DOCUMENT RESUME

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TITLE Addresses and Reports, Annual Meeting of the NatignalScience Teachers Association (21st, Detroit,Michigan, March 30 - April 3, 1973).

INSTITUTION National Science Teachers Association, Washington,D.C.

PUB DATE 73NOTE 131p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$6.58DESCRIPTORS Abstracts; *Conference Reports; Conferences;

Discussion Groups; *Reports; Resource Materials;*Science Education; *Speeches; Symposia

IDENTIFIERS *National Science Teachers Association

ABSTRACTThis publication is a compilation of the addresses

and reports presented at the twenty-first annual meeting of theNational Science Teachers Association (NSTA) held at Detroit,Michigan, in 1973. The materials were assembled from advance textsand abstracts presented by the program speakers and from on-the-spotreports from many of the panel sessions. The speeches delivered atthe luncheon, banquet, and general sessions are presented in full.Complete reports and synopses are provided for the concurrentsessions of the Association for the Education of Teachers in Science,the Council for Elementary Science International, the NationalScience Supervisors Association, and for the NSTA concurrent panelsand symposia. Abstracts of the NSTA-Sunoco science seminars and otherpapers contributed at group sessions during the conference are alsoincluded. (Jit)

FILMED FROM BEST AVAILABLE COPY..

U5 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTHEDUCATION WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE Of

EDUCATION

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nsta twenty-first annual meeting

ADDRESSES

AND

REPORTS

Detroit, Michigan March 30-April 3, 1973

NATIONAL SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. 20036

twenty-first annual meeting

ADDRESSES

AND

REPORTS

Detroit, Michigan March 30-April 3, 1973

The materials in this compilation have been assembled from

advance texts and abstracts presented by the program speakers

and from on-the-spot reports from many of the panel sessions.

The materials should not be published 3vithout the express

consent of the speaker involved.

Stock Number 471-14646

NATIONAL SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. 20036

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Programs

AETS-NSSA Annual Luncheon .. ...... 1

AETS Concurrent Sessions 4

CESI Concurrent Sessions . 6

NSSA Concurrent Sessions . 14

NSTA General Sessions and Banquet 21

NSTA-Sunoco Science Seminars (Abstracts)

NSTA Concurrent Panels and Symposia 51

Abstracts of Contributed Papers 89

Late Papers and Reports of Sessions --- ..... - - - ................. --- --- - - 131

AETS Association for the Education of Teachers in Science

CESI Council for Elementary Science International

NAIEC National Association for Industry-Education Cooperation

NSSA National Science Supervisors Association

NSTA National Science Teachers Association

SECTION PROGRAMS

AETS-NSSA ANNUAL LUNCHEON

STRIVING FOR SUBJECT MATTER THATMATTERS

Kenneth W. Horn. Administrator of Environ-mental Education. Denver Public Schools. Denver.Colorado

1 have been a science and biology teacher for nineyears. a science supervisor for tour years. and duringthe last five years I have worked in the field ofensironmental education. Although this in itself is notan uncommon experience. and provides me with nospecial set of credentials fir today's discussion, it hasgiven me a personal opportunity to have many' sariedand direct encounters in the spectrum of education.

These many varied teaehing and administrativeexperiences, and my move from a basic academiccurriculum to a relatively new area titled "Environmen-tal Education," have given me some insight into theabsolute stupidity of some of my own past teachingstrategies. I have also gained some insight into andunderstanding of the incredible, inefficient, andantiquated educational machinery which turns out alarge percentage of its products, students who arepartially or totally "mistooled" or "poorly pro-grammed," for a society in which they must function.

The one primary question, which I cannot fathom,is whether tie many parts (people) are fouling theeducation machine or whether the basic machinestructure (educational system and structure), is foulingthe many parts, in order to cause so many of themachine's products to he poorly cast for their societalroles. I think everyone in this room who plays a part inthe educational machine hopes he or she is part of thesolution, rather than a part of the problem hut areV41.

In some wilderness areas of this country there arestill a few forests with dense stands of trees. so dense infact that when the old trees die they cannot fall; theyslowly decay where they stand. This is analogous to thestate of the curriculum in our schools.

Our present curriculum is so crowded that anyattempt to introduce new concepts or content, usuallyevokes anguished cries from all levels of education fromteachers to the boards of education"Impossible,""No room," or "Not enough money," or "Not enoughtime." But what is it that elicits these pitifultear-jerking complaints? Do you hear such anguishedcries concerning the teaching of the myriad facts ofancient histories and the early wars; the endlessintricacies of irregular verbs; the mentally taxingendeavors of learning fundamental chemical processesinvolved in the Krebs Cycle; or the seemingly endlesspractice of learning mathematical computations forwhich there appear to be no application?Rarely! Theold giants just swim there on the hallowed ground theyhayed owned for so long; and if there is any hint thatone academic species is taking up more room thananother, or that a new species is making inroads, thereusually arises screams of a territorial imperative notunlike those sounds of a coyote or a foY entering thehenhouse

The usual pattern which emerges. if new conceptsor course content can be convincingly sold at someeducational level, is a grudging addition of a newelective coui se to be imparted to a few select students,

or perha;is the addition of a unit or two into the existingdisciplinary giants. This is usually accompanied by astatement from some administrative tenet that it mustbe done with little or no money. Perhaps there is aneducational "law of rigor mortis" Filch sass thatacademic giants hale proved their salue in the past:therefore. you get little or no support until you proveyourself to he better than they are. Yet none will tell youwhat proof will be accepted or beliesed. Abose all, themessage is. pleas',_ lease undisturbed the basic academicmonoliths!

Whs are then: academic giants so protected whenmore and more evidence indicates that they are notmeeting the needs of today's students or preparingthem for the world of tomorrow" The As sous truth isthat the basic curriculum of our schools is crowded, andit is crowded because it continues to support a lot ofdeadwood. deadwood that has been standing tOr a longtime. The obsious answer. and the best thing whichcould occur, is to go through and clear out all of thecurricular deadwood. It may even he appropriate toapply the United States I rest Service concept of"clear cutting" to solve this problem. starting overaga:n say selectively with a new set of criteria whichwould meet the needs of the youth of today andtomorrow. Whatever process is necessary, thecurriculum must he updated to include what isimportant and to throw out that which is useless.

If I appear to be concerned about all this. I am. Itis because through my past experiences I have had theopportunity to observe the unique process by which theold giants are being jealously guarded. and theinordinate struggle by individuals and groups toaccomplish significant innovative change in education.The terrible frustration is that you are only one smallpart and unable to do anything about it. Again. is it themachine, the parts. or both?

At the same time. I have observed individualacademic teachers and administrators with specialvested interests in the various academic areas.establishing special trivia courses which fulfill their ownscholarly ends, with little trouble. Perhaps there isanother educational law which states that only throughthe standard academic areas can any significant changein education occur. Anything really new in content istreated as if it were some monster, somedisease-carrying mutant to be totally feared andresisted. at all costs spare the giants.

It appears that educational methodology, at alllevels, is fostering a common intellectual fallacy in thiswhole area. although there is probably a good rationalefor it. We have all become victims of the knowledgeexplosion. Consider the growth in the followingstatistics: Twenty-five percent of all persons who everlived are alive today: 90% of all scientists who ever livedare alive today; the amount of technical informationavailable doubles every ten years: 50% of what we knowabout chemistry has been learned since 1950;approximately one-hundred-thousand journals, in 60languages. are being published around the world.Scholarly research papers, equivalent to two completesets of Encyclopaedia Britannica, are being publishedeach week in biology, alone. And while the totalavailable information continues to expand at anincredible rate, we must remember the equallystaggering phenomena of present information which isbeing made obsolete by the new. But to date, aseducators. we tr.% e found no effective means to get rid

of the obsolete information. Therefore. we continue toaccumulate

The reaction to this knowledge explosion in thefield of education is to support and harbor thecontinual growth of specialization and departmentali-zation. subdisiding our disciplines into smaller andsmaller manageable units. Thus, students learn moreand more about less and less. As educators. we havebecom se carried away with the pieces that we havecompletely overlooked the total sieve. or have assumedthat students can somehow put all of these pieces ofeducation together by themselves into a total world vieww Inch somehow prepares theni for living in tomorrow'ssociety.

It is tragic that the educational machine continuesto concentrate on turning out students acquiringsmaller and smaller pieces of intOrmation, which havegreater and greater chances of being mistooled, so thatstudents may never be able to form a complete pictureout of the information, or they w ill have a partiallycompleted picture of the world which has so many holesin it that the individual becomPs a societal cripple. Andall of this through no fault of his own. It the averagestudent today emerges from our educational machinewith a sense of how the world is held together. and hisparticular role in it. he does so in spite of us and onlyrarely because of us.

Up to this point I have been discussing w hat I

generally perceive to be wrong in education. Because Ihale obsersed this phenomena. I am not ready to throwup no, hands in disgust and quit. I think we must allwork to solve these problems and strive to teach subjectmatter that matters.

Education is up against enormous problems. and itis being criticized on all fronts and from all levels ofsociety. Finding the solutions cannot wait much longer.We must develop. in the next-few years, the necessaryskills and tools to make the fundamental changes in ourpresent helter-skelter piecemeal approach to thesolution of educational problems: particularly in thearea of curriculum return and educational manage-ment.

While the changes in our society arc occurring at aphenomenally increasing rate, with all of the elementsof "Future Shock.- the education machine continues toplod along in its old rut. at its own rate, and appears tohe almost oblivious to events occurring in the realworld. Could it be that the old academic giants. andthose who work for theni are contributing to therigor-mortis so prevalent in the educational system?

No previous generation of educators has had tocontend with these rapid societal changes. No preciousdemocratic society has ever learned to plan and carryout measures of the complexity and magnitudedemanded in solving our critical education problems.Yet this generation must develop the technical andsocial mechanisms to save our planet and our youth offuture generations.

Science educators are a very intelligent lot and aseducators have been more favorable to change thaneducators in the other subject disciplines. I believe thatscience educators have provided more leadership inbringing about educational change than have those inother subject disciplines. You, as science educatorsmust assist in giving this generation of youth thenecessary awareness. understanding. and valuesconcerning their world. If you do not, who will? Passing

the buck back and forth between the acadenme giantsw ill not sok e the problems.

I would like to goe an example of the relesancygap existing in education, and the total lack ofcompetency in meeting the weds of out south. It is aknown tact that the work ethic in this country is beingseriousk questioned. We also see the nationalmosement toward the lOur-day and in sonic rare places.the three-day work week tor the labor Iiirce in thiscountry. Fs en one has read and heard about the tactthat we has e a recreation-oriented societs. Yet moreand more research by sociologists indicates that mans.it not most people entering old age or experiencing thelour-day week, are tot all unprepared for theirunaccustomed leisure time. and the do not has e the[mei:tumuld to carry out the inch% idual lifetime leisureskills.

Now I ask souwhat are most physical educationdepart nient% doing for the masses of students, fromkindergarten through grade twelve, in our schoolstoday? Practically the entire program of physicaleducation in our schools leans on tani sports: football.basketball, baseball, and volleyball. What percentageof the time is (looted to teaching our youth individuallifetime leisure skills such as archery. golfing. hiking.snow shoeing. ski touring, outdoor camping' Each ofon can answer that. it is so obvious. vet sou see no

radical program to adjust this a.ca of curriculum to thecritical needs of the students.

In defense of the physical education people. thereason for this lack of training in inch% idual lifetimeleisure skills is quite simple. In our schools. physicaleducation is,onsidered the school's dumping ground.It is quite difficult for a physic:11 cducation teacher with70 students at one time to carry on much of anythingother than team sports. Also. team sports are cheap.You can throw a ball out to 40 kids and let theni go atit. Team sports solve an adm in istraus e and economicproblem. but, totally shortchange the majority of oursouth. Arc we ever going to think more about the needsof the kids than administ ran% e and budgetaryexpedienes.

The kids in our schools are extremely conPernedabout this. and I can assure you that if we do not taketl.e responsibilay for the need,:d changes. the youth ofthis country will make the changes for us. They will (It,it simply out of :,heir desire and numbers, regardless ofour likes and dislikes. Man) of the academic giants aredying lOr lack of support at various academic levels, adirect result of the rejection by the youth of this countryof the present curriculum offerings.

If all of these changes are imperative. what are thesciences doing to qualify youth to achieve the greatsocietal tasks? And what relationship is there betweenour school science curriculum and what out kid' arefaced with? For too long too many science teachers havefelt great urgency and need for all students to know allthere is to know about the energy flow within theindividual living cell. or the energy in a chemicalmolecule, or the energy stored in a condenser: withoutrelating it to the everyday world. There is not a similarurgency to has. students acquire the knowledge and theability to save he nation's energy supply for futuregen.. ':ons.

h e overall problem is best stated by KenBoulding economics professor of the University ofColorado. who says.

J

The principal task of education in this day 11/4

to comes from one generation to the next a richimage of the total earth. That is. the idea of theearth as a total system. What formal educmon hasto do is to produce people who are tit to he inhabi-tants of the planet. This has become an urgentIICCeSSIIN because for the first time in humanhistory. sic has e reached the boundaries of ourplanet and found that it is a small one at that. Thisgeneration of young people have to he prepared tolist in a %cry small and crowded spaceship. Other-s% Ise the are going to hins a terrible shock w henthen gross up and discos er that we hav,_ taughtthem how to live in a world long gone.

1 hase also observed in my experiences. a horriblecup -out lir many educators. that the government, andparticularly the United 'Ames Office of Education, hasall of the answers and all of the solutions for all of theproblems of education. They may hase the money. atleast they did. but I certainly question whether thebase the answers. I would like you to hear an excerptfrom an article written by Dr. Hendrik Gideonse. Dean.School of Education. University of Cincinnati. "ThePotential of Educational Futures. r blished byCharles Jor.s Publishing Company, 1972. (PreviouslyGidconsc %%; s Assistant Secretary in USOE.)

Throughout government. the average tenureof an assistant secretary is less than twenty-threemonths. With each new man comes a new set ofpriorities. a profound desire to accomplish some-,hing significant. and a period of substantial up-hcasal. None of these circumstances arc especiallyconducive to the kind of work which aims at thepatient. systematic exploration of the linkages be-tween policy options. the likely primary, secon-dary. and tertiary outcomes of these options, andthe attention to consequences over long periods oftime.

Numerous critics of USOE see it as an agencystaffed by the largest collection of incompetentsever assembled under the pretense of being a pro-fessional agency. But, in fact. OE behaves as it iteither knows. or is in the position to know betterthan anyone else in the country, what the best solu-tions are for curing the educational woes of thenation. In short. its posture is basically elitist incharacter. Insofar as it is. the Office of Educationsimply does not hear messages that would requireit to he something else other than a monopoly ofpolicy power which it would like to see itselfwielding. Finally, another reason why nationaleducation policies have been unaffected by thework supported by the Office of Education is quitesimply that OE is not the place where educationalpolicy is made in the Executive Branch. In fact,such policy is made in HEW and in the WhiteHouse and, if not there, in the education panels ofthe Office of Science and Technology. or in theOffice of Management and Budget. Policy de-velopment turns out to be far more often a matterof squeaky wheels. personalities. and sheer politi-cal opportunism. although on the margins it ispossible for the application of logic and reason tohase some effect. Although this must sound prettydismal, it should. For that is the way policy de-selopment in the Office of Education now takesplace.

3

'1 he situation in the United States Office ofEducation. and probably education in general. isprobably best summarized bs the Petromus Principle-from Petronnis Arbiter. ca. ot) A.D in which he stated.

We trained hard. but it seems eser% time wewere beginning to lorm up into teams. sse would hereorganized 1 w as to later learn in life that ssetend to meet our n%% situations bs reorganizing.and w hat a wonderful method it can he forcreating the illusion of progress while producingcontusion. inefficiency. and demoralization.What is relevant curriculum." It is meaningful

though not necessarily new . It is important to modernexistence. It has adapted to the changing conditions ofMe. based on tunehnss. not time/essnAv It is morethan just a collection of traditional actisities. It ispurposeful. or it is not an education. Our curriculumhas simply not adapted to the changing conditions ofour w a% of life. What is termed experimental orinno' atisc is often just a new approach to the same oldthing.

1 would like to quote Dr. Noel McInnis from anarticle titled "Teaching More With Less in slack hestates:

Radical new ways of educating our south fortomorrow would be. quite simply, to teach our dis-cipline. Yet most of us do not teach our discipline.We teach shat our discipline is about. We teach asolume ut knowledge rather than the key to its use-fidness, the how of it ... suricv courses in almostall disciplines are becoming increasingly imprac-tical. because of their compulsive attempt to coserall. so-called relevant information. They could hemade highly practical once againor perhaps forthe first timeif they were organized to consev thefive or six most fundamental organizing and eon-cepoial principles of the discipline and utilizingonly the most immediately relevant information tobring the principles to lite.What must educators do general's. and in science

specifically, to meet the needs of youth?I. We must sacrifice some of the traditional chapters

tbund in all subject disciplines, because the% arenot doing the job and replace them with effeetneinfOrmation if we are to solve today's and tomor-row 's problems in our society. Like the earlswestern pioneers. we may haw to throw out sonicof our cherished articles if we are to reach ourdestination.

2. We must directly relate our curriculum to thecurrent problems in society and the worldens ironmental deterioration, career opportunities.population overgrowth. urbanization. central-citydecay. racism. poverty. injustice, health care.alienation of our youth. drugs. crime, etc. Thesolution to any one of these requires an enormousamount of education and skillful effort. The prob-lem is that they must all be worked on at the sametimethe task is staggering!What is needed? Curricula which face the prob-lem head on. rather than incidental treatmentthrough an elective course for a few individuals ora one-week unit in a traditional course. It any-thing. these problems should he the core of ourcurriculum. And the way to make new curriculais to decide that which is most important. cut outthe fluff, and then have the guts to implement thedecisions.

3. Education must begin looking outside of itself forthe answers. We must go straight to the Ines ofpeopleparticularly to the youth in our society,to attain the needed curriculum changes. We canno longer afford to simply reshuffle the old curri-culum and call it newthere really is nothingsacred about our present curriculum contentalthough sonic persons w ho have worked w ith it fora few years think there is. Curricula must hemade for our youthnot the youth for our cur-ricula.

I would like to close by quoting Dr. Paul DeHartHurd's 1972 NSTA Contention address in which hesaid something. that I think should he imprinted on themind of inert science teacher and repeated over andover.

One of the most important issues to considerIs hots to bridge the various gaps that exist be-tween science. society. techmogy, the individual,and the school curriculum. We require a newision about the kind of world we can possibly

achieve with the resources of science and what in-dividuals prize most in their life. To achieve thesebroad purposes will require that science he taughtwith as much emphasis upon its application tohuman affairs as upon its theoretical structure andinvestigative approach. It is evident that sciencehas become linked in various ways to nearly all as-pects of human existence. No longer ought sciencebe taught as a subject valued for itself, indepen-dent of the rest of society, governed by its own rulesand directed entirely by its own policies.

I think he beautifully, but simply, summed up theproblems which science must address itself to.

In regard to methodology of teaching, I would haveto show my obvious biases and say that somehow wehate forgotten that we learn best by tasting,touching. smelling, hearing. seeing, doing and(emotional feeling)the more of these we canincorporate into the learning process, the more effectiveis the learning. The standard four-wall elay.roomgenerally emphasizes seeing and hearing. Although,fortunately, science educators and science curriculumemphasize doing, much of the doing is still vicariouslearning. I think Environmental Studies in. Boulder.Colorado, has said it best when it proposed thateducators escape the classroom, and go outside into thereal world. There is a fantastic wealth of natural andman-made materials just outside the classroom andaround all schools, but we have for too long beenconditioned to the idea that learning only takes placeinside a classroom. In the early history of teaching, itwas almost exclusively in the out-of-doors, Throughtime, it moved insidemaybe it's about time we reversethis trend and return outside so that children canoptimize their learning through the use of all of theirsenses, I think we could all take a lesson from a bulletinI observed which said that one direct experience in theenvironment is worth 1.000 pictures.

In conclusion, I would like to recommend for yourreading. if you have not already done so, the February1973 issue of The Science Teacher. I was very pleased tofind a number of excellent articles which were devotedto alternative types of science programs which couldmeet the critical needs of our youth.

4

AETS CONCURRENT SESSIONS

SESSION C

AN OVERVIEW OF BRITISH TEACHERCENTERSA MODEL FOR AMERICAN EDUCAT-TION?

Richard D. Konicek, Associate Professor of Edu-cation. University of Massachusetts. Amherst

On a U.S. Office of Education grant, PhilipWoodruft, Assistant Superintendent, Westport. Con-necticut. Public Schools, and I visited some thirtyBritish Teacher Centers. These Centers ranged fromgroups of teachers and administrators without a

building to veil Lomplex centers with budgets of asmuch as eight to ten thousand pounds. The primarygoal of each of these Teacher Centers was to provide aplace and sonic expertise in terms of consultants forteachers to share ideas about their kaching and toadapt curriculum to individual needs Retreading orchanging the teachers in the field was not a major goalof the Centers. Instead, their major thrust was that ofextending the teacher's expertise concerning studentsand teaching environment to the point that he or shewas allowed to make changes in curriculum to suitthese individual needs. Since much of the Britisheducational ststem is based upon trust from theadministration down to the teachers, it is felt that thismodel was particularly appropriate for British schools.

There is some doubt as to the appropriateness ofthis nuidel for American schools. Innovations inAmerica too often suffer the harassment of too

demanding evaluations, too insistent productionexpectations and schedules, and too high a

performance fete'. A Teacher Center leader- and acommittee must have time to work out their workingarrangements. develop their ow n priorities in responseto local teacher needs. and prepare the programs theydeem necessary. Since teachers now express almostunremitting skepticism about universities and collegesof education, about instant experts with instantworkshops. about the circus of lectures, about theplethora of hooks condemning their present practicesbut offering little relief, about the government'sprogram in rhetoric, about the ability of statedepartment and federal department educationalbureaucrats; another educational device to dosomething for teachers will scarcely meet withoverwhelming enthusiasmunless someene is preparedto give teachers opportunity and money and time.Then, something might happen. Here, it would seemthe British model is most instructive.

Thus. the Teacher Center Movement in Britainattracts because it is visible evidence of the authorities'respect in caring for its teachers for their participationin their own growth and development. We may notwant or need the kind of Teacher Center developmentthe British have conic to have, but we very much wantand need, it would seem. sonic measure of officialauthority legitimizing and supporting the developmentof the means whereby teachers may find time.resources, professional assistance, and equipment andmaterials to help them grow personally andprofessionally as they deem necessaty. The ultimatelesson of the British Teacher Center Movement may hethat teachers, indeed, can be trusted to govern, direct,

and implement programs of %el! and nautilil growthand 0% omenu

SESSION E

APPLICATIONS OF MODELING, FEEDBACK,REINFORCEMENT, AND PRACTICE IN SCIENCETEACHER EDUCATION

John J. Koran. Jr.. Chairman: and Joh.: T Wilson.Graduate Assistant: Department of Science Edu-cation. I.:nisei-sit% of Florida. Gaines ille

Hhere is a considerable hod% of theors basicresearch and applied research in the area of using live.film-mediated, or written models for influencingteacher behavior. 11. 21Similar1%. teedback and practice%linble% have been explored and sonic generaliiationsabout these sanables hate become possible in thetianung context. 131 this presentation deals with thepractical applications of these findings to scienceteacher training. Examples of training. super% isonstrategies, and criterion performance using specificteacher beim iors and concepts and processes of sciencearc also prowled.ReferencesI Koran. John J., Jr. "The Use of Modeling, Feed

hack, and Practice Variables to Influence Science1 each er Beh a% ior.' Science Education 56:285-291: March 1972.

. "Training Science Teachers:Methodological Problems and Issues in ChangingBehavior." Journal of Research in Science Teach-ing in press: 1973.

3. McDonald. Frederick J.. and Dwight W. Allen."framing Effects of Feedback and Modeling, Pro-cedures on Teaching Pertormance." School ofEducation. Stanford University. USOE 6-10-078:1967.

SESSION G

"FUTURING" ABOUT SCIENCE EDUCATION

Paul DeHart Hurd. Professor of EducationEmeritus. Stanford University. Stanford. Cali-fornia

Accompanying the development of the new sciencecurricula during the 1960s was a massive alio toretrain teachers to manage these innovative programs.In a 10-year period federal and private agencies spentnearly one billion dollars to improve the teachi.ig ofscience. The payoff may be broadly described as

disappointing and in turn has contributed to a loss ofconfidence in teacher education programs. Newlytrained graduates today. for the most part. are no morecompetent to manage modern science courses thanwere teachers of 15 years ago

It seems to me that a major question is: What sortof changes will he necessary to establish a widespreadfeeling of legitimacy in science teacher education? Thetiming for this discussion could not be better. We are atthe end of a curriculum era in science teaching. the nextperiod is already emerging with different goals. subjectmatter, and instructional characteristics.

Recall sonic of the tremendous changes inAmerican society that have occurred in the past

5

decadechanges grt at that their impact on people isbeing compared to Cie displacements that resultedIron] the introduction of agriculture sonic 5,000 searsago. Flunk about the major transformations in oureconomy. midi: styles. oompational demands. in oursense of %dues, in the 'tabu:nee of technology. and insocial disorganuation. One ()I the most significantchanges has been in the character tot the scientificenterprise: its depencence upon technology. itsmovement toward a mon I science. and the questioningtot its explanatory %%stalk Fhe surplus of scientists andscience teachers. and the problems of merskill are noless important. A major ty of the teacher-educationprograms of the 1970% are lard obsolete because theyare designed to teach the s.hence of the 1960s and thereis little attention to on-wing cultural changes andemerging science curricula. Hopeful's the "new"teacher education in the sciences will he formulated bythose now responsible for teacher education rather thanb% forces outside the profession.

What sort of teachers do we need for the future? Itseems to me we should begin by rejecting students whowish to become teachers, but who are not reallyinterested in a scholarly life, and who lack the essentialpersonality qualities for working with young people. Ateaching candidate who is not willing to spend. ordoesn't see the importance of spending, at least 3(14 ofhis annual income on professional books. magaiines.and activities throughout his entire career is not aperson that we should encourage.

As educators of teachers we need to make somechanges in our ow n thinking. Our most important taskis to educate teaching candidates as students 01teaching. It is /V -mu task simply to train studentteacher. We inti, mink of teachers as something morethan criterion-referenced mechanists and servants tocomputers. bound to prescriptions, and incapable ofgenerating their ow n insights into problems of teaching.

The college's or university's r:sponsihility foreducating teachers should be primarily concentrated onthe professional aspects of science teachi ig. I his meansdeveloping an underYti.nding of: Inc changingcharacter of the scientific enterprise; the place ofscience in %odds: the nature of know ledge in thesciences: the learning of science-baed knowledge: thephilosophical basis of science education and therationale for curriculum choices: the valuation of goalsand similar topics. The 'went of such a program is todevelop a basis from v. hi,wh teachers are able to formhypotheses and make decisions about appropriatecurriculum and instructional practices, We needteachers 1,1110 have: a conviction of and a commitmentto the worthiness of their subject specialty for generaleducation, the ability to think and act within a frame ofreference and to justify their actions, and the ability torecognise changes in society and to adapt to newconditions of living and human aspirations within thecontext of science and technology.

There is a popular notion that preservice educationshould provide beginning teachers with a fink so-called"survival skills," and then turn them loose in schools:actually this is more a "kiss ordeal's" than survival. Weall know that the interactions of a classroom tuationare never twice the same: to what extent then an wejustify training in sped is instructional skills? A g watereflort is needed to hlp beginning teachers ga a

personal sense of purp se and direction and a basis trintelligent action.

the deselopment of the specific techniques ascience teacher needs should he part of carefullydesigned nisei-% ice programs. Skills are best learnedwhere then can he applied and against a background ofknow ledge and insight that makes them reasonable andgeneralizable.

We should make a greater effort to help teachers.who has c acquired their knowledge of science within adiscipline, to recognize that for the purposes of generaleducation it must he taught outside the discipline. Thepiccollege science teacher must recognize that hismajor responsibility is that of an interpreter of scienceand not that of a researcher.

In the near future I would like to see beginningteachers gisen experience as consumers of educationalresearch, as well as prepared to participate or engage inclassroom research on their own.

As teacher educators. we must put more pressureon the faculties of arts. sciences, and humanities topros ide more appropriate courses for teachers. Thegreatest drag on teacher education today is the failureof liberal arts faculties to initiate courses suitable forinterpreting the know ledge within their diversedisciplines for a wider audience than their fellowspecialists. These faculties criticize teacher educationand at the same time jealously guard the criticalknowledge that would make general edii:ation in theirfield more effective.

We are entering a new era in American life and theprofessional education of teachers for this period mostbe concen cd in terms unlike those of the past.

SESSION I

POINTERS ON OBTAINING FREE AND LOW-COST HARDWARE TO IMPLEMENT MATER-IALS-CENTERED, INQUIRY-ORIENTED ELE-MENTARY SCHOOL SCIENCE MODULES

Mitchell E Batoff. Associate Professor of ScienceEducation. Jersey ('its State College. Jersey City.New Jersey

A set of overhead trans: arencies highlights facetsof the following topics.I. Manipulative and imestigatise materials (hard-

ware) are needed in any viable elementary schoolscience program. incinchng those which utilize thenatural ens ironment

2 -) Materials can he obtained at considerable savings,or dollars can be stretched to obtain more items forindisidual use by pupils by: purchasing in quan-tity. using the Yellow Pages: purchasing"seconds.- rejects, or odd lots: not purchasing cer-tain items that can be easily stockpiled free: pur-chasing directly from manufacturers. distributors.or importers: is:oiding certain expensive sources ofmaterials: purchasing from Government SurplusOutlets. taking ads antage of special sales.

3. Other topics relit% ant to obtaining low-cost hard-ware: examination of products: catalogs: customsinformation and probLms: plastics: "Stateprices:- letters, phone calls and legwork: direc-tories: more.A forthcoming publication. Copyright MitchellE. Batoff 1973. will elaborate on the various sub-topics dealt with in this presentation.

6

CESI CONCURRENT SESSIONS

SESSION C-1

DOESN'T ACCURACY HELP IN DEVELOPINGMEANINGFUL CONCEPTS?

Mann) Ionia. Professor of Pht.sies. Lim ersity ofDenser. Dense!. Colorado

1-he main theme of ms talk is %en simple: Scienceteaching should make sense

Let me elaborate on this statement in a number ofshghtls different ways which medal) quite a hit

I. Since the large amount of our thinking and, ofcourse. most communicating is of a serbal nature.our language should be precise. It should he pos-sible to attach meaning to the terms and state-ments so that concepts formed relate to experi-ences in the real world.Man:. science concepts are suPic...ntly simple andclosely related to eserydas experiences that theycan he acquired lulls or at least in rudimentaryform. if used correctly. without the need of formaldefinitions and drill. Thus, it is desirable to usethese concepts correctly throughout the child'seducational experience.

3. Since the intellectual des clopment of the childseems to progress in stages. building consciouslyor tin( .)lisciously on presions experiences. educa-tionL) 2xperience should pros ide logically relatedand relatable material that allows meaningfulintegration with presions and future experiences:e.g.. it should he coi rect and not contradictors.

