DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 399 524 CS 012 607

AUTHOR Abdullah, Mardziah Hayati, Comp.TITLE Standardized and Alternative Assessment. Hot Topic

Guide 59.INSTITUTION Indiana Univ., Bloomington. School of Education.PUB DATE 96NOTE 207p.PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070) Guides Non-Classroom

Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC09 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Annotated Bibliographies; Class Activities;

Elementary Secondary Education; Liberal Arts;Performance Based Assessment; *Standardized Tests;*Student Evaluation; *Testing; Workshops

IDENTIFIERS *Alternative Assessment; Authentic Assessment

ABSTRACTOne of a series of educational packages designed for

implementation either in a workshop atmosphere or through individualstudy, this Hot Topic guide presents a variety of materials designedto assist educators in designing and implementing classroom projectsand activities centering on the topic of standardized and alternativeassessment. The Hot Topic guide contains guidelines for workshop use;an overview of standardized and alternative assessment; and sevenarticles (from scholarly and. professional journals) and ERICdocuments on the topic. A 19-item annotated bibliography of items inthe ERIC database on the topic is attached. (RS)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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HOT TOPICGUIDE 59

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TABLE OF CONTENTS:

HELPFUL GUIDELINES FOR WORKSHOP USESuggestions for using this Hot Topic Guide as a professional development tool.

OVERVIEW/LECTUREStandardized and Alternative Assessmentby Mardziah Hayati Abdullah

ARTICLES AND ERIC DOCUMENTSThe Need for a New Science of AssessmentRaising Standardized Test Scores and the Origins of Test Score PollutionPerformance-Based Assessment and Educational EquityAssessment and the Morality of TestingAssessment Worthy of the Liberal ArtsThe Morality of Test SecurityTesting and Tact

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A collection of selected references and abstracts obtained directly from the ERICdatabase.

Compiler. Mardziah Hayati AbdullahBlooming t on . School ofIndiana University,

Series Editors: Carl Smith, Eleanor Macfarlane, and Christopher Essex

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

EKThis document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.

Minor-changes have been made toimprove reproduction quality.

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDPoints of view or opinions stated in this DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIALdocument do not necessarily representofficial OERI position or policy. HAS BEEN RANTED BY

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Education.

1996

'TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

In-Service Workshops and Seminars:Suggestions for Using this Hot Topic Guide as aProfessional Development Tool

Before the Workshop:Carefully review the materials presented in this Hot Topic Guide. Think about how theseconcepts and projects might be applied to your particular school or district.As particular concepts begin to stand out in your mind as being important, use theBibliography section (found at the end of the packet) to seek out additional resourcesdealing specifically with those concepts.Look over the names of the teachers and researchers who wrote the packet articlesand/or are listed in the Bibliography. Are any of the names familiar to you? Do any ofthem work in your geographical area? Do you have colleagues or acquaintances whoare engaged in similar research and/or teaching? Perhaps you could enlist their help andexpertise as you plan your workshop or seminar.As you begin to plan your activities, develop a mental "movie" of what you'd like to seehappening in the classroom as a result of this in-service workshop or seminar. Keep thisvision in mind as a guide to your planning.

During the Workshop:Provide your participants with a solid grasp of the important concepts that you haveacquired from your reading, but don't load them down with excessive detail, such aslots of hard-to-remember names, dates or statistics. You may wish to use theOverview/Lecture section of this packet as a guide for your introductory remarks aboutthe topic.Try modeling the concepts and teaching strategies related to the topic by "teaching" aminilesson for your group.Remember, if your teachers and colleagues ask you challenging or difficult questionsabout the topic, that they are not trying to discredit you or your ideas. Rather, they aretrying to prepare themselves for situations that might arise as they implement theseideas in their own classrooms.If any of the participants are already using some of these ideas in their own teaching,encourage them to share their experiences.Even though your workshop participants are adults, many of the classroom managementprinciples that you use every day with your students still apply. Workshop participants,admittedly, have a longer attention span and can sit still longer than your second-graders; but not that much longer. Don't have a workshop that is just a "sit down, shutup, and listen" session. Vary the kinds of presentations and activities you provide inyour workshops. For instance, try to include at least one hands-on activity so that theparticipants will begin to get a feel for how they might apply the concepts that you arediscussing in your workshop.Try to include time in the workshop for the participants to work in small groups. Thistime may be a good opportunity for them to formulate plans for how they might use theconcepts just discussed in their own classrooms.Encourage teachers to go "a step further" with what they have learned in the workshop.Provide additional resources for them to continue their research into the topicsdiscussed, such as books, journal articles, Hot Topic Guides, teaching materials, andlocal experts. Alert them to future workshops/conferences on related topics.

11/94

3

After the Workshop:Follow up on the work you have done. Have your workshop attendees fill out an End-of-Session Evaluation (a sample is included on the next page). Emphasize that theirresponses are anonymous. The participants' answers to these questions can be veryhelpful in planning your next workshop. After a reasonable amount of time (say a fewmonths or a semester), contact your workshop attendees and inquire about how theyhave used, or haven't used, the workshop concepts in their teaching. Have anysurprising results come up? Are there any unforeseen problems?When teachers are trying the new techniques, suggest that they invite you to observetheir classes. As you discover success stories among teachers from your workshop,share them with the other attendees, particularly those who seem reluctant to give theideas a try.Find out what other topics your participants would like to see covered in futureworkshops and seminars. There are nearly sixty Hot Topic Guides, and more are alwaysbeing developed. Whatever your focus, there is probably a Hot Topic Guide that canhelp. An order form follows the table of contents in this packet.

Are You Looking for University Course Credit?Indiana University's Distance Education programis offering new one-credit-hour Language Arts Educationminicourses on these topics:

Elementary:Language Learning and DevelopmentVaried Writing StrategiesParents and the Reading ProcessExploring Creative Writing with

Elementary Students

Secondary:Varied Writing StrategiesThematic Units and LiteratureExploring Creative Writing with

Secondary Students

K-12:Reading across the CurriculumWriting across the CurriculumOrganization of the Classroom

Course Requirements:These minicourses are taught bycorrespondence. Minicourse readingmaterials consist of Hot Topic Guides andERIC/EDINFO Press books. You will beasked to write Goal Statements andReaction Papers for each of the assignedreading materials, and a final Synthesispaper.

I really enjoyed working at my own pace....It was wonderful to have everything soorganized...and taken care of in a mannerwhere I really felt like I was a student,however 'distant' I was....'--Distance Education student

Three-Credit-Hour Coursesare also offered (now with optionalvideos!):Advanced Study in the Teaching of:

Reading in the Elementary SchoolLanguage Arts in the Elementary SchoolSecondary School English/Language ArtsReading in the Secondary School

Writing as a Response to ReadingDeveloping Parent Involvement ProgramsCritical Thinking across the CurriculumOrganization and Administration of a

School Reading Program

For More Information:For course outlines and registrationinstructions, please contact:

Distance Education OfficeSmith Research Center, Suite 1502805 East 10th StreetBloomington, IN 47408-26981-800-759-4723 or (812) 855-5847

4

Planning a Workshop PresentationWorksheet

Major concepts you want to stress in this presentation:

1)

2)

3)

Are there additional resources mentioned in the Bibliography that would be worthlocating? Which ones? How could you get them most easily?

Are there resource people available in your area whom you might consult about thistopic and/or invite to participate? Who are they?

What would you like to see happen in participants' classrooms as a result of thisworkshop? Be as specific as possible.

Plans for followup to this workshop: [peer observations, sharing experiences, etc.]

Agenda for WorkshopPlanning Sheet

Introduction/Overview:[What would be the most effective way to present the major conceptsthat you wish to convey ?]

Activities that involve participants and incorporate the main concepts of this workshop:

1)

2)

Applications:Encourage participants to plan a mini-lesson for their educational setting thatdraws on these concepts. [One possibility is to work in small groups, duringthe workshop, to make a plan and then share it with other participants.]

Your plan to make this happen:

Evaluation:[Use the form on the next page, or one you design, to get feedback fromparticipants about your presentation.]

