vet must knowhow to take and read x-rays of a giraffe's neck or acrocodile's tail, whether a snake's vertebrae is devel-oping correctly, where the best place is to give a

shot to an elephant, and much more.

Zoo vets make regular visits to every animal enclo-sure and discuss potential health concerns withzookeepers, who are usually the first to notice if ananimal is sick or injured. Wild animals in captivityneed periodic checkups and vaccinations. The vetmust carefully examine each animal's coat or skin,teeth, ears, eyes, heart, and lungs.

Different animals need different preventive care.For example, unlike humans, whose teeth stopgrowing when they reach a certain size, some ani-mals (like rabbits) have teeth that keep growingbut are naturally ground down in the wild by whatthe animal chews. Zoo vets must grind these ani-mals' teeth down or make certain that they haveappropriate items to chew.


Because the wild animals in zoos and aquariumsare so exotic, their diseases can be, too. Sometimesan animal may suffer from a disease never beforeseen in its species. And sometimes one species ofanimal may transmit a "treatable" disease to anoth-er species in whom that disease is incurable.

A zoo is a collection of ecosystems and wild ani-mal species. To ensure healthy animals, all aspectsof their living space must be just right. Zoo vetsare instrumental in exhibit design because they candetect health problems linked to the anxiety levelof an animal in a too-small or crowded space.

Zoos and aquariums throughout the world shareinformation on breeding of captive animals. In aneffort to eliminate the capture of wild animals forzoos, these institutions plan their breeding pro-grams for the good of wild animals everywhere.Family trees are kept to ensure that animals fromdifferent ancestry breed together (in-breeding canpass genetic diseases down through the genera-tions). Vets determine when a female is ready tobreed, monitor the pregnancy, and, when neces-sary, help deliver the young.

Often veterinarians specialize. Some specialty areasinclude cardiology, epidemiology, neurology,surgery, dentistry, ophthalmology, and radiology.Specialists in these and other fields are helpingcaptive animals live healthier and longer lives.

gl@EiN@HZ

Zoos have a serious mission: animal conservation.What relationship might zoo vets have with orga-nizations that seek to protect endangered species?

N'S

Resources

Books and articlesIrvine, G. (1991) The work of zoo doc-

tors at the San Diego Zoo. New York:

Simon & Schuster. (out of print)

Computer softwareScholastic: Operation Frog. CD-ROM for

Macintosh, or 3.5 diskettes for DOS and

Macintosh. Available from Scholastic,

(800) SCHOLASTIC or

http://scholastic.com

Organizations

American Association of Zoo

Veterinarians

6 North Pennel Road

Media, PA 19063

(610) 892-4812

http://www.worldzoo.org/aazv/aazv.htm

National Wildlife Federation

1400 Sixteenth Street, NW

Washington, DC 20036

(800) 588-1650http://www.nwtorg/natlwild/

1997 /tableas7.html

Web sites

The Electronic Zoo

http://netvet.wustl.edu/e-zoo.htm

ZooNetAll About Zoos

http://mindspring.com/zoonet/

Animal Omnibus

http://www.birminghamzoo.com/ao/

The University of Michigan Museum of

Zoology's Animal Diversity Web

http://www.oit.itd.umich.edu/projects/ADW/





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SHOW NUMBER

1511Zoo Vet

Imagine yourself tobe your favorite zoo

animal. Write a storyabout how you spend24 hours. What does

your area look like?Who visits you? Do

you like them? Whatdo you eat and do?What would life belike if you were liv-ing in your naturalenvironment rather

than the zoo?

Visit your local zoo.Record your observa-tions of how the ani-

mals are presented tothe public. What do

they eat? Whatecosystems are

displayed? What doyou learn from the

exhibit signage?

Many animal conserva-tion and protection orga-nizations encourage stu-

dents to adopt an ani-mal and learn moreabout its situation.

Explore possibilitiesfor your class to adopt

an animal. Some of theorganizations are listedin the Resource section

on the reverse side.

Design an environment that keeps wild animals safe and healthy in captivity.

Adfleigv'NA*

Zoo vets work closely with zoo planners and other 1.

zoo staff to determine the healthiest environmentfor each species. Study two animals to determinehow to provide the best ecosystem for them.Design an area of the zoo for them to live in. Planeach ecosystem design to a common scale so thatthe final product combines the work of eachgroup to create a classroom zoo.

Use any resources available(text, software, Web sites,zoo staff etc.) as yougather information fordata logs.

If time allows, eachgroup will use recy-cling supplies (card-board, cans, etc.) andother supplies (clay,feathers, sticks) to cre-ate the animals andhabitats for the zoo.

Materials

Identify and assign the species that each groupwill study. (You may want to call a local zoo orcheck the many zoos on the Web to determinewhich animals are found in each ecosystem.)Alternately, assign an ecosystem to each group,and allow the group to select the animals theywill include.

2. Research how to provide the bestecosystem, including the optimum

number of animals of each species;the space required for each

species; and temperature, light,water, plant, food, andmedical requirement foreach species.

3. On chart paper, designthe section of your class-room zoo that will houseyour animals. Be sure touse rulers to make your

design to scale. (Note:Before you start, make a

class decision regarding thescale to use.)

4. Connect the ecosystemsdesigned by all the groups to cre-

ate the classroom zoo. Present yourgroup's zoo ecosystem and its inhabitants

to the larger group, and answer any questionsothers have about your animals or your design.

paper and pencils to createdata logs and record datavariety of information resources (books,magazines, local zoo, Web sites, software)chart paperrulermarkers

recycling and other art supplies

Questions

1. What fields of science do zoo staff members,including zoo vets, need to understand?

2 'What other areas of expertise are required tomanage a successful zoo?

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Innovation

0

NASA ROBOTSN'S

David takes a journey to space with exploration robots.

N444tetting Started

Begin the lesson by asking students to imagine theyare robots in Earth's orbit with a simple task to per-form: Tie the safety tether of an astronaut to ametal ring in the open cargo bay of the space shut-tle. Easy for a high-tech robot, right?

Have students put on blindfolds and tie theirshoes. Ask them to try it again, this time wearingthe blindfolds and heavy gloves. Repeat the task athird time, but this time tape Popsicle sticks ortongue depressors to the fingers of the gloves.

Ask students the following questions: Why is it sohard to tie your shoes? What are the many differentkinds of signals your brain receives from your bodyto do this seemingly simple task? What would beinvolved in building a machine to tie your shoes?

OVerVieW

Sometime during your life, maybe about 20 yearsfrom now, you will see the first images of a humanwalking on Mars. Long before a human undertakesthe dangerous task of going to Mars, however, theplanet will be explored by an army of large and

small robots.

A robot is an electronically controlled device pro-grammed to conduct tasks that could normally bedone by human workers. In hostile environmentseverywhere, particularly in space, modern explorersare turning to robots to undertake dangerous mis-sionsmissions that cannot yet be undertaken byhumans. In July 1997, a small robotic rover calledSojourner drove around on the cold surface ofMars, the first of many robots being designed byNASA to explore other planets. On Earth, smartrobots are being developed to venture into activevolcanoes, dive deep into the oceans, search forland mines left from wars, and help police disarmterrorist bombs.


Much robot development is spurred by NASA. Thespace agency plans to use robots in three basic ways:

on-orbit assembly, science payload tending, and

planetary surface exploration. Assembly robots will

help build Space Station Alpha during the next fewyears. The robots will be the eyes and hands ofhuman controllers who will use something called

virtual reality telepresence to see what the robot sees.