4. Since science is an intellectual enterprise. weshould provide the child with logically meaningfulmaterial about which thinking is possible: avoid-ing the need for memorizing unrelated facts.Logically meaningful material pros ides a basis forunderstanding and. therefore. intellectual enjoy-ment and satisfaction.In the last few years at NSTA. at physics teac

meetings. and in carious publications 1 lasecampaigned against w hat seem to me to he unnecessaryerrors and misleading statements in textbooks andjournals which make it difficult for students to learnand teachers to teach. Although it seems ohs ious thatfault% instructional material is an inadequate source forteaching. and a hindrance to concept formation. 1 don'tfind general agreement with this premise.

We are all familiar with the confusion created bytextbook writers on such sophisticated terms as force.energy. etc. Statements such as "Force (is the) energy orpower to do something- are mislea(,. 't and there arecountless examples of confusing ma .s and weight.

But even such straightforward concepts as "equal'are confused in science texts. supposedly in the interestof making it simpler. How does writing dissimilarexpressions on the two sides of the equal sign simplifythe meaning of equal?

211 x 12 =.-- 24in should read 21t x 12in/ ft = 24in.'I)ho x X 1(X) -- 33% should read 20/60 ,--- 33% because %

(percent) means 1,100 and 20/60 , 33/1(X). How can achild des clop an understanding of the concept "per- or"percent- from such inconsistent equations?

Not lone ago I visited a second-grade class wherevolume measures were being discussed. It was

demonstrated (hai 4 quarts fit into a gallon and thatten :%0%..c measures lit into a 50011 measure. But the(eachei called it 50cm. not cubic centimeters. She hadomitted the etibu centimeter because for this class ofslow le net, once had to use a simplified %ocabular%.How er. as (he slow learners would he especiallysublet!' to eonfusion between %olume and lengthmeasure, exti a precision was imperatie.

Naturally. a term such as cubic cen.imeterno sense (o (he child the first time he hears it But Ibclice he will gradually. it properl% exposed.ITC012111/C a difference in the units used for the twodifferent kinds of measurements. I do not know howcommon this example is. but it made me wonderwhethei teachin ; of this sort is the basis for Piaget'sconclusions I 1 I (hat young children get %er% contusedabout the changes taking place when a ball of clay istolled out into a sausage, or a liquid is poured from awide container into a narrow e%linder. What isconserved: amount. volume. weight. etc.?

How can the child form a coherent picture of thesesituations if the information given is contradictory ormeaningless? file pieces don't tit into the picturepuzzle The pieces ha% e to fit together if the are (obecome part 'I the child's personal world. a

tunic-consuming effort only accomplish:A by trial anderror. Some of the examples quoted in linguistic and!radiological studies seem to illustrate my point.

Sonic psychologists feel that language learning isperhaps diffCrent from other learning in that it isfarther remmed ;rum imitations because each sentenceis dill erem. although it is formed on the basis of thesame mkt% of grammar. Seemingly, applications ofscience learning also extend boond imitation. and thegradual increase of specificity of science concepts isparallel to the trial and error phase psychologists reportfor language and grammar de%elopment.

A child does not suddenly acquire the correctform. but gradually realizes how it fits. Ong study 121showed that children first indicate the past emu with--ed.' on weak sorbs only. apparently t mostly byimitation: (he strong %erbs remain unmodifi excepttot common ones like "went.- Perhaps. the inlet hasnot heard the '-ed- form often enough to imitate it.and is not %et aware of the correct form. Gradually heaccepts the "-ed- as a rule and applies it to the strongerbs also. as for example "breaked.- Only as a third

step does he learn that the correct form is "broke.''Could we not expect a similar de% elopment for the useof scientific concepts and terms if parents and.especially. teacherswho arc the models to be imitated13 the child. use the terms correctly and distinguishbetween mass and weight. lighter and less dense. speedand acceleration. etc. It is not necessary or likely that achild will comprehend the subtle differencesimmediately. Howiner. he may recognize the differentuses and gradually adopt them himself. We usuallyabandon bah% talk early in a child's education andencourage his use of adult language. vocabulary, andgrammar. Why not give him an equal chance in scienceconcept formation and scientific language?

I t my contention that formal instructionconditions us to accept imperfectly developed conceptsand to base our thinking on them.

hate found that es CH elementary science hooksdiscuss humidity. I am sure it is not detailed enough tohe a rigorous study of the concepts. but rather a

7

gradual introduchon to the terminoloo limmilit% ma%not he a very common topic inn 001 LSSCS. and 1

suspect Mall% 011 ha% e only a superficialacquaintance w ith the concept 1 ou are probablefamiliar enough mith weather reports to know that weexpress humich(% in percent Peiccnt of what' I wouldlike (o hear %our formulations and to attempt (o alto eat sonic col ensus. Such a heterogeneous hoop, notparticulatl% familiar w i(h this topic. ma% ha% e ficult%establishing a del11110mi acceptable (o all in at leastmost. An physicists in the group should .noidinfluencing the majority with a sophisticated answer I

It! guess that the definition 11001(1 be similar to"luoindity is a percentage of the t.% Mel that the air canhold at the glen temperature At least I hate seenMans similar statements m school hooks. Bs thatdefinition. it sou base a chlume of Im3 of air at oindomtemperature of, let us say .5°C 141°H which is almostfoggs. you base -g of water in it. I hat is called 100percent humidity or saturation. It you had only 3.5g ofwater in Im3 at the same temperature sou would call itSO percent. Similarl% . the percent of humidity at adifferent temperature. let us s% room temperature. ofabout 23"C 1730121. is haSed of a maximum moisturecontent of 21g 43.

Noss let us 30 to a mountain top, such as thelocation on top of Mt. Bans, %%here I am (he managerof a high - altitude laboratory Fhe air Pressure theic ismil% 2 3 as great as at sea le%el !Therefore. in our 11113reference there will be only 2 3 as much air as (herewould be at sea le%cl. Let us take our highertemperature where 100 percent hunudit% at sea le% elmeant 21g of water How much 'eater will there he atsaturation at the same temperature of 23°C? Will it stillbe 2Ig m3? Does an% one care to explain or justit% hisor her answer? Who is for more? How many? Who isfor less? Is there an% one for the same? Is there moreroom for water because there is less air') Is there lesswater because (here is less air to hold it? Is there thesame maximum amount of watei since the air is reallyof no importance? You are all. I assume. trying to relatethe question to previous information and experiences.It is MN suspicion that most of you are on the wrongtrack. How many of you hate more detailed experiencesin this area? How many of you ha% c heard of Dalton'sLaw of partial pressures? BY ha%ing accepted the state-ment that saturation is the maximum amount of water%apor air can hold at a given temperature. you lost sightof the fundamental concept of a gas as being mostlyempty space with tiny molecules bouncing around. Themain feature of a gas is that the molecules are hardlyaffected by the others around them. Why should 11/00gof air molecules he concerned with the gig of watermolecules? What does an air niolcculi do with a watermolecule? nothing! What do sou mean by "hold"''Hie problem is the behmior of the water molecules. Ifthere are too man% or if they mow slowly. as they do atlower temperature. the% stick together and form waterdroplets. The hehmior of the water molecules, thus.limits how many can he in a gben volume at a gbentemperature in the gas phase. In describing 100 percenthumidit% or saturation. one is not concerned with theair in the same %ohmic. One should more clearly state(hat at 23°C the maximum density is 21g m-3. This is amuch more meaningful and less misleading statement.The maximum amount of water sapor depends on onthe 5olunte and temperature. and has nothing, to dowith any other gas present in the same solume.

1 his elaborate example was intended to coin traceyou ot two things.

You all had some background in this subject.primarily without formal study. and you hadtormed sonic concept ot humidity. How did it conicabout?from listening to weather reports. frommisunderstanding phrases like "warm air can holdmore moisture than cold au."

2. I chose this example because I was certain thatmost of you had misunderstood this concept. Aninnocent unnecessary qualification that "the air ina I ni3 box holds 2lg of water vapor at 230C- cancontuse science teachers about the well-know nbehavior of gases. How disastrous it must be forchildren. w ho are at the stage of forming modelsand concepts. And, yet, so many confusing. ambi-guous. and meaningless statements are found inmost teaching materials.It rno,t Of you tormed an incorrect concept from a

misleading statement. would one not expect that thereis a good or better chance that correct concepts will hetormed trom correct statements? Students may developcorrect concepts. in many cases. even without muchtraining.

I think we turn the kids off by presenting themwith meaningless. incorrect. misunderstandable jargon.Meaningful terminology can he much betterassimilated into a complete picture puzzle.

If I interpret Piaget's example correctly. childrenwill fit whatever is being said, or whatever they think isbeing said. into a, to them, reasonable and completepicture. It may he their fartasy world; they maymisunderstand and arrange their pictore to fit theirunderstanding. Kaget reports 13j that a child, whenasked to report on a fairy tale in which children weretra isformed into swans, retold the s'ory by explainingthat the children were dressed in whit:. The child willdel clop his world picture so that the pieces tit. It' we sayit coirectly, there is that much more cl 'Ince. but noassurance, that the coherent picture the childrendevelop will he a logical one. If we are incorrect, it is

likely that discouraging experiences will turn them offto science.

The acquisition of concepts is a very difficultprocess. Another example from Piaget. which hisbiographer interprets as children's peculiar disjointed%%ay of thinking. attributes causal relations to unrelatedevents. Apparently children use incompletely de-veloped concepts to develop causal relations. Forexample. the concept of "afternoon" has not beenclearly developed 141 "I haven't had my nap so it isn'tafternoon." Apparently due to the limited experience ofassociating afternoon with activities after the nap, theterm "afternoon" was related to nap. not noon, whichmay still be a somewhat abstract and unfamiliarconcept. Even in this daily experience the concept ofafternoon was temporarily incorrectly developed. Aresuch inconsistencies unexpected when we give a childinconsistent material to form his concepts?

For example, such a common term as "rate"becomes impossible to understand if one uses sciencebooks as the guide. In one book for teacher training onefinds "A rate involves the ratio of a change in themeasurement of some quantity and the change in time"as if all rates were time rates such as speed.

acceleration, fuel consumption in gallons/hr., etc.What about rates such as tax rates. fuel use measuredin miles/gallon? Or the reciprocals of these: how many

8

gallons ni le does an airplane consume: or car expense;,. cents mile. In building a w all how ni,w riles tt2 areneeded.' A listing of science formulas distributed tohigh school students by the Air Force recruiting officeuses the term "rate" in a very restricted sense. as speedonly. by gamg, an equation for distance as "1 te timestime.- How is one expected to interpret the follow indiscussion Immo in an elementary school book "Adecrease ot weight ot a rocket b% a factor tour w hen thedistance trom the earth center is doubled is describedas being at the same rate.' Other books use the tet mrate ot speed. which does not make any sense ( an wehope that students will eye:- dodo!) an understandingot the concept ot rate?

On the other hand. one can find examples whichmight support the view that there is no need forconsisknt information because the children will riotmake any sense of it anyway. At least. one is tempted tothrow up one's hands "- tot t hen one sees theanswers b% nine-sear- towing question otthe nationwide test National Assessment ofEducational Progress ISM. "A pint ot water at a

temperature ot 50°F is mixed_ w ith a pint ot water at'00F. The temperature of the w ater just after mixingwill be about:20°F. 50°F. 60°F. 70 °F. 120°F. don'tknow ). The e howes were (-10i,. 2t o, 7",, 5 "", 69 "ii I 2 "O.

respectively. I can't believe that the tact that almost '0percent chose super warm water is due to a

misunderstanding of the scientific content that a

mixture of hot and cold water results in lukewarmwater. Sonic basic explanation in concepts orHationships must be consistently misleading thesechildren. Is there a poor association between a physicalphenomenon (hotness) and its mathematical tk-seripoon

Is there a lack of verbal communication, e.g., thechildren thought they were to combine numbers ratherthan w at er?

Is there a problem in test taking. such as "don'tgite it any thought but give the tirst answer that comesto your mind?"

Is there a correlation to the intellectualdevelopmental stages described by Piaget. e.g.. thatnine-year-olds have no concept of certain, to us.

obvious, relations?The nine-year-olds' responses sr to indicate that

the science experiences of them_ ohiluren hate not led tothe realization that one can think about scientificsituations. Certainly. one would suppose that theirgeneral experiences have been sufficiently varied toconclude from experience that mixing hot and coldwater leads to lukewarm, water. Somehow, however.they seem incapable of relating this to a temperaturescale, to numerical relations. where the in-betweentemperature between 50° and 70° is about 600.

Can we expect sound relationships it we providethem with such meaningless numerical examples as theprevious unit conversions or percent calculations? Or it'they read in their science lesson such absurdities as onefinds in a very popular 5th grade hook that the thrust ofthe various stages of a multistage rocket are added toarrive at a total thrust?

We should provide the children with meaningfulmaterial and challenge them to think about it,to correlate their information, and to make it part oftheir individual worlds.

I believe we can learn quite a bit about conceptformation from another example of Piaget's observa-

a

lions 161 A two-and-one-halt-year-old girl who saw herbaby sister for the first time in a bathing suit, pointed rtthe girl and asked "what i' her name?" Her concept ofher sister as 'Timeline" had been formed by certainassociationsthe baby and her dress together. Ofcourse. later on her concept of w hat the nameLicienne" meant became more refined and sherealized that the essence of the concept "Lucienne. w asthe baby. and not the baby in her particular hillydressed appearance. I'iaget's biographer interprets thisepisode as indicating that the girl failed to see theco-sery anon of identity of her sister. and looked at heras two different persons in the two differentappearances ' e. it more an illustration of thegradual tom +l verbal symbol or the conceptthat we cad i name. In science we use veryrefined terms that nave a specific meaning w henabstracted from their varying appearance. Continuouscorrect experience, more than formal misunderstooddefinitions. will clarity the concept.

The concept of mass, tiir example. seems to causegreat difficulty. Is it because 'A e confuse it with density,e.. in order to have the same amount of mass we need

different volumes of different materials? Is it becausewe confuse it with weight, i.e., we ask not what do wenave but how much the earth pulls on it? But when wesee how difficult it is for a child to form a concept of theentity that is called "Lucienne." how do we expect achild to form a concept such as mass when we use theterm in ich confusing ways? The AAAS 171 scienceprogram states, for example. that a nickel can he usedas "a rough standard of mass: it weighs about 5g."Why not say it has a mass of 5g. when we disciw, force, and "mass" when we are concerned with thestandards of mass? This introduces, at the same time as object and its properties. the child would have a chanceone is trying to clarify the concept of mass, a new to first realize that there is a distinction, and maybeconcept of the earth's pull and then uses the unit even succeed in finding out w hat it is. Much formaldefined for measurement of mass to measure weight. In study becomes necessary in order to undo the damagediscussion of the collision of balls where the typical done by using the terms indiscriminately. There may beconcern is with the masses: one finds 181 "It' two objects no need to make the distinction at an early level, as theof different mass are moving with the same velocity, the child will probably not appreciate the distinction. Isheavier object will have the greater momentum" since there any reason to confuse the terms?momentum is m.v. Why not stick with the relevantproperty and call it "more massive" instead of heavier?Why say 191 that it is more difficult to stop a heavymoving car than a light one? The weight is of noconsequence, but the concept of mass is important inthis connection.

Of course, it is true that he information about theobject can tie obtained either from stating its mass or itsweight because we usually compare weight at the samelocation where the object of greater mass weighs more.But what about the momentum of an object on theearth and on the moon? Will an object moving on theearth with the same speed as on the moon have moremomentum? It is heavier!

Here is a selection of a few more similarityconfusing statements from different sources to assureyou that it seems to he a conspiracy to confuse thechildren, and probably some teachers, authors, andeditors.

"It seems to be of inter st to note the masses ofsonic objects . . . Coming to some common inanimateobjects, a motor car will have a mass of the order of1000kg.., A large passenger steamship may weigh4 x 107 kg . . ." Why would one list a weight in atabulation of masses?

How are students supposed to interpret thefollowing statements if teachers are often not aware

that the pound is originally defined as a mass unit. butthat the weight of one pound is used as a force unit

I he milt of w eight in this (English) system is thePound:. Two pages later one leares "A kilogramweighs slightly nitre than a two -pound mass." Would itnot hay e been less confusing to say that the kilogram

eighs a little more than two pounds since the poundmass is undefined in this text.

Abet haying stated that the gram is a mass unit,one finds: "For the present, we will define density asthe weight of a sample divided by its y °tunic. In metricunits density is measured in grams per cubiccentimeter . At least the initial phrase indicatesthat this inconsistent definition may he refined later.

"This unit of heat (the calorie) is based ontemperature measurement and a mass measurement ..British thermal units may he converted ti calories byconYerting the weight and temperature to metricunits.- Why would anybody he concerned with weightin such a conveision problem? The Btu is properlydefined in terms of the heat necessary to rose thetemperature of one pound (mass) of water by oneFahrenheit degree.

In discussing Archimedes' Principle, one teacher'sguide explains "This upward lore(' is equal to the titasof the water displaced . . ."

In a recent NSTA Journal one finds "Measuringthe apparent loss in mass of objects when they areunder water." Would it not he better to speak ofapparent loss of weight since one is concerned with theeffect of a buoyant force?

If use "w eight- when we are concerned with the

9

Another item connected with language andthought is the appropriateness of scientific languageover conventional English. Persons familiar withforeign languages often express the belief that certainideas can be better expressed in the foreign languagethan in English. Would one not expect that thelanguage of science has advantages in expressingscientific relations? Although mass and weight mayulti'natcly give the same information, the emphasis andthe relation to other properties is different. The generalidea can be expressed crudely in many ways. Thescientific way, however, conveys a more completepicture.

I do not want to imply that we can expect todevelop scientists by assimilating these conceptswithout some school instruction. But remember thatthese examples are taken from instructional materialwhere the authors attempted to clarify the concepts.

Is the learning of scientific concepts different fromlearning concepts in everyday life, which one acquiresalmost entirely by casual experience? It is true that thescientific concept, are not encountered as frequently aseveryday concerts such as the name of one's sister. Itmay also be gnat the order of encounter is different.There may be a need for the everyday concept beforethe linguistic skills are developed to form theappropriate grammatical expression. The scientific

concepts need clarification, probably. only after thevocabulary has been developed and applied, even iron'vaguely understood. I surmise. but unfortunatelycannot prove, that the mechanism of concept formationand the development of a language in everyday life andin science are closely related.

On the other hand. I have tound teachers who haveconcluded that the formation of concepts is so

incomplete. it limited to verbal experiences, thatstudents have to handle everything to form meaningfulconcepts. It time permits, I would like to do anexperiment with you to illustrate, I hope. that everydayexperiences can make a person ready for scientificconcepts. Analogy is a pow ertul aid in acquiring anundo standing of new and more abstract situations. I

firmly believe in intellectual activity, logical relations,and den% at ions from analogy. i.e , from models. I donot belies c that everything has to be learned bydiscovery and experimentation. Sonic such experiencesare necessary and very valuable: however. much can he

learned by argument and thinking. An analyticapproach will give much more general insight than anexperiment. The child has to he ready for such anapproach.

Piaget tells us about the %allot's stages ofintellectual development. Sonic of this readiness for ananalytic approach seems to be age-associated, butmostly one deals with a succession of various stages.These stages are not reached in a vacuum, The child isconstantly exposed to experiences which make himcapable of reacting in certain intelligent ways to newsituations and problems. To use my earlier analogy of apicture purile:It the old experiences have led to fitting certain piecesinto the picture. some pieces which one may have seenbefore will suddenly fit. The child ;las reached a newstage. This gradual completion of the picture, thisbecoming ready for a correct response to morecomplicated new situations a gradual maturing andunconscious response to many experiences. That it is

due to experiences is shown by Piaget 1101 byestablishing that blind and deaf children who lackcertain experiences go through the same stages ofintellectual development as non-handicapped children,but arc a year or two behind. Tie influence of generalexperience on abstraction is illustrated by an examplepublished in Physics Today1111 where drawings werereproduced which were to portray the wa, from home toschool The 15-year-old-boy from the African bushdrew a picture while the younger U.S. children drewmaps. A U.S. child has more experiences of that kind.He sees maps at every service station and probably hasto use them. No wonder he was ready earlier for such anabstraction. It is our obligation as teachers to providethe general, as well as the specific experiences, whichprovide the background for concept formation.Elementary teachers and authors should not expect thechildren to fully comprehend the meaning of thescientific concepts, however, the correct usage of theterms will go a long way in preparing the children forfurther development. Children imitate the teacherswhom they respect, and the books which they considerauthoritative, even if they do not fully understand them.Our examples have shown that children are quitewilling and adept at modifying their personal conceptsand grammatical rules to tit them into a new context.However, I am sure that there is reluctance andresentment if something which the child thinks hasbeen taught in school has to be corrected later on.

10

The need for accurate and sensible language inteaching and teaching materials is evident. I would liketo digress for a moment and discuss sonic of ,he reasonsfor the inaccurate material.

We have already mentioned the Nun alence ofbaby talkan attempt to adapt the terminology wwhat the author, and the editors, think is the line' of thestudent. Seldom w ill an author defend a specific itemon this basis. It is a general cover -up excuse. It theauthor really knows the subiect well and has made areal Mort. it would he possible in must cases toformulate more accurate statements which would hemore meaningful. This excuse also assumes that theauthor know s what the level of the %Went'sdevelopment is. It appears to me to be dangerouslydose to not making any attempt to further the students'development but to appease him with baby talk.

Incompetence or carelessness seem to he the majorreasons ti,r these inaccuracies. Closely related to thecarelessness is what I would call contempt tOr thereader"The reader would not understand anyhow I

hay had that response from editors explieity. I supposethis contempt is implicit in the writing of authoritieswhen they write for the lower !eye! reader. Thes,authorities also become careless because they assumethat the context will tell the reader lt hat is mean/ even itthe wrong term is used, while the less competent readerneeds the correct term to think correctly.

Even it the author is competent, it seems that theeditors have the last word in writing school hooks andthey often have no special competency. Publishers arein such a hurry that they usually do not take the time tohave the manuscript critically reviewed. They are moreconcerned with haying big names listed as consultantsthan with giving the manuscript to reviewers who wouldtake the time to do a thorough lob.

Sometimes statements are made, which I supposeneither the author nor the reader can understand,because they sound impressive. although they may heirrelevant or inapplicable. This is a form of "namedropping," little different from the previouslymentioned incompetence.

ReferencesI. (a) Jean Piaget and Barbel Infielder. The Psycholo-

gy o f the Child. Basic Books. New York,(1969) p. 77.

(b) Herbert Ginsburg and Sylvia Opper, Piaget'sTheory of Intellectual Development. (PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, 1969) p. 162. 163.

2. Ursula Bellugi and Roger Brown, ed. Mono-graphs of the Soctety for Research in Child De-velopment #92 (1964) p. 26. "The Acquisition ofLanguage. The Development of Grammar in theChild Language" by Wick Miller and Susan Ervin.

3. "Ref. lb p. 93.4. :Ref. I b p. 84.5. National Assessment of Educational Progress.

1969-1970 #1 Science National Results. (1970)p. 61.

6. Ref. lb p. 82.7. Science-A Process Approach, Commentary .16r

Teachers. (American Association for the Advance-ment of Science, Xerox, 1970) p. 42.

8. Ref. 7 p. 213.9. Ref'. 7 Student Exercise (FM.10. Ref. la p. 88.11. Francis E. Dart, "Science and the World View"

Phystes Today.25:6 (1972) p. 48.

SESSION C-2

WHAT WE LIKE AND DO NOT LIKE ABOUTSCIENCE AND SCIENCE TEACHERS

Roger Van Bever, Supervisor of ElementaryScience, Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, Michigan

Eight children from some elementary schools inDetroit were asked the tollowing questions to determinethe appreciated and unappreciated characteristics ofscience teachers and science in general.1. What is the tan/nest thing that ever happened in

the science room?2. What do you like most about your science room?3. What do you like least about your science room?4. Do you like science? Tell why or why not.5. What field in science do you enjoy most? Tell why.6. What field of science do you enjoy least: Tell why.7. What wars of working in the science room do you

enjoy most? Tell VI hy.8. What ways of working in the science room do you

enter least? Tell why.9. Think about the science teacher you have liked

most. Tell why you liked that teacher.10. Think about the science teacher you have liked

least. Tell why you did not like that teacher.

SESSION G-8

PRESCHOOL SCIENCE:EXPERIMENTS OR EXPERIENCES?

Ann C. Howe, Assistant Professor. Reading andLanguage Arts Center, Syracuse University.Syracuse, New York

The nursery school has traditionally been a placewhere children could have the opportunity for a varietyof experiences, some of which were called scienceexperiences. In the past few years, as a great number ofpreschool programs have come into being, and therehas been more concern with ,:te academic achievementot young children, science experiments planned forolder children have been adapted and introduced intopreschool programs. Chance experiences are toohaphazard, and adapted experiments are often toodifficult, but there are theoretical and experimentalbases for suggesting two areas as appropriate andnecessary for three- and four-year old children.

1. Activities to promote the growth of logical think-ing. The work of Piaget, his co-workers, and fol-lowers indicates that children should have exper-ience in observation, classification, seriation, andpattern recognition. Children need intelligentadult guidance in these activities as well as timeand freedom to try things out on their own.

2. Experiences with things of the natural world. Suchexperiences help children to differentiate the selffrom the external world and enable them to give upanimistic thinking and move toward a scientificworldview. The active participation ot adults is anecessary part of this process.Examples of ways to carry out these ideas with

children, and slides of children in a preschool programare presented.

11

TEACHING SCIENCE EDUCATION IN FLORIDA'SNEW ELEMENTARY PROGRAMS

Lynn Oberlin Associate Professor of Science Edu-cation. Unnersit of Florida, Gaines% ilk

How would sou like to teach science education as apart ot a teacher education program w here-1. Courses and regularly scheduled classes do not

exist,2. Letter grades such as A. B. C are not qsed,3. Each student participates in field experierce in the

public school throughout his junior and seniorsear,

4. Students work at their on pace.5. Students may complete requirements in ditterent

amounts ot time,Operational costs do not exceed those of theregular program,

7. Planning and decision-making is a cooperativedecision between students and faculty.

8. Students are responsible for their ow n education,9. The orientation of the program is humanistic, not

behavioristic.This program exists for elementary and early

childhood education at the University of Florida. Itbegan as an experimental program in 1969, based on 10years of research by Arthur Combs and associates at theUniversity of Florida, which involves findings of thenature of effective workers in the helping professions.These research findings are summarized in FloridaStudies in the Helping Professions. published by theUniversity ot Florida Press in 1959. The underlyingtheories for the New Elementary Program are outlinedby Dr. Combs in his book, The Professional Educationof Teachers. A Perceptual View of Teacher Education,published by Allyn and Bacon in 1965. The programwas based on four major assumptions. A person learnsbest when:1. Learning is made personally meaningful and

relevant,2. Learning is adjusted to the rate and needs of the

individual,3. There is a great deal of self-direction,4. There is a close relationship between theory and

practice.From the start the program was committed to a

cost no greater than that of the regular program, as ithad to operate within the regular budget.

From the helping relationship research, facultyexperiences, perceptual humanistic psychology, and thefour basic assumptions just stated, the program wasorganized around the following principles.I. The self as instrument conceptTo be effective,

the teacher must use himself, his knowledge ofchildren. and his knowledge of subject matter.

2. Student responsibility and self-directionThestudent is responsible for his own education andhas maximum opportunities for self-direction.

3. Maximum flexibilityStudents with varying back-ground and needs can adapt the program to suchneeds, and complete different programs of instruc-tion at varying rates.

4. Close relationship of didactic instruction and prac-tical experienceFor learning to take place, stu-dents must see a relationship between what theyare supposed to learn, and their need for the in-formation in a practical setting. Participation inactual teaching begins early in the program, fol-

I

lowed by pursuit of learning which is relevart tothem.The New Elementary Program, know n as NEP,

which operated alongside the regular or traditionalprogram, provided opportunities to observe andconduct research comparing the two programs. One ofthe studies involved the comparison of the teachers'evaluation of the training programs. The populationconsisted of teachers who had completed their first yearof teaching. The same instrument was used for the NEPstudents and a control group selected from our regularprogram. The results clearly favor the NEP group.Significant at the five percent level was the area ofcompetence to deal with teaching. and at the onepercent level were the areas of program content,changes in values, self-initiation, field experiences, andskill and knowledge in helping others to develop.Another instrument, the Florida Rating Scale for FirstYear Teachers, was filled out by the principals of thesesame teachers. The results on all 14 items favored theNEP group. Only one item, which dealt with capacity toadjust with changing conditions, was significant at theIke percent level. The one iteni significant at the onepercent level was relationships pith parents.

After observing and comparing NEP and thetraditional program for over three years, theDepartment of Childhood Education decided to adoptthe NEP as its official program and to Aase out thetraditional program. One of the strengths of the NEPwas its size. The department decided to form fiveseparate NEP groups rather than one huge program.Groups two, three, and four started in Fall 1972,January 1973, and March 1973, respectively. BecauseNEP, (New Elementary Program) became our regularnrogram, we renamed it Childhood EducationProgram, CEP. In Fall 1973, five CEP groups will beoperating -in place of our traditional program. Thematerial contained in this report, however, deals withonly NEP groups one and two.Seminar

The seminar is the heart of the program. When astudent begins the program, he is assigned to a seminarwith 29 other students, and he remains in the sameseminar as long as he is in the program. Students alsoretain the same seminar leader. The seminar is dividedinto two groups of 15 students, with each group meetingwith the seminar leader for two hours each week.Students in these groups get to know each other, andthe faculty member very well, creating a personalhumanistic experience. The seminar provides forguida:.ce, counseling, and open discussion abouteducational practices and theory. and how they relate tothe student as a person and as a professional, andserves as a support system for the student. Students in aseminar often rally around a fellow student, pitching inwith a common effort, to help solve the student'sproblem.Field Experience

Field experience is a very important part of thisprogram. Students are continuously engaged in fieldexperience during their upper division, junior, andsenior college years which is designed to provide:1. A wide variety of in-school and out-of-school

experiehee;2. Participation based on student need and readi-

ness;3. Increasing time in the classroom, and depth of re-

sponsibility at each level.

12

Fi% e levels in the program pros ide for the aboc tohappen:1. Observation and tutonngt-he hours per %%eel::

2. Teacher Initiatesix hours per week:3. Teacher Assistantten hours per week. ti%e days

per week;4. Teacher Associatea dail% experience. ten hours

per week.;5. Intensive Teaching-11%e weeks of full-time teach-

ing in the final quarter.Although the field experience component operates withno formal super ision 1)% a college surer isor. v. e dohave contact with the school. A Universit faeultmember Visits the elassrot m only when requested h% theteacher. or teacher trainee.Substantive Panel

The substantive panel is made up of taeult%members who usually teach methods, curriculum, andfoundation classes. The at eas included are science,mathematics, social studies, reading, language arts, art,music, health, physical education, sociological founda-tions, psychological foundations, and curriculum.Before students can start working in any area, theymust start orientation sessions. In each of the areas,students are required to complete a certain number oflearning activities. In science, the number is six.Students are also required to do more than theminimum requirements in three of these areas.

Learning activities may be completed in a varietyof ways. A student may work on his own, and submitevidence in the form of a written paper, or a conferencewith the substantive panel member that the activity hasbeen completed. In some areas study groups are formedwhere students working on the same activity meet withthe faculty member at a certain time. These are eleetiveas to whether the student v ishes to sign up; how ever.once a student signs up, he must attend. In science.many of the activities are completed in .n openlaboratory situation.Evaluation

While letter grades are not given in the program,evaluation does take place. There is an entranceassessment at which time students' lower division, orjunior college work is assessed. Deficiencies fOr en-trance to the college of education are noted, and plansare made for the student to start work .11 the program.Approximately half way through the program. there is adiagnostic review and plan for the futte. This takesplace with the student, the student's seminar leader,and one or two membrs of the substantive panel. At thistime, the student presents evidence of what he hascompleted, and of his plans for completing the rest ofthe work in a certain amount of time.