6

END-OF-SESSION EVALWITION

Now that today's meeting is over, we would like to know how you feel and what you think about

the things we did so that we can make them better. Your opinion is important to us. Please

answer all questions honestly. Your answers are confidential.

1. Check ( V ) to show if today's meeting was

Not worthwhile Somewhat worthwhile Very worthwhile

2. Check ( ) to show if today's meeting was

Not interesting Somewhat interesting Very interesting

3. Check ( ) to show if today's leader wasNot very good Just O.K. Very good

4. Check ( V ) to show if the meeting helped you get any useful ideas about how youcan make positive changes in the classroom.

1:1 Very little Some Very much

5. Check ( ) to show if today's meeting was

Too long 'Pao short Just about right

6. Check ( ) whether you would recommend today's meeting to a colleague.Yes No

7. Check ( V ) to show how useful you found each of the things we did or discussed today.

Getting information/new ideas.

Not useful Somewhat useful Very useful

Seeing and hearing demons

Li Not useful

Getting materials to read.Not useful

trations of teaching techniques.

Somewhat useful

Somewhat useful

7

Very useful

Very useful

Listening to other teachers tell about their own experiences.Not useful Somewhat useful Very useful

Working with colleagues in a small group to develop strategies of our own.Not useful Somewhat useful Very useful

Getting support from others in the group.Not useful Somewhat useful Very useful

8. Please write one thing that you thought was best about today:

9. Please write one thing that could have been improved today:

10. What additional information would you have liked?

11. Do you have any questions you would like to ask?

12. What additional comments would you like to make?

Thank you for completing this form.

STANDARDIZED AND ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENTOverview by

Mardziah Hayati AbdullahM.S. Language Education, Indiana University

We evaluate every day. We make judgments about the most common thingswithout even realizing it when we comment on how a dish tastes, which TV programis more entertaining or how to perform a chore better. Understandably, we wouldexpect evaluation to be an important part of a system in which so much nationalinterest and expenditure is invested: education. Evaluation should inform educatorsabout how well they have done or are doing, and it should indicate how to educatebetter. However, educational assessment has other social and political consequenceswhich significantly impact society and thus provoke debate. This overview introducessome of the major issues surrounding educational assessment and provides a guide tofurther reading on particular aspects.

Trends in Assessment

The practice of evaluating human ability and performance in an organizedmanner has been around for centuries, dating as far back as 2000 B.C. when Chinesecivil examinations were established in a move toward appointing civil servants basedon meritocracy instead of unfair preference. Since then, trends in assessment haveundergone changes in response to changes in the philosophy of education,assumptions about learning, and political ideologies.

In the 400's B.C, the Greek philosopher Socrates used oral conversationalmethods for examining rhetorical abilities in presenting and defending arguments.Much later, in the 1700's, early testing in the United States also involved oralexaminations conducted by faculty who used their expert judgment to determine thequality of their students' performances, much like the oral defenses required ofdoctoral students today. Horace Mann started using written standardized tests inMassachusetts and Connecticut in the 1830's, leading to the development of Mann'sBoston Survey in 1846, the first printed test for large-scale assessment of studentachievement in various disciplines. The tests were discontinued because the resultswere not used.

Standardized examinations were again recommended after 1895 when JosephRice conducted tests in a number of large school systems that yielded largedifferences in math scores among schools. In the 1900's Thorndike, often called thefather of the educational testing movement, persuaded educators to measure humanchange. There was a call for immediate, demonstrable results, and by 1915, testing

9

had become the primary means of evaluating schools. A lack of trust in teachersdeveloped because of the assumption that they were biased in evaluating students,and standardized norm-referenced tests emerged so that individual students' or groupscores could be compared against those of other individuals or groups on abell-shaped normal curve. Dewey's progressive education movement favorededucation based on natural learning and practical problems in the 1930's, and whilethat may have called for more authentic testing, standardized norm-referenced testingwas still employed, leading to a boom in the technical development of tests tocompare schools on a larger scale.

As educators realized that standardized test outcomes did not adequatelyreflect the complexity of learning, opposition against standardized testing grew. The1980's saw a rise in the use of criterion-referenced tests that, in reality, are alsostandardized, but students are assessed against a set of criteria instead of otherstudents. By the 1990's, however, educators were raising and documenting more andmore problems with standardized testing. In answer, educators explored alternativesto standardized testing which fall under the umbrella term alternative assessment.Different forms of alternative assessment are still being developed and triedenthusiastically by some educators, but they, too, face opposition. In Chapter 1 andpart of Chapter 8 in the book Toward a New Science of Educational Testing andAssessment, which have been included in this Hot Topic guide, Berlak discussessome of the epistemological contentions in the history of evaluation.

Testing and assessment

Before engaging in a discussion on standardized testing and alternativeassessment, I think it is important to read Chapter 1 in the reading text for thisguide, Assessing Student Performance: Exploring the Purpose and Limits of Testing,in which Wiggins (1993) makes an enlightening distinction between testing andassessment.

In a nutshell, a test is a "one- shot" procedure which assumes to measure thetest-taker's ability or knowledge. It requires the test-taker to provide uniform,'correct' responses to items formulated and scored by other parties using criteria overwhich the test-taker has no say. Thus, Wiggins claims, to "test" a student is "apractice of determining whether the student has mastered what is orthodox" (p. 10).Tests are often "secure" (the contents kept secret) before they are administered. Therole of human judgment in scoring is deliberately minimized. Standardized items andscoring also necessarily minimizes responsiveness to individual test-takers andcontexts. Assessment, in contrast, is a comprehensive, multi-faceted analysis ofperformance; it must be judgment-based and personal" (p.13). By Wiggins' definition,assessment requires the systematic collection of data about a student's performance

10

using multiple and varied techniques, including assessors' observations. Unlike scoresobtained from one-shot tests, assessment involves the "integration of (diverse)information in a summary judgment" about a student (p.13) and necessitates theassessor's personal and subjective evaluation of a particular individual's performancein a particular context. The student has more say in his own assessment.

If one accepts the distinctions described above, then testing cannot beassessment, and vice-versa. Wiggins' book clarifies aspects of evaluation that furtherdistinguish the two, such as the practice of assessment (Chapter 2), test securityversus tact (Chapter 4) and the nature of feedback (Chapter 6). (Note: Chapter 6 isnot a required reading for this Hot Topic guide but is included in the one onMeasurement Issues).

Standardized testing

A standardized test is typically one in which the same questions, in the sameform, are given to everyone who is being evaluated. The test may be scored by amachine or by different raters following a common rubric. On one hand, standardizedtesting procedures have made evaluation convenient by offering neatly packaged andoften easily obtainable test items. Machine scoring of multiple- choice questions hasalso made scoring easier and free of human error, and even Wiggins acknowledgesthat there are virtues in minimizing bias and error in human judgment. However,more and more educators are presenting strong arguments against standardizedtesting. For instance, bias can also be built into the questions themselves, as testitems inevitably reflect particular perspectives that may not be shared by test-takers.Thus, incorrect responses need not indicate erroneous understanding.

Berlak discusses four assumptions underlying what he considers to be thecurrent psychometric paradigm of standardized testing, along with counter-argumentsthat support the emergence of a contextual or curriculum-sensitive paradigm. Oneassumption is that there can be a single, established consensus about what a testscore means about individuals all over the world, while the argument is that there are"plural and contradictory" perspectives on what it means to be able or competent in acertain area. Secondly, the psychometric paradigm assumes that 'scientific'techniques and instruments are value-neutral and thus should yield objectivemeasurements; this is countered by the assertion that there are different learningsituations and culturally ingrained perspectives, making it morally wrong to measurestudents' performance without considering those factors. Another assumption is thatcognitive learning can be separated from affective learning and measured likewise, butthe contextual paradigm argues that cognitive ability cannot be assessedindependently from other human factors. Finally, the psychometric paradigm sees a

11

need for centralized control, whereas assessment reform calls for decentralizeddecision making.