Science payload robots will help astronauts insidethe space station and will run science experimentswhen people aren't around. Exploration robots willland on and survey distant planets, moons, andasteroids. These robots must be able to "think" forthemselves. If a robot comes to a cliff on Mars, forexample, it has to stop without a controller back onEarth telling it to do so. Thinking robots areimportant because it takes many minutes to com-municate between Earth and other planets, sohuman controllers can't respond fast enough tohelp a robot avoid a dangerous situation.

Earth-bound industries are adapting much ofNASA's robotic technology for everything fromtiny microsurgery tools to giant steam shovels.While a robot may never actually tie your shoes,the machines are increasingly becoming creaturesnot just of science fiction, but of the real world.

IZennections'1/4*

I. Robots have been used in manufacturing formore than a decade. What products do you usethat were made with the help of a robot? Howand why was a robot used?

2. Do you think a smart robot could be yourfriend? How would that be different from hav-ing a human friend or even a pet? What respon-sibilities would you have toward the robot?

3. What activities or problems can you think ofthat a robot could solve or at least help with?

liesouroes

Books and articles

Brown, L. (1996) Robotix Mars mission

activity guide (for grades 3-12).

Chicago: Carnegie Science Center

and Learning Curve Toys

Educational Division.

To obtain, call (800) 704-8697 or

e-mail: [email protected]

Haddrill, M. (1997, June) The incredible

shrinking robot. Final Frontier, p. 26.

Web sites

learning Curve Toys (Robotix

Construction System) fact sheet

http://learningtoys.com/WORKSHOP/

quickfaq.html

Long Range Science Rover Task

(NASA robots for planetary exploration)

http://robotics.iptnasa.gov/tasks/scirover/homepage.html

NASA Space Telerobotics Program

http://ra nier.oact.hq.nasa.gov/

telerobotics_page/programdesc.html

Robotics Engineering Consortium

(NASA-inspired robots at work on Earth)

http://rec.ri.cmu.edu/REC/

brochure/broch2.html

Robotics Related Periodicals and

Publications

http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/robotics-faq/4.html#4.2.1

Updates on NASA's Mars Missions

http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/mars


provide further information about thisand other topics. Call 1-800-588-

NEWTON or check our our Web site at:http://www.ktca.orenewtons

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SHOW NUMBER

1512NASA Robots

Before there wererobots, craftsmenbuilt "automated

men" using gears,motors, pulleys, and

levers. These devices,which range from

piano-playing peopleto bell ringers, are not

true robots becausethey are not program-mable. Research thehistory of automatedsystems. Do they use

feedback?

Robots have long beenassociated with outer

space. From Voyager 2to Viking to Sojourner,robot probes have col-

lected an enormousamount of informationfrom areas where "no

one has gone before."Where are robots going

in the 21st century?

Craters form on planetsand moons when mete-ors hit. The shape of a

crater reveals a lot aboutthe power of the impact.

Drop a metal ball bear-ing into a dishpan filled

with flour. Remove theball with a magnet andmeasure the width anddepth of the crater. Try

different-sized ballsdropped from different

heights. Why are thecraters different?

PROGRAM YOUR PARTNERNSA R T tudtp teeth'Try your hand at guiding a robot to do a simple task.

;,1'vc]film AdOvOiliv

Until robots become true "thinking" machines,able to understand their environ-ment and make decisionsabout what to do to accom-plish their mission, theywill depend on con-trollers to guide them. Inthis activity you will workwith a partner to find out howhard it is to accurately guidea robot througheven simple tasks.

Materials

blindfoldnotebookshoe box (or someother container that size)baseball or tennis ball


vering easier. Define a specific length for a step(the length of a piece of notebook paper, for

example) and instead of saying "turnright" or "turn left," work out

specific angles for the size of

00

turns ("turn 20 degrees to theright," for example).4. Repeat the mission againusing a different route, tak-ing a turn in each role. Didthe glossary make things eas-

ier for both the robot and thecontroller? Was there less

misunderstanding?5. Try it again, but this time draw a mapof the route the robot is supposed to take.

The controller must sit facing away from

0

1. Working with a partner, one of youwill take on the role of a robot, theother the controller. The person play-ing the robot should be securely blind-folded and given the ball.

2. The robot, following verbal instruc-tions from the controller, must movealong a prescribed course (down an aisle andaround a desk, for example) and then depositthe ball in the container. The robot can't talkduring the first attempt and must follow thedirections given to it exactly ("turn right" does-n't necessarily mean all parts of the body or 90°right). After the robot has successfully put theball in the container, the robot and controllershould switch roles and try it again.

3. When you have both completed the task, fig-ure out what the most difficult part in com-municating instructions was, then develop a

written glossary of commands to make maneu-

the course the robot must follow, but thistime the controller will use the robot's

eyes (which in a real robot wouldbe a TV camera). The controllermust use the map to keep track ofthe robot's location and is allowed

to ask "yes" and "no" questions sothe robot can give feedback about

its surroundings. The robot muststill await the controller's instructions

before moving.

Questions

1. What problems might you face if the robotwasn't as smart as you or your partner?

2. The minimum round-time for a signalbetween Earth and Mars is 8.8 minutes; themaximum time is 41.9 minutes. How wouldyou change your commands if they took 20 or30 minutes to reach your robot? What dangerswould that delay cause?

3. What sensory devices could you add to therobot to make controlling it more precise?



Innovation

ROBOTSWhat re robotz.und how do they differ from other machines.

David and Eileen examine what makes a robot what it is.

01'4-enttg Roged

Begin the lesson by asking students: What does the

word "robot" mean to you? How do real robotscompare with the humanlike creatures found in sci-ence fiction movies and books?

Robots are often used to work in environments thatare either inaccessible or too dangerous for humans.

Have students think of some places where robots

are used today. Ask them what guidelines they canuse to determine if something is truly a robot.Then have them watch the video segment and

play "Bot or Not?"!

When people hear the word "robot," the first thingthat usually comes to mind are the shiny metalandroids featured in classic science fiction movies.

While machines resembling C-3P0 and R2-D2have been built, they are more the exception thanthe rule in today's robot community. More oftenthan not, modern robots look nothing like humans.Their forms are usually the result of the functions

they have been created to perform.

By definition, a robot is an electronically controlleddevice programmed to conduct a series of tasks thatwould normally be carried out by humans. Likecomputers, robots follow only those commands thathave been placed in their microprocessor brains.

Without proper programming, robots would not beable to carry out even the simplest function. Whilerobots are not capable of thought in the traditionalsense, their programming often allows them to make

decisions through a process known as feedback.

Simply stated, feedback is the process where infor-mation is taken in, analyzed, and then used to make

an adjustment in a system. All feedback systems,whether living or mechanical, have three main com-ponents. Sensors, which can be as sophisticated as


the human eye or as simple as a photo cell, collectinformation and send it to a comparer, which ana-lyzes the data by comparing it to some set standardIn living things, the comparer is usually the brain,while in robots, it's a microprocessor.

If the sensory data shows that the system is notworking according to the standard, the comparersends a message to an adjuster that changes the waythe system is operating. In a human eye, the adjuster

may be the iris, which controls how much lightstrikes the eye sensor, the retina. In the case of a

robot, the adjuster might be a set of gears, hydraulic

valves, or pulleys that control how much pressure is

exerted or in which direction the robot moves.

As computers get more powerful and programs getmore sophisticated, simple feedback systems in

robots are being replaced by artificial intelligence. As

the name suggests, artificial intelligence (AI) is an

attempt at mimicking true thought processes used by

humans and other sophisticated creatures. Whilefull-fledged reasoning is still many miles down the

technological highway, new advances in AI have

given robots the ability to learn from their mistakes,recognize patterns, make simple decisions, and even

comprehend spoken words. With continuedadvances in AI, it's only a matter of time before we

all have our own robots to take care of the house-work, walk the dog, and do the shopping!