Continuous evaluation also takes placc. In theseminar, evaluation of the student's progress isconstantly taking place. In each of the substantiveareas, every time a learning activity is completed. thestudent is given a learning activity slip. Not everyactivity attempted by a student is accepted by facultymembers. The student's work must be well done. If not,it is handed back to him, or in a conference he is toldthat it is not acceptable. The reasons are given and hemust take it back, rework it, and resubmit it. There isno failure but success is not automatic. Evaluation alsotakes place during field experiences. Some evaluation isin the public schools with the teacher and someevaluation of field experiences takes place in theseminar.

Before any student graduates, there is a final

aluation. This final evaluation takes place with thestudent, the students' seminar leader, and one or twomembers of the substantive panel. If The student hascompleted all requirements satisfactorily. he graduatesand is certified to teach. The seminar leader writes aletter about each student, and it becomes a part of thestudent's permanent record. In writing this letter, theseminar leader utilizes material from each of thesubstantive Panel members. This letter considersstudent strengths and weaknesses, our assessment ofhis ability to do graduate work and to assume a positionin his chosen field.The Science Education Component

Students in the New Elementary Program mustcomplete six learning activities in science. The first fouractivities listed are required. Only the scienceorientation sessions require that a student be in acertain place at a certain time.1. ,,Attend Science Orientation Sessions and d?mon-

strate competence in science conteni. (Science con-tent module available)There are tour 50-minute orientation sessionswhich the students are required to attend. Theseinclude a very close look at science learning activi-ties which enable students to become completelyfamiliar with what is expected of them, a pretest inscience content, and a search for the answer to thequestion, "What is science and where does it fit inthe elementary school?" The requirement todemonstrate competence in science content grewout of research which was conducted last year as towhether our New Elementary Program studentswere well-prepared, because they were not taughtany basic science content as in our traditionalscience methods courses. Since both groups had tomeet the same college of education entrance re-quirement of 15 term hours of content sciencecourses, we administered a junior high school con-tent test to our graduating seniors last spring inboth the regular program. and the NEP. The re-sults showed that the NEP students were about oneand a half raw. score points ahead of the studentsin our traditional program although there was nostatistically significant difference. This part of thestudy looked good. but as we analyzed the data

limber, we found that none of the students inIF*1- her program really knew very much science con-tent. After further analyzing this and other datafrom science content tests given, it was decidedthat students would demonstrate competence inscience content by obtaining a score on a standard-ized test at or above the 75 percentile for end-of-the-year ninth grade students. While this require-ment may seem a little low, approximately half ofour students that graduated last year did not meetit. The pre-test given as a part of orientation willmeet this requirement for more than half of thestudents. The science content competence require.nient must be completed before the student hassuccessfully completed the science area.

2. Learn to use the Science Teacher Observation Rat-ing Form ( STORF) and demonstrate competencein observing two taped situations. As a member ofa three-person team, observe (with the STORF) atleast two science lessons being taught, and teach atleast one lesson which is observed (with theSTORF) by two team members.The STORF is an instrument being developed atthe University of Florida to observe practices of

13

elementary science teachers. An observer using theinstrument records observations of teacher be-havior. Behavior A and B. from three five-minutesegments of the lesson. By observing traditionalbehavior (A) or experimental behavior (B) on tapes.students can begin to find out the kind of teacherthey would like to be. By ,observing classmates andhaving classmates observe them. they can seewhether they are doing the kinds of things theirideal teacher normally does. The items observedare the kinds of things that happen in most class-rooms. We have never observed any teacher thatentirely tits into one ca_egory. but the frequencyand type of the acts help to characterize theteacher.

3. Learn about new programs in elementary schoolscience (AAAS. ESS. SCIS). Examine and performthe activities for six units. This must include atleast two of the programs.

4. Develop plans and materials, and use four of thefollowing techniques in teaching science tochildren: (a) science center component. (b)counterintuitive (discrepant events). (c) pictorialriddles. (d) open-ended investigation. (e) inductiveteaching.The actual teaching sessions for these techniquestake place in the public schools. Much of the plan-ning takes place at the university in the sciencelaboratory or in my office.The rest of the learning activities are not required.

however, the student must complete at least six learningactivities in all. The remaining activities are selectedfrom the list or proposed by students.5. Select and carry out two laboratory investigations

in each of the following areas: (a) physical science.(b) life science. (c) earth science. (Three Meresources are required.)The laboratory investigations must be appropriatefor the level that the student is preparing to teach.Students are encouraged to use themselves as oneof the sources required. and to design their own in-vestigation. While not a requirement. studentsare encouraged to do these investigations withchildren in the public schools.

6. Present evidence that scientific information hasbeen learned in two areas of physical science andtwo areas of biological science. Two sources ofadult material must be used for each area. (Areasmust be narrow in scope.)Students are asked to choose a very narrow areaand explore it in depth. For example. the area ofweather would be inappropriate. However, torna-does might be an appropriate topic. Informationfor each topic must come from at least two r----ces of adult material. as distinguished trollmentary schoo materials and textbooks.finished. the student may present the evidence .,1conference: or in a short written review of the ma-terial, listing the sources used.

7. Demonstrate an understanding of the "Processesof Science." (Module available)The module is based on such processes as infer-ring. ring, hypothesizing, predicting, andclassifying.

8. Plan and teach a science UNIT (several lessons) tochildren. The following must be provided for:Active involvement of children, differing achieve-ment and ability levels of children, general studentplanning, student choices, student planned

inquiry. use of manipulative materials.The teaching of this unit takes place in the publicschools. generally near the end of the student'sprogram. during intensne examinations or before.

9. Teach a UNIT (several lessons) of one of the newprograms I AAAS. SCIS. ESS) to children. Learn-ing activity three which requires that stulentslearn about the new programs and do some of theIcily ities with the materials from these programs isa prerequisite Activity nine which takes place inhe public schools, does require that area schools

be well-equipped with materials from these pro-grants. Aside from material shortages. this activi-ty Corks well for many students. It usually takesplace near the end of a student's program, duringthe intensive examinations or before.

10. Evaluate two state-adopted textbook series for usein the elementary school. For this requirement thestudent picks two of the four series and examinesat least three levels such a,. grades two, three, andfour of each of the two series. While a student maydevelop his on evaluation form, most prefer iouse one which I have developed. The books aremailable in the library where students can checkthem out for short periods of time. Although I

don't advocate a textbook program for science inelementary school, the book is apt to be the onlything in the science area that many teachersfind provided by the school. This activity givesstudents a chance to look over the books and be-come familiar with them.

11. Propose other learning activities which will helpthe student to become a better elementary scienceteacher. The student can, and is encouraged to,suggest things relative to his needs from opportu-nities in his field experience. When there arethings he wants to do, things he wants to learn, hewill propose an activity and call it Number 11.Learning activity eleven may be repeated an indeli-n'te number of times as long as each time isdifferent.The following statement is probably the most

important one on the whole learning activity sheet. Itcomes at the bottom and is printed in capit.d letters.THE ABOVE ACTIVITIES MAY BE AMENDED ORCHANGED COMPLETELY THROUGH STUDENT-INSTRUCTOR AGREEMENT. Our students are toldthat if this program does not meet their needs. if it doesnot seem relevant, or if they are asked to do things thatthey have done before. they may join me in developing amore meaningful activity.

In the science area, there is nothing that anystudent is required to do at any specific time. Once thestudent signs up for orientation sessions, he is expectedto attend those four meetings at the established time.All other activities in the area of science are handled inan open laboratory situation. Students are given thetime when I will be in the lab and told they can comeand work on any activity. They can ask me anyquestions regarding the science area. This is done toinsure maximum flexibility for studentsletting themwork with things that concern them and are relevant tothem at the time. Attendance varies greatly from as fewas two or three to over 50 students in a small laboratoryroom.

Students are encouraged to spend several quartersworking in the science area. Most students start scienceduring their first or second quarter in the program.Some of the activities are very difficult for a student at

14

this loci to complete. Activities which require actualteaching in the public schools generally are notcompleted until the third quarter or later.

While grades such as A. B. C, are not given to anystudent in science education. I am demanding higherquality work than I did in the traditional program. If anactivity is turned in that I feel is not up to standard. Ireturn it to the student as unacceptable. Under thetraditional program. I accepted it. and just put a lowergrade on it.

With the traditional program students were prettywell hosed in to completing science education in a10-week term. This limited the kinds of things we couldask students to do. and my effectiveness as aninstructor because I was presenting material to astudent in one quarter which he had no need tbr untiltwo or three quarters later. Under the New ElementaryProgram. he can work on those things which seemrelevant to him this quarter, postponing others untillater. This system also provides him with a facultymember in each of the areas, including scienceeducation, that he may contact and work with at anytime during the entire program instead of for onequarter only. Students can come in 'during theirintensive examination with some problems in scienceeducation and ask for help.

This program is much stronger than ourtraditional program as it puts science education into acontinuous format for students during their entire lasttwo years in college. and lets them operate in a programof high standards demanding excellence beforeactivities are accepted. While a student does not have toattend regular sessions. he does have to convince .newith each activity that he has done it satisfactorily. Hemust complete all requirements in the science areasatisfactorily before I will sign a completion slip forhim. and write a paragraph evaluating him in the areaof science education.

As the NEP experimental program becomes theregular program and new sections are organized.individual roles change. As of March 25, 1973 I am nolonger working with science education in CEP I or CEPII. I am now the team leader for CEP IV, and will alsowork with science education in this team.

NSSA CONCURRENT SESSIONS

SESSION N-3

YEAR-ROUND SCHOOLS

Katherine Hertzka, Coordinator of Science, At-lanta Public Schools, Atlanta, Georgia

Since September 1968, the secondary schools ofthe City of Atlanta have operated on a four-quarterorganization of the school year. Each quarter isapproximately twelve weeks long. While all highschools are in operation for four quarters and a fulltuition -free program is available to all students, nostudent is required to attend all four quarters, nor is heassigned to attend any three specific quarters and totake vacation during some specified fourth quarter.Thus, the At!anta program, which I am about todiscuss, is more accurately described as a four quarterprogram than as a year-round school.

Why did Atlanta elect to organize its school yearinto quarters, and into four quarters at that?Historically, there have been very few attempts at this

type of organization. OA Newark. New Jersey, from1912 to 1931, and Nashville. Tennessee. from 1924 to1932. record any serious attempts by large systems tooperate in the manner in which Atlanta has beenoperating for five years now. What ended both of thesesystems' ventures was the Depression. A four quarterorganization is no money saverit costs more in dollarsand cents than a traditional nine-month school sear.Economy is not the reason Atlanta moved into itspresent pattern of curricular organization.

Atlanta like other major cities in the United States.has changed dramatically in recent years. The heart ofthe city is no longer as it used to be the domination ofthe agrarian suiety is not as strong as it once was.animal power has been replaced by machinery, andmodern technology demands skills unheard of inprevious years.

The structure and organization of educationshould be dictated by the pattern of living. Thetraditional patterns locked school buildings duringcertain months of the year. Traditionally. too. theschool program was pretty much of single design.regardless of the size, shape. desires. aptitudes. andgoals of ti-c pupils. Courses were in sequentialorderpupils passed or repeated before moving on.Pupils were grouped and scheduled rigidly by gradesregardless of their learning abilities and potentials. Thetraditional patterns did not seem to be educationallymeaningful.

What kind of education is needed in the 70s for theyoung people who will perform adult roles in the 21stcentury? What kind of organization, and whatcurriculum is dictated by a highly urbanized.technological life style? What specific implications dothese questions pose for science education. and how. asscience educators, do we go about answering thequestions?

We were faced with finding an organizationalstructure which would carry the desired curriculum andfit the educational goals of the pupils. We have used thesemester system. the "souped up" semester system. andwe even examined the trimester. But we were stilllooking for an organizational structure which wouldpermit more flexibility and individualization ofinstruction. one which would allow pupils to take onecourse. or two courses, or a combination of courses andactivities, and which would make possible a widerselection of options. Finally. the idea came to us. Weneeded an organizational structure that would expandthe school year and would permit the interchange of itsvarious parts.

We of the Atlanta City Schools have had help and,hopefully, have given help in this reorganization.Representatives from the eight school systems in themetropolitan Atlanta area, in conjunction with theState Department of Education worked cooperatively todevelop a plan. This group of school systems involvedone-third of the total state school population.Curriculum developers, area superintendents, statedepartment representatives, department chairmen. andother key instructional leaders met and studied todevelop a plan.

The planners decided that the vehicle needed tocarry the curriculum should have four interchangeableparts. The structure took shape. and finally. we agreedthat the four-quarter plan was the vehicle we would use.But merely to "chop" the traditional courses intoquarter blocks instead -of semester blocks would notgive the flexibility desired. So. each of the eight school

IS

systems, in sarying degrees. organued and worked todoelop an appropriate curriculum.

Atlanta's staffcomposed of teachers. coor-dinators. subject area department heads. librarians.consultants. administrators. and othersexamined thecurriculum by subject areas Each subject areacommittee exchanged ideas w ith similar ommittees inthe other metropolitan school systems. Interdisciplinarygroups (from each of the eight %%stems> workedtogether. Administrative committees were at work also.and collectively. they attempted to produce a

nonsequential, nongraded indixidualiied program.The entire high school curriculum was rewritten.

Curriculum revision in science for the four-quartersysiem involved moving from a narrow. limitedsequential offering to a wide range of courses, flexiblein sequence, more adaptable to individual needs. andwith objectives stated in behavioral terms. Theaccomplishment of this task commenced in fall 1967.when the high school science department chairmenbegan a series of regular meetings. which continuedthrough the school year 1967-68 for the purpose ofexamining the current science offerings, anddetermining the basis for a revision and reorganizationof the science curriculum adapted to a four-quarterschool year. The chairmen, the resource teachers. andcoordinator met in the beginning as a committee of thewhole to delineate the overall task. then later formedsubcommittees for the separate areas of generalphysical science. general biological science, earthscience. physics, chemistry. and advanced sciences.

Every science teacher became involved in thecurriculum revision through departmental meetings inthe individual schools. Chairmen reported to theirdepartments and brought back to the general sessionsthe contributions of the teachers.

After much deliberation. examination of courses ofstudy. a study of Robert Mager's PreparingInstructional Objectives and Bloom's Taxonomy o/Behavioral Objectives. the various subcommittees drewup lists of student characteristics and behavioralobjectives. Basic concepts in each discipline wereidentified and those which seemed to hang togetherwere grouped in clusters and later arranged in courses.Using the guide for course development drawn up bythe overall curriculum revision committee. whichincluded. in addition to the above named factors. theadministrative requirements for each course. thecommittees then determined the number and kinds ofcourses which needed to be in the curriculum. As aresult. over fifty quarter courses were outlined, ranked,and sequenced.

Detailed teacher and resource guides have beendeveloped for 33 of the 58 courses presently listed in ourcurriculum catalogue. This has been accomplished bycommittees of teachers. working with the coordinatorand resource teachers and some consultative help.Almost all of the major writing and editing has beendone during the ..nmmer quarters. Funds to payteachers an honorarium were available through a grantfor curriculum revision from HEW. Teachers werepaid. either on an hourly basis. or by contract for workcompleted.

Because science curriculum committees hadconsistently revised the science curriculum over aperiod of years. and because science courses preparedin the 60s by national curriculum committees hadlargely replaced traditional courses beyond the eighthgrade. it was determined to concentrate first on

preparing courses for pupils entering high school.which they were doing then at the eighth grade level.(We are now reorganizing, from 4 K-7-5 plan to aK-5-3-4 plan). During summer 1968, guides for thethree quarters of Matter and Measurement, and onequarter of Matter and Energy fir lower ability studentswere prepared in great detail. as was a guide forMatter and Measurement, a Mathematical Approachand Matter and Energy, a Mathematical Approach forstudents of average and above average ability.Inch% idualization was attempted in studentdeveloped for both courses.

We were learning as we worked. Teachers on thiswriting committee had all increased their skills ininstitutes for IPS, IME. ESCP. and others. They werereluctant to cast aside the concept of the "story line" inIPS. for example. or the cyclical arrangement of theESCP text for four nonsequential quarter courseslabeled "Weather and Climate," "Earth in Space,""Changing Earth." and "Rocks and Minerals." As theyworked this first summer, however, and as they havecontinued to use the guides in their teaching. evaluatingas they teach, they have discovered that the majority ofcourses can be nonsequential. This means, of course.that we are finding that it is not always necessary tostart at the beginning of the textbook and continuelogically on through to the end. It means that variousconcepts can be organized in quarter length sessions,appropriately and properly.

In September of 1968. a student entering highschool found that, in science, he could take one of theMatter and Measurement courses, either 101 or 111. orhe might he scheduled in one of the earth sciencecourses. In the following quarter he might move into102 or 103 or he could be moved to the 112 or 113 level,if that level was best suited to his ability and interest.He couldand still canleave this "sequence" andenter one of the earth science courses. Had he started inthe earth sciences. he might continue, or he could moveto the first Matter and Measurement course.

Customs and habits die hard. so we still have alisting of courses and a flow chart that looks verysequential and somewhat inflexible in what I would callthe traditional courses. Matter and Measurement isreally a course in general physical science; you see threequarters of general biology, three of chemistry. andthree of physics, and at least one of those quarters isconsidered a prerequisite to the other two. Anyyoungster may take this more or less traditionalprogram. taking a full year of a science for each of fiveyears if he so desires, or if it meets his needs.

But no student has todo this. He has many optionsin his science program. First: he may elect to study inone subject area per year. taking a sequential approachto the discipline, and during the fourth quarter exploreany one of the courses which have really been designed"from scratch," i.e.. without undue influence of somenational curriculum studies. Each fourth quarter giveshim a chance to enrich his learning experienceinOceanography, Individual Research, Horticulture,Photography, or Microbiology, to name a fewoptionsdepending on what is offered. Secondly, hemay elect any combination of quarter courses hechooses. providing he successfully completes 30 quarterhours of science. (Each course carries the same amountof credit as any otherone period per day for onequarter equals five quarter hours of credit; 15 quarterhours equals one Carnegie unit). The student couldconceivably meet these requirements by taking Science

16

and Society. Lab Skills fir Aides. Horticulture.Astronomy. Photography. and Microbiology. No coursein our w hole curriculum is required except Health.Physical Education. and American History. Counsel-ling by teachers. parents. guidance counsellor, and therealities of time. space. teacher ability. and schedulingrequirements tend to keep students from having aprogram so fragmented that it could lead to frustrationfor the student instead of meeting his needs. interests.and abilities.

The greatest innovation that I see in thetour-quarter or year-round school organization is that ithas widened curriculum options for students. Beforeour reorganization and curriculum revision the studentoptions in science were:General Physical Science I year 8th gradeEarth Science I year 9th gradeGeneral 3iological

Science I year 10th gradeChemistry 1 year 11th or 12th gradePhysics 1 sear 11th or 12th gradeHuman Biology 1 year 1 I th or 12th gradeStudents were required to :orarlete one year of generalphysical science (earth -ienc.: might be acceptedinstead), and one year of biolcgical science to meetgraduation requirements. Now he student has theoption of some fifty-eight ours.,. of which he mustcomplete only 6. as far as fusible of his own choosing.He also has both opportun y and time to explore or tostudy. in depth in areas w hich are oriented toward hisfuture in the 21st century.

In reorganizing our school calendar and revisingour curriculum we have recognized that Atlanta'spupils come in different sizes and shapes. The olduniform curriculum design did not fit the majority ofour pupils. The four-quarter plan pros ides widerOption. and with proper counseling, better suits ourpupils. With this realization. we have tried to desigit-ascience curriculum which would permit each pupil toselect a program compatible with his individual needs,abilities. and goals.

SESSION N-4

TRENDS OF SCIENCE WRITING CONTESTS ANDSCIENCE FAIRSADAPTING THEM FORSURVIVAL

Leonard M. Krause, Science Department Chair-man. Akiba Hebrew Academy, Merion Station.Pennsylvania

Concern has been expressed that fewer studentsare entering national and other science paper writingcontests. The central questions to be answered are:"Can student programs survive; should they?" I takethe position that we science educators should continueto stress the need for science outlets for non-science-prone as well as for science-prone students throughlocal, regional, and national projects.

The traditional reasons given for providing theseoutlets to students include:1. Searching for science talent among the student

population2. Providing recognition to students who enter. as

well as to those who win3. Enabling students to pursue science out of the

classroom in some 'ndependent way.

I have always agreed with these reasons andsupport them. But, I hold that we needn't expectstudents only to perform intensive laboratoryexpzriments, but should enable new patterns to emergefrom the old. To illustrate, I will review some trends ofpaper writing contests and science fairs (as I haveexperienced them, and as I have perceived themindirectly through the literature) coupled withprograms I have innovated.

"What motivated initial interest in many nationalscience paper writing contests and in science fairs?"1. I believe that Russia's Sputnik. launched about 16

years agowhen our present high school seniorswere infants and this year's teacher college pre-service graduates were not yet in elementaryschoolwas a major factor stimulating school dis-tricts to initiate massive science fairs. The schooldistrict in which I was reared changed its annualFlower and Hobby Show to a Science Fair. In 1958,in my third y ..!ar of teaching, I initiated, through ascience club organization, the first Science Fair ofthe district in which I was teaching. As did thou-sands of others, I jumped onto the bandwagonwith those who felt v. e had deprived our children ofrigorous science courses, and out-of-class scienceactivities.

2. The impetus from Sputnik led to more than casualinterest in science because numerous junior andsenior high schools made participation in the localcontests compulsory. Research courses wereinitiated in some high schools, entrance to whichwas possible only if students would agree to writeand submit a paper to: Westinghouse ScienceTalent Search, the former Ford-FSA program, orthe more recent Tomorrow's Scientists and En-gineers program.

3. Numerous colleges opened their doors to talentedstudents who worked with talented PhD's, andwho consequently brought recognition to theirlocal schools by winning blue ribbons, plaques,free trips, or other gifts. Some of these studentswere brilliant as was their research.

4. Generous higher education scholarships weremade available to students in order to make itworth their while to enter a paper-writing contest."What has militated against continued high in-

terest in science competitions?"1 Generally, the aura of science and technological

advancement has worn thin among the public.Even moon travel competes weakly with the pre-occupation of the daily routine.

2. The national Government has reduced funding toa fOrmerly well-established scientific establishmentin Washington which has, in turn, reduced theprestige of the scientific elite in the public eye.Philip Abelson, editor of Science, the AAASjournal, calls it another sign of the administra-tion's continuing policy of downgrading science.

3. Numerous contemporary science teachers whowere part of the campus-revolt generation and whoassociate hard-core science and national competi-tions with "establishment" will not motivatestudents toward the local or national programs,Many teachers no longer assume that sporsoring aclub should automatically be expected of them bytheir administration.

4, Tight money situations result in a diminution ofmassive financial support of national competi-

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5,

tions, and some industries hale concerns withsome of the problems inherent in competitionsdiscussed above. In brief. they want to avoid hadpublic relations. For example:Several million students contributed to a backlashof resentment by industry and researchers throughmillions of their letters v. hich requested- "Sendme everything you hay e on atom smakhers. Pleasehurry."Judges of science fairs and other contests foundthemselves stymied with problems presented byprojects done by parents or with PhD assistance,or with expenshe equipment financed by well -to-do parents Problems of this nature were generatedat grass roots levels.Students can now borrow money rather easily fromstate or national sources to attend college andneedn't work for months, if not for years, polish-ing a paper v. hich must be among the top 40 or top10 to win the "big" prize money.The second district I was associated with had a

Science Fairone time only. The science departmentthereafter voted unanimously in 1959 to discontinuethat one-time local science fair. It had no such activityuntil 1969.

What did we do with interested science studentsduring that decade? In 1958 1 initiated a ScienceResearch Club and in 1965 submitted an article to TheScience Teacher magazine summarizing its activities.Let me read you the goals as stated in that article ....

Goals of the Club: Objectives of the club are manyincluding: satisfying science interests; developingan understanding of the meaning and significanceof research; providing an opportunity to studyareas not usually presented in class; ar .1 learningto approach problems in an organized way, such asrecording data accurately, and presenting this in-formation in a properly written and/or oral form.These and other goals arose from a strong desireon the part of the sponsor and research scien-tists to bring to able students a new dimension inscience experiences. Research and its implicationsfor twentieth century living were to be the corner-stones on which the structure of the club was to bebuilt. Pure science awl its natural concomitantswould be set as the ideal goal.As thousands of science teachers know, studentsare often exposed only to the history of science andits technological aspects. Rarely do they receive theopportunity to pursue an independent line of in-quiry in the classroom. The Science Research Clubexists primarily to provide this opportunity.We recognize now, that we must include history

and practical applications to round out that puristicscience approach.

Monetary Grants: A lack of sufficient fundshad prevented some students from delving deeplyinto their projects. This situation was alleviatedwhen a request for a grant of money was submittedto an area industry by a member of the SeniorCommittee. The request was honored and, withmonies received, several ultraviolet light sourcescould be purchased for students working in thefield of bacteriology. Requests made to severalother firms resulted in the club's receiving addi-tional sums.

Several industries in Philadelphia and itsenvirons have contributed science equipment-

again, thanks to the eftbrts of the Advisory Com-mittee Cameras, texts, analytical balances, and apH meter are some of the gifts. A Warburg Res-piromcter donated by a Philadelphia pharma-ceutical firm has been used by se% eral senior meth-hers ho are currently instructing sophomores inits use.Students who ho were motivated to participate in the

club selected it by choice and those w ho enterednational contests did so oluntaril. Some even won!We did not need national coolpetition motivation.

Now, some of us here teday. I will assume. want tosee a continuation of local, regional, and nationalscience paperwriting competitions. I do. too, but withattention given to correcting abuses by improving localsupervision and also with attention given (as stated inmy introduction) to new patterns.

For example: Beginning in the Spring 1967. a newscience youth program. "Eastern Pennsylvania FSAScience and Humanities Conferences" was initiated byme under the aegis of NSTA. Primarily, theconferences have provided youth an opportunity todiscuss among themselves and with protessionals. socialproblems that require the concerted attention of thescientist and humanist.

During the second conference, held in April 1968.tour major topics were discussed: (a) is there a scientificbasis for claims of racial inequality? (b) medical ethics.(c) environmental instrusion. and (d) effects of crowd-i ng.

Students voluntarily ubmitted papers on one ofthese topics if they wished to chair a discussion groupled by a practicing professional.

The conference attracted many students whowould not ordinarily attend an exclusively scienceseminar. Approximately 30 students submitted papersto be eligible for the position of chairman, orinterrogator of a professional speaker. Each year since1967. four to seven local industries have given financialsupport to these youth meetings.

Theynew patterns mentioned in the beginning ofthis presentation include regional and national scienceyouth activities of the type just described and clubactivities which make use of many local resources,including horticulture societies, garden clubs, mu-seums. and club activities which associate science withsocial concern.

Having given the trends motivating interest anddisinterest in national contests and two alternativepatterns for a local science club, and a regional youthconference, I have the following recommendations orresolutions:1. Let us stop trying to make professional scientists

out of our secondary school kids by insisting onl-on laboratory investigation types of projects.

2. Let us broaden the base of science projects to in-clude ideas for investigations, or outlines of ex-perimental designs similar to the pattern set up forthe skylab program last year.

3. Let us attempt to structure inter-county or regionalyouth conferences dealing with the social implica-tions of science to permit dialogue among sciencestudents and practicing professionals. in a non-competitive environment.

4. Let us reinstitute an annual national youth conven-tion of science interested secondary school stu-dents to meet parallel with the NSSA and NSTAConventions, enabling science educators, future

ti

IS

scientists, and future science teachers to havedi:.' gue.

S. Let us use the combined influence of the newlyformed NSSA-NSTA youth committee to influencescience supervisors to seek local industry tosupport local .euth science functions and perhapsto sponsor youth to regional andior nationalevents.

6 Finalh, let us use the combined fluence of theNSTA sections to assure current sponsors ofnational science youth projects that these activitiesare indeed worthwhile and beneficial to America'syouth. so that their present confidence in the on-going programs will continue, regardless of thepercentage of participation.In closing, permit me to recount an episode in my

protessional career I've never tbrgotten. I spoke to anExchange Club in the Philadelphia suburban areaabout my science club and about a project of a studentwho w as taking a drop of blood occasionally from theear of a rabbit. I was approached by a gentleman, whointroduced himself as the director of the county SPCA!After questioning me about the nature and reason forthe project he said bluntly, "I object to this project!"Having no tenure, I was worried. so I tried to assure theSPCA director that no harm was being done to therabbit.

He replied. "Young man, I'm not worried aboutthe rabbit. I'm worried about the ultimatepsychological effect of this project on the boy." Myfeeling for the man and for the organization herepresented was immediately overhauled. I submit thatthere is a message this episode for supervisors ofscience.

NSTA GENERAL SESSIONS AND BANQUET

THE NECESSITY FOR A NEWTHRUST IN EDUCATION TODAY

The Honorable Shirk Chis-holm. Member. House of Rep-resentatives. Congress of theUnited States. Washington.D.C.

HENRY ADAMS once said of ourprofession: "A teacher affects

eternity, he can nes er tell w here hisinfluence ends." I am inclined to agree.Our function as educators is to teachto impart knowledge.

But what concept do we attempt toconvey when using these words? Tomost of us "teaching"the impartingof knowledgehas meant disseminat-ing to our students the body of factsthat mankind has accumulated. Wehave taken this definition and de-manded that our education systemevolve around it. Education is a worldof excitement, dreams, and success; itis also a world of frustration, failure,and impossible problems. Education ischarge with being irrelevant to thepresent and future needs of society andmuch of it is, but in our frenzied hasteto become "relevant" we often detestall that was of the past and love allthat smells of newness without analyz-ing in depth and without, in a sense,being objective about the situation.

I submit to you that before we, aseducators, ask how we can better ourcapacity to educate we must first askwhat is our function as educators. Be-fore we look toward more and betterlegislation, before we talk about moremoney and better school buildings. wemust ask ourselves the hard questions.

As I view the problem, we havestressed the intellectual aspects of edu-cation at the expense of the emotional.We have instructed our students in lan-guages and numbers, but we have failedto educate them in self-respect, lead-ership, cooperation, and understanding.In a word, we have failed to helpthemto allow themto self -actualize,to come to know and respect them-selves as human beings, as individualswith intrinsic value and worth.

Our primary function as educators

must be to break from tradition whenthat tradition does not !wile the presentor retards the future; to reorient ourschool systems, not in terms of instruc-tion in basic knowledge about thenatural world, as we hale done in thepast, but in terms of imparting to owstudents and children a sense of sell-respect, a sense of hope, a sense ofbelonging, a sense of power. Our pri-mary function as educators must be torecognize that to educate is to "leadout."

Directly related to thin. I believe,is the situation we are faced with inattempting to combat the problem ofthe drop-out in our educational system.When we begin to realize that the "in-feriority myth," formerly advanced asthe primary reason for the droppingout of the Black student, has beenexploded; when we begin to realizethat it is not merely lack of interestthat causes a student to leave school;when we begin to realize that droppingout is not merely the inevitable resultof a student's individual personalityhang-ups; when we begin to realize allof this, perhaps then we can come tosec that the problem is the sense offutility that the student experiences,often unconsciously.