Standardized testing has also raised important issues of equity,deprofessionalization of teachers and the negative use of test scores for purposes suchas placement, tracking and grade retention. Pages 5-18 of Linda Darling-Hammond'sarticle Symposium: Equity in Educational Assessment (included in this guide)presents these issues convincingly, highlighting the need to consider theconsequential validity of testing. Haladyna, Nolen and Haas, in their 1991 article,Raising Standardized Achievement Scores and the Origins of Test Score Pollution(found in this guide), point out yet another consequence: unethical practices thatschools engage in as a result of society's concern with standardized scores asindicators of performance. The escalating academic demand has even led to readinessscreening and grade retention being imposed on children as young as kindergartners(Shepard & Smith, 1988). With these and other criticisms being levied againststandardized testing, assessment, as Wiggins defines it, is increasingly being sought asan alternative evaluation approach.

Alternative assessment

Alternative assessment has come to be used as an umbrella term that coversauthentic assessment and performance assessment, and incorporates techniques suchas portfolio assessment, exhibitions of mastery, projects, profiles and discourseassessment.

Authentic assessment refers to the assessment of achievement or ability shownthrough performances which are modeled on real-life tasks or practices inbeyond-school settings. It is performance-based as it evaluates performances such asthe ability to integrate, apply or produce knowledge in contexts representative of orsimilar to real-life situations that (ideally) have personal value for the student. Theforms and criteria of assessment are similar to those that might be used in realsituations. Thus, authentic assessment is likely to have a combination of some or allof the following characteristics: ongoing, continuous, personalized, negotiable, with multipleindicators, and possibly conducted by more than one assessor, although this list is notexhaustive. Fred Newmann and Douglas Archbald discuss criteria for authenticassessment in Chapter 4 of the Berlak (et.al.) book (not included in the guide). InChapter 7 (also not included), the same writers describe practices for assessingacademic achievement that meet one or more of those criteria.

Wiggins' book offers one of the best discussions available on what shouldconstitute performance assessment. Gitomer (in press) defines a performance task as "onethat simultaneously requires the use of knowledge, skills and values that are

12

recognized as important in a domain of study and is qualitatively consistent withtasks that members of discipline-based communities might conceivably engage in."The alternative assessment techniques mentioned earlier represent performance tasksthat vary in scope of content, method of initiation and method of presentation. Textsby the following (not required reading but listed under references at the end of thisoverview) provide more detailed descriptions of these techniques: Newmann inBerlak, et.al.(discourse assessment), Mabry (demonstrations of mastery), Stenmark(performance tasks), Archbald and Newmann (portfolios and profiles). (The last textis a required reading for the Hot Topic guide on Measurement Issues.)

How do alternative assessment techniques differ from standardized tests inlanguage education? Discourse assessment, as described by Newmann, is an example:it is the assessment of a student's ability to present coherent, 'whole' (as opposed tofragmented) responses in discursive forms such as narratives or arguments, whichreflect synthesized, personal, critical and contextually appropriate use of content andlanguage. It also helps to understand what discourse assessment is not, namely, thechecking of answers to responses, both of which are presented in a sequence that hasno obvious meaning or purpose beyond that of testing discrete items of knowledge.Discourse assessment is in principle authentic assessment, as it requires a form ofdiscursive performance that we engage in real-life situations, such as when we writeletters, argue to defend our position or choices, negotiate with others or presentinformation. However, authenticity comes only with contextual appropriateness,hence we must consider the nature of the performance task and criteria. For instance,if students in a rural village (who are likely to become the future leaders) were facingthe possibility of their only soccer field being used for the construction of teachers'quarters, an authentic assessment task would be for them to present strong oral orwritten arguments for stopping the housing project. The assessor must also be familiarwith the discursive elements that are culturally appropriate for that situation,otherwise an inauthentic assessment will be rendered. A standardized test necessarilyexcludes such personalized attention.

Indeed, Wiggins and Mabry view alternative assessment within the frameworkof a personalized assessment paradigm. Going beyond aligning curriculum withassessment, which is the crwc of a contextual paradigm, a personalized paradigmincludes student- sensitive content, variable times and settings, greater studentselection and the essential feature of self-assessment by students in addition toevaluation by others. The intent is to find out about a particular student in aparticular setting over a period of time, and giving him the opportunity to show whathe does best in the way he does it best. Undoubtedly, there are numerous difficultiesassociated with such a paradigm: among them are that teachers and students need farmore power than they have at the moment and they need to be very clear about thenature of performance assessment, schools, curricula and schedules have to be

13

restructured to accommodate more flexible assessment practices, and society has tostop evaluating schools in terms of statistical scores. Despite the problems, however,personalized alternative assessment may at the moment be the only way to counterthe absence of student-centeredness in standardized testing.

Rubrics and scoring

Assessment reform involves more than merely changing the nature of the tasks.A lot of thought has to be given to what kind of corresponding change there shouldbe in the way performance tasks are scored. For example, some teachers vehementlyoppose giving grades, so should grades be used at all? If they are not, how does onedocument student achievement? Keeping descriptive records of students' progress andperformance is one option. Portfolios of students' work is another. But if grades haveto be given, what are the standards by which they are determined? There is no easyanswer. For example, although the Vermont portfolio assessment program was anattempt to move away from standardized testing, their writing assessment still usedan assessment rubric that required every student to meet the same specified criteriabroken down analytically into dimensions such as purpose, details, organization andmechanics. Essentially, the students were still being evaluated in a standardizedmanner.

Test security

The perceived need for test security is another major difference betweenstandardized testing and alternative assessment. The assumption that there arecertain correct' answers necessitates keeping the content of tests confidential, whileassessment calls for open negotiation between assessorand student.

One reasonable argument for supporting test security is Wiggins': openknowledge of test content may cause students to focus only on limited domains oflearning. However, open performance-based assessment can be designed to ensure theneed to integrate knowledge from various domains. Test situations that I can think ofwhich may warrant security are ones which need to assess the appropriateness ofspontaneous response, such as spontaneous medical decisions; in such cases, I feel itis justifiable to keep both test content and format unknown to the student beforethe test, but discussion on results must be open.

There are, however, many reasons why tests should not be secure. The firstconcern is with authenticity. Many forms of assessment in the real world beyondeducational settings do not practice the kind of secrecy adhered to in school settings,particularly in standardized testing; thus, going through secure tests is not anauthentic assessment experience. Security generally requires one-shot testing in

14

artificially constructed settings (for example, secure rooms); subsequently, thevalidity of interpretations made of students' achievement in secure tests can bequestioned, since it is not an assessment of authentic use of knowledge.

Secondly, although test security is intended to ensure credibility and fairnessin test administration, the irony is that secrecy actually leads us to challenge thosevery aspects. Secrecy cuts off dialogue between student and assessor and makes itimpossible for students (as well as teachers and parents, in the case of state-widetests) to raise objections or ask for clarification before tests are administered.Inevitably, this leads to doubts about the credibility of the tests, although objectionsare rarely entertained. In some situations, hours- long quarantine may be imposed onstudents before an exam in which there is suspected leakage of test information. Boththe validity and reliability of student performance under such conditions can beseriously called into question; more often than not, however, no one does so,particularly not the powerless students, even though they are the real victims. Thus,the moral dimension of secrecy in testing is also a subtantial cause for concern. Inaddition, to students who are denied knowledge of the standards and criteria bywhich they are judged, tests are both arbitrary and unfair. Secrecy in high-staketesting also leads to high anxiety, which in turn often results in unethical practices,such as selling and buying 'leaked' test questions, and cheating during exams.

Thirdly, there can be very little or no instructional value when results are keptsecret even after the test. Students are also denied consultation with or guidance fromadults during assessment, nor do they have access to resource materials, restrictionsthat do not often exist in the real world. In addition, because the whole testingprocedure is shrouded in secrecy and only selected personnel are allowed access totest planning and design (in standardized tests), test security leads to an over-relianceon and excessive belief in 'expert' assessment authorities and a distrust of teachercompetence. Thus teachers have little control over testing imposed by strangers ontheir students, whom they know best.