©Gti ter $J ©leg

How is the feedback system in a human eye compa-rable to the one found in an auto-focus camera?How might this technique be used in a robotic spaceprobe designed to take pictures of a distant planet?

Resotonez

Books and articles

Brooks, R. (1991, Sept) New approaches

to robotics. Science, pp. 1227-1232.

Rosheim, M. (1994) Robot evolution: The

development of anthropomorphics.

New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Suplee, C. (1997, July) Robot revolution.

National Geographic, pp. 76-95.

Computer software

Microsoft: Isaac Asimov's The Ultimate

Robot Available in catalogs.

Organizations

Robotics Society of America

P.O. Box 1205

Danville, CA 94526-1205

(415) 550-0588

Web sites

Mobile Robot Laboratory

Research Projects

http://www.cc.gatech.edu/a imosaic/

robot-lab/research/aaai94.html

The Robot Group

http://www.robotgroup.org/

Robotics Internet Resource Page

http://piglet.cs.umass.edu:4321/robotics.html

Learning Curve Toys

(Robotix Construction System)

fact sheet

http://learningtoys.com/WORKSHOP/

quickfax.html



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Even the simplest taskmust be programmed into

the robot's memory in asequence that the machine

can follow. Write a simpleflow chart/program that

commands someone elseto perform a specific func-

tionshoot a basketball,move a desk, etc. Account

for every action in theproper sequence and leavenothing open-ended. Have

someone follow yourprogramming to get

the job done.

WIT Vild2

While many science fic-tion movies have been

based on robots resem-bling humans, building

a robot that can walklike a person has proven

to be an exceptionallydifficult task. Research

the Pathfinder's roverSojourner to find out

how scientists built it tomove across the surfaceof Mars. How might you

design a robot?

Feedback systems inrobots closely resemblethose that keep our own

bodies in balance. To seea simple feedback system

at work, get a smallflashlight and stare into a

mirror. Shine the lightinto your eye and see

what happens. How fastdoes this reaction occur?

What controls it?

GETTING SENSE-IBLEn EtiN itt.

Discover the limitations of mechanical sensors used by robots.

@ 17 NVNO*How difficult is it for mechanical sensors tocollect information in robotic systems? Becausethe human sense of touch is so well developed,it's hard to imagine what type of information amechanical hand might obtain. See how "sense-ible" you can be when you try to gather infor-mation about the size and shape of an objectusing nothing but a mechanical sensor.

Materials

large, open cardboard box approximately 40by 30 by 20 cm (16" by 12" by 8") (Thekind that copier paper comes inworks great.)wooden dowel approximately30 cm longpiece of opaque fabric largeenough to cover thebox openingmasking tape

1. Discuss how thesense of touchallows you todetermine thesize and shapeof an object, andthen imagine whatit would be like if theonly way you could "feel" something wouldbe through the use of a mechanical probe.


each member of the group try to collect asmuch information as possible on the size andshape of the object by slipping the woodendowel under the drape and using it to"probe" the object. After all team membershave collected their data using the stick, theyshould draw a picture of what they think theobject looks like. Repeat the procedure withthe other mystery objects. After all the indi-viduals have finished, compare the drawingsto the actual objects.

Extend the activity:How does your sense of touch improve when

you use your own hand? Once youhave completed theactivity using thewooden sensory probe,try repeating it with adifferent set ofobjectsonly thistime, use your hand tocollect the data. Howmight you design a

probe or set of probes thatmore closely resembles the

human hand? For example, how would apply-ing wax or soft clay to the end of the dowelaffect how the object feels?

2. Set up the sensory box by using the maskingtape to drape the fabric over the opening ofthe box. Turn the box on its side and set itup in the middle of the table. Each person inthe group should select one mystery objectfor placement in the box, making sure theother members of the group do not see it.

3. Place the first object in the box and have

Questions

1. How did using a probe limit the amount ofinformation you could gather?

2. How might changing the diameter of thedowel help change the "resolution" of thedata collected?

3. Would changing the material that theprobe is made from help you collect moreuseful data?



agi Innovation

LIGHTNINGHow is lig form

Brian becomes well-grounded in the physics of lightning.

ogling &toted44i*Begin the lesson by explaining that lightning is anextreme example of the same static electricity thatshocks your fingers when you touch a metal doorknob after rubbing your feet on a thick carpet.

The powerful bolts from the sky are proof of theold saying, "Opposites attract." To demonstrate,blow up a balloon, draw a face on it with a perma-nent marker, and then hang it on a string abouthead high for the students in your class. Have vol-unteers rub the face vigorously with a piece ofwool. Does the face turn toward that person? Why?Ask the volunteer to step away from the balloon,then move toward it. Have other students try thissame exercise. Ask: How close to the balloon doyou have to be before it reacts to you? What doyou think is happening?

Scientists know that lightning results from a com-plicated interplay of positive and negative electricalcharges occurring in the 2,000 or so thunderstormstaking place on Earth at any given moment.

To learn about what causes lightning, scientists hadto learn about the interaction of electrons and posi-tive ions. Electrons, tiny particles orbiting the out-side of atoms, carry a negative charge. Positive ionsare atoms or molecules that have lost an electron.Atoms and molecules normally have equal positiveand negative charges, making them neutral.

When different materials come in contact, elec-trons are transferred and one of the materials gains

an excess of electrons and becomes negativelycharged. When an object with a lot of positive ornegative charges gets close to an object carrying theopposite charge, a spark jumps across the space

between them to neutralize the charges.


In a thunderstorm, that spark is a lightning bolt.It's only a couple of inches wide, but it leapsbetween the clouds and the earth at a remarkable90,000 miles per second. The power in thestroke is three million megawatts, comparable toall the power generated in the United States atany one instant.

The separation of positive and negative chargesnecessary for lightning begins during a thunder-storm, when rising water droplets collide withfalling hailstones in the middle of the cloud. Thehail strips electrons from the droplets and the topof the cloud becomes positively charged, while thebottom becomes negatively charged. What we seeas lightning happens in a two-step process. Staticelectricity builds up between the earth and thecloud and a spark in the form of an invisible light-ning bolt comes down from the cloud.

Just before this bolt reaches the ground, it is metwith an upward moving, positively charged spark.When the two collide, an explosion occurs as thereturn stroke travels up the boltthe result: a visi-ble flash called lightning.

4°Conriectierts

1

2.

3.

Why do most people hit by lightning survive?How do airliners, which are each hit by light-ning about once a year, manage to keep flying?Florida has some of the strongest lightningactivity in the country, while there is very littlein Oregon and Washington state. Why?While the initial charge of most bolts of light-ning travels from the cloud down to theground, the flash we see actually travels fromthe ground up to the cloud. Why does the flashlook like it is traveling down?

Resources

Books and articlesBurroughs, W. (1996) The Nature

Company guides to weather. New York:

Time-Life Books.

Day, J. (1991) Peterson first guides,

clouds and weather: A simplified field

guide to the atmosphere. Boston:

Houghton Mifflin Company.

Newcott, W. R. (1993, July) Lightning:

Nature's high-voltage spectacle.

National Geographic, p. 80.