Why should one remain in schooluntil he becomes the recipient of a

"Our primary function aseducators must be to recognizethat to educate is to 'lead out "

diploma, when it is apparent to himthat he is in no way better preparedto cope with the outsidethe realworld? When he is in no way morecapable of understanding himself? Tothe drop-out, an education in terms ofpresent public schooling curriculum isirrelevant, that is, not meaningful towhat he sees and understands of theworld around him.

WE MUST demonstrate to all stu-dents that there is a very real

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reason for being in school and thatreal reason is to be taught. to be edu-cated, to be led out of low income,high unemployment, poor health care.inadequate housing; to he led out ofghetto life.

But how can we do this? Projectsbegun after the child has become astudent are remedial rather than pre-ventive; they are an attempt to workwithin the prevailing organization ofour schools, an organization which hasitself resulted in failure.

Notwithstanding efforts which havebeen made, children who go to schoolin minority areas do not feel that theyare treated equally, do not have thesame chance of success academically,and are disadvantaged in finding goodjobs in a society which increasingly in-sists on educational attainments forpositions more and more of whichrequire sophisticated skills. This inturn causes increasing numbers of suchyoung people to conclude that effortto learn in school is a waste of time.In such an environment, even the bestteachers face discouragement, a factwhich contributes to the vicious cycle.

Learning today is often aimed atraising scores on standardized short-answer tests geared to knowledge ofspecific facts. Such tests are the easiestto grade, and they allow comparisons(invidious or otherwise) between stu-dents, teachers, and schoolsin turnintensifying concentration of effort onteaching for the test rather than anyother goal. Even teachers who abhorteaching by the criterion of a test ratherthan of the children are subjected topressure to cover material which willbe the subject of examinations onwhich the school may be rated. Andthe future of the children often de-pends on how they do on suchexaminations at every stage of theircareer. The result is that interest inexploring exciting questions in man'sdiscovery about thT. world in andaround him is often stifled. The searchfor understanding and the ability todeal with situations intelligently isslighted in favor of knowledge of rou-tine standardized information and the

ability to guess what the examinerwants you to answer.

In many schools, classes are large.Obstreperous pupils often monopolizeteacher attention. Instruction is oftenby standardized methods (such as inthe lower grades the "Look John,Look, John, See the Dog" type ofreaders). The individual child is thusdeprived of the individual attentionwhich he needs in developing his fresh-ness of insight and his interest in learn-ing "Why" and "How" as well as"What."

In much of education, the role of thestudent is strictly passive: to absorbinformation ladled out and then to

prove he has absorbed it in order toget a grade or other sign of approval.The end result of this is often boredomand apathy or vehement revolt, ex-pressed as young pee_ grow older inmany kinds of defiance of what they

believe is the behavior expected byothers.

"In much of education, the roleof the student is strictly passive."

Because of the salary scale of teach-ers compared with other professionals,the impact of overcrowded and over-large classes, and pupil resistance dueto lack of motivation, combined withpressure from above for results ontests, teachers lack the independenceand status to work most effectively.This is compounded by communityattitudes that teachers should "makethe children learn" and that everybodyknows as much as teachers do abouteducation.

WHAl is needed is to realize thatour education structure is too

large, too insensitive, too out of touchwith the problems unique to the vari-ous communities within each of ourmajor cities to be able to deal withthem effectively. We have lost sight ofthe fact that the community shouldhave a voice in what goes on in theschool. We have lost sight of the fact

"Our education structure istoo large, too insensitive,too out of touch with theproblems unique to the variouscommunities."

that the community and the schoolshould be inseparable. American cul-ture is not a culture of homogeneousvalues. When we attempt to indoctri-nate our entire population into a

middle-class value system, a systemthat is not thrown open to all of us,when we attempt to reinforce throughour school systems social values basiconly to one segment of our population.when we attempt to do this, . can only

result in a sense of frustration, hope-lessness, and rage in those who halenot had the benefit of the "system's"values in their preschool experiences.What we must do is to concentrate ourthoughts upon the concept of commu-nity control.

Community control is not a panacea.I must preface my comments on it withthat statement. But It is, as I view it.the most effective and immediate meansof achieving our goals. We have alltoo often heard and made the cry thatas teachers, our power is minimized byour principals; as principals, by oursuperintendents, as superintendents, byour school boards; as school boards, byour legislature. The cries are true, nodoubt, and pc:mit us some justificationin viewing ourselves as being not totallyat fault. But the time for rationalizingis well beyond us. The changes, if theyare to be forthcoming, must be initiatedby those of us who are on the inside,whose function it is to educate.

That you have come here today isan indication to me that you are, at the

very least, interested, and concernedwith what must be done. And whatmust be done is to free our teachers,our principals, our superintendents, andour school boards. Free them, emanci-pate them from the outdated restric-tions that have inhibited meaningfulprogress in education; free them fromthe fear of having economic ani social

22

sanctions imposed against them by

superiors who niaY or niay not hensthe interests of the students and thecommunity in mind: free them from thepossibility Li' being passed oy el by de-partment heads for attempting to strikeout in innoYatiye Vb ,ls

We must fOrie ourselves. as teach-, s. to question openly and honestlythe goals. tactics. and values of princ-pals and super kors We must encour-age ourselves to continually tight off thefeeling of helplessness that has resultedfrom our present sructural system Wemust encourage this bccauss: it is theonly way I know to up-grade our qual-ity as professionals.

Just as many of our students becomedrop-outs because our system has ii,,relevant use for them. many highl,competent teachers arc lost to the cducational world because that world doesnot permit them, in a word, Ito occome"relevant." We must allow for Yariety,for experimentation, for 111110%m:on

for indiyiduality. We must allow forthem, and seek to achieve them. Wemust not be so desirous of keepingwithin our ranks those who lit w ellwithin the educational world. those whoare weak-minded and content to pre-serve the status quo, for by doing sowe force out those who arc concernedand capable and willing to try inno-y ative ways. We force the teacht.rsout because of their mem helmingsense of frustrwion

In effect, we , ust free ourselvesfrom those whon we have served inthe pastour professional superiorsand submit to those whom we shouldserve in the futurethe community. Asspecialists, we should have been thefirst to appreciate the fact that wecan no longer prepare curricula in avacuum without consulting with thecommunity.

THERESULT of the curriculum

production process looks like anyother modern staple It is a bundle ofplanned meanings, a package of values,a commodity whose "balanced appeal"makes it marketable to a sufficientlylarge number to justify the cost of pro-duction Consumer-pupils are taught

to make their desires conform to mar-ketable values. Thus they are made tofeel guilty if they do not behave accord-ing to the predictions of consumer re-search b1 getting the grades and certifi-cates that will place them in the jobcategory they have been led to expect.

In fact, healthy students often redou-ble their resistance to teaching as theyfind themselves more comprehensivelymanipulated. This resistance is due notto the authoritarian style of a publicschool or the seductive style of somefree schools, but to the fundamentalapproach common to all schoolstheidea that one person's judgment shoulddetermine what and when another per-son must learn.

Being so close to the young, weshould have been the first to realizethat in their preoccupation with longhair, "bizarre" music and clothing, thatin their preoccupation with the use ofdrugs and their experimentation withsex, the young were attempting to showto us their sense of frustration with theworld; anti much of that young worldis controlled by us; controlled by edu-cators. We trouble ourselves over thesepreoccupations, yet we have neverunderstood them. Never understoodthat, as individuals, our youth are inneed of, hunger for, search for thingswhich are immediate to them, thingsover which they feel they have control;vehicles by which they believe they canattain a sense of power. Their pre-occupations are merely a negative reac-tion to the unhappiness, the senseless-ness, the hopelessness, they perceive inthe world. But we must understandthat these preoccupations become im-portant, not for themselves, but onlyas a means of better coping with thisworld.

I do not wish to say that because theuse of drugs can be attributed to aneffect rather than a cause that the prob-lem is any the less frightening. I dowish to say, though, that we shouldtake that observation and begin tomark our direction in terms of it; thatas educators, in the valid sense, wemust accept the fact that our role, aseducators, should be inseparable from

the concept of the community; that ourfunction is, and must be, directed to-ward alleviating economic, political,and social injustice. In . d, what elsecan the purpose of educate..., be?

THELARGER problem is not

nearly as much one of finance asit is of power and of wresting thispower from the hands in which it pres-ently lies and placing it where it be-longs. Certainly, education is in needof increased funds, but no amount offunds will provide a more useful, mean-ingful education unless the effort ismade at the local level.

Why do I advocate the use of com-munity control? Perhaps the most im-mediate reason is that community con-trol can provide us with the means ofchecking and balancing, at all levels.

Community control can be the vehi-cle by which school and community,now separate cntities, become one; canbe the vehicle by which teachers, nowtransmitters, become developers; canbe the vehicle by which teachers, nowadvocates of the system, becom . advo-cat s of the student; can be the vehicleby which parents, now spectators, be-come participants.

It permits members of the commu-nity to express an effective voice, notmerely an ineffective opinion, concern-ing the goals of the schools which theirchildren attend. It permits the commu-nity to hold principals and teachersaccountable and forces the latter tobecome concerned with what the com-munity feels its primary educationalneeds to be. Progress is rarely madewhere the views of those who are gov-erned have no impact, where the menwho guide and control our activitiesare not amenable to our sanctions.This is the situation that parents, stu-dents, teachers themselves, all thosepeople that the term "community" em-

"Community control can bethe vehicle by which schooland community, now separateentities, become one.''

23

braces, find themselves in today. Theyhave no voice in policy because thosewho should listen, those who are incharge of making policy, are too farremoved from them, in terms of geog-raphy, ideology, and security, to worryabout listening. And those who mustlisten, those who act as principals andsuperintendents, those who are them-selves the subjects of power in theoverall scheme, are too ineffective toachieve results.

We must localize the structure of theschool system and allow the adminis-trator and teacher to be answerable,in a sense, to the immediate and press-ing needs of the community they serverather than to the far-removed desiresof those who sit above them.

We must bring the educator closer tothe problem and force him to putthings in perspective, to consult withparents, to consult with students, to geta full view from all sides as to whatneeds to be done.

We must force the system to becomeaware of our needs and then force itto take them into account in setting itsgoals. In this way, then, educationtakes on a relevant meaning. The par-ent is able to meet .th the teacherand the principal to discuss the specificproblems of his child and of the en-vironment in which the school exists.

We must not fear placing our trustin the community. We must not fearturning authority over to local boards,giving them some power to hire andfire and some power over curriculumand budgeting matters. We must notfear being held accountable. For withinthe concept of accountability lie theseeds for a part of the restructuringprocess; namely, that an educator'sability would be measured by, and dis-missals, transfers, pi °motions, and payraises would be based upon, perform-ance and not merely seniority. Oursystem now protects the mediocre, I-Athe qualified.

Today, when parents pressure aprincipal into transferring a poor orincompetent teacher, the transfer willmost assuredly not take him into a"better" area. Often the move will be

from one ghetto area to another.Rather than operating under a systemwhereby we will either produce resultsor be held responsible, we find our-selves cursed with civil service tenurerules which afford a way of life to theinept. I maintain that a system ofaccountability will protect our own per-sonal interests as much as those of thecommunity by weeding out those, bethey few or many, who are either in-capable or unwilling to undertake theresponsibility of properly educating theyoung.

Community control is a way of pro-viding the much-needed link betweenthe school and the area's residents,whom it serves. By involving parentsin this type of endeavor, it forces thecurriculum to become relevantrele-vant in terms of reflecting the culturesof the Black and Puerto Rican commu-nities; relevant in terms of no longerbeing influenced by those who refuse toreach out to the community. Undoubt-edly, this will mean that there will be arise in the percentage of Black andPuerto Rican teachers, but it would beto raise a red flag to say that only suchteachers would be permitted to teachwithin that community. What is re-quired is an administrative and teach-ing staff that adequately reflects across-section of the particular commu-nity involved. By communities I meanall those who have a stake in the prod-ucts of the school. Only in such amanner can we avoid the problem oflack of identification between teacherand students, between school and par -ent,and insure an emotional closenessbetween the two, a II,- nd which isalmost nonexistent in ghetto areaschools as they now exist.

There are those who ask if commu-nity control will lay the concept ofintegration to its final resting place. Ifind I am most often approached onthis issue by the very same people whofought against integration in the nameof decentralization and the neighbor-hood concept. To me, it is but anotherred flag raised by these people whoare now to be seen fighting against

community control in the name ofintegration.

The question is not whether integra-tion will die, but whether it was evermeant to live. For the integration ofour day has been defined in terms ofgiving a white child a locker next to aBlack child, busing 100 seven-year-olds from slum to suburb; hiring aPuerto Rican staff member to improvethe public relations image of a school.To me, this concept was lifeless evenbefore it took on its present form.

I NTEGRATION, if it is to live, if itshould live, must be seen not only in

terms of race, but "in terms of culture,a coming together of different peoplesin a social, esthetic, emotional, andphilosophical manner, not in terms ofa mechanical juxtaposition. It must beseen in terms of pluralism rather thanassimilation; it must be based on arespect for differences rather than ona desire for amalgamation. It must beseen as a salad bowl rather than a melt-ing pot." (Quote taken from NEA'sTask Force on Urban Education:Schools of the Urban Crisis.)

If this is what people have in mindwhen they ask me about integrationand community control, then my an-swer must be that the two are not onlycompatible, they are inseparable.

But regardless of the answer on thisquestion of integration, the most cru-cial issue is still the quality of the edu-cation that we and our children are toreceive. Community control seems tohold out a promise in this regard, apromise to bring education that neededstep closer to being relevant to creatingan environment that is truly democraticand rife with equal opportunity at alllevels.

I have referred, quite often, to theword "relevancy." In some instances,no doubt, I have used it improperly.Rather than saying "irrelevant," I

should have said "harmful." For it isharmful rather than irrelevant to in-struct a child in the meaning of values,in the meaning of "good" while for-getting that the concept of "good" isbased upon adult standards which are

24

foreign to him. It is harmful ratherthan irrelevant to teach a child that inschool he will remain docile and pas-sive and obedient, harmful becausewhen he is no longer in school he mustforget these ideas and somehow learnto be creative and aggressive. It is

harmful r her than irrelevant to raisea. generation of what John Holt hasreferred to as "answer-producers,"those who have the ability to "parrot"properly; harmful because their rewardfor so doing is merely to be led intolives of complacency anddullness. Andas for those who are incapable of "pro-ducing answers," for them there is

shame, fear, resentment, and rejectionof others.

These, then, are, as George Denni-son describes them in his essay "TheFirst Street School" appearing in NewAmerican Review #3, "the most famil-iar waste products of our school sys-temcomplacency and rage."

Again, it is harmful rather thanirrelevant to subject our children 'tocompulsive processes, aversive proc-esses, to atterlyt to force the child intounnatural surroundings and situationsand then demand of him that he learn."You must go to school." "You mustsit." "You must remain silent." Theseare situations in which the student findshimself dailyconfronted with a voidof stimulation, an atmosphere totallylacking in the seeds of curiosity, anatmosphere that demands of the stu-dent that he force himself to memorizeand thereby "learn."

As Marshall McLuhan has stated in"The Medium Is the Message," theyoung are merely confronted with "in-struction in situations organized bymeans of classified information, in sub-jects which are unrelated and visuallyconceived in terms of blue-print. It is,in its most exposed form, a suppressionof the natural direct experience of theyoung," a process which we utilizeevery minute while outs;de the class-room, to assimilate and digest. In thesewords we find the implicit demand thateducation must shift from "instruction"to "discovery," from "goal-orientation"to "role-orientation," an employment

of total involvement dealing with hu-man problems and situations, not

"The student brings to theclassroom his entire person.Let iii, then, educatethe whole of it."

fragmented and specialized goals orjobs. "Education must shift fromstructure to environment."

In preparing my address to you, Igave considerable thought to includingwithin it proposals dealing with specificcurriculum changes, such as the intro-duction of sex education courses,courses on religion, and on educationitself. I considered discussing themerits of employing in our educationalapproach newly advanced psychologi-cal concepts such as Skinner's con-cept of "arranging thc contingencies ofreinforcement." I could have discussedwith you the idea of rearranging ourteaching day, of shortening classroomtime so as to permit home visits andindividual work. I could have discussedwhat the federal governments role inour educational policies should be. Icould have discussed these topics andmany more, but I have chosen not to.My reason for so chooshig is basic.It is based on the belief that what Ihave advanced here today requires ourtotal concentration. It is based on thebelief that we must first put our fullefforts to the task of reversing direc-tion, and only then, only after that hasbeen brought about, can we afford our-selves the luxury of getting down tospecifics. Institutions resist change;power concedes nothing. If we forgetthis we are lost.

If I may leave you with one thought;if I can implant within you one exam-ple, one reminder for all that I havetried to express here, let it be this: Thestudent brings '1 the classroom hisentire person. Let us, then, educate thewhole of it., If we are really to affecteternity, let it be to our credit!

Thomas Jefferson observed, "Theearth belongs to the living generation."

0

SPEC sAL GENERAL SESSION

FOR SUCH A TIME AS THIS

Elaine W. Ledbetter. Presidentof NSTA; Head of the ScienceDepartment. Pampa SeniorHigh School. Pampa. Texas

THROUGH the years I have beenll disappointed that our national con-

ventions have not afforded an oppor-tunity for the membership to see andhear the president in any role other thanas chairman of a session or as emceeat the banquet. I believe that the largenumber of teachers who attend thenational convention have a right to hearthe president speak to current issues. Ialso believe that the elected chief officerof any organization has an obligationto the membership to confide in themhis experiences, his concerns, and hisdreams for the future of that organiza-tion.

It was this rationale that promptedme to ask the program committee for aplace on the program at this conven-tion. This is not an ego trip for me.I have no illusions about being a greatspeaker. My request grew out of thefact that as a participating member ofNSTA I knew what I have wanted frompast presidents. As your president, Ihave attempted this year to give youwhat I myself have sought. A partialresult of this attempt is this SpecialGeneral Session.

One of my favorite Old Testamentstories is that of Queen Esther. Shewas a Jew, although her husband, theKing, did not know this. When theKing issued a decree that all Jews in thekingdom were to be destroyed, Estherwent to her Uncle Mordecai in deepdistress. She was not willing to standby and see her people destroyed, andyet neither was she willing at that timeto risk her own life by revealing hertrue identity to the King. Mordecaiadvised her to go to the King, trustingin his great love for her, and to requestthat both she and her people be spared.Then Mordecai said to Esther, "Whoknows but that you have come to thekingdom for such a time as this?"

Proper timing is a major conditionfor success in any endeavor. You golf

25

players know this. If your timing is offyou may as well put away your clubsuntil another day. Teachers kdow this.too. Do you ask your principal forreleased time to attend the NSTA Con-vention as he emerges from an un-pleasant confrontation with an angryparent')

Proper timing is essential in plantingseeds to produce successful crops: it isimportant in war and in winning peace:it is crucial when making career deci-sions. Upon many occasions I haveheard people of prominence reflect onthe reasons for their success only toconclude with the remark that theywere simply in the right place at theright time.

The original ancestor of the NationalScience Teachers Association was theDepartment of Science Instruction ofthe National Education Association.This Department was established inDenver in 1895 at the annual NEAConvention, seventh oldest among morethan 25 such NEA units. In 1940 theDepartment of Science Instruction be-came the American Council of ScienceTeachers. T' m in 1944 the AmericanCouncil of Science Teachers mergedwith thc American Science TeachersAssociation, an affiliate of the Ameri-can Association for the Advancementof Science. The result of this mergerwas the National Science Teachers As-sociation. At its inception NSTA hadsome 2,000 members and subscribers;the annual budget was less than$10,000.

Robert H. Carleton became execu-tive secretary of the Association duringthe fourth year of its existence. TodayNSTA is the largest science teachersorganization in the world devoted tothe improvement of science educationat all levels of instructionelementary,secondary, and collegiate. We rowhave some 40,000 members and srb-scribers, and we operate on an annualbudget of more than 1.25 million dol-lars. Much of the credit for our suc-cessful growth must be attributed to thecreative leadership and the wise guid-ance of Dr. Carleton. There is littledoubt but that he came to NSTA in(948 fur just such a time as that.

r

I N ORDER to place in proper con-text the remarks which I will make

about the future of NSTA, let us iookat the present status of science educa-tion in the United States. When theBoard of School Trustees granted mea full year of sabbatical leave to fulfillmy duties as your president, I beganto think about how I might be ofgreatest service to the Association.Knowing that science education is ina state of turmoil and being aware ofthe fact that NSTA has not had a staffperson who could devote full time tofield work, 1 designed the IMPACTProgram. IMPACT is an acronymwhich stands for Increasing Member-ship, Participation, Activity, Communi-cation, and Trust. This was a multi-faceted program, but basically one withtwo major goals. The first of these wasto personalize NSTA for teachers whocannot or do not attend our meetings.It was my feeling that by meeting teach-ers in their own classrooms and byvisiting with them informally about ourcommon problems I might encouragethem to become active, participatingmembers of NSTA. My second majorgoal was to identify areas in whichNSTA needs to strengthen its servicesto the membership and to the pro-fession.

Since the end of last September Ihave traveled over 110,000 miles. I

have been in more than 150 schools.public, private, and parochial. I hat--visited classes in more than 2,000 class-rooms and have been on the campusesof nine community colleges or univer-sities. On several occasions it has beenmy privilege to speak to seminar groupsof preservice science teachers It is

impossible for me to kno.t, how manynew members this program has gener-ated. However, I can assure you thatthe warm response to my visitation hasbeen extremely rewarding. When teach-ers in remote areas come to me withtears in their eyes asking how the presi-dent of a national association couldcome to their small school, it is, indeed,a moving experience.

One cannot generalize about thequality of science teaching in this na-tion, because in every area one finds a

gradation along the entire spectrumfrom superior to poor I have metenthusiastic teachers engaged in excit-ing programs who work in ancientclassrooms that are almost totally lack-ing in facilities and that are unbeliev-ably dreary. I have been both humbledand inspired by their dedication. I havemet others whose teaching environmentis a brand new, multimillion-dollar,open-space building where there is solittle structure to the science programthat total chaos is the result. One can-not generalize.

HAVING been in classrooms at theelementary, junior high, and sen-

ior high le%els in 20 states, I perceivecertain trends. There is a great dealof innovation in evidence throughoutthe nation. Innovation lies in threemajor areas: (I) the increasing useof educational technology, (2) admin-istrative and instructional methods, and(3) the revision of subject-mattercontent.

I will not dwell on the increasing useof educational technology except to saythat there is widespread use of tapes,both audio and video. Many schoolshave math and science resource centerswhere students can utilize such ma-terials in audio-tutorial programs.Cassette tap( s, overhead projectors,and various kinds of programmedlearning materials are increasingly avail-able to students. Computers are beingused in certain schools, but the highcost of installing and maintaining suchequipment is a limiting factor in theirwidespread use. In addition, relativelyfew teachers arc trained in computertechnology.

"it is inexcusable when youngteachers emerge from teacher-training institutions with noknowledge of the new sciencecurricula and with no skills forimplementing them!"

By innovations in administrative andinstructional methods I refer to such

26

things as the open classrooms. alterna-tive schoo',, implementation of thetrimester or the four-quarter plan. themiddle school, team teaching. and in-dividualized instruction. These are pro-ducing more problems than the trendtoward technological hardware In

many cases administrators hate as-

sumed that teacher attitudes andteacher behavior would automaticallychange to fit the innovations. Such isnot the case Many of them. modifica-tions require a drastic alteration in therole of the teacher. Not only do theyrequire a change in teacher behavior,but often the teacher must undergo achange in his fundamental values. Suchchanges are not easy to achieve.

In the NSTA position statement oncurriculum, "School Science Educationfor the 70s," we find these words:1 he major goal of science education is todevelop scientifically literate and personallyconcerned individuals with a high com-petence for rational thought and action....Above all, the school must develop in theindividual an ability to learn under his ovalinitiative and an abiding Interest in doingso. . , The major educational challenge ofthe next decade is to develop learning envi-ronments to prepare young people to copev,ith a soLiety characterised by rapid change.To cope with and attempt to solve problemsin a rapidly changing society, young peoplev,111 need to develop science process skillsand associated values to a greater extent thanhave similar groups in the past.

What constitutes such a learning en-vironment? There arc many factors,but I submit that the attitude of theteacher is the single most importantcomponent of the inquiry environment.I have observed many classrooms thisyear in which one or more of the so-called innovations were being tried.The only cases in which these wereeffective were in those classroomswhere teacher behavior indicated a realcommitment to the inquiry approach.It is understandable that teachers whohave been practicing for a number ofyears need help in converting from theirrole as dispenser of information andas the source of all knowledge to therole of a facilitator of learning. ButI think it is inexcusable when youngteachers emerge from teacher-traininginstitutions with no knowledge of thenew science curricula and with no

skills for implementing them! A fewinstitutions have initiated creative pre-service programs that hold great prom-ise for improving the teaching profes-sion, but these are few and far between.

ONE of my major concerns is thatinnovations in administrative and

instructional methods are being adoptedwithout adequate preparation of thatpart of the staff whose responsibility itis to implement these innovations. Fur-thermore, when major changes are con-templated within the school, all inter-ested parties must be brought in on theplanning. Professional staff, students,parents, and the community must par-ticipate as fully as possible in preparingfor such changes. Although the entirecommunity may not be able to partici-pate directly, at least it must be keptinformed about what is being under-taken and the reasons for it.

Perhaps the most widespread inno-vation is individualization of instruc-tion. Just what is the meaning of "indi-vidualized instruction"? Experiencedand perceptive teachers have alwaysbeen sensitive to the differences thatexist among their students and havemade certain adjustments in the cur-riculum to meet the needs of each indi-vidual. In an individualized learningenvironment there is usually a coreprogram, but with many options thatpermit each student to select goals andrates of advancement that suit his ownneeds or desires. This is highly desir-able and can be very effective in in-creasing student interest in science, butthere are pitfalls which should be men-tioned. The teacher who undertakes tocreate an individualized learning envi-ronment must, first of all, be totallycommitted to the approach. He mustbelieve that students can assume re-sponsibility for their own learning andprogress, and he must believe this onthe internalized, emotional levelnotsimply on the intellectual level. He

"We are not offering the kind ofscience that appeals to themajority of our students."

must have the necessary software tocarry out such a program. Several suchprograms are now on the market. Ifthe teacher decides to develop his ownsoftware, then he should realize thatthis will require a considerable amountof time, effort, and some financial out-lay. The support of the administrationis of key importance. Furthermore, itis advisable to move into such an envi-ronment slowly, a little at a time, sothat both the teacher and the studentsgain experience in how to handle thefreedom which such a plan allows.NSTA has recently rek..sed a publica-

"It is imperative that we developcriteria to bridge the disciplinesin such a manner that allstudents who pass through ourschools will emerge able toutilize the spirit of science inall relevant contexts."

Lion entitled "Individualized ScienceLike It Is" that describes several indi-vidualized programs currently ongoingand closes with a chapter on how youcan begin to individualize your ownclasses.

SO MUCH for innovations in theadministrative and instructional

areas. The third trend which I men-tioned in the beginning is toward therevision of subject-matter content.Many elementary schools are using thenew programs that are activity-orientedindividualized approaches to science.These are designed so that the childmoves through a continuum fromgrades K-6 or 1-6. The emphasis isupon science processes.

At the junior high and senior high1,vels there are still relatively few pro-grams on the market which are spe-cifically designed to allow self-pacing,individualized learning. Particularly atthe senior high level the emphasis inscience courses is largely for the sci-ence-oriented, college-bound student.The continually decreasing enrollment

27

in elective sciences indicates that we arenot offering the kind of science thatappeals to the majority of our students.I view this as an area of major concern,because if the young people who arein school today are to develop processskills and associated values that willprepare them to cope with a rapidlychanging society, we must provide themwith a science curriculum that makesthis possible.

We need to continue to offer thekinds of science courses that can pro-duce enough scientists to meet the re-quirements of our society, and it ap-pears that we are doing this very well.However, it is imperative that we de-velop curricula to bridge the disciplines

in such a manner that all students whopass through our schools will emergeable to utilize the spirit of science in allrelevant contexts. If we are to producea scientifically literate society, then wemust enable adults to employ the meth-ods of science in making rational de-cisions in their daily lives. For example,give students ample opportunity toevaluate current advertising claims inthe same objective way by which theyevaluate hypotheses formulated fromexperimentation.

What about values? The NSTA po-sition paper says that students need todevelop not only process skills, but alsoassociated values. Values grow out ofone's experiences. Therefore, it followsthat we must provide the kinds of ex-perience that will enable students todevelop a sound v lue system. Let mesuggest two exa es of how this mightbe done. After%iology students havestudied genetics and understand theprocess of heredity, encourage them toread current literature on cloninghumans. Provide time for them to dis-cuss the possibilities for altering thefuture of mankind. Social, political,moral, and religious implications shouldbe explored freely. Raise such ques-tions as whether or not cloning researchshould be continued; who will makethe decisions? what will be the mech-anism for decision making in our so-ciety on such important issues? whatvalues should guide those who makesuch decisions?

A similar procedure can be used inchemistry or physics classes with re-gard to the power crisis. Once studentsunderstand sometht..g about nuclearenergy, ask them to do wide readingon the current controversy surroundingthe construction of nuclear powerplants. Encourage research on thereality of the power crisis; let studentsdiscuss the political, economic, andethical aspects of these problems.

"Let students discuss thepolitical, economic, and ethicalaspects of today's problems."

We have a long way to go in pro-viding a meaningful science curriculumfor the young people who will soon heentering the 2Ist century. I urge eachof us to assume responsibility in thisendeavor.

I have dwelt at considerable lengthon the present status of science educa-tion in the United States and sonic ofthe concerns which I feel regarding it.In closing, let us look to the future. Thetheme of this convention is "Bridgesto the 21st Century Through Science

Education." What challenges faceNSTA? What responsibility should ourAssociation assume in determining theshape of the future"

There arc four areas in which I

should like to see NSTA exert strongand positive leadership:

1. In opering lines of communica-tion among all scientific and educa-tional societies concerned with scienceeducation. At present there are a

myriad of such organizations operatingat the state and national levels, each

concerned with the promotion of its

own discipline in its own way. If weare to attack the complex environmen-tal and technological problems facingus in increasing numbers, then biol-ogists, chemists, physicists, earth scien-tists, and others must begin to worktogether cooperatively. Since NSTA isthe largest organization in existencedevoted to the improvement of scienceeducation in the broadest sense at all

levels of instruction. I feel it has anobligation to serve as the catalsst utsecuring the kind of cooperation amongthese groups that will result in the mosteffee're utilization of our efforts, ourresources, and our expertise.

2. In cooperating in internationalscientific undertakings. The earth hasbecome too small for each nation tocontinue to attempt to solve globalproblems alone. For example, ecol-ogists tell us that on') by dealing withenvironmental education on a world-wide basis will he able to sate ouroceans and our atmosphere from de-struction. On April 13-14 at the Um-versny of Maryland. approximately 40delegates from different countries willconvene to consider thc formation ofan international council of nationalscience teaching societies with the ulti-mate goal of strengthening scienceeducation throughout the world. Theimmediate aim of thc proposed councilwould he to facilitate the disseminationof [Morns:mon and ideas among theparticipating organizations and to theirrespective members. I believe thatNSTA should become a member ofthis international council if it doesform.'