Reliability and validity

The distinctions between standardized testing and alternative assessment aretied in to issues of reliability and validity. Both Wiggins' and Berlak's texts for thistopic address these constructs to some extent. Reliability refers to the consistency orreplicability of scores or performances, while validity, as Messick defines it, is thedegree to which empirical evidence and theoretical rationales support the adequacyand appropriateness of inferences and actions based on test scores or other modes ofassessment (Messick, 1989). Both standardized testing and alternative assessmentattempt to achieve a degree of reliability and validity. Standardized tests, however,have a greater concern with reliability and are "intrinsically prone to sacrifice validity"

15

(Wiggins, p.4); they are usually simplified for the sake of precision in scoring, andthus lose the authentic complexity of real-life tasks. In addition, the test securitydemands test-taking under artificial circumstances, as has been previously mentioned,rendering the validity of the inferences one can draw from test scores produced undersuch circumstances questionable. Alternative assessment, on the other hand, byfocusing on more authentic ill-structured tasks, considering individual students to agreater degree, and allowing negotiation between the student and teacher, reduces thedegree of reliability but raises the degree of validity of the inferences that can bemade about the student's performance. The Hot Topic guide on Measurement Issuesdiscusses these measurement constructs in greater depth.

Conclusion

Like most other problems that impact society in a significant way, the issuessurrounding educational testing and assessment are not easily resolved because theyare tied to ideology, politics and social systems. Standardized testing is familiar andcomfortable, while numerous obstacles still have to be overcome in order tosuccessfully reform assessment. Standardized test results are the basis forreproducing a stratified society, but true assessment reform, particularly assessmentwithout traditional grades, may lead to the restructuring of society. The question iswhether society is ready to move into a new paradigm.

References(not listed in this Hot Topic guide)

Books:

Mabry, L. (1992) Performance assessment. In Debra D. Bragg (Ed.). Alternativeapproaches to outcomes assessment (p.109-128). University of California, Berkeley:National Center for Research on Vocational Education.

Messick, S. (1989) Chap. 1 in Robert L. Linn (Ed.) Educational Measurement. NY:American Council on Education, Macmillan.

Stenmark, J.K. (1991). Mathematics assessment: Myths. models. good questions andpractical suggestions. Reston, VA: NCTM.

Articles:

Archbald, D.A. & F. Newmann (1992). Approaches to assessing academicachievement. In Harold Berlak, Fred M. Newmann, Elizabeth Adams, Doug A.Archbald, Tyrrell Burgess, John Rave & Thomas A. Romberg Toward a new science ofeducational testing and assessment. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Newmann, F. and D.A. Archbald (1992). The nature of authentic academicachievement. In Harold Berlak, Fred M. Newmann, Elizabeth Adams, Doug A.Archbald, Tyrrell Burgess, John Rave & Thomas A. Romberg Toward a new science ofeducational testing and assessment. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Shepard, L.A. & M.L. Smith (1989). Escalating academic demand in kindergarten:Counterproductive policies. In The Elementary School Journal Vol. 89. No. 2.p.135-45.

17

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on o

f sc

hool

ing

is s

till w

idel

yse

en a

s a

nobl

e, if

unr

ealiz

ed g

oal,

ther

e is

a g

row

ing

cons

ensu

s th

at th

e sy

stem

of

pub-

lic e

duca

tion

that

has

evo

lved

ove

r th

eco

urse

of

this

cen

tury

in th

e U

nite

dSt

ates

is in

ser

ious

trou

ble.

Pub

lic o

ffic

ials

, cor

pora

te le

ader

s,an

d or

dina

ryci

tizen

s ar

e in

crea

sing

ly d

issa

tisfi

ed w

ith th

e qu

ality

of

the

educ

atio

n pr

o-vi

ded

by th

e na

tion'

s sc

hool

s to

the

grea

t maj

ority

of

child

ren.

Whi

le th

e m

ar-

gins

of

the

Am

eric

an p

oliti

cal s

cene

, lef

t and

rig

ht h

ave

long

bee

n cr

itica

lof

sch

ools

(al

beit

with

qui

te d

iffe

rent

idea

s of

the

prob

lem

san

d so

lutio

ns),

with

the

exce

ptio

n of

rac

ial d

eseg

rega

tion,

dis

cuss

ions

of

elem

enta

ry a

nd s

ec-

onda

ry s

choo

ling

polic

y ov

er th

e la

st 2

5ye

ars

wer

e vi

rtua

lly a

bsen

t in

the

natio

nal m

edia

, in

the

plat

form

s of

the

natio

nal p

oliti

cal p

artie

s,or

in c

am-

paig

ns f

or n

atio

nal s

tate

or

even

loca

l pub

lic o

ffic

e. F

or b

rief

inte

rlud

&S,

fol

-lo

win

g th

e la

unch

ing

of S

putn

ik in

the

late

195

0s a

nd in

the

mid

-196

0s d

urin

gL

yndo

n Jo

hnso

n's

"war

on

pove

rty,

" pu

blic

atte

ntio

n fo

cuse

don

sch

ools

, but

this

inte

rest

was

not

sus

tain

ed.

Thi

s ch

ange

d in

198

3 w

ith p

ublic

atio

n of

A N

atio

nat

Ris

k, a

rep

ort o

fth

e N

atio

nal C

omm

issi

on o

n E

xcel

lenc

e in

Edu

catio

n (1

983)

.It

mad

e na

-tio

nal n

ews

with

its

asse

rtio

n th

at A

mer

ican

edu

catio

nw

as th

reat

ened

by

"a r

isin

g tid

e of

med

iocr

ity,"

and

with

its

freq

uent

ly c

ited

lines

: "If

an

2H

arol

d B

erla

k

unfr

iend

ly f

orei

gn p

ower

atte

mpt

edto

impo

se o

n A

mer

ica

the

med

iocr

e ed

-uc

atio

nal p

erfo

rman

ce th

at e

xist

sto

day,

we

mig

ht w

ell h

ave

view

edit

as a

nac

t of

war

. As

it st

ands

, we

have

allo

wed

this

to h

appe

n to

our

selv

es.

..

. We

have

, in

effe

ct b

een

com

mitt

ing

an a

ct o

f un

thin

king

uni

late

ral d

isar

mam

ent."

Why

this

rep

ort r

ecei

ved

so m

uch

atte

ntio

n is

a m

atte

r of

som

e co

njec

-tu

re. V

ery

seri

ous

prob

lem

s, p

artic

ular

ly in

,bu

t not

res

tric

ted

to, i

nner

city

and

poor

rur

al s

choo

ls, h

ad e

xist

ed a

ndbe

en w

idel

y kn

own

for

man

y ye

ars.

In

spite

of

the

repo

rt's

cla

ims

to th

eco

ntra

ry, w

hat h

ad c

hang

edw

ere

not t

hepr

oble

ms2

thou

gh u

ndou

bted

lyth

ey h

ad g

otte

n w

orse

but t

hepu

blic

's a

ndel

ecte

d of

fici

als'

res

pons

e. T

here

ason

for

wid

e no

tice

of A

Nat

ion

at R

isk

had

mor

e to

do

with

the

part

icul

ar h

isto

rica

lm

omen

t it a

ppea

red

than

with

the

orig

inal

ity o

r pr

ofun

dity

of

its a

naly

sis.