Web sites

Automated Weather Source Online

http://aws.com/index.html

Boston Museum of Science

http://www.mos.org

(Click on the electricity exhibit)

Lightning Retardant Cable

http://207.158.219.249/1inks.htm#11

National Weather Service, Newport, NC,

Home Page

http://www.eastnc.coastalnet.com/

weather/nwsmhx/lightng.htm

NOVA Online: Lightning!

http://vvww.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/nova/

teachersguide/lightning/

The first of a series of linked pages

that explore lightning and include sev-

eral activities for the classroom.



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Ask a meteorologistfrom a local TV sta-

tion, your regionalNational Weather

Service office, or alocal college or uni-

versity to come toyour class and talk

about lightning. Howdo weather forecast-

ers predict lightning?Are there differenttypes of lightning?

Research the dangersof lightning and devel-

op a safety quiz foryour school. Find the

safest place to be in alightning storm. What

do you do if you'recaught outdoors? Is itreally safe to be in a

car? Is it dangerous totake a shower or talk

on the phone in alightning storm? Why?

lio

Cut out small squaresof paper and put themon a table. Put the top

of a clear plastic,take-out container over

the pieces of paperand rub the top vigor-

ously with a wool clothfor 2 or 3 minutes.

What happens if youstop rubbing and wait

15 minutes? Whathappens if you rub the

plastic again?

Charge up a balloon and watch the reactions.

blaufigy

Only scientists with sophisticated equipment canactually study lightning, but the same forces ofsta-tic electricity that drive lightning can be studied ona much smaller and safer scale.

In this activity you'll play with elec-trons, creating negative and posi-tive charges like those thatform in thunderstorms.Instead of creating boltsof lightning that canfry trees, you'll use thecharges to attract andrepel objects.

Materials

hrtp://www.ktca.orginewtons

the balloon very close to the salt and pepper.What happens? Is it what you expected?

6. Go back through the experiments and chart, inwriting, the positive and negative forcesinvolved in each step and how they caused themotions you observe.

balloons

Styrofoam packingpellets or puffed ricecereal

strips of wool clothsalt and pepper (The littlepackets from fast food restaurantswork well.)

1. Inflate a balloonand rub it with awool cloth.

2. Bring your balloon close to a handfulof the Styrofoam pellets and watchwhat happens.

3. Many of the pellets will cling to the balloon.Wait for several minutes and observe whathappens to the pellets.

4. Try to explain what forces were involved inthe pellets being attracted to the balloon,then explain the odd behavior of the pelletsthat followed.

5 Mix together a small pile of salt and pepper,recharge the balloon with the cloth, then hold

Questions

1. Based on what you've seen,can you explain why rubbingyour feet on a carpet andthen touching another personor something metal causes ashock? Why does static elec-

tricity seem to build up morein dry air than in moist air?

2. Some materials, such aswool and human hair, give up

electrons very easily and produce anegative charge in an otherwise

neutral object. Other materials, suchas rubber, don't. Why?3. After you've exploredthe charges on the balloon,experiment with otherobjects available in your

school, such as a rubber rod, a glass rod,or a piece of PVC plumbing pipe. Rub these

objects with silk, fur, or wool, and see whathappens when you bring them near yourballoon. Do the objects attract or repel theballoon? Why?

[Adapted from an activity from the Boston Museum of Science]


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made pdssible by a grant from 3M.

Innovation

PROTEINS.Wh a tL a re, :ro .why thq importane

Dave takes a spin with proteins to see how they move.

etfing St vied'14*.

To begin the lesson, set a Koosh ball (available at atoy store) on a table. Blow on it lightly and ask theclass to describe the effect of the moving air on theKoosh ball's strands. Then give it a quick, hardpuff and ask, "How did the strands behave differ-ently when hit by the stronger current of air? Howwas the overall shape of the Koosh ball affected?"Stick a small bit of clay on one of the strands. Askstudents to describe how changes in the form ofone of the strands affects the arrangement ofthe others.

Explain that the Koosh ball's movements resemblethose of a protein molecule, though the two don'tlook like each other. In the case of proteins, exter-nal factors like water molecules, not air, can affectsurface projections of the protein and change itsoverall shape.

Ask the following questions: What are proteins?Why are they important to us? Why would alteringa protein's shape be important?

venifien440A,

Proteins run our show. Muscles, organs, hair, bone,and skin either contain or are made of proteins.They are a major component in all of our cells.Enzymes that run the chemical reactions in ourbodies are proteins. Proteins help us move, sendmessages (hormones and nerve receptors), fight offdisease (antibodies), and transport other moleculesand atoms around our bodies.

A protein is a molecule that consists of a chain ofamino acids. There are 20 different amino acids tochoose from, and the genetic information in ourDNA determines how they're put together. A sin-gle protein consists of hundreds of amino acids, allfolding into a structure with a specific shape.


What job a protein does in the body is determinedby its structure (its conformation) and the way itmoves (its dynamics). Hemoglobin, for example, isan important red blood cell protein that deliversoxygen to tissues and hauls carbon dioxide to thelungs for removal. In the lungs, oxygen binds tothe iron atoms inside a hemoglobin molecule andany attached carbon dioxide is released.

In the tissues, the molecules of oxygen are releasedand more carbon dioxide is picked up. As illustrat-ed in the video segment, it is the motions of partsof the hemoglobin molecule that makes this bind-ing and release action work.

Scientists can investigate these motions or dynam-ics as well as the protein's structure using a tech-nique called NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance)spectroscopy. The nuclei of some atoms are like lit-tle magnets; they align within a magnetic field. Ifdisturbed by a very quick blast of radio waves, thisalignment is disrupted and these little magnets .

gradually relax back into alignment with the field.Researchers can interpret this NMR relaxation toget very detailed information about molecularmotion and how proteins do their many differenttasks in the body.

**\*C)EDEMe¢9110n0

1. A protein's structure and activity allow it toaccomplish its function. How do you use yourown shape and movement to accomplish tasks?

2. You need to eat protein to survive. What foodscontain protein? Do you think you get enoughprotein in what you eat? How can you find out?

Mn=

Books and articlesBorman, S. (1996, May 27) Scientists

refine understanding of protein folding

and design. Chemical and Engineering

News, p. 29.

Clore, G. & Gronenborn, A. (1993) NMR

of proteins. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

McCammon, J. & Harvey, S. (1987)

Dynamics of proteins and nucleic acids.

England: Cambridge University Press.

Schulz, G. & Schirmer, R. (1985)

Principles of protein structure. New

York: Springer-Verlag.

Web sites

Hemoglobin Allostery

http://cherubino.med.jhu.edu/raj/Research/Hemo/hemo.html

Hemoglobin and Cooperativity

http://www.psc.edu/MetaCenteri

MetaScience/Articles/Ho/

Ho-hemoglobin.html

Protein Structure: A Beginner's Guide to

Molecular Biology

http://www.res.bbsrc.ac.uk/molbio/

guide/prot.html


provide further information about thisand other topic's. Call I- 800 -588-

NEWTON or check out our Web site at:http://www.ktca.orenewtons

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Build a small protein and alter it to form new proteins.

VrT 1T-Mo

Design your own pro-tein out of a building

set, gumdrops andtoothpicks, or a ropeor thick string. What

do you want your pro-tein to do? How will its

shape have to bealtered to perform that

function?

Demonstrate NMRrelaxation with a gyro-

scope. Set a gyro-scope in motion. How

does the motionresemble the motionof a protein nucleus

inside an NMR? Whathappens to the gyro-scope after its beenspinning for a while?

41717 Vido

Vegetarian diets areoften protein deficient.Why is that? Research

vegetarian diets andfind out which vegetar-

ian foods can supplyhumans with an ade-quate amount of pro-

tein. Create a vegetari-an menu for one day

that would provide youwith your daily protein

requirements.