3. in providing more support forteat her s. NSTA has provided supportfor teachers by issuing a position state-ment on curriculum, by formulating theASIST (Annual Self-Inventory for Sci-ence Teachers) document, and recentlyby taking a firm position on the inclu-sion of nonseience theories in scienceinstruction. The nationwide study ofexemplary facilities has produced alandmark publication on facilities andeolving patterns of secondary schoolscience programs. It should serve

teachers, school administrators, andarchitects for the next decade (Pub-lished by NSTA under the title Facili-ties for Secondart %"( hoot ScienceTeaching: Evolving Patterns in Facili-ties and Programs). A committee isnow completing work on interpretingthe science results of the first NationalAssessment of Educational Progress.Another committee is currently devel-oping an Instrument for use in self-assessment of secondary school science

28

programs Wet isualue this instrumenthat mg great potential for supporting

teachers in areas skim,: the accounta-hilut is raised I he issues com-mittee has totmulatcd plans for re-st( uctunng so that the \ssociation inabe able to react to Ital MM.'s m scienceeducation with greater numediao thanit has been able to do in the pastNSTA has an obligation to its membei10 pros ide the gicalcst possible suppoilfor tcaehei s at all levels whenarise in (AN mg science education

4. In providing intimation housingtor the .4 SW( /(///C//. t he Capital FundCampaign to secure funds tot a per-

manent building \kJ% h; gun at an un-fortunate tune phis is an eample of

ht %% important timing can he to thesuccess of a project. We began ourdme for funds at the very time when

"NSTA has an obligation to itsmembers to provide the greatestpossible support for teachers atall levels when issues ariseinvolving science education."

the national economy began to decline.As a result, the drive was discontinued.Howexer, our dream is still alive,though dormant. The net amount offunds that remained after all bills werepaid is $33,678.36. This money is ina Washington bank accumulating in-terest, and the Board of Directors votedat the 1972 summer meeting that noexpenses are to be charged against theprincipal sum. When the time is right,let us resume our efforts to providepermanent housing.

Under the leadership of RobertCarleton, NSTA has achieved an en-s, table place among the scientific socie-ties. An cra in our history is ending.But it ends on the promise of an evenmore glorious tomorrow.

Thine is a tide in the affairs of men,AhiLli taken at the flood. Icads on to

loitune;Omitted, all the voyage of their lifeIs bound in shallows and in miseries 2

I believe that the tide of NSTA is atthe flood. Our newly appointed execu-

tie director, Robert Silber, comes tous with impressive credentials. He hasgreat potential for providing the leader-ship we need in the years ahead. Whoknows but that he has come to NSTAfor such a time as this?

Any association is only as strong asits members. You who are here todayrepresent the best that we have. Youhave a special awareness of the prob-lems we face. You possess your ownunique talents for helping to solve

these problems in your own places ofresponsibility. Let us accept the chal-lenge of the 21st century and keepproud step with our destiny. Whoknows but that each of us has conicto our profession for just Such a timeas this.' U

SliaktspLare afiar, ALI IV, sLene 3

THE ROLE OF BUSINESS ANDINDUSTRYA VIEW FROM IN-SIDE

Burt C. Platt, Executive Secre-tary. Committee oa Educa-tional Aid, E. 1. Du Pont deNeniours & Company, Wil-mington, Delaware

"The need for close andconstructive cooperationbetween the business world andthe educational establishmentis greater than it has ever been."

IN discussing the role of business andindustry in science education. I plan

first to try to provide answers to threequestions that arc frequently raised whenI get into a discussion with teachers orschool administrators about relations be-tween the schools and industry. Follow-ing that, I would like to talk briefly aboutthe Du Pont Company's general interestin education, and specifically about anexperiment in science education underway in the State ot Delaware.

I offer the suggestions I am about tomake with some hesitation, because giv-ing advice is a risky business DarrellRoyal, the football coach at the Univer-sity of Texas, offers this explanation of

his team's preference for running playsoyer the forward pass. When you putthe ball in the air," he says. -only threethings can happen, and two of themare had."

When anyone offers advice, one ofthree things is also likely to happen, andtwo of them are unpleasant. Your advicecan be ignored, which is always a chal-lenge to your ego Or your advice can befollowed and pi me disastrous. But thoseof us in the business community areencouraged to live by risk, and I hopethat something I have to say will proveuseful.

Certainly the need for close and con-structo c cooperation between the busi-ness world and the educational establish-ment is greater than it has ever been.There are quite literally dozens of am-bassadorial committees working betweenthe two groups today: some work quiteeffectively, others hold out more promisethan performance. From the businessside, vye have the outstretched hands ofthe Education Activities Committee ofthe Manufacturing Chemists Association,which has established fairly effectiveliaison through its Awards program.From the academic side, we have suchefforts as the NSTA Advisory Committeenn Buyaess-Industry Relations and theIndu_try -Education Councils of Americaestablished by the American Associationfor the Advancement of Science. Suchgroups will, we hope, continue to improvetheir effectiveness

Cooperation between industry and thgschools frequently conies down, however,to the relationship between a specificcompany and a specific school systemAnd it is with a view to providing a sim-ple road map for such cooperation thatI wish to consider the following questions:1. Why should a major technical com-

pany be interested in science educa-tion at precollege levels?How can a science teacher, coordina-tor, or supervisor identify the rightperson in the corporation for generalcommunications and assistance?

3. How can business and industry assistscience education?

NOW let us take up Question No. 1,"Why should a major technical

company be interested in science educa-tion at precollege levels?"

The most obvious answer is that edicated technical manpower is our lifeblood. Without the contributions of col-

29

lege graduates in technical fields, science-based industry simply could not existThe critical importance ot the precollegeexperience is expressed very well by Dotyand Zinberg in the December 1972 issueof the American Scientist

Undergraduate education in science comesafter a long and yaried exposure to suenceand mathematics in p. imary and secondarschool. The quality of this earlier encounteris probably the most decisive factor in de-termining the attitudes and motivations ofstudents for further scientie study and ingenerating the sustained dedication that acareer in science so often requires.

There is another reason why technicalcompanies are interested in sc.. edu-cation. Today we are Lacing a shortageof engineering graduates. It is becomingincreasingly clear that the key point inthe c rrent fall-off in engineering enroll-ments lies at the high school level. Al-though a large proportion of our highschool graduates go on to college, manywho are sufficiently intelligent and curi-ous to undertake an engineering educa-tion and to succeed in engineeringcareers do not matriculate with requisitehigh school credits. Others who do havethe credits don't have the inclination. Asa result, unfortunately, they sidestepcareer opportunities they might find mostrewarding.

We believe that inspired secondaryschool teaching is one essential in correct-ing this imbalance. Another corrective isa better understanding on the part ofguidance counselors of the importanceof science and engineering in the modernworld. A great deal is being written onthis subject. A good recent article is theeditorial by Dorothy Zinberg in theMarch 23, 1973 issue of Science.

The importance of science and engi-neering in our society has not lessenedone bit despite the highly publicized cut-backs in space programs and in govern-ment funding of research programs,

"Without the contributions ofcollege graduates in technicalfields, science-based industrysimply could not exist."

particularly in support of graduate re-earch at the universities. The needs ofscience-based corporations like Du Pontcontinue to be great, and we do not see

"Modern corporations need agood general climate of publicacceptance and understandingof their role in society."

at the moment enough capable youngpeople coming through the educationalprocess.

A somewhat less obvious answer toquestion onethat is, why should atechnical company be interesteu in sci-

ence education at the precollege levelisthat modern corporations need a goodgeneral climate of public acceptance andunderstanding of their role in society.

For one thing, it is essential that ournational and local leaders have somedegree of information about science,technology, and the economics of theindustrial world. Congress is always wellsupplied with lawyers, but one looks longand hard to find a legislator with a degreein science. Legislation affecting regula-tory practices might be more constructiveif this were net the case. The broadvoting population, furthermore, couldexpress itself much more constructivelyif the citizens had a better basic under-standing of science.

LT us proceed to Questio No. 2.

"How can a science teacher, coordi-nator, or supervisor identify the right

person in the corporation for generalcommunications and assistance?"

Unfortunately, there is no simple an-swer to this question. Corporations areorganized differently, and the responsi-bilities of managers often depend to alarge degree on historical factors andindividual interests. In most cases, thebest initial approach is to write a generalletter to the chief-executive officer of acorporation. You might express a desireto get acquainted with the general scienceactivities of the company and ask for achance to explain the science program ofthe school you represent. If the corporateheadquarters are in your community, thisapproach should yield good results fairlypromptly. If the headquarters are remotebut there is a substantial plant or labora-tory nearby, you should get good resultsalthough it may take more time to estab-lish a satisfactory relationship. For othercases, I suggest limiting your efforts toleading corporations with a strong tech-nical focus and established national pro-

grams that demonstrate an interest ineducation.

Now let's assume you have succeededin identifying an individual with someinterest in, and responsibility for, educa-tional relations. Your first effort shouldbe simply to get acquainted. Exploreareas of mutual interest. Point out, ifnecessary, that the quality of scienceeducation may be important to the long-range interest of the corporation.

Keep in mind that most major techni-cal corporations have fairly close rela-tionships with science and engineeringeducation at the college level and manyprovide some form of financial assistance.At the precollege level, however, be pre-pared to have the corporation managerpoint out that they contribute strongly tothe tax base from which public schoolsare funded. Many companies considerthat they discharge their financial obli-gation to the public schools adequatelythrough taxes.

With a relationship established, we arenow ready with the third question, that is,"How can business and industry assistscience education?" I am going to talkfirst about broad aspects of this questionand then about a subject I know best;namely, how the Du Pont Companyassists science education.

A great many American businesses andindustrial corporations are involved in avariety of ways with the public schoolsThis involvement has been increasing tosome extent in the last several years.stimulated in part by the intensificationof concern about urban affairs and thestrong interest in career education. Inthe case of science education, the assist-ance may take the form of:

I. Resource materials, such as films,

career booklets, environmental bro-chures

2. General advice and assistance fromprofessionally trained individuals

3. Loan of books and scientific equip-ment

4. Invitations to teachers and students totour plants, laboratories, and offices

5. Summer jobs to provide stimulationtoward scientific and engineering ca-reers and acquaintanceship with in-dustry

6. Financial assistance

Item 2, concerning help from profes-sionally trained people, may contain some

aspects that ordinarily would not occurto you. For example, most corporations

30

have experts on computer programming.modern communications. transportation.environment matters, organizational struc-ture, and personnel problems.

Do you need a physicist, for example,to take over a physics class while theteacher attends a scientific meeting' Per-haps you normally would look to a

nearby college or urnxersity but youshould also think about technical indus-try. An industrial physicist might bringyour students a great deal of insight intohow industrial research operates and howto prepare for careers in the physical

sciences.Also keep in mind that business and

industry operate by defining goals andworking toward their attainment. Nor-mally there is an assessment procedurecoupled with some feedback to correctweak activities Thus expertise on sys-tems approaches to the attainment of

goals exists in most large companies.There may be ways the educational com-munity can benefit from this.

"Business and industry operateby defining goals and workingtoward their attainment."

I have placed financial assistance laston my list, because I really believe it

often is of less importance to schoolsthan other types of assistance Nonethe-

less, there are times when such assistancecan help launch special programs. How

then do you approach business and in-dustry for financial aid?

I suggest you start out in a middleground. If the request is very small, thecorporation may not wish to take on allthe red tape necessary to get approvals.On the other hand, if the amount re-quested is large, you may provoke a pro-longed examination of all the reasonswhy it is appropriate at all for a corpo-ration to supply any funds to publicscience education. So start at a modestfigure. After the donor becomes betteracquainted with your activities and findsthem meritorious, he may agree to largercontributions later.

Keep asking yourself the question:

"Why is it important for Corporation Ato assist us in this particular purpose?"

And when you do receive a contribution,be sure to inform the donor from time

to time about the way the funds are beingspent. When the money is exhausted.provide a complete account in writing ofhow the money was used and explainhow this money truly contributed to theprogress of the educational project

In developing a relationship with in-dustry, keep in mind that it may not betoo difficult to get a one-shot commit-ment from almost anyone. To sustain therelationship, however, work at it in orderto continue the mutual interest in eachother's affairs. Each party must feelbenefited by the relationship If one feels"used.- the relationship is bound to fail.

I would like to proceed now to DuPones interest in science education.Historically, the Du Punt Company wasone of the pioneers in educational aid.Starting in 1918 with a modest commit-ment to graduate fellowships in scienceand engineering, the program has grownand expanded in scope Over the sears.special emphasis to meet changing edu-cational needs has been characteristic ofDu Pones aid-to-education programs.Each year's awards reflect the company'scommitment to:I Help maintain U.S iesearch and edu-

cation in science and engineering ata peak of excellence and increase thequalifications of graduates in thesefields;

2 Strengthen curricula and guidance atprecollege levels;

3 Improve the educational and socialenvironment in which the companyoperates.

This !,ear's grants of 52,740,000 areprincipally earmarked for support ofengineering and science research andteaching in 150 institutions. Continuedand increased support for minority groupeducation and improved science teachingmethods and curricula for secondaryschools are also included in the 1973program.

The heart of the Du Pont programcontinues to be unrestricted grants ofnearly $1 5 million, primarily to depart-ments of biology, chemistry, engineering,and physics in public and private institu-tions, including h wral arts colleges. Add-ing $300,000 to support research by

young faculty members, this categoryamounts to nearly $1 8 million.

The above figure also includes $62,500for environmental studies in 11 majoruniversities.

This year we announced a new pro-gram of graduate fellowships in science

and engineering. This reflects the Com-pany's concern about the rapid fall-off infederal support of graduate education inrecent years and our belief that shortagesof men and women with graduate de-grees are inevitable in three or four years.We want to stimulate the brightest stu-dents to consider careers in these fields

"Shortages of men and womenwith graduate degrees areinevitable in three orfour years."

Nttk.For the reasons outlined previously,

we also believe that the Du Pont Com-pany's interests will be served by highquality teaching or science at precollegelevels. Working with public schools na-tionwide would be overwhelming so wehave chosen to place emphasis on theschools of the State of Delaware. Thisis natural for us because of the highconcentration of professionally-trainedemployees in this area. Another factor,of course, is that our corporate head-quarters are in Wilmington.

PERHAPS many of you here todayhave heard about the Delaware

Model: A Systems Approach to ScienceEducation, which we call Del Mod forshort. The National Science Foundationhas issued nationwide publicity on theprogram and an article on it appeared inlast September's issue of The ScienceTeacher. Also, it was discussed at asymposium at the 1973 NSTA Conven-tion in Detroit. I will summarize theorigins of Del Mod and explain why theDu Pont Company is interested in sup-porting it.

Del Mod did not spring full blownfrom the minds of its originators. Ratherit was based on exploratory programstesting out the idea that two or moreinstitutions concerned with science edu-cation might work together closely toimprove science teaching in the state.There has been a good record of com-munication and cooperation in scientificareas between the institutions of highereducation in Delaware and the Depart-ment of Public Instruction, which is

responsible for coordination of all teach-ing in the state. For example, manysummer institutes, workshops, and ex-

31

tension division courses have been avail--able to science teachers in Delaware.

On the financial side, there has beena good record also in the funding ofspecial programs by our local tax-sup-ported institutions. by the National Sci-ence Foundation, and by the Du PontCompany. In general, Du Pont's rolehas been twofold first, to provide fundquickly to get programs started, andsecond, to provide sustaining support forImportant aspects of programs that donot qualify for state or federal fundingFor example, during the early planningstages of Del Mod, it became apparentthat base-line data would be essential inorder to assess the extent to which sci-ence education was being changed. DuPont contributed $20,000 to begin tocollect such data a full year before DelMod was completel: organized andfunded. In another example, the work ofthe field agents was greatly assisted by agrant from Du Pont to provide substituteswhen regular science teachers attendedworkshops during school days. Fundsfor this purpose were simply not avail-able from federal or state sources.

The origins of Del Mod itself go backabout three years to when a small group,stimulated by the State Science Super-visor, decided that 11 new concerted pro-gram could reach all of the classrooms inDelaware where science is taught. Agreat deal of time was spent soundingout the possibilities of interest and sup-port. This included all the public institu-tions of higher education of the state aswell as the governor at that time, RussellPeterson. 1 he National Science Founda-tion and the Du Pont Company werebrought into the talks at an early stageand participated in shaping programs thatwould qualify for financial support.

Del Mod seeks, of course, to implant aprocess of continuing change and im-provements in our schools. I am awarethat there is a good deal of soul search-ing these days on this subject. There isa recent report of the Ford Foundation,"A Foundation Goes to School," that isa broad review of its comprehensiveschool improvement programs during1960-70. The report candidly points to

"You the educators are theproducers and we arethe customer.

a great many failures and the lack offollow-up once outside funding has

ceased. It also points out that the amountof money or the size of the program did

not determine its success. One of themost important factors was the person in

charge of daily operations.

There is an interesting account in theJanuary Saturday Review (Education) byBenjamin De Mott, who has served as aneducational consultant for the Office ofEducation. He also admits candidly thata high proportion of the massive educa-tional experiments of the 1960s fundedby the Office of Education failed to pro-duce any meaningful change.

Will Del Mod do any better? Ob-viously, only time will tell and we arconly in the second year. However, theexperiences of Del Mod have taught usseveral things worth noting. First andforemost, a large endeavor of this typeoften results primarily from the effortsof a single individual who develops ideasabout change and seeks to convince peo-ple and to obtain necessary funding.

Second, there can he a pronounced

catalytic effect of joint business-industryinterest in science teaching that is ex-tremely helpful in nurturing and fur-thering new activities. Finally, a greatdeal of excitement has been generatedby Del Mod that I believe can be ascribedto the strong grass roots character of theprogram. I am optimistic enough to be-lieve we'll see a permanent change as aresult,

Of course, all of us hope that Del Mod

will he successful not just for scienceteaching in the State of Delaware but

also in establishing experience in coop-eration that can be translated into new

programs in many other states. It is

hoped that what works in the Del Modexperimentand perhaps some of whatdoesn't work quite so wellwill be useful

when other projects are put together,

whether they closely follow the Del Mod

blueprint or not.If this proves to he the case, Du Pont

will he most grateful that its contributionhas shown a good return on its invest-mentnot in dollars such as we look

for when we invest in a new textile fiber

hut in better informed and educated

young people. As I noted earlier, in this

respect you the educators arc the pro-ducers and we arc the customer. And we

need the very best output you can supply.0

THE NEED TO LOOK AHEAD

J. Darrel Barnard. Professor ofScience Education. New YorkUniversity. New York City

"Nothing is more frustratingthan to be denied theopportunity to participate inplanning for the future."

ANUMBER of theories are used toaccount for human behavior and to

serve as bases for making decisions re-garding how behavior may he changed.

Professor Louis Raths, a former col-league, was a convincing proponent of

one such theory which I have found

over many years of practice to he highly

viable. He referred to it as the NeedsTheory. According to the Needs Theory.

all of us have common basic needs that

must be met in whatever we undertake

if our participation in that undertaking

is to be effective, satisfying. and bene-

ficial. One such need, as identified by

Professor Raths, is the need to belong.

If, in a group with which I am associated.

such as NSTA, I obtain something ofthe feeling of belonging, then my effec-

tiveness in the association will he en-hanced. Another basic need is the need

to he creative. If the activity in whichI am supposed to participate, such as anNSTA committee, provides an opportu-nity for me to exercise my creativetalents, meager as they may he, thenboth the work of the committee and

I become the benefactors. Other basic

needs that Professor Raths has identified

include the need to understand, the need

to achieve, and the need to he recognized

as a person.In considering the theme of this year's

National Convention, "Bridges to the

21st Century Through Science Educa-

tion," it occurred to me that to live

completely another basic human need

must he satisfied and that is: "The need

to think ahead." The need to thinkahead must he met if we are to he happy.reasonably well-adjusted, socially and po-litically effective persons from both apersonal and professional perspective

Nothing is more frustrating than to be

denied the opportunity to participate

in planning for the future when the re-

32

sults of that planning w ill hike a directeffect upon you Nothing is more de-anding than to become invoked in theplanning. especially IA hen the course

ahead is uncharted as is the case forthe 21st century.

It 11/4 important that one other commenthe made here regarding basic needs Thesatisfaction of any basic need is a re-

ciprocal process 1 he situation in which

needs are to he met must he conducise,and the person involved must he activelyresponske Regardless of the opportuni-ties that situations proside, the individualmust assume primary responsibility fordealing with them In tact, this is axio-matic in the satisfaction of one's basicneeds The responsive part of the processmust he self-activated and self-sustained

One's needs cannot he satisfied solely

through the efforts of othersNow I wish to comment hriefly about

Bridges to the 21st Century ThroughScience Education Here are sonic ob.serYations and protections which I con-sider to he highly pertinent to the

theme of this convention( lassroom teachers are primarily re-

sponsible for whatever of significancehas happened ni science education in thepast They also are responsible for what-ever of significance is happening in sci-

ence education presently They will he re-sponsible for whatever of significance willhappen in science education in the 21st

"Classroom teachers areprimarily responsible forwhatever of significance hashappened in science educationin the past."

century. In fact, science teachers are the

"bridges to the 21st century." Their ef-

fectiveness will be determined by howwell their basic needs, especially the needto think ahead, are met presently and will

be met in the future.Very few of you will he on the firing-

line New Year's Day of the year 2000,

but what some of us have been doing

over the past 30 years, and what manyof you will be doing over the next 20

years, will determine not only the nature

of the "bridges," but the directions inwhich they will he headed.

Over the past three c'ecades NSTA haschalked up a commendable record ofbuilding foundations for better "bridges"into science education for the future.Many examples could be given. I shouldlike to mention one that clearly demon-strates NSTA bridge-building at its best.It was the conference of scientists ac-tivated by the NSTA Curriculum Com-mittee 10 years ago which resulted in thepublication of a notable document en-titled Theory Into Ac non in St 'twee

Curriculum Development.' If you havenot read this document, I urge you todo so, and to give serious thought towhat it has to say. From where I viewscience education for the next 30 years.Theory Into Action has much to sayA number of us consider its point ofview with reference to science to he apromising one, and we have vent muchof our time over the past seven yearsexploring it further through the COPESProject. We found the conceptual schemeapproach, which it elaborates, to be notonly feasible in designing an elementaryscience curriculum, but a functionalframe of reference in learning science.2The conceptual scheme approach hasalso been found to be a manageable onein the preparation of teachers to teachelementary school science.' Some of youhave no doubt found other NSTA ac-tivities that have served as foundationsfor your bridges.

NSTA cannot do more than buildfoundations whereby you and I can con-struct our bridges into the future. Thefuture is really up to us

Progress has been made in scienceeducation during the past 30 years be-cause many of us willed it so. Manypresent members of NSTA arc scienceteachers who will still be active in thescience education business 30 years hence.Many of them are becoming restless

about the future and are getting the itchto think ahead. That kind of itch is awholesome symptom of the basic needto think ahead, and this need must bemet if teachers are to feel really goodabout their work in the most demand-ing of all professionsscience teaching.

I Theory Into Action In Science Curriculumbeselopment. The National Science Teachers As-sociation. Washington, D. C. 1964

Shatnos. Morris H , and .1 Darrell BarnardA Pilot Project to Detelop an Elementary ScienceSequence. U S. Office of Education Protect NoH-281. New York University, 1967

'Graeber. Mary .4 Comparison of Teo Methodsof Teaching an Elementary S tense Methods CourseDoctoral thesis New lark University, 1972.

With those of you who are thinkingahead, I would like to share somethoughts which I consider to be impera-tives for the future in our business. Ifthey are ignored in planning for the

future in science education, the out-come of that planning will miss the

mark, as much of the planning of thepast has fai!ed to score effective hits.

"Too often, we have come tothink of schools, and ourscience classes, as places whereonly the intellectuallycompetent should come toadvance their literacy."

Now lc:'s IntilIMIle Imperative No 1

For a long time we hate recognizedthe fact that there are individual differ-ences among people in general and par-ticuldrly among students in our classesWe have fretted about the wide rangeof reading abilities in our classes. Wehave practically given up in our effortsto work with those who appear to I e

completely alienated from intellectualactivity We have established levels ofschool citizenship, under the less obnoxi-ous rubric of homogeneous grouping, andrationalized the practice in ways thatdegrade those who cannot adapt to super-ficial ways of learning to verbalize ab-stractions. Too often we have come tothink of schools, and our science classes,as places where only the intellectuallycompetent should come to advance theirliteracy. As we continue to operate withsuch a limited concept of schools, theless competent soon become displacedpersons and their number in our schoolsincreases year by year.

For the future, we must accept indi-vidual differences as indisputable factsof life and plan accordingly Eventhough such realism is a most discon-certing base from which to launch bridgesinto the 21st century, the consequenceof continuing to ignore them, or to dealwith them in superficial ways, as wehave in the past, will be disastrous. Andwe are rapidly approaching the brinkof that disaster in many schools.

When we take a courageous lookben.mth the tarnished surface of inch-

33

vidual differences, what we find is shock-ingly complex. Here are some of thedisturbing findings

Chess' research has shown that by thetime children enter the science classes inthe middle school, their modes of learn-ing are as different as their faces.4 Fur-thermore, during any one learning ses-sion members of the class are conditionedin a variety of different ways by the samecues to which they are exposed. It hasalso been shown that different childrengenerally recognize purposes within a

lesson that are quite different from thoseplanned by the teacher. Furthermore,these same children work uny.eldinglyupon the accomplishment of their uniquepurposes, and only after they have ac-complished them do they condescendinglyaccept in a passive manner the one pro-posed by the teacher It one could viewwhat is going on in the minds of eachof 30 children, during what appears out-wardly to he a well-conducted sciencedoss it is quite probable that the scenewould he a veritable battleground of in-difference, confusion, cross-purposes, andLontlescension 1 here would undoubtedlyhe a variety of forays away from themain line of action as viewed by the

,cacher Recognizing this condition, JohnSpth, a high school chemistry teacher.proposed the hypothesis that many stu-dents. by the time they get into highschool or college, have learned the art ofself- hypnosis and practice it effectively intheir science classes There is no questionbut that a classroom of students repre-sents the most variable and complex phe-nomenon with which any human beingis ever called upon to deal. And tthat there are those who contend thatJust any intelligent person can be a

teacher!

It is imperative that future efforts toimprove science teaching be conceived,from the beginning, as efforts to findways in which all, especially the forgotten50 percent in our schools, can be helpedthrough their unique ways to becomescientifically literate. We should turn ourattention from curriculum developmentwe presently have a number of very finecurricula at all levelsto finding effectiveways of reaching the nonreaders throughscience; to helping the alienated studentexperience the satisfaction that comes

Chess, Edith G The Manner in Which TwoSamples of Ninth-Grade General Science StudentsAnalyze a Number of Selected Problems. Doctoralthesis New York University, 1955.

from being intellectually active in science;to providing permissive science programsthat will accommodate a wide range ofindividual approaches to learning science;to making science available to bilingualchildren in ways that do not stigmatize;to reaching the blind and .he deaf inways that make more meaningful theirdark and silent worlds. It is encouragingto note that a number of efforts havealready been started in these directions,but ever so much more needs to be doneif there is to be any substantial progressin science education at all during thenext 30 years.

IMPERATIVE No. 2 is one that hasbeen on the books for a long time. It

has to do with the development of K-12programs in science for our schools. TheK-I2 curriculum concept in science is

still a tenable educational imperativealthough we have done relatively little toimplement it. We have science programsfor elementary schools, science programsfor intermediate or middle schools, andscience programs for high schools, butthere is no articulated interrelationshipbetween these programs that can possiblybe considered a sequentially develop-mental science program from kinder-garten through grade 12. To developsuch programs in a number of schoolsystems should have high priority as wethink ahead to the 21st century.

K-12 programs cannot be accom-plished by the development of still an-other elementary science program; norother intermediate school science courses;nor by developing still other high schoolscience courses. Such programs will comeabout only when local school systemsrecognize the need and become co-par-ticipants from the beginning in the mas-sive efforts that will be required. A newbreed of science teacher will be needed.He must be one who can operate withscientific and professional competencewithin the vertical dimension of the edu-cational matrix rather than as a specialistin one of its horizontal dimensions.

To complicate the situation further,let's think more specifically about themiddle-school layer of the three-layercake we call the public schools. One ofthe artifacts of education in the 20thcentury has been the intermediate school,generally referred to as the junior highschool. It came into being at the turn ofthe century and spread rapidly through-

out the country. Proponcrs attributednoble purposes to its creation and estab-lished worthy goals for its existence.Unfortunately, over the years, it has be-come the unloved member of the K-12family of public school grades. No onereally claims It with fundamental pro-fessional attachment anymore, least ofall its itinerant teachers. As I pointedout in an article written 15 years ago,the junior high school has become aneducational no-man's-land.:' The relativeindifference to the intermediate or juniorhigh school is indeed traric, since theunique nature of its student body callsfor an unusually enlightened and persist-ently compassionate treatment. It wouldappear that the challenge represented bythe junior high school has been so fright-ening that it has been impossible tomobilize a major effort to deal with itproperly.

"The junior high school hasbecome an educationalno-man's-land."

The advent of the junior high schoolresulted in the creation of two gaps inthe inarticulate K-12 sequence whereonly one such gap existed before. Today,junior high school science teachers arefaced with the almost insurmountabletask of arching the gap from the elemen-tary school to the junior high school andthen arching the chasm between the jun-ior high school and the senior high school.For the most part, their attempts at arch-ing consist of futile efforts to deal withinterfaces of discontinuous educationalmatters. To complete the K-12 hierarchy,young people must begin and completeschool three different times during the13-year period. Is this as it should be,particularly in science? Is it economicallysound either from an educational or afiscal point of view? Can the problembe solved? Within what administrativeunits should it be attempted, local, state,or national? Is it worth the great effortthat it will take to accomplish?

Other administrative plans for dividingthe K-12 sequence for the public schoolshave been proposed and are being prac-ticed in some systems. None, in and of

, Barnard, I Darrell. "The Case for the Three-Year Program in General Science " Current Sci-ence and At tartan, April 27-May 1, 1959

34

itself, will solve; the problem of makingscience education an articulated develop-ment from kindergarten through grade12. Only competent and committed

"I consider the implementationof K-12 science curricula to bean imperative for the 21stcentury."

teachers can accomplish this. It's a bigorder. However. I consider the imple-mentation of K-12 science curricula tobe an imperative for the 21st century.

IN closing, I would like to speak brieflyabout Imperative No. 3. I shall intro-

duce this imperative by telling you abouttwo experiences that I have had whichillustrate the need for doing somethingabout it.

When I became a member of the teach-ing staff of the Department of ScienceEducation at New York University, oneof my major responsibilities was to super-vise student teachers who were doingtheir practice teaching in the New YorkCity schools. In the beginning, the NewYork City science teachers to whom mystudent teachers had been assigned re-sented me very much. Their resentmentwas based upon a feeling that eventhough I was a college professor, I wasnot competent to supervise student teach-ers since I had not been a science teacherin the New York City schools. AlthoughI had a fairly good track record fromColorado, to them I was more naive thanthe students about how you teach sciencein New York City. The more the teach-ers demonstrated their resentment, themore critical I became of what I ob-served happening in their classes. Fortu-nately, we eventually were able to developa productive working relationship. Thiswas brought about primarily throughcooperative planning and management ofinformal seminars for student teachers inwhich it became evident that our respec-tive competencies complemented' eachother.