In th

e ea

rly

eigh

ties,

the

failu

res

ofth

e U

S ec

onom

y ha

d ju

st b

egun

to p

enet

rate

the

natio

n's

cons

ciou

snes

sdo

min

atin

g th

e ne

ws

wer

e th

e ga

llopi

ng U

S tr

ade

defi

cit;

the

failu

res

of U

Sin

dust

ry; p

lant

clo

sing

s; a

nd d

ram

atic

incr

ease

s in

une

mpl

oym

ent,

part

icu-

larl

y in

the

olde

r in

dust

rial

citi

es. W

hat t

his

repo

rt o

ffer

ed w

asan

exp

lana

tion

for

thes

e ap

pare

ntly

inex

plic

able

even

ts, a

n ex

plan

atio

n w

hich

was

eag

erly

embr

aced

by

the

mai

nstr

eam

pres

s an

d co

rpor

ate

Am

eric

a, a

nd w

idel

yre

-pe

ated

in th

e na

tiona

l med

ia. T

here

port

told

the

Am

eric

an p

ublic

that

a m

ajor

caus

e, if

not

the

maj

or c

ause

, of

Am

eric

a's

fall

from

gra

ce a

s th

e w

orld

'spr

e-m

inen

t eco

nom

ic a

nd in

dust

rial

pow

er w

as th

e fa

ilure

of

the

natio

n's

scho

ols

to e

duca

te a

com

pete

nt, d

edic

ated

wor

kfo

rce.

Thi

s w

as a

pal

atab

le d

iagn

osis

of th

e na

tion'

s ec

onom

ic m

alai

seth

at s

uite

d th

e tim

es. I

t pla

ced

blam

e, n

ot o

nth

e ba

sic

stru

ctur

al p

robl

ems

ofth

e U

S ec

onom

y, n

oron

the

failu

res

of c

or-

pora

te le

ader

s an

d po

litic

ians

to a

ddre

ssth

e ch

angi

ng w

orld

econ

omy,

and

tocl

o,so

met

hing

to r

elie

ve th

e ac

cum

ulat

ing

soci

al p

robl

ems

and

the

gros

s di

s-pa

ritie

s be

twee

n ri

ch a

ndpo

or; b

ut o

n th

e po

litic

ally

impo

tent

: the

natio

n's

elem

enta

ry a

nd s

econ

dary

sch

ool

teac

hers

, nam

eles

s ed

ucat

iona

lbu

reau

crat

s,an

d un

skill

ed a

nd/o

r un

mot

ivat

edw

orke

rs.

A N

atio

n at

Ris

k w

asno

t the

wor

k of

rig

ht-w

ing

ideo

logu

es.

Ter

rell

Bel

l, w

ho in

itiat

ed th

ere

port

, and

who

was

app

oint

ed b

y R

onal

dR

eaga

n as

his

firs

t, se

cret

ary

of e

duca

tion,

was

at t

he ti

me

wid

ely

rega

rded

as a

mid

dle-

of-t

he-r

oad

prof

essi

onal

, and

the

eigh

teen

-mem

ber

Nat

iona

l Com

mis

sion

onE

xcel

lenc

e B

ell a

ppoi

nted

incl

uded

,am

ong

othe

rs, t

he r

etir

ed c

hair

man

of

the

bpar

d of

Bel

l Lab

orat

orie

s,tw

o pr

ofes

sors

fro

m H

arva

rd a

ndU

nive

rsity

of

Cal

ifor

nia

at B

erke

ley

resp

ectiv

ely,

four

uni

vers

ity p

resi

dent

s(i

nclu

ding

Yal

e),-

a fo

rmer

gov

erno

r of

Min

neso

ta,

the

imm

edia

te p

ast-

pres

iden

tof

the

Nat

iona

l Sch

ool B

oard

s A

ssoc

iatio

n,tw

o pr

inci

pals

, tw

o sc

hool

boa

rdm

em-

bers

, the

sup

erin

tend

ent o

fsc

hool

s fr

om A

lbuq

uerq

ue, a

ndth

e 19

81-8

2te

ache

r-of

-the

yea

r, a

hig

h sc

hool

fore

ign

lang

uage

teac

her

from

an a

fflu

ent

subu

rb o

f N

ew Y

ork

City

.

1

2(0

The

Nee

d fo

r a

New

Sci

ence

of

Ass

essm

ent

3

Wha

teve

r its

def

icie

ncie

s, th

e N

atio

n at

Ris

k dr

ew p

ublic

atte

ntio

n to

the

scho

ols,

and

this

, atte

ntio

n co

ntra

ry to

the

expe

ctat

ions

of

man

y, h

as c

on-

tinue

d to

the

pres

ent.

The

rep

ort a

nd th

e w

ide

atte

ntio

n if

rec

eive

d st

imul

ated

resp

onse

s fr

om v

irtu

ally

eve

ry o

rgan

izat

ion

and

grou

p w

ith a

n in

tere

st in

ed-

ucat

iona

l pol

icy.

Sin

ce 1

983

coun

tless

rep

orts

, art

icle

s, a

nd b

ooks

hav

e be

enw

ritte

n or

com

mis

sion

ed b

y ev

ery

maj

or f

ound

atio

n, d

ozen

s of

min

or o

nes,

polic

y th

ink-

tank

s ac

ross

the

polit

ical

spe

ctru

m, a

ssoc

iatio

ns o

f co

rpor

ate

ex-

ecut

ives

and

edu

catio

nal p

rofe

ssio

nals

, tea

cher

s' u

nion

s, c

hild

ren'

s an

d pa

r-en

ts' a

dvoc

acy

grou

ps, f

orm

al a

nd a

d ho

c or

gani

zatio

ns o

f st

ate

and

loca

led

ucat

iona

l off

icia

ls, a

s w

ell a

s by

indi

vidu

al jo

urna

lists

and

sch

olar

s. W

hile

ther

e ar

e m

ajor

dif

fere

nces

in th

e po

licy

reco

mm

enda

tions

, ver

y fe

w r

epor

tsco

ntes

t the

Nat

ion

at R

isk'

s vi

ew o

f th

e ec

onom

y, a

nd n

one

with

dis

sent

ing

view

s ha

ve r

ecei

ved

wid

e pu

blic

not

ice.

3A

ll th

is ta

lk a

bout

edu

catio

n di

d, h

owev

er, g

alva

nize

late

nt p

ublic

dis

-co

nten

t with

the

scho

ols

and

crea

te a

pol

itica

l clim

ate

for

chan

ge. S

ince

198

3vi

rtua

lly e

very

gov

ernm

enta

l age

ncy

and

adm

inis

trat

ive

unit

at th

e st

ate,

coun

ty, a

nd s

choo

l dis

tric

t lev

els

that

hel

d so

me

resp

onsi

bilit

y fo

r el

emen

tary

and

seco

ndar

y sc

hool

s ha

s in

itiat

ed a

nd im

plem

ente

d so

me

refo

rms.

Sta

tele

gisl

atur

es, g

over

nors

, sta

te a

nd lo

cal e

duca

tion

offi

cers

, the

maj

or f

ound

a-tio

ns a

nd th

ink

tank

s, th

e tw

o le

adin

g na

tiona

l tea

cher

s un

ions

, and

eve

n th

e19

88 p

resi

dent

ial c

andi

date

s, B

ush

and

Duk

akis

, fel

t the

nee

d to

res

pond

toth

e cl

amor

for

edu

catio

nal e

xcel

lenc

e.M

any

of th

e re

spon

ses

can

be p

asse

d of

f as

med

ia h

ype

and

polit

ical

rhet

oric

. But

ther

e w

ere

also

man

y co

ncre

te m

easu

res

unde

rtak

en. I

mak

e no

effo

rt h

ere

to r

ecou

nt a

nd a

naly

ze th

ese

effo

rts

in a

ny d

etai

l, a

mon

umen

tal

unde

rtak

ing

far

beyo

nd th

e pu

rvie

w o

f th

is c

hapt

er. H

owev

er, s

ome

effo

rt to

mak

e se

nse

of th

ese

inte

nded

ref

orm

s is

ess

entia

l if

we

are

to u

nder

stan

d th

ecu

rren

t mov

emen

t for

dev

elop

ing

new

for

ms

of e

duca

tiona

l ass

essm

ent a

ndte

stin

g.

An

Ana

lysi

s of

the

Ref

orm

Mov

emen

t: T

he R

ole

of T

estin

g

Tw

o co

mpe

ting

tend

enci

es a

bout

how

pol

itica

l dec

isio

ns s

houl

d be

mad

e an

d w

ho s

houl

d m

ake

them

are

rep

rese

nted

by

rece

nt e

ffor

ts to

ref

orm

the

natio

n's

scho

ols.