,01/aciAnAdIUNY

NAW*'

Scientists describe the structure of proteins severaldifferent ways, from the sequence of aminoacidsthe basic building blocks of proteintohow proteins interact. Some of the basic structuresof proteins are recognizable; one is the alpha-helix,which looks like an open spiral staircase. Anotheris the beta-sheet, which resembles a picket fence.In this activity, you'll build a model of a proteinwith four helix units.

Materials (per group of four)

four 10"-12" cardboard tubes (from plasticwrap or aluminum foil)four 30"-long pieces of Velcro (with peel-offsticky back)cotton ballsPing-Pong or golf ball

1. Each member of the groupwill make one helix: Holdone of the tubes verti-cally and wrapthe Velcro

strip aroundthe tube in aspiral pattern.Attach the cot-ton balls to theVelcro an inchapart from eachother. Can you seehow this resembles a

helix structure of a pro-tein? What do the cottonballs represent?

2. Position four tubes together

What happens if you combine yours withanother group's?

3. Now take the Ping-Pong or golf ball and try toget it into the middle of your four helices.What do you have to do to get it to fit inside?How is this similar to what a protein does toaccommodate a smaller molecule? What kindsof molecules change their conformation likethis to do their job?

Questions

Why is it important for researchers to know theshapes of different proteins? How do you thinkthey are able to alter a protein's shape?

so that the cotton balls of onetube touch the Velcro strip ofanother. They should be able tohold together this way.



Innovation

)SCIENCE TRY-ITS

Ell THY IT! Cuddle up .Ro u baby pluntl

Fill a glass half full with water. Put six hard-shell dry beans (pinto,kidney, or lima) in the glass of water to soften their outer casings.Set the glass of beans in a refrigerator overnight. (Keeping the beanscool prevents bacteria from growing and making the beans sour.)Remove the beans from the water and place them on a paper towelto dry. With your fingernail, scratch off the outer covering of one ofthe beans. Holding the bean in your hands, pry the two parts of thebean apart with your fingers. Using a flashlight, shine a beam on thesplit bean as you observe the inside with a magnifying lens. Do yousee a small plant in one side of the split bean? What is that tinystructure? What does it look like? To find out, you'll have to try it!

131TRY OT The ink © any dims

Cut a paper towel into six-inch-wide strips. Using a black or blue(not permanent) felt-tip pen, make a large solid dot about two inch-es from the short edge of one of the strips. Put water, about oneinch deep, into a glass and put the edge of the towel nearest the dotinto the waterbe sure the dot is not submerged. What happens?You'll have to try it!

[2] TRY nil Go Spool amen!

Materials you'll need: emptythread spool, rubber band, tworound toothpicks, masking tape,metal washer (diameter mustbe smaller than that of thespool). Insert the rubberband through the hole in theempty thread spool. Put onetoothpick through the loopformed by the rubber band at one end of the spool. Center thetoothpick on the end of the spool and attach with the tape. At theother end of the spool, thread the rubber band through the hole inthe washer. Put the second toothpick through the loop in the rubberband. Do not attach it to the spool. Hold the spool steady with onehand, and with the index finger of your other hand turn the unat-tached toothpick around and around in a clockwise direction towind the rubber band tightly. Place the spool on a flat, smooth sur-face, such as a counter or the floor, and let go. Observe that as therubber band unwinds, the spool turns, turning the toothpick tapedto the spool. How does the spool move? You'll have to try it!

161 Eilf Vislon

In a dark room (not totally dark, but the light should be extremelylow), let your eyes adjust for 10 minutes. Cover your right eye tight-ly with your hand so that no light can get through. Have a friendturn on a small flashlight and point it at your stomach. (Don't let

them point it directly into your eyes!) Stare at the flashlight for 30seconds with your left eye. Turn off the light and look around theroom. Now cover your left eye and look around with your right. Is

there a difference? You'll have to try it!

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NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possibly by a grant from 3M. 64 aa Innovation

SCIENCE TRYITS

[5] TRY 1179 Nngewpdat. Fun

Rub the sharpened end of a pencil across a sheet of paper 15 to 20times to collect a layer of graphite on the paper. Rub your leftindex finger across the graphite on the paper. Tear off about oneinch (2.5 cm) of tape and stick it across the darkened tip of yourfinger. Remove the tape and stick in on a sheet of white paper.Repeat the process using the tips of other fingers. Observe the pat-terns produced by each finger with a magnifying lens. Are the pat-terns different or the same? Why? To find out, you'll have to try it!

MI SC11

[1] Baby Plant

Beans are a smooth, hard seed. When split open, eachseed has a tiny, colorless, plandike structure with twoleaves stuck to one of the bean parts. When observed

under the magnifying glass, this structure looks like a

"baby" plant. This tiny baby plant is called theembryo, and is the part that ultimately develops into aplant. The two parts of the bean that are pried apartare the seed leaves or cotyledons, and they contain thefood for growing the embryo. Plants with two seedleaves, such as beans, are called dicots, short for

dicotyledons. Plants with only one seed leaf, such ascorn, are called monocots, short for monocotyledons.

RI Spool Racers

There are two basic forms of energy: kinetic (energy

of motion) and potential (stored energy). It took ener-gy stored in the muscles of your body to wind the

rubber band. As long as you prevented the rubber

band from turning by holding the toothpick, the

energy was stored (potential). Releasing the toothpickallowed the rubber band to unwind and thus thestored energy in the twisted rubber band was trans-formed into kinetic energy.

[6] TRY I11 Blayouil

Take an empty salt container and cut out the bottom. Place plasticwrap around the bottom of the container and secure with a rubberband. Have an adult light a candle and hold the container side-ways about six to eight inches from the candle, the spout facingtowards the candle's flame. Gently tap the plastic bottom of thecontainer with your finger. What happens to the candle? You'llhave to try it!

NCI 311INID SCENCE

[3] InkBlack and blue inks are actually made up of manycolors, not just black and blue. The different colorsyou see on the paper towel are the colors that make

up the ink in the peneach is a different substance,which means each color of ink has different-sized

molecules. When the water is absorbed by the papertowel, it carries the different inks along with it. Thewater carries the lighter ink molecules farther than

the heavier ones, separating the various colors in theink. So the heavier ink molecules stop moving first,

then the lighter onesthat's why different colorsend up in different places.

[4] Night Vision

No one can see in total darkness, but when there islow light, your eyes produce a chemical called

rhodopsin, which helps you see better in low light. Ittakes about 10 minutes in the dark for therhodopsin to form. When your eyes are then againexposed to light, the rhodopsin is "burned off" ofyour eyes. When you wake up to someone turningon a bright light in your room, it makes your eyes

hurt because the rhodopsin is burning off your eyes.

-05

As you can see from this Try It, you can't see verywell in the dark without your rhodopsin!

151 FingerprintsThe inner layer of skin called the dermis has projec-

tions. The outer skin layer, the epidermis, fits over

these projections, thus taking the same pattern. Eachperson has a fingerprint unique to that individual.These personal signatures form five months beforebirth and never change.

[6] Blowout

Inside the salt container, waves of air pile on top ofeach other and create a tremendous force that canonly escape one waythrough the spout. Thisfocused rush of air is much stronger that the diffused

rush of air that would come out of the container ifthe whole top were missing. When the salt containeris tapped, air rushes out, forming a whirling mass ofair shaped like a ring. The flow of air in the center ofthe ring is quite strongstrong enough to blow outthe candle several inches away.



65Innovation

[1] What is house dust made of?