On another occasion, I was invited bythe superintendent of schools in Great

Neck, New York. to serve as a consultantfor his science teachers. At my firstmeeting with the teachers, the secondaryschool curriculum coordinator introducedme as a professor of science educationfrom New York University, and explainedthat I was to be available as a consultantto help them improve their science pro-grams. She had hardly completed herintroductory remarks when a chemistryteacher stood up and shouted. Who inthe hell asked Barnard to be our con-sultant? What does he know about sci-ence teaching, in Great Neck? We'redoing all right, we don't need any helpfrom a college professor such as he'"Again it was a struggle to develop aworking relationship with these teachersIn fact, I doubt that I ever brought asmuch to them during the semester wewere together as they brought to me.

I can cite many instances in whichstudent teachers have been told by thescience teacher to whom they have beenassigned to forget all of that "idealisticstuff" they were taught in their methodscourses at the college, because it justdoesn't work. And you know, a lot ofit doesn't. It would seem that the longerone serves as a college professor the morescholarly he may become in science edu-cation, but the farther he becomes re-moved from the clinical problems of theclassroom; and it is in the science class-room that everything of any consequencein science education must happen. Greaterefforts must he made to bring educationaltheory and classroom practice into a

more functional relationship.

FOR sonic time now there has beentalk about schools and colleges shar-

ing responsibility for the education ofscience teachers. The rationale for sucha cooperative arrangement is sound. Onthe one hand, schools should know whatit takes to be a good science teacher;schools should know the conditions underwhich science teachers must work; schoolsshould be expected to provide the prac-tice experience for prospective teachers;and schools will become the employersof those who complete our teacher train-ing programs. On the other hand, col-leges should maintain scholarly pursuit ofideas and conduct research regardingsuch matters as the goals of scienceteaching. what should be taught, the

nature of learning processes in science,

bow they should be managed, ways inwhich indivich.1s, both children and

teachers, diffc r, and methods of provid-ing for suc:, differences; colleges shouldplan programs of study to produce in-tellectually competent teachers; and col-leges should have a variety of resourcesthat can be used to provide service toteachers beyond those usually availablein the schools. The third imperative forthe 21st century is to bring about a co-equal sharing of responsibility for theprofessional education of stience teach-ers. Both institutions, th,: college and thepublic school, have critical functions toperform. Plans for integrating these funtions in effective programs should bedeveloped wherever future science teach-ers are being educated.

The direction in which some bridgesin science education should be headed istoward a genuine partnership of schoolsand colleges in which planning for theprofessional education of science teach-ers, implementing the plans, and evaluat-ing their outcomes, are shared on a 50-50basis with each making maximum use ofits resources in the education of qualityscience teachers. The development ofdesigns by which this w:11 happen shouldhave top priority among the tasks aheadfor both the AETS and NSSA sections ofNSTA

As you or your group yield to yourneed to think ahead, direct it beyondtomorrow, toward the year 2000 in sci-ence education Begin by asking whatshould be the directions in which bridgesin science education should he leadingIn review, may I suggest that you con-sider one or more of the following:

I. The search for more effective meth-ods and the commitment of greaterefforts in providing for the individualdifferences among those young peoplewho, we hope, will he taking sciencein the 21st century

The infusion of vitality into the teach-ing of science by career teachers inthose grades that separate the elemen-tary school from the secondary school

3. The development of integrated pro-fessional programs for prospectivescience teachers in which schools andcolleges share equally the responsi-bility. C1

35

NSTA ANNUAL BANQUET

THE CORTICAL CONNECTION

Ralph E. Lapp, Director. Qtiadri-Science. Inc. Washington. D.C.

Tthe21st Century Through Scienceconvention theme"Bridges toHIS

Education"can he abbreviated as "TheCortical Connection." I have been spend-ing much of my time projecting into thenext century; and, as I see it, the UnitedStates must seek new frontiers if it is tomaintain its status in the world. Sincewe are a bounded ration with fixed ter-ritorial limits, our heady pioneer spiritof the past must seek new outlets. To alarge measure we have exhausted or arerapidly depleting our premium resourcessuch as fossil fuels. We must, therefore.maximize our brain powerhence myphrase "The Cortical Connection...

To the rest of the world the UnitedStates must appear as an immense indus-trial machine spewing forth the productsof mass production in seemingly endlessquantities. All of this has been possiblebecause of the happy combination ofbountiful natural resources, an enterpris-ing spirit, and inventive talent. But twofundamental inputs for our industrialeconomy must be maintained if it is toflourish in the future.

One is a plentiful supply of power tokeep the wheels turning, and the otheris an invigoration of our research anddevelopment activity to serve the needs ofthe future. These twin powersof fueland of brainshappily interlock in thatit is possible for science and technologyto unlock the doors to new fuels so thatthe nation extends its energy frontiers.

The first waves of the energy crises arebeginning to lap at the shores of theUnited States These are but ripples onthe surface of an oncoming sea of crises.Americans are bewildered by the appear-ance of fuel shortages. We have takenfor granted an abundant supply of oil andnatural gas. Most of us are unwilling tobelieve that proved reserves of these

premium fuels peaked five years ago andthat we are now operating on the down-slope of the supply curves. The situationis aggravated by the fact that as supplyfrom domestic sources tapers off, demandcontinues to soar Basically we are deal-ing with what you will all recognize as aclassic differential equation representinginflow to and outflow from a liquid con-

Figure 1. U.S. nat-ural gas demandand supply (1930-2000).

' __4mitmsiDit142.111.--t t -

-4- - 1 -_1-

C.F"I:01.V

101 -k4+.1 3 TS: .

at.

041.40410 337T Y 5:76 f

ifers+c e Betyeenifur.6iE4.1 1[4 :WLS Jar

Tr

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VF

s

tainer. In this case the inflow of new oiland natural gas constitutes a decreasingsupply from potential reserves, and theoutflow represents escape of liquid froma widening orifice. Result- The level ofavailable liquid in the resource barreldrops and the gap between supply anddemand increases.

Since natural gas and oil representabout three-fourths of the fuels burned inthis countryan understandable fact be-cause pipes make it easy and cheap toproduce, transmit, and distribute the fuelswe must reckon with the future supplyof these premium fossil fuels.

FIRST, let us look at the natural gassituation. The historical pattern of

consumption of this resource is illus-trated in Figure 1. Note that on a semi-logarithmic chart the straight-line natureof the curve shows the exponentialgrowth of this fuel. Prediction of demandfor this clean energy source can be justi-fied as a straight-line extrapolationex-ceeding an annual burn-up of 110 trillioncubic feet (Tcf) by the year 2000. Morerealistically, patterned after available re-sources, government estimates project a50 Tcf/year "demand," but even thi

scaled-down figure would mean producingmore than 1,000 Tcf in the next 27 years.Our present proved reserves are only afourth of this volume, and new addition.to reserves are projected by the NationalPetroleum Council at about 10 Tcf peryear for the next decade.

The most exploitable gas reservoirshave been tapped and now the more diffi-cult to reach and hence more costlysources must be used. These come underthe heading of potential reserves and fallinto three categories:Probable ... unproved but thought

to exist in known fields 218 TcfPossible ... in new field

discoveries __ . _ _ , 326Speculative ... in formations not

previously productive, such as offshoreN.E. Atlantic Coast ... _ 307

Total Potential = 851 Tcf

To this total we might add some 300Tcf of gas locked in tight geologic forma-tions that require fracturing, or "nuclearstimulation," and also a measure of publicacceptance of slight radiation risk asso-ciated with radioactive hydrogen in thegas. All in all perhaps 700 Tcf of gas inaddition to the present proved reserve iswithin reach, especially if higher prices

36

are allowed. The production of somewhatmore than 1,000 Tcf of natural gas overthe next 27 years cannot be met withthese reserves since at century's end theannual production of 50 Tcf would re-quire a proved reserve of more than 500Tcf, this is because a reserve to produc-tion ratio ot 10.1 must he maintainedfor the sake ot conservation.

This means, then, that even on thescaled-dowr rates of demand there willbe a huge gas gap With luck we may heable to provide half of the year 2000 de-mand of 50 Tcf tram n4.tural gas wellsin the United States or offshore. Therearc three possible ways to meet this gasdemand:1. Imports Gas may be imported from

Canada through a pipeline or trans-mitted from Alaskan fields, assumingthat the oil with which this gas is

associated, is produced. Alternatively,gas may be imported from other con-tinents in liquefied form ( 258°F)as LNG. It is highly unlikely thatsuch imports could fill the projectedgas gap. Such sources must he lookedupon as supplemental high-cost alter-natives coming to U.S. city gates atthree times or possibly four times thepresent pipeline prices.Fuel or energy switches For someapplications, as in home heating, oilmay be substituted for gas but this ishardly an attractive option if oil is

scarce. Alternatively, heat can be pro-vided by electric energy. Howes cr, ifa central station burns fossil fuel toproduce this electricity then the corn-paratie efficiencies of on-site com-bustion and wired-in power involve atwofold greater burn-up of fossil fuelI think it is appropriate to label suchelectric heating a Carnot crime

3. Synthetics. Given the existence of agas-pumping system and a dependenceon this fuel for industrial and domes-tic heating, it makes sense to seeksynthetic substitutes for natural gas;le , SPG sy nthetic pipeline gas Thenation, fortunately, has immense re-serves ot coal that can be converted togas provided that the technology ispursued aggressively and measures arctaken to protect the environment.

On balance, I believe that the bestoption is for the United States to launcha determined technological programaimed at economic and environmentallyacceptable substitutes for natural gas. Thecoal gasification proceSs must be looked

B1.11,4 11.14c41..

IQ

G__. _M'611 .ligSrkUr<

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Figure 2. US. oil demand and supply (1930-2000).

upon not only as a way of filling the gasgap but also of allowing utilities to burnhigh sulfur coal Illinois, for example,has large reserves of 3 to 4 percent sul-fur coal tar above the 0.7 percentEPA limitand this forbidden fuel couldbecome available as a boilerfeed sourceif coal gasification is successful. To sup-ply half of the U.S. year 2000 demand forgas would require converting to gas abouttwice as much coal as is presently mined.Such conversion would require buildingsome 275 plants at a cost of close to $100billion.

THE situation with respect to oil iseven more critical to the long-term

U.S. economy than I have indicated fornatural ga'. We are now consumingabout 6 billion barrels per year and al-most all energy projections indicate morethan 12 billion barrel (Bb) consumptionby the year 2000. Figure 2 shows aprojection that illustrates a bending overof the demand curve. Decade by decade,total use of petroleum is indicated asincreasing more th n tenfold over a spanof 70 years. Natioral Petroleum Councilestimates of U.S. supply (Lower 48 plus

L io, t It.,,rort MAW

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tt [lire t Lc.

,-4

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Figure 3. U S. electric energy (1930-2000)

Alaska and offshore) are given for the1985 time span, and I have plotted adeclining prodi..,00n to the year 2000.The difference between total demand(272 Bb) for the 1973-2000 period andsupply from domestic sources (102 Bb)is 170 Bh. The uppermost curve in Fig-ure 1 illustrates the historic pattern of;roved reserves, accentuated by a recentincrease reflected in the Alaskan finds.

The world's most abundant oil reservesare to be found in the Persian Gulf%here proved reserves of 345 Bh are conservdtively estimated to exist. Howeverthe U S. importation of this oil is a much-nelled affair, involving it does a considerable flow lf U.S. dollars and adependence on energy supply that can heinterdicted by price barriers, changes inexport policy, availability of ocean tankerage, and pollution associated with thistransport and its off-shore terminals. Myown conclusion is that oil in,r-orts do notconstitute an acceptable means of fillingthe U.S. oil gap.

Since oil is the dominant energy sourcein the U.S. economy, there is little hopeof relief in energy switching. Moreover,our mobility depends on the internal com-

37

hustion engine, the hydrocarbon fuel forwhich is the pacing factor in oil demand.The automobile is so much an integralpart of the American economy and lifestyle that it cannot he tampered withunless one accepts the risks of politicaland economic consequences. In the longrun we will have to find new solutions tothe oncoming mobility crisis, representedby gasoline shortages, but right now thereare no practical options for alternativemeans of transportation.

One can, of course, invent ays to con-serve gasolinesuch as telling Detroit tolimit horsepower to the Volkswagen classShrinking the 400 hp (500 cubic inchdisplacement) engines down to a smallfraction of their size would mean severereductions in weight-performance andconsequently in the price of the model.The Volkswagenization of the U.S. auto-mobile industry would he an extreme po-litical act. It would involve dislocationof this sector of the economy and almostall other sections would feel the impact.Recent political trends have in fact beenin the opposite direction so far as gasconsumption is concerned. Decreasedcompression ratios and add-on pollution

controls have meant cars that give tewermiles per gallon and consequently in-

creased national gasoline consumptionIt will be noted that the curve of con-

sumption in Figure 2 corresponds to adoubling time of about 18 years, or anannual growth rate of 4 percent for the1970-85 period. Thereafter it is assumedthat this rate will slow to half of its cur-rent rate, reflecting in part a saturation inmotor tuel consumption Thus the pro-ie lions in this illustration do not assumeunlimited growth

It energy switches and imports are re-stricted, then America's choice is singularto synthesize motor from solidfossil resources, namely coal or oil-shale.Ciiven the projection made in Figure 2and the 3 billion barrel annual domesticproduction, there will he a requirementfor about 7 billion barrels of syntheticoil (here one assumes imports equal U.S.domestic production 1 The creation of adomestic industry capable of such fuelsynthesis is one ot great magnitude forwhich there is little evidence in prospect

1 he conclusion is inescapable that theUnited States is allowing itself to driftinto the future with inadequate planningfor the synthesis of premium gaseous andliquid Fuels trom solid tossil resourcesCarbon-based tuels are projected to sup-ply energy equivalent to about 140 quin-tillion (10'5) BTU in the year 2000Since one ton of coal has the heat equiva-

lent of 25 million BTU. this means thata year 2000 fossil tuel requirement equalto 5 6 billion tons of coal will be targetedfor that year. It much of this energy iscoal-derived and converted to synthetictuel, then the total coal mined will bein the range of 6 billion tons: this assumesthat about 60 quadrillion BTUs are sup-plied from oil and natural gas. Such amining demand can only he met with anorder of magnitude increase in strip-min-ing and clear'', this poses grave environ-mental risks

YET the total ot 140 quadrillion BTUsfor the nation's energy burn-up in

the year 2000 is by no means the pro-jected total. In addition, it is projectedthat over 50 quadrillion BTUs will cometrom nuclear fuels. The nature of nu-clear energy release is such that it is con-fined to the core or firebox of a nuclearreactor and must he used for the genera-tion ot electricity.

If 100 percent of the atoms in a poundot uranium could he split in a reactor

core, then energy equal to heat releasedby combustion ot 2 5 million pounds ofcoal would become available. However,

only 0 7 percent ot the uranium atoms be-long to uranium-235, the fissionable spe-cies, and conversion of the c_s percentabundant uranium-238 in wai.c., reactorsallows about one percent of the uraniumfission energy to be tapped, making apound of natural uranium equal to 25,000pounds of coal. The development ot thepower-breeder will allow much greaterconversion of the U-238 fission energy sothat perhaps 70 percent of the power ofuranium will be exploited.

The growth of electric energy genera-tion is illustrated in Figure 3, wherekilowatt-hours of electric energy havebeen plotted for the past seven decades.At the beginning of the century the coal-fired plants required about seven poundsof coal to produce a kilowatt-hour of elec-tricity. However. .:ingineering advancesutilizing high pres .re, high temperaturesteam have brought about a tenfold in-crease in fuel efficiency. Nonetheless,even the best fossil-fired steam-electricplants have only a 40 percent thermalefficiency; and, as a result, 60 percent ofthe fuel heat is dumped as waste dischargeto the environment.

Inspection of the growth curve for elec-tric energy generation in the United Statesshows that it doubles approximately everydecadei.e., exhibits about a 7 percentannual growth rate. The electrification ofthe American economy is proceeding atan apparently relentless pace. In the gas-illuminated days of 1900 each person'~share of the national electric energy gen-eration was only 25 kilowatt-hours. Intwo decades this soared to 380 kWhr andby 1940 it exceeded 1,000 kWhr. Thedoubling-every-decade rate shot the percapita consumption of this energy to4,300 kWhr by 1960 and by the mid-70sit will exceed 10,000 kWhr for everyAmerican. It we take a heat-rate of10,000 BTUs per kilowatt-hour as a

round number, then every American willdemand an annual commitment ot 100million BTU fuel burn-up to produce hisshare of electricity. In more concreteterms this is energy equivalent to burning4 tons of coal.

Although there has been no nationalreferendum on the subject, the nation ispursuing an implicit goal indicated by thedotted line in Figure 3that ot gener-ating 9 000 billion kilowatt-hours of elec-tric eirgy by the year 2000. This

38

projects unirverrupted growth of the elec-tric power Industry for the next two

decades. then the curve bends over andthe rate of ele,:tric growth slows On thisprojection every American in the year2000 will he demanding about 33,000kWhr ot electricity per year That's morethan a thousandtold per capita growthover the course of the century

THE actual per capita consumption otall energy forms, as will be shown,

rises very much more slowly over thecourse ot 100 years. being less than afactor of 10. What is happening is thatelectric energy is emerging as the dom-inant energy consumer in our economy.At mid-century, electric energy genera-tion accounted for only about a tenth ofthe national heat-inputs, but the year

20(X) will see this fraction increase toone-halt In other words, we are wit-nessing the electrification of the U Seconomy,

Figure 4A displays fhe extent to whichelectricity is taking over as the energyconsumer of the century. But the worldwill not end with the year 2000. and if

"Every American in the year2000 will be demanding about33,000 kWhr of electricity peryear."

your convention theme of bridges to the21st century is to he appreciated, we mustextend the energy extrapolations into thenext century. It's obvious, of course,that such projections are not meant asprophesy but merely to illustrate how theshape of our energy future may appearand what its demands on our resourcesmight he. Clearly the uppermost curveall forms of energy consumedis under-pinned by some critical assumptions aboutpopulation, resource availability, lifestyle, and the future state of the U.S.economy.

It is assumed that U.S. energy con-sumption will exhibit a rate of about 3 5percent per annum growth for the nextquarter century. Then the curve willslacken its upward course, conforming tea 1.5 percent rate, and approach a 1 per-

cent rate at mid-century. I have assumed

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a U.S. population of 340 million by theyear 2040 and only 370 million by 2070i.e., population then controlled to 0.25percent per annum increase. The percapita energy consumption is assumed tomore than triple over the next 100 years.So far as my own household is concerned,my energy demands are pretty well satis-fied and I do not see them increasing.However, many U.S. households are

served with only a tenth of my energytotals and one must expect that peoplewill want to have air-conditioners, morecars, and electronic accessories. My ownhousehold would require a substantialenergy increase if I switched fr,--,m gas toelectric heating, or, in the nore distantfuture, if I purchased an electric automo-bile. This alternative, however, as usedfor commuter travel, might reduce myenergy requirements. So far as a switchto electric heating is concerned, thisrepresents a Carnot crime if the elec-tricity is generated by fossil-fuel-firedsteam-electric plants. Burning a fossilfuel in a central station and wiring theenergy to a home requires twice as muchenergy as would be the case if the fossil

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fuel, say natural gas, is burned in a homefurnace Hence, the designation Carnotcrime. You will remember that theCarnot cycle is named after Sadi Carnot,the French engineer who contributed sofundamentally to the science of heat.

ELECTRIC power is projected as de-manding half of the fuel inputs in

the year 2000 and the. eafter increasingto 85 percent in the year 2070. The

"It appears inevitable that ourfuture fuels will not be carbon-based or chemical in nature."

logarithmic presentation tends to obscurethe comparison of energy generated fromfossil and nuclear fuels, so these con-tributions have been plotted in Figure 4B.It is projected that coal, oil, and naturalgas will supply energy that peaks in theyear 2000, flattens out and then declinesin the 21st century. The actual estimate

39

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MM. 2071r 7ritr onto

U S energy (1930-2070) Nuclear/ fossil

made in Figure 4B could, of course, befar off the mark and the fossil fuel era inthe United States might show a sharppeak and quite rapid decline. The actualshape of the fossil curve will be highlydependent on energy technology and onthe degree of environmental control exer-cised in the future. If strip - mining isseverely limited, then there will be no wayto obtain the fossil energy estimated astotaling the equivalent of 470 billion tonsof coal through the year 2070. In the past100 years we managed to burn up fossilsequivalent to 90 billions tons of coal, butthe lion's share of this was oil and gasthat flowed easily from the earth.

Given the run-out of America's naturalgas and oil resources and the greater diffi-culty of mining solid fuels, it appearsinevitable that our future fuels will not becarbon-based or chemical in nature. Thespecific projection given for the next 100years of our fuel future involves a nu-clear energy release equivalent to the

burning of 1 trillion tons of coal. Thus, ifthe United States is to enjoy an abundantsupply of energy in the next century, thereappears to be only the nuclear option.

Enthusiasts who promote the potential ofgeothermal energy sources and geophysi-cal energy conversions like solar powerwill argue this conclusion, but no otherenergy option possesses the engineeringstatus of nuclear power.

Utilities have to make tough decisionsin planning their future power supplies,and the historic pattern of electric energyrevenues (see lower curve in Figure 3)demonstrates that they have managed tosupply reliable and abundant electricpower at rates which made it a bargain.The parallelism of the energy generationand revenue curves shows this to be thecase. We must remember that the uppercurve refers to the left scale and is reck-oned in terms of an invariantthe BTUenergy unit, whereas the right-hand scalerefers to a wobbly unitthe current U S.dollar. Utilities managed to combat in-flation by steadily reducing the cost ofelectric power, benefiting from the econo-mies of scale achieved by bringing on lineever larger generators. It appears, how-ever, that the power costs have bottomedout and that they will undoubtedly climbsteadily in the future. Reckoned in cur-rent dollars, assuming a 3.8 percent es-calation per year, I estimate the year 2000consumer cost oliklectric energy at 50 perkWhr. If the Federal Power Commissionestimates of electric energy generationcome true, this will mean that the electricutilities will collect about $400 billion inrevenue in the year 2000.

Demand may slacken as price for pur-chasedtpower increases, and it is possiblethat the 8,000 billion kWhr of electricenergy sales may be considerably reduced

in the year 2000. But one thing does seemcertain, and that is that the revenue curvewill continue to inch toward the genera-tion curve as the utilities find t'neit costsrising. Looking ahead to such revenues,the utilities ought to fund a much morevigorous research and development effortthan they have in the past. There aresigns that the utilities are invigoratingtheir R&D effort, and the recent creationof the Electric Power Research Institutegives hope that we may begin to addressourselves more seriously to national

energy problems.

THE NUCLEAR solution to ourenergy future has met with strong

environmentalist opposition. Most re-

cently we have seen the Atomic EnergyCommission compelled to deal with thecritical problem of nuclear s^it.ty in the

form of year-long ECCS (emergency corecooling system) hearings. This discussionstrikes at the heart of an extremely com-plex technical issue, and it involves a riskassessment that taxes the ability of ademocratic society to deal with the prob-lems of technology.

Once a nuclear power reactor has oper-ated for any length of time, it builds upan inventory of radioactive split atomsknown as fission products. There's noway of "turning off" the radioactive powerof this accumulation of fission products,with the result thasible to abruptly rreactor to zero.

It's physically impos-uce the power of at the moment of

SCRAM, or shutdown, a power reactorstill produces heat known as decay, orafter-heat, amounting to as much as7 percent of full power. In the unlikelyevent of an accident involving a loss of

"I do not envy you when studentscome to you with the question:`How safe are nuclear powerplants?' "

coolant (LOCA), it becomes essential tokeep the reactor core covered so thatwater can remove the residual heat Mod-ern reactors are engineered wtth re-dundant safety features to provide emer-gency cooling, but these systems havebeen challenged in the ECCS hearings.

Bear in mind that the problem of con-trol is thermal, not nuclear; there is nodanger of an atomic explosion but ratherone of a thermal catastrophe it the coreis uncooled and proceeds to melt downThis could lead to escape of highly radio-active debris from the containment bar-riers. The issue at hand is a probability-consequences analysis. What is the

probability of a severe nuclear accidentand what are its consequences? Givenanswers to these questionsand I warnyou that no authoritative estimates bearthe AEC imprimaturhow does a societyweigh the risks? These are basic ques-tions, and I do not envy you when stu-dents come to you with the question:"How safe are nuclear power plants?" Asscience teache's how do you reply? Whatsuggested reading do you outline for thestudent?

The fact of the matter is that the safetyissue is still unresolved in 1973, eventhough the AEC has operating licenses

40

for 29 power reactors in effect and hasapproved construction permits for 55more. However, the nuclear safety issuehas really surfaced this year and theAtomic Energy Commission has preparedits first comprehensive report on powerreactor safety This is The Safety ofNuclear Power Reactors and RelatedFacilities," available as document WASH-1250. 1 would suggest that it would he avery salutary development it you wouldwrite to your Congressman and requesta copy of this report It is not an overlytechnical report, being designed as a basicreview to be used by the Joint Congres-sional Committee on Atomic Energywhen public hearings are held later thisyear on the subject of nuclear safety

The nuclear safety problem can besolved by a combination of three efforts'I. Intensified research and development

in reactor safety designed to prove outthe performance of present reactorsafety systems

2 Maintenance of high quality controlin fabrication by vendors and in in-stallation by engineers of reactorsystems

3 Competent management of reactor op-erations tr. utilities. subject to vigilantregulation

To these three efforts I would insurethe public safety by imposing a doublerestriction on power reactors One, I

would limit the power ratings of reactorsto the 1,100.000 kilowatt size Two, I

would restrict the population-at-risk bysetting siting restrictions on nuclear powerplants.

Given the above safeguards, I behest:that we can put with in nuclear power asthe basic energy bridge to the 2Ist cen-tury The following advantages of nuclearpower are so impressive that they makethe nuclear option ineluctable:1.

3.

4.

The switch from fossil to nuclearenergy, specifically away from coal inquantities required in the future. willminimize the numbers of acres-dis-

turbed for availability of the fuel.The nuclear option guarantees energysecurity by reliance on domesticallyavailable resources.Utilities can sign long-term fuel con-tracts for nuclear supplies with lessdanger of mining, transportation, andcost difficulties.Nuclear power can avert a trade

deficit that would otherwise increaseas we pay for foreign oil from thePersian Gulf.

5 Adequate control of the nuclear fuelcycle can provide an energy sourcewith far less damaging stack effluentsand environmental insult than thatassociated with coal-fired plants.

Although I have not specified that nu-clear power be fission or fusion, theenergy projections made for the 21st cen-tury can be met by fission energy, assum-ing success of the power-breeder. If thekeys of science fit the technological lockbarring the door to fusion power, thenthe way is open to virtually limitlesssources of power. But I would stress thatthe Atomic Energy Commission has al-ready applied $0.5 billion to fusion re-search, and the proper keys to the fusionlock remain to be fashioned.

IRETURN to the "cortical connec-tion" concept, for it is through brain

power that we will solve the highly com-plex problems of the future. However,brains are not enoughwe also need theelixir of support for basic science andthe mechanism of prudent managementof developmental engineering. We needto husband our scientific and technicalresources so that we assure the nationalwell-being. This requires a proper bal-ance in funding science and technologyso that the nation realizes an adequatereturn on its investment in research anddevelopment. The United States con-tinues to devote the majority of its R&Dfunds to programs and projects whichleave the nation at a disadvantage whenrelated to the R&D efforts of othercountries.

Federal overfunding of defense re-search and development has negligiblepayoff value for U.S. industry as it at-tempts to compete with a flood of Jap-anese products. The much publicizedspace program, the civilian sector ofwhich received over $40 billion in thepast 10 years, has in reality had littleeconomic payoff. Thus the United Statesenters the international R&D competitionwith 77 percent of its federal investmentin defense-space activity with little hopeof payoff. We should not be surprisedwhen the Japanese forge ahead in thecommercial exploitation of modern tech-nologyour own R&D effort, large as itis, exercises little leverage on the balanceof payments. Our real advantage is in thearea of high technology, but this is beingeroded as we see the scientific communitysuffer setbacks and see that it is ap-parently unable to develop leadership or

to find the political muscle to apply pres-sure on Congress. As a minority group thescientific and technical community has animpressive numerical constimency, but itlacks political unity and may, therefore,be disregarded by the Congress when ittends to the affairs of research and devel-opment. The individualism so esteemedby the scientist does not lend itself tocollective action. And the specializationof modern science and technology appearsto inhibit the development of dynamicleadership so essential to determiningthe future course of this dynamic sectorof our national economy.

Science and technology form the newfrontier of our nation as it attempts todeal with the dilemma of finite resourcesand the demands of dynamic growth.Scientists must accept the role of pioneersand develop the innovations which willinterconnect this century with the next.Those future innovators are now in yourschools, and in your hands is the potentialfor much of the bridge-building that willextend the American quality of life intothe 2 1 st century. E

41

NSTA-SUNOCO SCIENCE SEMINARS (Abstracts)

OCEANOGRAPHY: THE NEW FRONTIER FORTHE 21ST CENTURY

Nelson Marshall, Director. International Centerfor Marine Resource Development and Professorof Oceancgraphy, University of Rhode Island,Kingston

Oceanography had its origins in the latter half ofthe nineteenth century when 'he British sponsored theworld-circling expedition, the voyage of HMSChallenger 1872-1876 under Sir Wyville Thompson,and when Matthew Fontaine Maury of the UnitedStates Navy estallished a systematic program forinterpreting ocean currents from ships' logs. Followingthese earlier endeavors and continuing until the onsetof World War II the field continued to be characterizedby isolated great expeditions and limited participation.

The War across both great oceans suddenly madeus realize that to operate beneath, on the surface of,and over the sea, and to work successfully along thecoast we must understand the ocean environment.Suddenly we sensed the impact of the fact that the seascomprise 70 percent of the earth's surface. The wartimeand subsequent peacetime impetus to oceangraphicresearch has never waned. The United States has beenthe leader in this growth, with Russia and Japan not farbehind. Technological input has become increasinglysophisticated, and much of the later work has beeninterdisciplinary in nature. Some recent ventures haveinvolved elaborate international cooperation, forexample. the International Indian Ocean Expedition ofthe mid 1960s. and the present C1CAR (CooperativeInvestigation in the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions)program.

Within the last decade and looking toward thefuture the emphasis in oceanography has swungheavily toward marine resources considerations. In theUnited States this orientation is best known throughthe new Sea Grant program. On a worldwide basisplans for drilling for oil in great depths and mininghard minerals by retrieving manganese nodules fromthe sea bed illustrate the shift from dreams toimpending reality in new ocean uses. Suchdevelopments augment international problems alreadyat a peak with respect to contested fisheries, surfacepollution, deep sea dumping and freedom of navigationand researcl:. "II such concerns are at the forefront ofthe upcor Law of the Sea Conference preparing fora new era when mankind turns increasingly to the sea.

THERMONUCLEAR FUSION: AN ENERGYSOURCE FOR THE FUTURE

William E. Drummond, Director. Center for Plas-ma Physics and Thermonuclear Research, TheUniversity of Texas at Austin

The scientific discipline which underlies efforts toproduce controlled fusion power is plasma physics. Aplasma is a gas heated to extreme temperatures and itsproperties are so different from that of an ordinary gasthat it is sometimes called the fourth state of matter.Plasmas do not occur naturally on earth, and as aresult, the behavior of plasmas has become subject tostudy only in recent years.

45

Research in controlled fusion is currently aimed atfinding methods to both heat and confine a hot plasmaand is centered on the construction of devices called"magnetic bottles;" i.e., the construction of magneticfield configurations which will confine the plasmaparticles.