One

tend

ency

is to

war

d de

cent

raliz

atio

n of

aut

hori

ty a

ndde

cisi

on-m

akin

g by

thos

e w

ho a

re m

ost i

mm

edia

tely

aff

ecte

d by

thos

e de

ci-

sion

s. T

his

view

is o

ften

cou

pled

with

a d

istr

ust o

f ce

ntra

lized

aut

hori

ty a

nd (

"Ara

a di

sdai

n fo

r ex

pert

s an

d in

telle

ctua

ls. F

rom

this

per

spec

tive,

"bo

ttom

-up"

); i`

c_j_

dich

ange

is v

alor

ized

alo

ng w

ith d

irec

t, gr

assr

oots

or

part

icip

ator

y de

moc

racy

.T

he s

econ

d te

nden

cy in

this

soc

iety

is to

war

d ce

ntra

lizat

ion

of a

utho

rity

and

deci

sion

-mak

ing,

with

res

pons

ibili

ty f

or th

e di

ffic

ult d

ecis

ions

left

to th

e

at

.4H

arol

d B

erla

k

man

or

wom

an a

t the

topt

he C

EO

, the

chi

ef o

f sta

ff. I

n th

e ca

se o

f sc

hool

s,th

e su

peri

nten

dent

or

prin

cipa

l mus

t be

a to

ugh-

min

ded

lead

er, a

ble

to s

hape

up th

e tr

oops

, del

egat

e re

spon

sibi

lity

and

hold

sub

ordi

nate

sac

coun

tabl

e fo

rth

eir

perf

orm

ance

. Eff

icie

ncy

and

imm

edia

te, d

emon

stra

ble

resu

ltsar

e va

lo-

rize

d, a

nd w

hile

dem

ocra

cy is

not

nece

ssar

ily r

ejec

ted,

it is

rep

rese

ntat

ive

de-

moc

racy

and

del

egat

ion

of a

utho

rity

to th

ose

who

kno

wbe

st w

hich

isen

dors

edw

ith li

ttle

tole

ranc

e fo

rpa

rtic

ipat

ory

dem

ocra

cy, w

hich

is s

een

asch

aotic

and

in th

e en

d as

enco

urag

ing

the

low

est c

omm

on d

enom

inat

or in

term

s of

pro

cess

and

pro

duct

.T

he r

elat

ive

stre

ngth

of

thes

etw

o te

nden

cies

and

the

ambi

vale

nce

man

yA

mer

ican

s fe

el a

bout

how

to r

efor

msc

hool

s ar

e ev

iden

t in

the

mul

tiplic

ity o

fpr

opos

als

adva

nced

and

pol

icie

s in

stitu

ted

sinc

e 19

83.

The

lang

uage

that

has

dom

inat

ed th

e di

scou

rse

abou

t sch

ool

refo

rm h

as b

een

that

of

cris

is, o

f di-

sast

er, o

f im

min

ent t

hrea

t to

the

very

sur

viva

l of

the

natio

n. I

hav

e al

read

yqu

oted

A N

atio

n at

Ris

k w

ith it

s m

ilita

rym

etap

hors

. Her

e ar

e th

e w

ords

of

A N

atio

n Pr

epar

ed, t

he s

econ

d-m

ost

infl

uent

ial r

epor

t, pu

blis

hed

by th

e C

ar-

negi

e Fo

rum

on

Edu

catio

n an

d th

eE

cono

my

(198

6), c

reat

ed a

ndsu

ppor

ted

byth

e C

arne

gie

Cor

pora

tion

of N

ewY

ork:

Am

eric

an's

abi

lity

toco

mpe

te in

the

wor

ld m

arke

ts is

ero

ding

. The

pro-

duct

ivity

gro

wth

of

our

com

petit

ors

outd

ista

nces

our

own.

As

jobs

re-

quir

ing

little

ski

lls a

re a

utom

ated

or

go o

ffsh

ore

and

dem

and

incr

ease

sfo

r th

e hi

ghly

ski

lled,

the

pool

of

educ

ated

and

ski

lled

peop

le g

row

ssm

alle

r an

d th

e ba

ckw

ater

of

the

unem

ploy

able

ris

es. L

arge

num

bers

of

Am

eric

an c

hild

ren

are

inlim

boig

nora

nt o

f th

e pa

st a

ndun

prep

ared

for

the

futu

re. M

any

are

drop

ping

out

not j

ust o

ut o

f sc

hool

but

out o

fpr

oduc

tive

soci

ety.

As

in p

ast e

cono

mic

and

soc

ial

cris

es, A

mer

ican

s tu

rn to

edu

catio

n.T

hey

righ

tly d

eman

d an

impr

oved

supp

ly o

f yo

ung

peop

le w

ith th

ekn

owle

dge,

the

spir

it, th

e st

amin

a an

d th

e sk

ills

to m

ake

the

natio

n on

ceag

ain

fully

com

petit

ive.

(p.

2)

In ti

mes

of

natio

nal c

risi

s, it

isno

sur

pris

e th

at th

e st

rong

est

impu

lse

bypo

litic

ians

mos

t dir

ectly

res

pons

ible

for

scho

ols

is to

use

thei

rau

thor

ity b

yem

ploy

ing

the

tool

s th

ey u

nder

stan

d an

d kn

owbe

st. I

n th

e U

nite

d St

ates

, ba-

sic

resp

onsi

bilit

y fo

r sc

hool

sre

side

s w

ith th

e st

ates

.E

ight

yea

rs a

fter

pub

li-ca

tion

of A

Nat

ion

at R

isk

virt

ually

eve

ry s

tate

had

inst

itute

da

com

bina

tion

of to

p-do

wn

mea

sure

s in

tend

edto

rai

se e

duca

tiona

l sta

ndar

ds. T

hese

mea

-su

res

incl

ude

requ

irem

ents

for

aca

dem

icco

urse

s, n

ew o

r st

reng

then

ed c

on-

trol

s ov

er te

xtbo

okad

optio

ns, m

anda

ted

use

of s

tate

cur

ricu

lum

guid

elin

esw

hich

in s

ome

inst

ance

sar

e cl

osel

y al

igne

d to

req

uire

dte

sts,

and

mor

e pr

e-

The

Nee

d fo

r a

New

Sci

ence

of

Ass

essm

ent

5

scri

ptiv

e re

gula

tions

for

cer

tifyi

ng te

ache

rs. B

ut, b

y fa

r th

e m

ost c

omm

onm

easu

re is

sta

tew

ide

test

ing

prog

ram

s th

roug

hout

the

grad

es th

at, i

n ef

fect

,in

crea

sed

the

prop

ortio

n of

edu

catio

n do

llars

spe

nt a

t the

sta

te le

vel,

and

stre

ngth

ened

the

cont

rol o

f th

e st

ate'

s ch

ief

educ

atio

nal o

ffic

er a

nd/o

r st

ate

depa

rtm

ent o

f ed

ucat

ion.

Whi

le it

is d

iffi

cult

to g

ener

aliz

e ab

out s

ever

al th

ousa

nd s

choo

l dis

tric

ts,

man

y, p

artic

ular

ly th

e la

rger

urb

an s

yste

ms,

res

pond

edm

uch

like

stat

e de

-pa

rtm

ents

of

educ

atio

n by

tigh

teni

ng a

nd c

entr

aliz

ing

bure

aucr

atic

con

trol

over

cur

ricu

lum

, ped

agog

y, g

radi

ng, s

tude

nt d

isci

plin

e, a

nd p

erso

nnel

sel

ec-

tion.

In

addi

tion

to th

e ne

wly

dev

ised

or

revi

sed

stat

e "b

asic

ski

lls"

test

s, a

ndth

e st

anda

rdiz

ed a

chie

vem

ent t

ests

whi

ch h

ave

been

use

d fo

r m

any

year

s al

-m

ost u

nive

rsal

ly th

roug

hout

the

grad

es, s

ome

dist

rict

s in

stitu

ted

thei

r ow

n I

dist

rict

-wid

e te

sts,

in s

ome

case

s go

ing

so f

ar a

s to

spe

cify

text

book

s fo

r ea

chgr

ade

leve

l, an

d to

link

man

date

d te

sts

to th

ese

text

s.T

he r

ole

of th

e fe

dera

l gov

ernm

ent u

nder

Rea

gan-

Bus

h is

con

trad

icto

ry.