A. Pet danderB. Spent exhaust fumesC. Dirt particlesD. Human skin particles

121 What animal is the most poisonous?

A. Australian hedgehogB. CobraC. Poison dart frogD. Scorpion

[3] What makes a mosquito bite itch?

A. A portion of the mosquito's stinger leftbehind in the skin

B. Secretions from the mosquito's wingsC. A chemical reaction to certain types of skin

oils and odorsD. The mosquito's saliva

141 How long does it take light from the sun

to reach Earth?

A. 12 hours, 17 minutesB. 1.5 light years

C. 8 minutes, 20 secondsD.13 minutes, 30 seconds

[5] What happens to cats if they don't eat meat?

A. They shed hair continually.B. They lose their sight.C. They sleep 18-20 hours per day.D. They become vegetarians.

[6] Which reptile is the fastest swimmer?

A. Sting rayB. EelC. Water snakeD. Leatherback turtle

[7] What's the strongest animal?

A. ElephantB. GorillaC. BeetleD. Camel

[81 What makes your stomach growl?

A. Acid reacting with stomach gasesB. Shifts and stretches in the stomach liningC. Signals from the brain telling the stomach it's emptyD. Air moving through tissues

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NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible tjy a grant from 3M. 66 Innovation

[11 A POUND OF FLESH

Your pets aren't the only ones that shed! Human skin particles make up 80 to90 percent of all house dust, with each of us shedding about a billion skinscales every day. That's about a pound of skin per year! The average househas about 40 pounds of dust. Dust particles help form rain clouds andrainbowssomething to remember the next time you dust!

[21 ONE DANGEROUS FROG

No it doesn't slither, it hops! The poison dart frog of South and CentralAmerica has powerful toxins in its skin and secretes some of the mostdeadly biological toxins ever discovered. This deadly poison can causeparalysis and even death to predators that eat the frog. The poison dartfrog got its name from certain tribes in South America that use thefrog's poison for hunting animals by wiping their arrow heads across theskin of the frog.

[3] THAT PESKY MOSQUITO SPIT

The mosquito's saliva acts as a lubricant and an anesthetic. It's also thesaliva, not the bite itself, that causes an allergic reaction or the itchybump. The female mosquito feeds off the blood of warm-blooded ani-mals, including humans. When she bites, she injects some of her sali-vary fluid into the wound, causing swelling and irritation. Many mos-quitoes inject infectious microorganisms and can transmit diseases suchas encephalitis, malaria, and yellow fever.

[41 NOW THAT'S FAST!

Sunlight takes about 8 minutes and 20 seconds to reach Earth, traveling at186,282 miles per second. Light can be visible or invisible, dependingon its wavelength, and is really an interplay between electric and mag-netic fields. Light is just one portion of the electromagnetic spectrum,which also includes radio waves, x-rays, infrared waves, ultraviolet rays,and gamma rays.

151 CATS NEED MEAT!

Unlike humans and dogs, cats will go blind if they don't eat meat. Catsneed taurine, an amino acid found in meat, to keep their eyes in goodshape. Many animals can synthesize taurine from vegetable proteins.

Cats can't. Cats need their vision for hunting and have excellent nightvision and extensive peripheral vision.

161 THIS TURTLE CAN REALLY MOVE!

They may not move very quickly on land, but look out in the water!

The leatherback sea turtle has been clocked at an amazing 22 miles perhour, swimming with speed and grace. The leatherback gets its namefrom its shell, which is like a thick, leathery skin, with the texture ofhard rubber. These turtles live in almost all of the world's oceans, butrequire warm tropical beaches to nest. The leatherback sea turtle is anendangered species, with an estimated 100,000 leatherbacks remainingin the world today.

[71 THE MIGHTY BEETLE

Heave! They may be small, but they certainly can pull their weight.

Beetles are the strongest animal in proportion to their size. A rhinocerosbeetle can support up to 850 times its own weight on its back. This featis comparable to a 150-pound man walking with a Cadillac on his headwithout tiring. Rhinoceros beetles don't actually carry heavy loads ontheir backs in nature, but they do engage in such strenuous tasks asplowing through forest litter for food and locking horns with rivals.

Scientists have proposed that the beetles' tough exoskeleton and efficientmuscles make them so strong.

[81 YOUR NOISY, AIRY STOMACH

While your stomach may sound like a monster with a mind of its own-sometimes, those growling sounds coming from it are actually just airresonating through your tissues. Muscle contractions increase the growling

when you're hungry. Your body actually begins the digestive process byproducing gastric juices before you eat, trite ered by the sight, smell, ortaste of food. If the stomach isn't filled, these gastric juices begin erodingthe stomach lining itself, so fill 'er up!

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NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTGA Saint Paul/Minneapolis. Made possible by a grant flord 3M. 6UEL Innovation

3M SCIENCE ENCOURAGEMENTDiscovery is a wayof life at 3M.

Questioning, probing, and problem solving happen

every day in 3M laboratories and result in innova-

tive solutions like Post-it® Notes. However, 3M

recognizes that innovation doesn't happen by acci-

dent. At 3M, the wonder of discovery is a

universal experience that makes science come

alive for students of all ages.

Over the past 40 years, this philosophy has evolved

into a series of Science Encouragement Programs

that embody our endeavors to spread enthusiasm

for science. 3M engages in a wide variety of activi-

ties designed to raise the level of student learning.

Our efforts are maximized through employee and

retiree volunteers, who serve as tutors, mentors, and

hosts. Our programs impact students from kinder-

garten through college and include special programs

for teachers.

Many of our Science Encouragement Programs

have received regional and national awards over the

years. In 1996, 3M was awarded the Industrial

Research Institute (IRI) Pre-College Education

Award for our STEP and TWIST programs

(detailed below).

As NEWTON'S APPLE demonstrates in its week-

ly, award-winning programs, the power of

science is limited only by the imagination. As many

3M Science Encouragement students will attest, the

wonders of science can take the imagination by

storm and create a lifelong passion for discovery.

3M Visiting Wizards

3M volunteer scientists become "wizards" to ele-

mentary and middle school students as they present

exciting science principles in hands-on dassroom

demonstrations. Since 1985, 3M Visiting Wizards

have spread enthusiasm for learning science to

millions of children in communities where 3M

is located.

TECH (Technical Teams Encouraging Career Horizons)

Teams of women and men scientists visit middle

and junior high school classrooms to discuss real-

world opportunities in science and engineering,

as well as how they apply their technical back-

grounds to their current professions. The volun-

teer 3M scientists encourage students to maximize

their career options by staying in challenging math

and science classes.

Richard Drew Creativity Award Program

The program, which honors students for their cre-

ative instincts in science and math, captures the

spirit of 3M scientist Richard Drew, who is

remembered for his innovation and for encourag-

ing the wonder of discovery in others. High school

juniors, from Minnesota and Wisconsin schools are

invited to interact with 3M scientists and engi-

neers in a day of science and career activities at

3M Center.

SSRD (Science Student Recognition Day)

The first and longest-running 3M Science

Encouragement program, SSRD invites Upper

Midwest high school seniors' and their teachers

to spend a day in our St. Paul laboratories with

3M scientists and engineers. Students see the link

between academic training and real-world

science careers.

STEP (Science Training Encouragement Program)

Minority and at-risk students in this academic

mentoring and technical experience program

explore their interests in scientific careers. High

school students attend dassroom training on-site

at 3M's corporate headquarters to augment their

regular high school curriculum. Students are given

the opportunity of being introduced to "modern-

day heroes." STEP participants also develop work

environment relationships with culturally diverse

technical mentors, while holding full-time sum-

mer jobs in 3M laboratories. A continuation

of this program is currently underway with STEP

II, providing summer employment for students

in college who successfully completed the

STEP I program.