The most encouraging results, after 20 years ofworldwide research, occurred in the Soviet Union in1968. The Russians, using a magnetic bottle called aTokamak, announced that they had achievedconfinement of hot nucleii for a tinie comparable withexpected time. For the first time, it began to look asthough fusion power was on the way to becoming areality.

Research in the United States with magneticconfinement devices has confirmed the tZissianexperimental results, and work with Tokamak typeexperiments is now under way in four majorlaboratories. Each of these, while similar in many ways,has a different purpose. Three of the laboratories arenational labs. The fourth. the largest academicprogram in the United States. is located at TheUniversity of Texas, where the Texas TurbulentTokamak has just been completed, and encouragingpreliminary results are being obtained. The TexasTokamak is designed to test a new method of heating,called turbulent heating, and indications are that thenecessary temperatures will be achieved.

Today, we are faced with the problem of satisfyingan ever-increasing demand for electric power. while atthe same time protecting the environment. If controlledthermonuclear power can be achieved. it will be a giantstep forward in resolving these conflicting demands.

AMNIOCENTESIS AND PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS

Arthur D. Bloom, MD, Associate Professor ofHuman Genetics. University of Michigan MedicalSchool, Ann Arbor

While there are numerous technical approachespossible to obtaining fetal tissues for prenatal detectionof genetic abnormalities, amniocentesis is theprocedure of choice at present. Amniocentesis is nowbeing used at 14-16 weeks gestation in high riskpregnancies to obtain fetal cells for cultivation in vitro.The cells are then studied chromosomally orbiochemically for the detection of abnormalities of thekaryotype or of inborn metabolic errors. During thispresentation. the technique of amniocentesis isreviewed. along with the methods of growing amnioticfluid cells in culture. Emphasis is placed on theindications for amniocentesis and on the types cfchromosomal and metabolic errors which may now bediagnosed antenatally.

SOME ETHICAL PROBLEMS OF THE NEWGENETICS

James V. Neel, MD, Lee R. Dice University Pro-fessor and Chairman of Human Genetics, Univer-sity of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor

In the past several decades there has been a nearexplosion in the possibilities for utilizing genetic

knowledge. Chief among the developments are:1. The extension of genetic counseling through

amniocentesis and prenatal diagnosis, with thepossibility of selective abortion.

2. Large-scale screening of predisposed groups forthe determination of carrier states, such as for thesickle-cell trait or Tay-Sachs disease.

3. Growing insight into methods of repairing geneticdamage.

4. Prevention of increased mutation rates.5. Improved treatment of genetic disease, plus ability

to diagnose those genetically predisposed to suchdiseases as diabetes and gout, with institution ofprophylactic measures.

6. Artificial insemination with sperm from selecteddonors.All of these developments are raising ethical issues

whose solution belongs to society as a wholenot thegeneticist. Furthermore, in the full realization of thepotentiality of these developments, society m .y have toset priorities.

MEASURING UP, DOWN, AND AROUND

John B. Hart, Professor and Chairman, RosevilleArea Schools, Roseville, Minnesota

A secret-agent device is used to depict theconnection between our innermost consciousness andthe outside world. Measurement is presented as the linkbetween the outside world of physical reality and theinner world of mathematics. The correct way to teachhow to measure avoids the mental conflict frequentlyinduced in young students when they hear theirmathematics teacher say "You cannot divide 10 mulesby 2 houses." and then later hear their science teachersay, "Now divide the 10 miles by 2 hours." Even thoughthese statements be made months and months apartthey add to the obscure uneasiness many people haveabout science.

Length. weight, and time measurements arepresented from the point of view of a primitive tribe ona south sea island. The ideas of measurement which aredeveloped are applied to velocity and acceleration. It islearned, for example, that velocity is not a physicallength divided by an actual time interval. It is shownthat the idea of acceleration leads to the invention ofmass which, in turn, leads to the invention of the mostfundamental law of science: Newton's law of motion. Itis this law which forms the basis of distinction betweenthe British gravitational system and the metric absolutesystem which all of us must understand. The fact thatthe United States is joining the rest of the world inusing the metric system gives each of us a wonderfulopportunity to rethink fundamental ideas ofmeasurement.

CHEMICAL EVOLUTION AND THE ORIGIN OFLIFE

Cyril Ponnamperuma. Director, Laboratory ofChemical Evolution and Professor of Chemistry,University of Maryland, College Park

Fundamental to all science is the problem of theorigin of life. In considering this question, we are notlimiting ourselves to how life began on the earth;

46

rather, we are inquiring into the origin of life in thenni.:erse. The earth becomes one example of a sequenceof events which may' have taken place in innumerablesites in the cosmos. It is the model laboratory for ourinc -si igations.

According to the hypothesis of chemical evolution.life is a result of the evolutionary sequence in theuniverse. In this context. cosmic evolution may heconsidered to have taken place in stages: from theinorganic to the organic to the biological. In puttingthis hypothesis, postulated by Oparin and Haldane, tothe test, we have two approaches in the laboratorythesynthetic and the analytical.

In the synthetic method, we e try to recreate theconditions on the primitive earth and find out whetherthe molecules necessary for life can be formed in theabsence of life. The raw materials consist of thecomponents of the earth's primitive atmosphere. Theenergy sources were many and variedultraviolet lightfrom the sun, ionizing radiation. electrical discharges,heat, and the energy from shock. waves. In laboratorysimulation experiments, most of the building blocks ofnucleic acids and proteins have been synthesized.

In the analytical method, we go back in time andexamine the record of molecular fossils upon the earth.We can extend this to the analysis of lunar samples andmeteorites. Very striking evidence from our recentstudy of meteorites indicates that the building blocks oflife do exist in these samples that come to us from theasteroid belt. Chemical evolution must be taking placeelsewhere in the universe.

Another factor which has helped very much tobolster the concept of chemical evolution is theinformation provided to us recently by radioastronomers. They have discovered a vast array of

organic molecules. Although simple in composition.they are crucial to the entire sequence of chemicalevolution. Formaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide areamong those that have been identified. These are thevery molecules which the chemist has postulated asbeing the intermediates in the synthesis of amino acids,and the nucleic acid constituents.

If the conditions for life to arise are common in thecosmos, our search for life beyond the earth musteventually be crowned with success. With ou' presentstate of technology this effort is restricted to our ownplanetary system. The Viking Mission which is plannedto alight on the planet Mars in July 1976 will examine ahandful of Martian soil and report back to es about thepresence or absence of life. Recent observations of thesatellites of the giant planets lead us to infer thatconditions suitable lot the existence of life may beprevalent on those planetary bodies. If we find life twicein our planetary system. it would be reasonable toconclude that it must exist elsewhere in the staggeringnumber of comparable planetary systems.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTSEXTRAPOLATINGTHE CURVE

Kenneth E. F. Watt, Professor of Zoology. Univer-sity of California, Davis

There is an energy crisis, and if anything. it is

much more serious than generally believed. To simplifythe discussion of fossil fuels, all types can be expressedin barrels of crude oil equivalents. At the beginning ofthe industrial revolution, the ultimate recoverable totals

for crude oil, gas. and coal were probably 2,000 billion.2,000 billion, and about 10.000 billion of these units.respectively. This seems like an enormous amount.until we discover that current use rates for crude oil areabout 20 billion barrels per year worldwide, and willprobably be 80 billion barrels in 1993 if present growthrates continue. The likely future scenario, barringmassive international efforts at conservation. is that allthe crude oil and natural gas in the world will be usedup by the turn of the century. All coal, tar sands, and oilshale will be gone a few years after. Misunderstandingsabout these facts stem from the tricky phrase in muchadvertising and writing about the energy crisis. "ifpresent rates continue." HOWeN cr. present rates will notcontinue: worldwide growth in demand for crude oil.for example. is at about 7 percent per annum.

The situation for all other known forms of energyis far less optimistic than the conventional wisdomwould indicate. Enormous problems are raised by eachof the three broad classes of nuclear reactors, andfunding for research on solar energy is grosslyinadequate.

A computer simulation model can be constructedindicating, country by country. how demand per capitafor each type of energy will grow in the future. Thismodel is based on statistical analysis of all availabledata on recent trends in all countries. It indicates thatmost estimates underestimate the rate of future growthin demand in underdeveloped countries.

Six broad classes of strategies are available forconserving energy: reducing population size, increasingprice, changing the mix of types of equipment; so weplace more emphasis on efficient types, increasing theefficiency of each type, changing the spatialorganization of society, and changing the dynamics ofsocietal functioning. Inadequate experimentation hasbeen conducted with all of these. Even such s;.nple,obvious strategies as staggering working hours, to makemore efficient use of rolling stock in commuter transitsystems has been inadequately tested. Much moreelaborate and sophisticated strategies are possible,involving reorganization of city design, and the designof our living and working quarters. and the way inwhich they are arranged with respect to each other.

Statistical studies on U.S. metropolitan areassuggest a variety of ways in which energy use could becut sharply.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

Fred W. Breitbeil, III, Chairman of the ChemistryDepartment. DePaul University. Chicago. Illinois

Air and water pollution are the focal points of thispresentation. with some emphasis on the solid wasteproblem. By establishing a definition for the term"pollution" we discuss the problem of establishing safelimits for environmental contaminants. These con-taminants have a source. a motion or movement fromthe source. and a %ink, that is, a depository. And so wewill deal with pollutants from a "source-motion-sink"concept.

Air pollutants emanate from power-generatingsources. mainly electric power stations and the internalcombustion engine. This naturally leads intodiscussions on the products of fossil fuel combustion.such as: CO2 and weather modification; CO and bloodhemoglobin levels. S02sulfuric acid mists andrespiratory ailments; nitrogen oxideshydrocarbons

47

and smog development; and particulates. Included inour discussion of particulates are such special problemsas trace metals. asbestos, and ultrafine particles.

Hydrology and some important principles of waterchemistry w ill he developed before dealing with thespecific problems associated with water pollution. Lakestratification. water body types, and some specialproperties of w ater are considered. In discussing theeutrophication problem, algae types are consideredalong with their nutrient sources, such as feed-lotrunoff and untreated sewage. The source and sink fortrace metals such as mercury and cadmium receivespecial attention, along with the trace organics.pesticides. and polychlormateo biphenyls. Oil spills andthermal pollution are also discussed. If time ismailable. abatement methodology for contaminated airand water supplies w ill he covered.

Finally, the source, composition. and disposal ofsolid wastes will be discussed. Solid wastes can becategorized as metals. ferrous and nonferrous; ascellulosic materials (paper, wood, cloth. and leather); asplastics; as ceramics and glass; as garden wastes, andgarbage. These materials can be dumped. incinerated,pyrolyzed, or recycled. Physical and chemicalproperties of these wastes and their recycling potentialwill he considered.

The gas. liquid, and solid states of matter areintimately related by the physical properties of volatilityand solubility. So, too. our air, water, and soilenvironments are related. which implies that we cannotsingularly deal with one "phase" of pollution.

MONITORING THE EARTH FROM SPACE

Robert E. Boyer, Chairman. Department of Geo-logical Sciences. The University of Texas at Austin

Man's future on earth is largely dependent on thewise use of our vital resources. Aerial and especiallyspace views provide accurate, rapid inventory of theseresources, and their sequential monitoring allowsefficient management. Applications of light wave-lengths, not seen by the eye. yield a greater amount ofinformation for man's use. These invisible energyfrequencies afford a new look at the environment of thisplanet.

Infrared film sensitive to wavelengths just beyondthe visible spectrum, reveals patterns and featuresotherwise undetected. This was first used in agricultureand forestry to recognize the early stages of plantdisease, and is now applied to numerous aspects of cropproduction including insect infestations and the effectsof smog. Other applications of infrared photographyare. for example: in oceanography to aid in detectingundesirable effluents, discerning surface currents,tracking sea-ice. and locating areas potentiallyfavorable to fish and other seafood catches; ingeohydrology for sediment transport analysis. soil-moisture content studies, snow and ice surveillance,and water pollution monitoring.

Beyond near (reflected) infrared wavelengths,special detectors convert invisible electromagneticenergy to energy, which may then activate a light sourceto produce images. One such instrument, a radiometer,measures radiant temperature differences. Such imagesmay indicate hot spots in a volcano, and signal itspending eruption. or detect colder fresh-waterupwellings in seawater along a coastline.

Longer wavelengths like radar pierce clouds.smoke, and surface vegetation, to provide an image ofthe ground surface. Radar has proved useful inrevealing terrain patterns such as major fracture zonesin bedrock, leading to new understanding ofgroundwater migrationand the routes of pollutantscontaminating rivers, lakes, and coastal waters. Radarmay also be the key to finding new mineral deposits,especially in less accessible, sometimes heavilyvegetated, parts of the world where conventionalexploration techniques have proved unsatisfactory.

The perspective from space adds the uniqueness ofextensive areal coverage within single views. Large-scalefeatures are portrayed. whereas they are obscured bydetails on photo-images from conventional aircraft.Satellites affOrd the additional dimension of sequentialcoverage. This repetitive observation is particularlysignificant for following paths of major storms. and indynamic areas (urban centers). where changes occurfaster than are normally recorded cartographically.

The Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS)initiated a program of systematic coverage for NorthAmerica and selected world regions from space. Thisand future satellites will provide photo-imagesconcerning our resourcesagricultural and forest,cattle and wildlife. freshwater, land, marine. andmineraland perhaps provide solutions to pressingenvironmental problems for mankind's benefit all overthe globe.

ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND MOTORS

Max C. Bolen, Coordinator of Science Education,The University of Texas at El Paso

Various types of science experiences which leadchildren to develop intellectually, and provide positiveattitudes toward science are discussed. The work ofJean Piaget in general learning theory, and the workingscience of such persons as Robert Karp lus and JohnRenner, as well as various elementary scienceprograms. i.e., S-APA. SCIS, ESS, 1DP, COPES,Minnemast, etc., provide the basic philosophy fordiscussing the following experiences: static electricity;moving electricity: conversion of electricity to light;heat. etc.; making a simple inexpensive electroscope;simple circuits; magnets. compasses. and how to usemagnets and compasses to map the earth's field, ordistort the earth's field similar to reality; simpleinexpensive motors, and how to illustrate theinteraction of electricity and magnetism.

These are discussed by using the Piagetian Modeland a Brunerian Spiral for all elementary levels. Adiscussion of the El Paso use of individualized packetsusing S-APA and "Concept" for enrichment, for slow,

and exceptional children. (A joint ProjectNSF,University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso Public Schools,and St. Clement's Episcopal Parish School.)

SPACE TECHNOLOGY: ITS IMPLICATIONS FORSCIENCE EDUCATION

Ronald J. Schertler, Aerospace Physicist, LewisResearch Center, National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration, Cleveland, Ohio

Over the last 15 years. this nation has taken thelead in space exploration through the successfuldevelopment and deployment of scientific, exploratory,

48

and applications spacecraft. culminating in thespectacular Apollo flights. Our country's investment inthese programs has bolstered the economy, increasedour sientific and technical competence. improved thequality of life of our people. and increased our sense ofnational prestige. We now stand poised to capitalise onthe comparable benefits promised through thecontinued growth of our capability in spaceapplications toward improved worldwide communica-tions-satellite networks; more accurate long-rangeweather forecasts; and a better understanding of theearth: its environment, and its resources. In the area ofremote sensing of the earth and its resources, data andimagery obtained from sensors aboard aircraft andsatellite platforms can provide a valuable supplementto data collected by existing ground-based observationsystems. Various applications of space technology tothe U.S. Earth Resources Survey Program are explored.

Modern technology makes it possible to obtainimagery over a wide range of wavelengths within theelectromagnetic spectrum including the ultraviolet,%isible. infrared, microwave. and radar regions. Sensorscurrently being used on aircraft and spacecraftplatforms to detect radiation in these various spectralbands are reviewed. Some techniques and problemsassociated with processing this imagery, in terms ofreal-time utilization of remote sensing information, arcconsidered.

The spectral variation of reflected or emittedradiation is one of the most important properties usedto distinguish between various resource phenomena.These spectral characteristics can also provide valuableinformation about their chemical, physical, andbiological properties. The spectral reflectance charac-teristics (spectral signatures) of a number of vegetationtypes show the influence of leaf morphology.physiology, pigmentation, and moisture content.

Imagery obtained from low and high-altitudeaircraft platforms as well as imagery taken from variousunmanned and manned spacecraft illustrate theapplication of remote sensing in the areas ofagriculture. forestry. geology, geography. cartography.hydrology, and oceanography. Imagery from the EarthResources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1). launched inJuly 1972 to provide systematic photographic coverageof the earth, is also presented. Findings determinedfrom initial analysis of ERTS imagery show how thisimagery can provide valuable information about man'ssocial, economic, and cultural environment.

NSTA CONCURRENT PANELS AND SYMPOSIA

SESSION A-3

INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING IN CHEMISTRY:UTAH'S APPROACH

Richard S. Peterson, Specialist, Science Educa-tion, State Board of Education, Salt Lake City,Utah

Utah's approach to individualizing instruction inchemistry was outlined in the session. Seven programelements were discussed: Philosophy, CurriculumFramework, Objectives, Pre-Assessment, LearningActivities, Self-Assessment, and Post-Assesct. it.

The program is operating in six Utah hig.. schoolsthat vary in nature from rural to central city. from atotal enrollment of 2,000 to fewer than 200; from asignificant enrollment of minorities to virtually none;and from modern facilities to those which have noscience laboratory.

Strengths of the program as identified by theteachers and their students seem to be a personalinterest in and a genuine concern for each individual,the alternatives in program direction and in timeallocation, a choice of many kinds of learningsituations, the use of out-of-school resources (naturaland human), the close correlation between evaluationitems and the student performance objectives, and theself-assessment dimension.

Some of the inhibiting factors seem to be theamount of time required to prepare instructional units,the pre-assessment instruments (students simply saythey don't know the material and there is no point inwasting time on a pre-assessment), the absence of awell-defined system for differential grading, a lack ofpara-professional help, the unwillingness of somestudents to move ahead without other members of theirpeer group, and the amount of time involved inrecord-keeping.

The program is still pretty much one-dimensional.It is (or can be) individualized on the basis of rate, and.to some extent, on the basis of sequence. Otherdimensions that need to be added are those whichprovide for different learning styles. These dimensionswill be added as rapidly as resources and time permit.

The content of this chemistry course, along withmost others, is centered in the cognitive area. However.the emphasis that is placed on the individual in theprogram and the statements of basic philosophy uponwhich the program is built exhibit a strongcommitment to factors in the affective domain.

This program can be used in year-round schools,in adult education programs, and for instruction wheremodules (rather than an entire course) of interest to aparticular individual are selected for study.

Next steps include placing the pertinentinformation on key-sort cards so that it can be readilyand accurately retrieved and updated. From key-sortcards it is projected that computations will be used toaid the teacher and a given student in selecting andevaluating appropriate learning experiences.

The ACS-NSTA Chemistry Test, the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, and the WelchScience Process Inventory are given: pre- (inSeptember), and post- (in May), to determine howeffective the program is in the areas identified by thesethree tests. In limited samplings, using control groupsin traditional chemistry courses, the gain scores of theexperimental schools on each of the three tests aresignificantly higher than those of the control schools.

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SESSION A-7

WRITING SCIENCE BOOKS FOR CHILDREN

Millicent Selsam, Author, William Morrow andCompany, Inc., New York City

To write about science for children an authorneeds to knov, science, to know children, and to knowhow to writeparticularly to understand hov, to com-municate with them on their level.

Children are curious and ask ciuestions. This isalso a characteristic of most scier.'sists at work. Thequestion many younger children asr, is often, "What isit?" Once they have found out, they lose interest, andforget. I have learned not to tell children the name of anobject. no matter how familiar. I say, "Let's find out." Iencourage them to do something with the object, whichwould maintain their interest and heighten theirobservations.

But knowledge gathered from observation alone isnot enough. And a good science book is not just acollection of facts. A writer cannot just say, "Here is anexciting thing. See how a caterpillar spins a cocoon.-The role of the writer is to write :he book so that a childcan feel he is participating in an observation. It shouldsend him out to look for his own caterpillars, When Istarted to write Play With Vines, I felt exactly the wayDarwin did about his book, Climbing Plants. He saidhe found himself so fascinated and perplexed by therevolving movements of tendrils and stems that hesecured seeds of many climbing plants and studied thewhole subject. Scientific books should, whereverpossible. make simple observations lead to otherquestions that can be answered by simple experiments.Watching a twining morning glory vine move around ina circle is exciting . . . but what about the amount oftime it requires? Does the amount of light haveanything to do with it? What about other living vines?

The purpose of science books should not be to fill achild's head with facts but to give him some idea of thegreat advances in science made by the linking of manyobservable facts into fundamental concepts.

Children are excellent observers, and if they aregiven a chance to look at things themselves, they willbegin to appreciate the kind of patience and effort thatgoes into careful observation.

Observation of natural facts should lead to aninterest in discovering the cause of the processes andactivities observed. Questions of this kind can best beanswered by questioning.

Good science books should certainly avoidconcepts such as teleology, which explains everything innature in terms of purpose. Statements like, "birdssuddenly leave one locality and fly hundreds of miles toanother place so that they will have food and a warmerclimate in the new location" seem to close off all furtherinquiry. A scientific presentation of migration gives thefacts as known to date from observation andexperimentation. gives the best theories available, andshows what areas are still to be explored.

Another common and equally inappropriateconcept is anthropomorphism, which sees everything innature from a human point of view, Modern psychologystops this trend by trying to find out how the animal'smind works by studying its behavior. The study ofanimal behavior is fascinating enough by itself without

being c!ouded by an approach that ascribes humancharacteristics.

The question of accuracy with regard to matters offact in a science book is less important than the goalsabove. As Era Gordon said. "Accuracy means also awillingness to 'I don't know.' and in general.avoidance of sweeping statements and sparing use ofsuch words as 'all.' 'every.' and *always. 1

Good science books should communicate some ofthe excitement of discoveryand the triumph that goeswith the solution of scientific problems. Books aboutscience should help young people to see that our humangoals must be shaped by science and that science mustbe enriched by human hopes and ideals. Science bookscan help to develop the idea that science is not mereknowledge of things independent of our humanpurposes. or merely a means of giving us materialcomforts and gadgets. but is part of the fabric of ourlives. The methods of science can be used to createrational attitudes free of superstition and prejudice.

This paper has been drawn from two previouslypublished pieces by the author. They are "WritingAbout Science for Children," The Library Quarterly.January 1967: and "Scientific and Non-Scientific."School Libraries. January 1958.

I Gordon. Eva. "Reviewing and Selecting Nature Toolsfor Children." School Science and Mathematics.Volume 49. November 49. pp 604-5.

ILLUSTRATING SCIENCE BOOKS FORCHILDREN

Jeanne Bendick. Illustrator, McGraw-Hill BookCompany. Inc.. New York City

About a thousand years ago when I first started toread. I was fired with ambition to be an illustrator. Ieven knew what kinds of books I wanted toillustratethe ones that were called. "InformationBooks." Nobody called them science books then.Science was a majestic subject, certainly toocomplicated for children.

Maybe I made up my mind because I was sofrustrated by the pictures in those books. And I madeup my mind that when I reached the exalted state ofbeing a book artist I was going to do things differently.I hope I have.

Resolution One was that in the books I illustrated,nobody would ever have to flip through pages lookingfor the picture that matched the text. Maybe"matched" isn't the right word. I think that the textand pictures should complement. not duplicate eachother. Of course words give information in one way,pictures in another. But I think an illustration shouldadd new information. Maybe it shows scale, in relationto the child. Maybe it locates at.d labels parts. Maybe itsimply shows something or somebody as part of theworldgrowing or being alive, enjoying and beingenjoyed.

I have always been allowed to lay out the books Iillustrate. so I can put pictures where I want them. It iscertainly more work to do this. It means counting type,and figuring and "dressmaking." Maybe it's easier tohave someone else to do all this and just give me adescription of the picture and a size, but, "I'd rather do

52

it myself.- and I think most illustrators would.Drawings in a science book aren't an extra, addedattraction. They are part of the book itself and shouldbe right from the beginning.

Generally. these days. I am illustrating books thatI have written myself. and I find that I write the bookand draw pictures in my head at the same time. I

almost write the book in spreads. writing a paragraphor two w here I know the picture will be big or detailed.writing more words where they can do the job better.

Even before I was writing it seemed to me to be theartist's obligation to find out what pictures the writerhad in his head and to get those on paper. Of coursethis means direct communication between author andartist, a contact which for some reason many editorsand agents feel would be fatal to both. But I have neverseen a documented case of such a fatality. I have onlyseen books come together with a wholeness when thereis a real exchange of ideas.

Another resolution I made as a future scienceillustrator had to do with the somewhat amorphous.wholly idealized charact.'r of the pictures. Everythingwas soft. pretty. and rather picturesque. All childrenwere beautiful. which I grant they are in their own ways,but have you ever seen a picturesque vacuum-cleanermotor? I wasn't cynical but I was lazy and I had animmediate jolt of recognition for those artists who tookthe easy way of drawing from photographs. or fromanother artist's illustrations, instead of looking at realthings for themselves.

One of the best things any illustrator can give to apicture is his own viewpointthe special way he seesthings. That's hard to do. once removed. Someoneelse's viewpoint gets in the way. So I made up my mindto look at things myself. in my own way. I've looked atthe insides of wasps nests. the insides of flowers, andthe insides of toilet tanks; I've watched spiders makewebs. people make cars. and chameleons shed skins. Ilearn a lot that way!

Along the same lines, it used to disappointmeand it seems as if I became an illustrator out ofsheer frustrationwhen I tried to build somethingfrom pictures. or make an investigation, and found thatthe thing I was building cr.. Idn't be built or that theinvestigation wouldn't work. So whether I am drawinga milk-carton elevator or a sunnial that really works asa clock. I always build it myself and try it out before Idraw the picture. The placement of a tack or apaperclip, the position of a light bulb or the thicknessof a piece of string can make the difference between aworking model and a disappointment, or a successfulinvestigation and a confusion.

Sure it takes longer, but ifs worth it. If I were"into" needlework I would embroider a sampler tohang over the drawing board: THERE ARE NOSHORT CUTS.

I an certainly not the best artist in the world.(Once an art editor told me that my people looked as ifthey were made or spaghetti.) But I get a lot of lettersfrom children saying that they like my pictures becausethat's the way they would draw things. Children do seethings in a different way from adults. Maybe that'sbecause they look for different things. I like the waythey look and what they see. I've tried to keep lookingat the world their way, adding a little of what I see tothat and coming up with a picture that is theirs andmineour way of looking at science and the world welive in.

USING SCIENCE BOOKS FOR CHILDREN

Glenn 0. Blough. Professor of EducationEmeritus. University of Maryland. College Park

Let's begin by saying that it is still all right to read'The pendulum of emphasis has swung so f, t. in thedirection of firsthand experiences, of discovering foryourself by observation, experimentation, and similarprocesses that some teachers, perhaps many, areinclined to relegate reading to the back room and feelguilty when they suggest that it's part of the program.That's probably an overstatement. Nonetheless, inorder to achieve the overall objectives for scienceteaching there must be an opportunity to explore whatprint has to offer. Let's temper our use of books withone "do" and one "don't." Do use reading when it'sappropriate and don't overdue it to the exclusion ofother ways of discovery.

The fact is that children cannot discovereverything through firsthand experiences. Neither canadults; nor do they try. How do we seek to findinformation to solve our problems? Ten to one we re:yon books and other print for solutions to many of them.We are constantly seeking to increase our skill inreading and our knowledge of reliable sources. Booksare part of everyday living. This is not to belittlefirsthand experiences. No one questions theirimportance. It suggests that an educated persondepends on reading for information, inspiration, andappreciation and that early satisfying experiences withreading to discover are important for children.

Our discussion here is limited to the use ofso-called supplementarylibrarytrade books in theelementary schools. although some of the considera-tions apply also to the use of textbooks and otherprinted sources.

Choosing the BooksChoosing and using science books are so closely

related that we can hardly consider one without theother. Effective use of books begins, in a sense, withselection. Generally children need help with bothchoosing and using books. The Brontosaurus on thecover of the book of fossils does not necessarily meanthat it will excite Perry. age 5, when he looks inside andtries to read it. The picture on the cover may appeal toany age but the content may be advanced for Perry interms of sophistication, vocabulary, development, andtone.

Planned. formal instruction on how to select abook does much to help put the right child in touchwith the right book. Suggestions for examining thecontent, for sampling the reading level, and othersuggestions for judging are a part of good programsthat introduce children to books. While it is oftenimportant for children to stretch themselves intellec-tually as they read, too much stretching can snap theinterest when we me st want to expand and deepen it.

Books are made available to children to help inchthem along toward achieving the goals of our scienceprogram. Some books broaden the interest andappreciation of the reader; others attempt to describehow scientists work to make discoverieshow theyexperiment, observe, draw conclusions, classify, andengage in other such processes. Some books intend togive straightforward information that will help toinform the reader; others describe activities, suggestexperiments and experiences that help children to carry

53

on their on investigation. Ideally. many hooks ofN a no u s purposes should he available to choose from.Children will, with help, learn to select hooks inaccordance with these and other objectives.

In order to help children in choosing books.librarians, teachers, and parents must. insofar aspossible. be knowledgeable about the content andintentions of the books that are mailable. With thisknow ledge to draw on. the hooks that are selected foruse will come nearer to meeting the interests, abilities.and needs of the specific group of children. Anexamination of the books that never leave the shelses.as well as those whose worn condition testify to theirdemand. help to tell us the kinds to make ay adable."Reading" the Pictures

"Reading" the illustrations is a skill we sometime ,overlook as we use books with children. The excellencewith which many of today's books are illustrated shouldnot escape the user. Children learn to differentiatebetween photographs and drawings, recognize the useof fractions to show relative sizes, learn to interpretvarious graphs, maps, charts. and tables, and examinedrawings of experimental apparatus to see just howthey are assembled. Some children, in fact_many ofthem, need help in getting the most from suchillustrations. Here again direct teaching is in order. Itmay be built around helping children answer: Whatdoes the photograph tell you? What does the graphshow? What can you learn from the drawing of thematerial? and What does the caption tell you? Aschildren progress from grade to grade they shouldincrease their skill in interpreting hook illustrations. Ifthe books are well illustrated. much can be learned byexamining its artworkprovided we e have helpedreaders to do so.Motivation

Skill of motivation on the part of the teacher orother adult can send children scurrying to the shelf fora specific book which might, without this motivation,remain untouched. Adults. who know the books as wellas the children. can generate enthusiasm that makesthe book a great learning tool. Reading an excitingparagraph, showing science material that raises a

problem, sharing an illustration. reading the table ofcontents. are usual ways used to introduce children tothe door the hook can open. Introducing children to thefun and satisfaction that can come from books rests ona foundation of good motivation. Not much learninggoes on unless children want to learn.

The motivation t' it children give to each other asthey share books may result in increased reading or itmay not. The old hook report technique that consists ofthe reader sharing such trivia as the author's dog'sname and that they live in Laguna Beach hardly everproduces a run on the author's latest. But with somehelp and guidance from the teacher and/or thelibrarian children can learn to communicate theirsatisfactions and feelings for hooks they have read andlikedas well as those that give them more informationabout alligators than they care to have. Encouragingthem to find interesting ways to share their reactions ispart of making the most effective use of books. Thesame ideas used by the adults in introducing hooks tochildren may be used by young readers: raisingquestions, showing pictures, making a poster, showinga science object or an experiment or reading aparagraph, may help listeners decide if this is a hookfor them or nota fine opportunity to help childrenlearn how to communicate.