On

the

one

hand

thei

r ad

min

istr

atio

ns g

reat

ly r

educ

ed o

r el

imin

ated

pro

gram

ssu

ppor

ting

educ

atio

nal r

esea

rch

and

deve

lopm

ent,

curr

icul

um a

nd s

taff

de-

velo

pmen

t, as

wel

l as

prog

ram

s th

at a

ided

par

ticul

arly

nee

dy p

opul

atio

ns, u

s-in

g th

e ju

stif

icat

ion

that

sch

ools

are

pri

mar

ily th

e re

spon

sibi

lity

of lo

cal a

ndst

ate

gove

rnm

ents

. On

the

othe

r ha

nd, t

he D

epar

tmen

t of

Edu

catio

n, w

hose

elev

atio

n to

cab

inet

-lev

el s

tatu

s w

as b

itter

ly o

ppos

ed b

y R

eaga

n an

d ri

ght-

win

g gr

oups

pri

or to

198

0, in

the

ensu

ing

year

s be

cam

e an

incr

easi

ngly

act

ive

inst

rum

ent i

n ef

fort

s of

rig

ht-w

ing

forc

es w

ithin

the

fede

ral g

over

nmen

t to

shap

e lo

cal a

nd s

tate

sch

oolin

g po

licy

thro

ugh,

for

exa

mpl

e, s

elec

tive

en-

forc

emen

t of

and

in s

ome

case

s op

posi

tion

to a

gree

men

ts r

each

ed b

y lo

cal a

ndst

ate

scho

ol o

ffic

ials

and

the

cour

ts o

n ci

vil r

ight

s is

sues

, act

ive

advo

cacy

of

a na

tiona

l cor

e cu

rric

ulum

, nat

iona

l ass

essm

ent,

and

so-c

alle

d "f

reed

om o

fch

oice

" pl

ans

whi

ch w

ould

, in

effe

ct, d

iver

t pub

lic f

unds

to p

riva

te s

choo

ls.

Am

ong

the

mor

e vi

sibl

e ef

fort

s by

the

fede

ral g

over

nmen

t to

shap

e sc

hool

ing

prac

tice

is th

e an

nual

med

ia e

vent

sta

ged

by th

e se

cret

ary

of e

duca

tion

upon

publ

icat

ion

of th

e "w

all c

hart

," w

hich

ran

ks th

e st

ates

' edu

catio

nal p

erfo

r-m

ance

bas

ed o

n st

anda

rdiz

ed te

st s

core

s. I

n so

me

inst

ance

s a

form

of

this

an-

nual

ritu

al is

rep

eate

d by

sta

tes

publ

iciz

ing

rank

ings

of

scho

ol d

istr

icts

, and

by

the

cent

ral a

dmin

istr

atio

ns o

f sc

hool

dis

tric

ts r

elea

sing

to th

e pr

ess

rank

ings

of in

divi

dual

sch

ools

with

in d

istr

icts

.W

hat e

xpla

ins

the

enor

mou

s em

phas

is o

n te

sts?

I h

ave

sugg

este

d th

at a

prim

ary

reas

on f

or th

is e

mph

asis

is th

at te

sts

are

a m

eans

of

mai

ntai

ning

cen

-10_

4.

.

tral

ized

con

trol

, pro

vidi

ng th

ose

high

er u

p in

the

educ

atio

nal b

urea

ucra

cy,o

-ir

f(c

entr

al o

ffic

e ad

min

istr

ator

s, s

choo

l boa

rd m

embe

rs, s

tate

edu

catio

n of

fi-

cial

s, le

gisl

ator

s, e

tc.)

with

rel

ativ

e ra

nkin

gs o

f or

gani

zatio

nal u

nits

(cl

ass-

room

s, s

choo

ls, d

istr

icts

, etc

.) a

nd/o

r st

uden

ts a

nd te

ache

rs. T

his,

how

ever

, is

not a

n ad

equa

te e

xpla

natio

n si

nce

it do

es n

ot a

ccou

nt f

or w

ides

prea

d po

pula

r

Har

old

Ber

lak

supp

ort f

or th

e us

e of

test

s. W

hile

ther

e is

incr

easi

ngly

voc

al c

ritic

ism

of

test

sam

ong

prof

essi

onal

s an

d by

the

natio

nal m

edia

, the

re is

stil

l rem

arka

bly

little

evid

ence

of

wid

espr

ead

disc

onte

nt w

ith c

urre

nt f

orm

s of

test

ing.

Ind

eed,

man

y su

ppor

t inc

reas

ed te

stin

g, in

clud

ing

Afr

ican

-Am

eric

an, a

nd L

atin

o-A

mer

ican

par

ents

who

are

con

vinc

ed th

at th

eir

child

ren,

who

con

sist

ently

scor

e lo

wer

on

stan

dard

ized

and

cri

teri

on-r

efer

ence

d te

sts,

hav

e be

en a

nd c

on-

tinue

to b

e vi

ctim

ized

by

low

exp

ecta

tions

on

the

part

of

teac

hers

and

sch

ool

offi

cial

s. F

or m

any

with

in th

ese

com

mun

ities

, the

onl

y cr

edib

le in

dica

tor

ofim

prov

ed e

duca

tiona

l per

form

ance

is im

prov

ed p

erfo

rman

ce o

n st

anda

rdiz

edte

sts.

The

iron

y in

this

is th

at, w

hile

the

dem

and

for

mor

e pr

ofes

sion

al a

c-co

unta

bilit

y is

cer

tain

ly ju

stif

ied,

any

gai

ns o

n su

ch te

sts

are

ofte

n te

mpo

rary

and

loca

l. T

he te

chno

logy

of

thes

e te

sts

assu

mes

ther

e w

ill b

e w

inne

rs a

ndlo

sers

, and

in o

ur s

ocie

ty th

e w

inne

rs a

re in

vari

ably

the

mor

e af

flue

nt a

nd th

elo

sers

the

poor

and

pow

erle

ss.

Eff

orts

to r

efor

m s

choo

ls f

rom

the

cent

er c

ontin

ue, b

uta

coun

ter

ten-

denc

y to

war

d m

ore

dem

ocra

tic s

choo

l-le

vel c

ontr

ol h

as b

ecom

em

ore

visi

ble

rece

ntly

for

sev

eral

rea

sons

, inc

ludi

ng o

rgan

ized

opp

ositi

on to

cen

tral

ized

cont

rol b

y te

ache

rs u

nion

s, p

aren

t gro

ups,

and

loca

l sch

ool b

oard

s, a

nda

grow

ing

conv

ictio

n th

at m

anda

ting

chan

ges

from

abo

ve h

as n

ot w

orke

d. W

hat

a fe

w y

ears

ago

was

a f

ring

e vi

ew th

at g

enui

ne c

hang

es in

the

end

mus

t occ

urin

indi

vidu

al c

lass

room

s, w

hich

is n

ot p

ossi

ble

with

out a

ctiv

e pa

rtic

ipat

ion

ofte

ache

rs a

nd w

ithou

t a la

rge

mea

sure

of

auto

nom

y w

ithin

eac

h sc

hool

, has

beco

me

incr

easi

ngly

acc

epte

d as

the

com

mon

wis

dom

by

the

publ

ic p

olic

yes

tabl

ishm

ent a

nd th

e m

ains

trea

m p

ress

.4Se

vera

l sta

tes

whi

le ti

ghte

ning

cen

tral

ized

con

trol

, hav

e en

cour

aged

scho

olle

vel d

ecis

ionm

akin

g by

alte

ring

sta

te r

egul

atio

ns to

per

mit

prin

ci-

pals

and

teac

hers

mor

e sa

y ab

out s

choo

l exp

endi

ture

s, c

urri

culu

m a

nd s

taff

-in

g. A

lso

seve

ral d

istr

icts

sca

ttere

d ac

ross

the

coun

tryN

ew Y

ork

City

,6.

ez B

uffa

lo, a

nd D

ade

Cou

nty,

Flo

rida

,ar

e th

e m

ost f

requ

ently

men

tione

d in

the

2-

pres

snot

onl

y to

lera

te b

ut a

ppea

r to

fos

ter

scho

ol-l

evel

dec

isio

n-m

akin

g...e

.-G

t.S(U

nTho

wev

er,

alth

ough

talk

abo

ut, a

nd a

rgum

ents

for

, tea

cher

empo

wer

men

t and

scho

ol-l

evel

gov

erna

nce

are

com

mon

plac

e, it

is th

era

re e

xcep

tion

rath

er th

anth

e ru

le f

or c

entr

al o

ffic

e bu

reau

crac

ies

to y

ield

pow

er.