TWIST (Teachers Working in Science & Technology)

Science and math teachers learn real-world

research applications while working alongside 3M

scientists. The six-week summer internship gives

teachers a practical understanding of science and

math concepts through first-hand technical

experience in an industrial laboratory.

Teacher Workshops

Teaching science concepts can be challenging and

intimidating for some school teachers, especially in

the elementary grades. 3M spores-ors several

resource fairs for teachers, which provide non-

threatening opportunities to exiGre exciting ways

to teach science. Teachers acquire "recipes" for

hands-on science activities that complement their

current teaching methods, thereby enhancing

teachers' confidence and resources.

Educational Outreach

3M supports local and national organizations that

promote science and technology education and

awareness. Commitment and support are demon-

strated through grants, educational materials, and

volunteerism. Currently, 3M supports events and

organizations including: National Science and

Technology Week, National Engineers Week,

Industrial Research Institute (IRI) Pre-College

Education, MATHCOUNTS, WIZKIDS,

National Action Council for Minorities in

Engineering (NACME), the National Science

Teachers Association (NSTA), and the Minnesota

Science Teachers Association (MSTA).

NEWTON'S APPLE

3M began full sponsorship of this Emmy Award-

winning family science show in 1991. Currently,

3M volunteers serve as consultants on program-

ming and related educational materials. When it

comes to science education, 3M and NEWTON'S

APPLE staff often find themselves working togeth-

er at NSTA meetings or sharing ideas and hands-

on activities with teachers.

If you would like additional information on any

of 3M's Science Encouragement Programs,

please write to:

3M CenterTechnical Liaison DepartmentScience Encouragement OfficeBldg. 225-3N-09St. Paul, MN 55144-1000


NEWTON'S APPLE is a production of KTCA Saint PaudMinneapolis.Made possible grant from 3M. 68 SA Innovation

KEY WORDS

ASTHMA

capillaries smallestblood vessels in thebody; capillaries takeoxygen into the blood-stream from the air sacsand get rid of carbondioxide, which isexhaled from the lungsdilate to expand oropen wide; many asth-ma drugs open con-stricted airwaysmucus the. thick, slip-pery secretion thatcomes from cells liningthe nose, mouth, tra-chea, and lung airwayspeak-flow meter a

tube asthmatics use tomonitor the rate atwhich air enters andleaves the lungsrespiratory systemlungs and other organsthat enable animals tobreathe

CAR ENGINES

exhaust valve openingin the top of the cylin-der that lets waste gasout after combustionhas occurredintake valve opening atthe top of the cylinderthat allows the air/fuelmixture to enter thecombustion chamber

GLACIER CLIMBING

crevasse large, deepcrack on the surface of aglacierdrumlin an elongated,smooth hill made ofglacially derived sedi-menterratic large, isolatedboulder deposited by aglacieresker long, sinuousridge of glacially revivedsedimentglacier large flowingmass of ice

ice sheet large ice fieldcomposed on severalglaciers that have flowed

togethericeberg large block offloating icekettle pond isolatedpond formed fromglacial depositsmoraine unsortedglacially derived sedi-ment

GLASS BLOWING

annealing cooling aglass object at a fixedtemperatureblowing pipe iron orsteel tube with a mouth-piece at one end and ametal ring to hold themolten glass on theothergather gob (mass) ofmolten glassviscosity a liquid'sresistance to flow

GLAUCOMA

aqueous humor fluidthat fills the spacebetween the eye's cornea

and lensciliary body musclearound the lens thatfocuses the eye closer

than arm's lengthcornea lens that formsthe front of the eye anddoes most of the eye's

focusingiris colored ring ofmuscular tissue lyingbetween the cornea andthe lens

lens transparent struc-ture behind the iris thatfocuses light onto light-sensitive cells in the reti-na at the back of the eyeoptic nerve bundle ofnerve fibers that con-nect each light-sensitivecell to the brainpupil the "hole" in thecenter of the iristhrough which lightenters the eyeretina the light-sensi-tive membrane thatlines the interior ofthe eye

GLIDERS

ailerons flaps on thewings of a plane thathelp the pilot steer andbankangle of attack angleat which the leadingedge of a wing is tiltedwhile facing into thewindBernoulli's principleeffect that a fast-movingfluid has on' changingthe pressure above and

below the surface of anobjectcontrol surface one ofthe moving flaps on a

plane that allows the

pilot steer and change

altitudedrag the force of airresistance against a

plane as it flieselevator horizontalflaps on the tail thatcause the plane to riseand fallgravity force thatbrings a plane backdown to Earthlift force that causes aplane to riserudder vertical flap onthe tail of a plane thatallows a pilot to steerright or leftthermal an updraft ofair caused by theunequal heating of theEarth belowthrust force that push-es a plane forwardthrough the air

GOLD MINE

density ratio of a mate-rial's weight to its vol-ume; gold has anunusually high densitygold metallic elementrevered for its beautyand workability; like allmetals, gold is shinyand conducts electricityingot a finished,refined bar of goldmining digging in theground to find usable

metals and mineralsore the raw materialthat contains the miner-al or metal of interest,often mixed with rockand soilpanning 'agitating ashallow tray of sedimentand water to graduallywash out unwanted soiland gravel, leaving anygold behindprospecting searchingfor metals and mineralsin naturerefining the process

used to remove impuri-ties from a metal

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

carbon dioxide CO2;natural component ofthe atmosphere but alsoa greenhouse gas capa-

ble of absorbing infraredradiation and warmingthe atmosphereglobal warming theobserved increase inEarth's average

temperaturegreenhouse gas anycomponent of theatmosphere that canabsorb infrared radia-tion and potentiallycontribute to globalwarminginfrared radiation por-tion of the electromag-netic spectrum that wecan sense as heat and

that is radiated by awarmed surface

KIDS ON MARS

canali the Italian wordfor "channel"; used todescribe surface features

on Marscontour line line ofequal elevation on atopographic mapquadrant section of amap or area phototopographic map amap that shows lines ofequal elevation

torque force that

produces rotation in agear or wheel

.LIGHTNING

ampere (amp) the

standard technical mea- ,sure for electricitycurrent a measure ofhow much electricitypasses a given point in afixed amount of time;measured in ampselectron an elementaryparticle that always car-ries a negative chargeand orbits around thenucleus of an atommicrosecond one mil-lionth of a secondstatic electricity elec-tric charges that are notmoving very much; theelectricity is "static"compared to the otherform of electricalphenomena called"current"voltage measure of theforce of an electricalcharge; one volt is theforce required to pro-duce an electrical cur-rent of one ampere

LOST WORLD DINOSAURS

animatronics art formthat designs and buildsmoving models toresemble actual crea-

tures

compliant reactivitydetailed, linked modelmovements possiblewith new technologyhydraulics using fluidunder pressure to oper-ate machines

paleobotany study ofprehistoric plantspaleontology studyand reconstruction ofthe prehistoric worldthrough the excavationof fossils and other evi-dence from the geologicrecord

MAMMOTH DIG .