Thi

s am

biva

lenc

e ov

er w

ho s

houl

d ca

ll th

e sh

ots,

the

auth

oriti

esat

the

cent

er o

r th

e lo

cal s

choo

l com

mun

ity, i

s pr

obab

ly n

owhe

re m

ore

clea

rly

ex-

empl

ifie

d th

an in

the

prev

ious

ly c

ited

Car

negi

e re

port

, A N

atio

n Pr

epar

ed.

On

the

one

hand

, the

rep

ort c

eleb

rate

s th

e ro

le o

f th

e te

ache

r an

dpr

ovid

esw

hat i

t cal

ls "

a sc

enar

io,"

a h

ypot

hetic

al e

xam

ple

ofa

high

sch

ool r

un b

y th

esc

hool

sta

ff in

clo

se c

olla

bora

tion

with

the

loca

l com

mun

ity. O

n th

e ot

her

hand

, how

ever

, the

rep

ort m

akes

no

reco

mm

enda

tions

as to

how

cen

tral

ized

adm

inis

trat

ive

cont

rol b

y sc

hool

dis

tric

ts o

r th

e st

ate

is to

be

relin

quis

hed.

Its

The

Nee

d fo

r a

New

Sci

ence

of

Ass

essm

ent

7

key

and

sole

con

cret

e pr

opos

al is

cre

atin

g a

new

Nat

iona

l Boa

rd f

or P

rofe

s-

sion

al T

each

ing

Stan

dard

s w

hich

wou

ld, i

nef

fect

, cen

tral

ize

the

cert

ific

atio

n

of a

n el

ite c

adre

of

mas

ter

or le

ad te

ache

rsw

hom

they

ass

ume

wou

ld tr

ans-

form

the

scho

ols.

If th

ere

is a

ny c

onse

nsus

aft

er a

lmos

t eig

ht y

ears

of in

tens

ive

publ

ic d

is-

cuss

ion

and

activ

ity, i

t is

that

tink

erin

g w

ithre

gula

tions

and

issu

ing

mor

e ad

-m

inis

trat

ive

man

date

s w

ill n

ot s

uffi

ce, a

nd th

at w

hat

is n

eede

d is

per

estr

oika

, 9

a ba

sic

rest

ruct

urin

g of

the

entir

e sy

stem

. Res

truc

turi

ng is

one

of

thos

e w

ords

,lik

e de

moc

racy

and

acc

ount

abili

ty th

at h

ave

anin

exha

ustib

le n

umbe

r of

pos

-

sibl

e m

eani

ngs,

eac

h af

lam

e w

ith id

eolo

gica

lpa

ssio

n. A

t ver

y le

ast i

t im

plie

s

an u

nfre

ezin

g of

the

cent

ral o

ffic

ebu

reau

crac

y an

d a

shif

t in

auth

ority

and

the

pow

er o

f de

cisi

on-m

akin

gfr

om e

xist

ing

to n

ew f

orm

atio

ns.

In s

pite

of

the

calls

for

per

estr

oika

, dec

entr

aliz

ing

auth

ority

, and

em

-

pow

erin

g te

ache

rs a

nd p

rinc

ipal

s to

inst

itute

cha

nges

from

bel

ow, t

here

has

not b

een

any

wid

e-sc

ale

rest

ruct

urin

gof

the

syst

em. E

xcep

t for

som

e w

ell-

publ

iciz

ed e

xcep

tions

, the

evi

denc

e is

that

, ove

rall,

the

syst

em h

as b

ecom

e

mor

e an

d no

t les

s ce

ntra

lized

ove

rth

e pa

st e

ight

or

so y

ears

. (Sa

raso

n, 1

989)

Whi

le th

ere

are

seve

ral i

nter

conn

ecte

d fa

ctor

s at

wor

k, o

neif

not

thes

in-

gle

mos

t sig

nifi

cant

in h

oldi

ng th

e cu

rren

t sys

tem

in p

lace

, ind

eed

in s

tren

gth-

enin

g th

e cu

rren

t str

uctu

res,

is te

stin

g. N

ot a

ny te

sts,

but t

he p

artic

ular

for

ms

of s

tand

ardi

zed

and

crite

rion

-ref

eren

ced

test

ing

whi

ch h

ave

beco

me

the

mai

nin

stru

men

ts o

f re

form

. Her

e w

e ha

ve th

e m

ajor

para

dox

of th

e re

form

mov

e-

men

t of

the

eigh

ties:

sig

nifi

cant

impr

ovem

ents

in th

e qu

ality

of

scho

olin

g ar

eim

poss

ible

with

out s

truc

tura

l cha

nges

, but

incr

ease

dde

pend

ence

on

mas

s-

adm

inis

tere

d te

sts

at a

ll le

vels

has

had

the

effe

ctof

str

engt

heni

ng e

xist

ing

stru

ctur

es a

nd f

orm

s of

con

trol

. The

culp

rit i

s no

t edu

catio

nal a

sses

smen

t and

test

ing

per

se. R

athe

r, th

e ar

gum

ent I

mak

e he

rean

d in

Cha

pter

8 is

that

the

part

icul

ar f

orm

s of

test

ing

in w

ides

t use

for

incr

easi

ngac

coun

tabi

lity

are

root

ed in

a s

ocia

l sci

ence

par

adig

m w

hich

take

s as

agi

ven

the

nece

ssity

for

,

cent

raliz

ed c

ontr

ol.

Use

of

such

test

s ar

e no

t the

sol

e ca

use

for

the

failu

res

to r

estr

uctu

resc

hool

s. R

e-fo

rmin

g sc

hool

s or

any

soc

ial i

nstit

utio

nis

a c

ompl

ex b

usin

ess.

It

requ

ires

a c

omm

itmen

t by

natio

nal,

stat

e, a

nd lo

cal,

publ

ic o

ffic

ials

, and

pro

-

fess

iona

l edu

cato

rs to

cri

tical

ly e

xam

ine

thei

r ow

n lo

ngst

andi

ng p

ract

ices

and

patte

rns

of o

rgan

izat

iona

l con

trol

. It t

akes

pers

iste

nce

and

inor

dina

te c

oura

ge

by le

ader

s an

d go

vern

ing

bodi

es to

dis

lodg

een

tren

ched

, cen

tral

ized

bur

eau-

crat

ic p

ower

. If

we

know

any

thin

g at

all

abou

t pol

itics

and

hum

an b

ehav

ior,

it

is th

at m

any

endo

rse

the

need

for

cha

nge,

but

few

ris

k ch

alle

ngin

g th

e m

any

vest

ed in

divi

dual

and

inst

itutio

nal i

nter

ests

in m

aint

aini

ngbu

sine

ss-a

s-us

ual.

The

re a

re th

ousa

nds

of o

rgan

izat

iona

l ent

ities

,an

d te

ns o

f th

ousa

nds

of in

di-

vidu

als

with

in n

atio

nal a

nd s

tate

gov

ernm

ents

,co

llege

s an

d un

iver

sitie

s,

:AA

)

8H

arol

d B

erla

k

foun

datio

ns, p

ublis

hing