Clovis point a spear

point carefully hewnfrom larger stones foundover much of NorthAmerica starting about12,000 years agogenus level or groupused in classifyingorganisms that areclosely relatedice age interval of geo-logic history when con-siderable portions ofland were covered byglacial icePaleo-Indians first peo-ple to populate NorthAmericaspecies a level or groupused in classifyingorganisms that canreproduce to create fer-tile offspringsteppe semiarid regioncharacterized by shortclumps of grass and alack of treestundra a cold regionwith few, if any, trees;gentle rolling plains cov-ered mostly by mosses,lichens, and grasses

NASA ROBOTS

on-orbit assemblybuilding large structureslike the space station inEarth's orbitrobotic payload tendingusing robots to handleday-to-day upkeep, cer-tain scientific experi-ment procedures, andother projects containedwithin a spacecraft orspace stationrobotic rover any oneof a series of small,wheeled vehicles NASAis using to exploreobjects in space



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KEY WORDS

sensors devices on arobot that function likea human's eyes, ears,and nose; some robotshave sensors that areable to pick up traces ofchemicals or determineaccurate distances toobjectssmart robots robotscapable of workingautonomouslyvirtual reality telepres-ence by usiug specialgoggles or televisionscreens connected tosensors on a distantrobot, a controller cansee the robot's sur-roundings as the robotsees them

NOVOCAIN

anesthesia loss of sen-sation or feeling; if theanesthetic is appliedonly to an area of thebody, it is called a localanesthetic; if the entirepatient is anesthetized,it is called a generalanestheticelectrode the point ofelectrical contact forelectronic anesthesiaelectronic anesthesia aform of anesthesia thatuses electricity, ratherthan chemicals, tonumb an arealidocaine a commonlocal anesthetic in den-tal offices, administereddirectly to the nervethrough a needlenerve fibers (madefrom specialized cellscalled neurons) in ani-mals that transmit sen-sory information,including pain, to thebrainpain the discomfort feltwhen an injury or ill-ness damages some partof the human bodyreceptor receiving areafor neurotransmitterchemicals that connect

one neuron to another

PACK BEHAVIOR

aggressive attemptingto establish dominanceby growling, biting, andotherwise intimidatingpack membersdomestication theprocess by which ani-mals are tamed andbegin to live and inter-act with human beingsdominance the estab-lishment of authority ofone animal over anotherin a pack structuresubmissive accepting ofdominance by otherpack members

PET FOOD

amino acids organiccompounds essential tohuman and animalmetabolismsanimal husbandry careand management ofdomesticated animalscarnivore flesh- (meat-)eating animalpalatability feature offood that includesaroma, food tempera-ture, texture, and howthe food feels in themouthtaurine a sulfonicamino acid cats need tomaintain health

PHASES OF THE MOON

earthshine sunlightthat is reflected offEarth onto the moon,and then reflected off ofthe moon back towardsEarthgibbous somewhat ovalin appearance; morethan half a circle, butless than a full circlelimb the edge of thedisk of the moonrevolution the time ittakes for one celestialbody to complete itsorbit around another

satellite a smallerobject, such as a planetor moon, that revolvesaround a larger object,such as a star or planetsynchronous rotationperiod of a satellite'srotation about its axisand the period of itsorbit around the prima-ry body are, the same sothat the satellite alwayspresentS the same faceto the primary bodyterminator linebetween light and darkareas on the side of themoon we see; dividesnight and day on themoon.

PROTEINS

amino acid any one of20 small molecules ofsimilar structure thatcan link togethe'r inchains to form proteinsconformation the spe-cific shape of a proteinat any given timehelix conformation of aprotein that looks like aspiral staircaseheme molecule thatholds an iron atominside the hemoglobinproteinheMoglobin blood pro-tein responsible fortransporting oxygen tothe tissues and carbondioxide to the lungsnuclear magnetic reso-nance (NMR) tech-nique for determiningmolecular structure andmovement using mag-netic fields andradiowavespeptide bond specifictype of chemical bondbetween the aminoacids in a protein chainprotein fold the con-formation of the animoacid sequence intosecondary structuredelementssheet conformation of

a protein that lookslike a number of picketfences next to eachotherside chains parts of ananimo acid that makeeach one unique

ROBOTS

automation automaticoperation of equipmentor systems withouthuman operatorelectromechanicaloperating by means ofboth mechanical ele-ments (rods, gears, etc.)and electrical elements(wiring, switches, etc.)microprocessor a com-puter that controls arobotic systemphoto cell a devicewhose electrical charac-teristics vary when lighthits it

SCUBA DIVING

buoyancy the tendencyto float in water or airoceanography the sci-entific study of oceans,including waters, ani-mals, plants, and depths

SMILES

algorithm specialmethod or series ofsteps or calculationsfor solving a specificproblemasymmetrical not thesame on the two sidesof a dividing line orplanegesture culturallylearned movement ofthe hand, arm, face, orbody that expresses anidea, opinion, or feeling

SUNKEN SLAVE SHIP

archaeologist a scientistwho studies the life ofancient peoples by exca-vating artifacts, relics,and even entire ships orcitieselectrolyte a substance

that in liquid form con-ducts an electric currentencrustation a crust,coating, or hard layerexcavate to uncover ordig outintegrity complete,whole, not broken ordamagedmaritime having to dowith the sea, such asshipping or navigationoxidation-reduction achemical reaction inwhich one reactant isreduced, or gains one ormore electrons, and theother is oxidized, orloses an electronrust a reddish-brown orreddish-yellow coatingon iron or steel causedby oxidation due toexposure to air ormoisture

WHITEWATER RAFTING

boils ascending cur-rents that rise above thesurface leveleddy pocket of waterdownstream of anobstacle that flowsupstream or backagainst the main currentgradient measurementof a river's descent infeet per mile or metersper kilometerhole vortex of waterwhere the river poursover an obstacle anddrops toward the riverbottom, leaving a pock-et behind the obstacleinto which an upstreamsurface current flowsrapid a fast-movingsection of a river orstreamreading a river study-ing the varioushydraulic features of asection of a river, usual-ly a rapids, to spot dan-gers and find a safe paththroughvortex a mass of fluidwith a whirling or circu-

lar motion that tends toform a cavity

WILDERNESS TRAINING

anchor any of a num-ber of tools to fix a ropeto the climbing surfacefriction the fundamen-tal physical principlethat climbers rely onto stop fallsany twosurfaces, rubbed togeth-er, will result in adragging force thatslows the movement

WIND BLOW

air mass a large mass ofthe atmosphere that hassimilar temperature,pressure, and moisturecharacteristicsconvection cells cir- ,

cling fluid flow patternsdensity a measure ofhow much mass occu-pies how much space(density equals massdivided by volume)radiation energy emit-ted from a "hot" objectthat travels out in rays

ZOO VET

anesthesia a drug orgas given to block thesense of paindiagnosis careful exami-nation and analysis of adiseaseecosystem the environ-ment that houses acommunity of animals,plants, and bacteriaeuthanize to cause apainless death in orderto end sufferingpreventive medicineprocedures, such asphysical and dentalexams, that keep a dis-ease from occurringultrasound medicaldiagnosis that uses high-frequency ultrasonicwaves

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Content Review Panel

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Robert S. Donaldson, Montgomery Blair High School, Silver Spring, MD

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Sheila Marshall, National Science Teachers Association, Arlington, VA

George McCarthy, D.D.S., National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

Joan Braunagel McShane, Jefferson Elementary School, Davenport, IA

Melinda B. Mills, Space Center Intermediate School, Houston, 1X

Rod Nerdahl, Minneapolis Planetarium, Minneapolis, MN

Eddie Newquist, Attraction Development, Universal Studios, Los Angeles, CA

Kristine Petrini, D.V.M., Minnesota Zoo, Apple Valley, MN

Jim Rasmussen, D.V.M., Minnesota Zoo, Apple Valley, MN

Raymond Rye, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC

Kismet E. Taint, Rockville High School, Rockville, MD

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Augie Frattali, Franklin Middle School

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