9

Learning from BooksWe encourage children to read from many sources

and they lean ;Jr a variety of reasons. Often they readto find information to answer their own questions or tosolve their on problems. When this is the case. there is

a real reason to improve their skill in using the cardcatalogue to identify a source and then to examine thetable of contents and the index. They see the sense ofexploring those helps. rather than paging through thevolume to run across something that might be helpful.

Having located the section and pages that maypossibly contain the desired information. they are urgedto reread the question and problems to be sure theyhave in mind exactly what is being asked. For example.Why do birds sing? is quite different from Now do birdssing? Keeping '.',e problem in mind the skill of selectingappropriate information from a large batch of subjectmatter becomes essential. We expect children to growin abilivj to select relevant material and to disregard theirrelevant, to collect and organi "e appropriate data. tosee relationships, and to organize the findings. Theseskills w ill stand then' in good stead.

This does not mean that we discourage readingother interesting material as they skim for answers Wehave all had the experience of going to a trunk in theattic to look for an old picture and being attracted byall sorts of other memorabilia which lead us intodelightful (or otherwise) avenues. So it is when wesearch for specific informationwe don't want todiscourage such diversions. The skill, however, ofrecognizing material relevant to the problem is a

valuable one to be developed.The Facts, Please

As they read from many sources children arealmost sure to run across disagreements that demandsome attention. This may lead to careful analysis ofexactly wha. is said and how it is said. "Evidence seems

to indicate." "some scientists say." "it is generallyh:liesed," or "the latest information available

indicates" and other similar phrases take on

importance when children attempt to track downinformation. Good teachers make opportunities fordiscussions of disagreements an qua) wing statementsto help pupils read more carefuliv. iepert exactly, andevaluate.

"What makes you believe what you have read?"should often be a consideration as children shareinformation from many sources. Ir is an opportunity forhelping children evaluat2 sources that is sometimesoverlooked in our zeal to keel things moving andanswer the questions. Is the author a scientist? a newsreporter? Is there a reason to believe the author isreliable?

A child who thinks he may have discovered anerror in a book may write a letter of inquiry to theauthor (in care of the publisher) to set matter- straight.It there is a reply. the total exp:rience may faroutweigh the importance of the search for informationin the first place. It may be the child's first contact withthe fact that everything that gets into print is not

necessarily so, that it is desirable to check severalsources, and to look into qualifications of the authorwhen ever possible.

An examination of the many science books forchildren published during the immediate past reveals

great progress in the production of readable, attractive.and accurate volumes. Granted, a few throwbackscreep in. but generally the progress towardimprovement has been nothing less than phenomenal.

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A survey of how effect's ely these learning tools arebeing used might not reseal game such dramaticprogress. How well are adults who work with childrenacquainted with this wealth of as fable material? Howskillful are we in introducing children to books') How

know ledgeaole are we in helping them to get the mostfrom the experiences that are supposed to open new

doors for them? Hopefully. more adults have betteranswers to these and similar questions every year.

SESSION B-4

THE OPEN UNIVERSITY: THE BRITISH EX-PERIENCE

M. J. Pent'. Dean and Director of Studies. Facultyof Science. The Open University. Walton. Blatch-ly. Bucks. England

This session w as an informal audience-participa-tion arrangement which included:I. A lb mm dozumentary film "The University is

Open" as a general introduction to the Open Uni-versity

2. General questions and discussion on problems ofscience teaching in the Open University

3. A 16mm film illustrating the use of television as acomponent of an integrated multi-media systemfor teaching tertiary-level science at a distance.

SESSION B-9

ARE GOALS AND EVALUATION APPROPRIATEFOR COLLEGE SCIENCE COURSES?

Edwin B. Kurtz, Chairman of Life Sciences, TheUniversity of Texas of the Permian Basis, Odessa

This paper will not attempt to justify the use ofbehavioral objectives (observable instructional out-comes) :It alt levels of education. K to 16. Rather twosets of objectives will be presented with a brief rationalefor each. Criteria for statoards student performanceare not included but 'h criteria can be readilydescribed. The objectives are presented with theterminal tasks first- and progress hierarchially to theleast ccint,81ex tasks at the end of each list.

SETA. l'or the non-science major in a biology. chemis-

tr. ph, 8. earth science. or other related course.1. Const-u_ and demonstrate a revised study and

report that is accepted by a majority of a panelcomposed of three students and a faculty member,

2. Describe what you would do differently or addi-tionally it' you were to do the investigation a second

time.3. Demonstrate and construct a written report of the

investigation and distinguish whether the predic-tion or inference was supported or not. or whetherthe question was answered.

4, Describe the scientific or other content basis forthe prediction, inference or question of yourchoice, with appropriate bibliographic citations.

5. Construct a description of a test of the prediction,inference or question about a topic ot' your choice.

6. Describe the personal basis for your choice of theprediction, inference, or question to be tested, in-cluding reasons for your interest, basis of yoursatisfaction with the difficulty, originality or corn-

plexity of the study, and how the study will benefityou or others.

7. Identity and name variables to be held constant,manipulated. and allow ed to respond in the test ofinference, prediction, or question.

8. Describe the kind of anticipated observations anddata that you will accept as supporting or not sup-porting the prediction, inference, or question ofyour choice.

9. Construct a statement ot a prediction, inference, orquestion for a topic of your choice which you in-tend to investigate.

10. Identify the inference, prediction, or question tl.atyou believe is most worthy of investigation, anddescribe the evidence upon which your belief isbased.

11. Construct alternative inferences, predictions. orquestions based on your observations, knowledge,and intuition, including having all terms definedoperationally and a brief description of the basistier each inference, prediction or question.

12-25. A hierarchy ot objectives that may be consideredprerequisite knowledge and skills for the abovetasks. These would include observing, measuring,classifying, defining operationally, and variousbehaviors regarding knowledge of concepts andprinciples in the area of a student's choice.

SET B. For the science major at the time he is to beawarded the Bachelor's Degree. These are all ter-Initial tasks.

1. Construct and demonstrate in an oral report (be-tore faculty, peers and career colleagues) a re-search or design study. and the rationale forthe study.

2. Construct and demonstrate in a written report (tohe reviewed and evaluated by faculty, peers, andcareer colleagues) a research or design study andthe rationale for the study.

3. Construct statements of possible consequences.impact, and/or limitations of governmentalpolicies, and cultural changes on science andscience policy.

4. Construct hypotheses and predictions about thepossible economic, social, and political impact ofan invention, technology, or innovation on lifeand 5 "ciety.

5. Demonstrate instruction that brings about theacquisition of a specified competence in a learner(peer, lab technician, and so forth).The action verbs used in all of the above objectives

are those operationally defined in ConstructingInstruction Based on Behavioral Objectives: A Manualfor Managers of Learning, Walbesser, Kurtz. Goss, andRobl. 1971, Engineering Publications, Oklahoma StateUniversity, Stillwater.

SESSION C-5

THE UNGRADED SCHOOL AND INDIVIDUAL-IZED LEARNING IN THE SCIENCE ROOM

Nancy Glass, Science Coordinator. St. Fatrick'sSchool. Cleveland. Ohio

This paper discusses:1. Definitions of "ungraded" and "individual-

ization"

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2. Description ot classroom n magement in anungraded classroom

3. Letting children's interest areas help within d i% id ualiration

4. Commercial kits %ersus materials already presentin the classroom

5. Benefits and pittalls of the ungraded school andindividualised learning.

THE OPEN SCHOOL PHILOSOPHY AND OR-GANIZATION

Waltina Mrociek. Teacher. Hilltop Elemental.%School, Beachwood. Ohio

This presentation explores open school philosophyand organisation by means of an imaginary visit tothree indi%idualized alternative education classrooms.Layout diagrams for: Programmed, Laissez Faire. andOpen Education alternatives are included. Thet011owing basic ingredients will be discussed. TheChild. The Teacher, Environment. Curriculum.Physical Space.

RECOGNIZING, ACCEPTING, AND NURTURINGCREATIVITY IN CHILDREN

Alan J. McCormack. Assistant Professor ofScience Education. University of British Colum-bia. Vancouver

Here's good news for housewives! Tired ofspending long hours making beds, cleaning floors, andpicking up the children's toys? Your salvation is theingenious new "Bed-Making-Pillow-Plumping-Toy-Picker-Gpper.' guaranteed to do your housework inhalf the time. The inventor (age 8) claims it can easilybe installed in your bedroom, andnow don't missthisalso will wake the kids at a pre-set time. If youorder now you will also receive, free of charge, the"Automatic Suit-Getter." This amazing device consistsof a series of ropes, levers. and magnets and will deliveryons clothes from closet to you. Since it uses noelectricity, this is a bargain you can't afford to miss.

Another handy little gadget is designed especiallyfor fathers troubled by persistent late-hour pleas bybaby for a glass of water. Just drop a marble into a longtube attached to the "Marble-Activated Drink ofWater." The marble releases a pin attached to string, aseries of pulleys, and the mechanism from an old alarmclock. The clock spring unwinds and hoists a cup ofwater from a pre - tilled reservoir. Baby is happy, andDaddy gets his sleep.

These inventions, and a great many other oddballcontraptions, were dreamed up by children of grades2-6 in Vancouver (British Columbia) public schools."Invention Workshops" have been ineorpora,ed intothe elementary science program in some of our schools,and children's responses have been nothing less thansensational. The workshops are designed to stimulateand nurture whatever creative thinking talents childrenhave. Teachers are encouraged to operate on the basisof two assumptions: All children have some inborncreative potential, but the degree to which this abilitydevelops is linked to environmental influences: andstimulation, opportunity. materials. and encourage-

ment are important creativity-inducing factors of theclassroom environment.

Psychologists have identified a variety of divergentthinking abilities involved in creative thinking. Some ofthese are:1. Fluency of idea productionthe ability to think of

a large number of ideas related to a problem:2. Flexibilitythe ability to produce ideas in a

variety of categories,3. Originalityproduction of ideas that are novel

and statistically uncommon;4. Elaborationembellishnient of ideas with detail

and refine.nent.A classroom environment involving only conver-

gent. analytical thought processes which emphasizeonly "Right" answers and structured experimentalprocedures probably contributes little to thedevelopment of the above abilities. Alternatively.classroom conditions can be purposely adjusted tostimulate and focus children's thinking in divergentpatterns. Given the opportunity to "mess aturut" withideas ard materials, elementary school children caneasily forget the anti-creative constraints thatcorn t!y stifle originality in adult thought. And, ifencc .. aged to do so. many children can assemble ideasand everyday materials into astonishingly creative

products.Invention Workshops are an attempt by teachers

to involve children in divergent thought processes. Theworkshops begin with an interest-seducing experiencefocusing attention on a project open to unlimitedcreative interpretation. The most effective devices

found so far for accomplishing this have been cartoons!(Heresy! Cartoons in science class?). Perhaps we shouldtake a look at how this is done.An Invention Workshop

Before the lesson, it was not uncommon to hearchildr I's comments and inquiries about themysterious packages labeled "Rube Goldberg Inven-tors' Kits" which lined the classroom shelves. Finally,at the beginning of what is supposed to be a sciencelesson. the teacher projects a slide onto a screen.showing an unthinkable conglomeration of unrelatedobjects (a lawn sprinkler, an aquarium, a houndsleeping on a table. etc.). -Can any of you invent anautomatic garage-door opener using these items? Thepupils stare at the teacher in utter disbeliefhe is reallyoft' his rocker this time! Impossible task? On the screenflashed a picture. one of the "Inventions of ProfessorLucifer Gorgonzola Butts" made famous by the mastermachinist of the comic strips, Rube Goldberg. Since thelate R.G.'s famous "inventions" were popular duringthe 1920s and 1930s, these space-age children hadnever seen such contraptions. The children wereobviously delighted. More inventions are projected."That's super!" Next a film"The Mouse-ActivatedCandle Lighter" Ishows an actual contraptionoperat;ng in the true Goldbergian manner.

The teacher reached into one of the RubeGoldberg Inventors' Kits and pulled out a piece ofcardboard. "How many different uses can you think offor this brown, square-shaped, lightweight, flexible-yet-strong, piece of material?" Involvement was obvious asthe children engaged in the spirit of discussion,producing a wide spectrum of ideas. Incubation periodswere short as hands would wave as an insight or newidea came. Creative production is an attitude of themindmaking the familiar seem strange. The secret ofinventing lies in detecting new combinations for using

56

quite simple and ordinary things. The "Inventors'Kits" (packages of junk) included such things ascardboard, straw s, paperclips. elastic bands, pie plates.and string. The availability of a variety of materialsprovided a good starting point but all agreed thatadditional inexpensive materials could he used. Withpackages in hand, the students were off. To a casualobsery et% the groups of children working in all areas ofthe classroom would seem chaotic compared to orderly

rows of children reading textbooks. For the next twoweeks, the regular class time for science, and manystudent-requested after-school ON ertirnes were spent bythe neophyte inventorssometimes frustrated butalways fascinated because they were transforming ideas

into tangible objects.In one corner, a group of children busily unites a

makeshift treadmill, a replica of the family dog, and atantalizing bone to form the world's first "AutomaticDog-Walking Machine." For the harried executive whohas everything, other children invent the perfectdevicean ultramodern rocking chair equipped w ith abellows and a series of air tubes so the over-tired mancan sooth both his nerves and temperaturesimultaneously. Cool air automatically flows across theexecutive's face as he enjoys his late afternoon martini(which, of course, is mixed in a special shaker attachedto the chair!).

Some girls decide to make mother's life a little biteasier: a "Rapid Grape Seed Remover" combinespulleys. a windlass, and a grape-sized trough. Tooperate. a weight is dropped which unwinds stringattached to a complicated series of wheels and camswith the result that each grape rolling down the troughis punctured by a pin, thus removing the seeds. It' theaccumulated grape seeds become bothersome, they canbe fed to your pet canary.

The children's inventions combine art with logicand blend humor with simple everyday objects. Theyhaven't been directed to be "fluent," "flexible," or"original- in their thinking, but instances of thesethought processes abound as the inventions are plannedand constructed. Soon, the whole classroom takes on acomic atmosphere. and seems tilled with active butpintsized Rube Goldbergs.

By the way, it' you don't recall Rube Goldbergyourself, you will find the name in Webster's Thirdinternational Dictionary defined as ".. . accomplishingby extremely complex roundabout means what actuallyor seemingly could be done simply." The man RubeGoldberg was also extremely complex and often"roundabout." His creative abilities were highlydeveloped, encompassing the writing of stories, poetry,song lyrics, play scripts, and the art of sculpturing(which he began at the ripe age of 80!). The RubeGoldberg most often remembered by the general publicis the Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist, and inventor ofoutrageously amusing comic strip contraptions.Another hilarious example:

A "Device for Nominating a Candidate for HighOffice" places a "fresh air fiend" next door to thecandidate. When the windows are opened. the fresh airaddict's pet owl catches cold and sneezes into a toybugle. This summons a company of NationalGuardsmen who think war is declared, and in theirhast they upset a milk man, spilling milk whichattracts hundreds of cats. The howling of the cats wakes

1 Prism Productions, Incorporated. 531 Dawson Dr.,Camarillo. Calif.

up the neighborhood. whose on angry yells and howlsthe candidate mistakes for the %owes of his constituentscalling on him to save the country. The Landidatethereupon jumps out of bed, throws open his window.and launches into a speech of acceptance.

As a young man attending the University ofCalifornia at Berkeley, Goldberg ran up against "TheBaroaik"a series of pipes, coils, beakers, gears. wires.etc. designed to measure the weight of the earth.Casting a leery eye at the proud professor who invented"The Barodik," he tackled the problem. Six monthslater he was left with the answer. and, admittedly, ahead full of unprintable thoughts about the professorwho assigned such a task. With a few years behind him,GoldberOooksd back and saw "The Barodik" as aperfect example of how man can use so much to do solittle. This was the beginning of the age of the so-calledtime saving inventions. and looking about he noticedthat most of these machines managed to complicate lifein other ways. So began the famous Rube Goldbergcontraptionsan effort to make people laugh at

themselves and not take the new inventions tooseriously. At the same time, Goldberg seems to urge usto keep looking and wondering at the marvelouslyunpredictable passion of Man for creating things.

Fun and Games or Genuine Science?The elementary science curriculum purist may feel

the urge to raise certain questions regarding ourInvention Workshops. What are the children learning?What specific concepts and skills are developed? Ouranswer: I maintain that children learn as much as theymight from a more usual science activity, but also agreat deal more. Most assuredly, children develop manyof the same ideas about pulleys. gears, levers, etc.,ordinarily included in a unit on "Simple Machines."The key difference is that ordinarily dull informationconcerning elementary mechanisms really meanssomething if you need to "figure out" how to build anins ention you are really excited about. And, if you areconcerned about engaging children in the process ofscience, the skills of observing, hypothesizing.measuring. predicting. and inferring are clearlyinvolved. All of these are combined with an important"plus"children are intimately involved as creativethinkers.

Granted, creativity, as such, cannot be taught; theprocess is tar too elusive and uniquely individual forthat. However, it can be fun "thinking up" lots of ideas,playing with the oddball notion, and working hardgrasping for a novel intuitive Clash. The main thing, Ifeel, is that both teachers and pupils become sensitizedto the existence, value. and sheer thrill of creativethought. Isn't that truly the essence of science?

References1. Boorstin, Daniel J., Golovin, Anne C., and Gold-

berg, Rube. Do It the Hard Way: Rube Goldbergand Modern Times. Smithsonian Institute Na-tional Museum of History and Technology, Wash-ington, D. C. 1970.

2. Craven, Thomas. Cartoon Cavalcade. Simon andSchuster Publishers, New York 1943.

3. Fabun, Don. You and Creativity. Glencoe Press,Beverly Hills, California. 1968.

4. Torrance, E. Paul, and Myers, R, E. CreativeLearning and Teaching. Dodd, Mead and Com-pany, New York. 1971.

57

FLANDERS INTERACTION ANALYSIS

Joan H. Zurhellen, Assistant Professor and Teach-ing-Learning Project Director, University ofTennessee College of Nursing. Memphis

Teaching and instructional processes are essen-tially interaction events. The types and levels ofinteraction that take place in classrooms are as manyand as varied as the personalities and socio-emotionalclimates of these same classrooms. Interaction in theclassroom may be one-to-one. group-to-group.one-tosgroup. group-to-one. etc. It may be verbal ornonverbal, planned or spontaneous. structured orhaphazard. formal or informal, etc. Usually, it is alltheseand more. The two sureties about classroominteraction are: (a) it is omnipresent; and (b) it ismultifaceted, and usually many facets of interaction arepresent at any one instant of time.

The phenomenon of interaction and its importanceare often stressed by social psychologists and educators:

Sherif says. "To an important extent, the locus ofchange lies in the interaction of people with people." It]

Guba and Getzels point out, "Whatever theteacher may teach, it is obvi )us that the teaching iscarried on in the context of an interpersonal setting. Itis the factor which, more than any other, accounts forthi.! critical importance of teacher personality inmediating the teaching-learning process." 12]

Gammage underlines the point, "The interactionof the teacher and the children is one of the mostimportant aspects of the educative process and possiblyone of the more neglected .. . the type and quality ofthe interaction will determine not only the effectivenessof the learning situation but the attitudes. interests andin part even the personality of the pupils... 131

Reno emphasizes that "These daily encountersbetween student and teacher are impacts" which"occur at high speeds .. . . The collisions take place toorapidly tOr any computer to register. and the force theygenerate is always enormous . . . and they becomediscernible when they accumulate." [4]

Despite such realizations on the part of manyexperts concerning interaction, it is a phenomenonoften ignored or at least not attended to by teachers.Why? First. there is often a lack of awareness on ourparts .f the impact and effects of classroominteractions. Even after awareness, there is anotherserious obstacle to be overcome. Interactions are there,but how are their patterns, subtleties and nuancespicked up? This can be as difficult and as frustrating astrying to discover the details of how one looks without amirror or judging trui, and accurately the qualities,timbre, and inflections of one's voice without utilizingtape recorder and audio tape.

With knowledge, awareness. effort, and observa-tional practice the teacher may become a fair judge ofinteractions between and among students, theirpatterns, meaningsobvious and hiddenand affect.However, even with the best will and effort in the world,the teacher may still be relatively unaware of hisinteractional affect both direct and indirect. A humanis far too subjective an animal to be expected to makeaccurate and precise judgments regarding his or hereffect on others. At best, the tactful human learns tocontrol his verbal impact. He is still often totallyoblivious to the nonverbal signals he may be radiatingin all directions.

To assess our own interaction effects, we musteither see ourselves as others do. or we must call on athird party to slew us and assess. Even then, anobjectise assessment i, difficult because of our own, orthe other viewer's mental set. The situation can hegreatly improved if there is not only a viewer who isstriving for objectivity. but also a tool of provenobjectivity and reliability for him to use. Systematicobservation instruments can provide the latter.

Without the tool. the demands on the viewer andthe relationship between the viewer and the Niewed arecolossal. Many of us have resented what purported tobe an objective summary of our behaviors by a fairlysympathetic and personable supervisor. The thought ofthe resentment that might be engendered by a merepeer's observations, if they were anything but flattering.staggers the mind. Ned Flanders. himself, has notedthat without a systematic observation scheme the"success" of haying another observe out performance"may depend on how well he 'the observer) can blendintegrity and objectivity with compassion andempathy.- 151

Systematic observation schemes are tools. They aretechniques which objectify evaluation of self by self orothers. They are means to ensure that evaluation dataare accurate feedback on which teaching andinstructional judgments can be sensibly based.

Ober has described systematic observation as"method of strategy-building and instructionalimprovement." 161 a method of "organizing observedteaching acts in a manner which allows any trainedperson who follows stated procedures to observe,record, and analyze interactions with the assurance thatothers viewing the same situation would affee, to agreat extent, with his recorded sequence ofbehaviors , ..." 171

Systematic observation, then, provides communi-cable criteria for reliably observing and recording whattranspires in a classroom. Systematic observation doesnot, nor does it purport to. place a value judgment of"right." "wrong." "good." "bad," etc. on what takesplace. The assumption, rightly, is that the teacher,knowing his intent and accurately apprised of theactual happenings that occurred in the classroom. cansupply his own judgments and make decisionsaccordingly.

In order to qualify as useful, a systematicobservation scheme should be: (a) descriptive; (b)objective: (c) easily mastered: (d) manageable by theclassroom teacher, and applicable to the classroom forthe desired end: and (e) capable of providing immediatefeedback.

It must be descriptive because that is its wholereason for beingto describe certain aspects of what istaking place in the classroom. It must be objective;which means that its terms, definitions, criteria, checkscales. etc. must he clear, precise and unambiguous: sothat the same perception sets are communicated bythem to all observers. The classroom teacher who is touse the scheme must be able to learn the definition.,,symbols for recording. and techniques for interpreta-tion quickly and easily in a matter of a few hours. If not,he will never become proficient and won't use thesystem. Though outside observers can and willsometimes be used by a teacher, if performanceevaluation is to be fairly constant, the teacher will bedoing much self-evaluation from audio or video tapes.Also, a particular system won't be used if it doesn'tapply to classroom situations, or if it doesn't assess the

58

particular classroom facets of interest to the teacher ata particular time. If the data pros ided b% systematicobser% anon are to be effeetnely utilized, they must heaailable immediately to the teacher. and their mode ofinterpretation must be simple and straightforwardenough stihat little timz in ins oh ed in their translationto an intelligible format.

In order to meet conditions e, d, and, to a certainextent, e, ahoy e, a systematic observation scheme must.as Flanders says, de% ote itself to "paucity of detail.- 181In other words, any single observation system can andshould focus only on a narrow band of the totalclassroom spectrum. There are many variables withinthe classroom of interest and importan:e to theteaching-learning-instructional gestalt. It is impossibleto consider all these variables in a single obserNationinstrument.

Some interaction variables of particular interestare: verbal. non-verbal. cognitive. Wen\ e. rolestructure, and shift, etc. Most systematic observationschemes now widely-employed concentrate on only oneof the above areas. A few combine two areas at a time.How ever, the more % ariables considered at one time. themore complex the system necomes. and the more effortrequired to commit ground rules to memory andaccurately transcribe observations. It is often betterand easier to use several simple systematic observationforms than to try to use one very complicated one. Notonly are techniques simpler. but the teacher can betterconcentrate on one aspect at a time, analyzing andimproving that aspect as needed instead of trying to"change the whole world in a day.- or being overcomeby the vast number of needed improyements.

Sometimes there is bemoaning of the somewhatimprecise nature of systematic observation schemes.This is to be expected in a ei Iture conditioned to"hard" scientific data. However. when the relativeyouth of such systems is considered, the "state of theart" has really come a long way in a relatively shortperiod of time.

Mention of objective observation and the need forit has occasionally appeared in the education literaturefrom tiie turn of the century onward. However,systematic observation first appeared in the literatureabout 1935 with Wrightstone's study of selected NewYork schools using "Newer Practices.- 191 Itsapplication and development was slow until the late40's when several pioneering observational systemsmany aimed more at socto- emotional climate than anyother aspectappeared.These included work by Bales.1101 Medley and Mitzel, (11( and Whithall. (12( Thesesystems stirred much interest and were quickly followedin the nex, two decades with development of differentsystems and their application in research and teachereducation by Flanders, 1131 Amidon, 1141 Hough. 1151Ober, (16) Bellack, 1171 Ryans. (181 Gallagher andAschner, 1191 Combs, 1201 Galloway and French. 1211Good and Brophy. (22] and Smith and Meux. 1231 toname a few.

There are two basic kinds of systematicobservations: sign or category. Sign systems tend to hechecklist -like in nature, They consist of lists ofbehaviors, and during a given period of time theobserver checks the behaviors that occur. Eachoccurring behavior is checked only once, no matter howfrequently it recurs. The OSCAR system. perfected byMedley and Mitze1.1241 is a fairly well known _x ampleof a sign system.

A category system provides specific classifications

v.hose operational definitions, characteristics andsymbols must be learned by the observer. At regularinternals during the observation period, the observerdetermines the behay for category being exhibited andrecords the symbol for that category. The same ordifferent symbols are recorded each time-perioddepending on the behavior being exhibited. A categorysystem gives a running account of behaviors and theirchanges and responses w hertas the sign systems Owinformation about whether specific behaviors did or didnot occur The Flanders system is a category system

Generally, category systems are preferable w henone aspect of behavior is being studied. They give adetailed, in-depth account of the occurrence ofcomponents of that aspect. Sign systems are preferablewhen several aspects are being studied, as for initial orperiodic surveys or to check on teaching or instructionalrepertoit es.

Classroom observation systems can be categorizedfurther as: cognitive, affective, multi-aspect ormultidimensional. Meux 1251 classifies systems into oneof these three categories based on the system'scomponentsthe aspect(%) selected as the unit ofanalysis; attributesthe characteristics, features,properties or qualities of the components; modes 01conceptualization the ways of describing the attri-butes; and the kinds of rt7lation.s the types of rules orlaws uniting the system into a cohesive whole.

Cognitive systems are concerned with the type ofintellectual activity occurring in the classroom, with theways in which content is being presented and/ormastered. Systems developed by Smith et al., 126]Bellack et al.. 127] Gallagher and Aschner. [28] andOber's ETC system are cognitive in nature. 129]

Affective systems focus on the social and/oremotional climate of the classrooms and the behaviorsconstituting that climate. Flanders' system [30] andthose developed by Hughes. 131] Whithall. 1321

Galloway and French. 133] and Ober's RCS system [34]are affective in nature.

Multi-aspect systems focus on several classroomaspectsemotional, sociontetrie cognitive, etc.at thesame time. Bales' system 1351 and that of Medley andMitzel 1361 are multi-aspect in nature.

The Flanders system has become by far the mostfamiliar; widely-used and copied. revised, orbuilt-upon. of the systematic observation forms used inAmerican education today. First developed byFlanders and perfected and researched by Flanders.Amidon. and Hough, it is a system that is easy to learn.simple to record and quick to analyzean altogethergood method of "getting your feet wet" in interactionanalysis. However, it is not the be-all and end-all it isoften represented as. It has shortcomings. Mainly, itfocuses on a very narrow range of classroom behaviors,treats the class as a whole. and over-emphasizes theteacher. It is, with all that, an excellent beginning. Itshould not he, as it too often is; beginning, end, and allthe in-between. Revisions by Flanders, Amidon.Galloway and French, Ober, and others have madebetter instruments that check a wider variety ofbehaviors, and they are easy to use if one is alreadyfamiliar with the original Flanders scales.

Almost all of the systematic observation scalesdeveloped in the 40s, 50s, and 60s share one overridingshortcoming. They categorize student behaviors asthough the whole class behaved, reacted, etc. in unison.Only very recently have Good and Brophy, 1371 andsome others begun to look at interaction scales that

59

obsery e dyad interaction bet een the teacher andinch% idual pupils. I his is a good stride in the rightdirection.

`'larders system. %%Inch is the main one cinderstud% here, is an affects category %%stem %%Inch focusesesclumy ely on yerbal behavior In us original form itincluded ten categories. Sewn of them describeteacher-talk patterns; two describe student-talkpatterns; one describes silence or confusion.

The ten categories with brief definitions are- 1381Teacher Talk

with categories 1. 2, and 3 summarised under theheading, ResponseI. Accepts feelings. Is aware of and recesses, then

uses, translates and or clarifies an attitude or feel-ing tone of a student in a non-threatening manner

2. Praises or encourages. Verbally rewards or sup-ports pupil action or behavior.

3. Accepts or uses ideas of a pupil. Similar to numberbut this awareness, use, etc. is of an idea ex-

pressed by a pupil rather than a feeling.4. Asks questions. Directs questions, based on

teacher ideas, about content or procedure to stu-dent(%) with intent that pupil(%) w ill answer.

with categories 5, 6, and 7 summarized under theheading, initiation.5. Lecturing. Gives content material. opinions. ow n

ideas, or those of authorities other than pupils6. Giving directions. States directions, commands, or

orders to which student is expected to comply.7. Criticizing or justifying authority. Gives state-

ments intended to change pupil behavior fromnon-acceptable to acceptable; bawls out a student:states why teacher is doing w hat he is doing; etc.

Pupil Talk8. Pupil-talkresponse. Talk by students in response

to teacher.9. Pupil-talk-initiation. Talk by students which they

originate or initiate.Silence

10. Silence of confusion. Pauses, short periods ofsilence, or periods of confusion when communica-tion cannot be understood by observer.In order to use the Flanders system. these ten

categories must he learned and easily identified by theobserver. During an observation period, the observerwrites down the symbol (the indicated digit or digits) fora behavior category every three seconds or whenever abehavior changes if that is more often. Generally, thesesymbols are recorded in vertical columns during a shortobservation period.

This page of symbol notations is then analyzed bysummarization on a ten by ten matrix. First, tallies areentered for each cell. This is done by grouping thenumbers recorded in two's, using each number exceptthe first and last twice. Example:

L55

L 5

6J

l.

3

L10

The pairs are then entered on the matrix using the firstnumber to establish the vertical coordinate (row) andthe second number to establish the horizontalcoordinate (column). After tallying is complete, totalsare recorded in each of the 100 cells, and column, row,and matrix totals are obtained.

The most commonly used interpretations of thesetotals are calculations of the percentages of teacher talkto student talk and the percentages of indirect teachertalk to direct teacher talk.

Flanders and his associates have further workedout detailed analyses of the meanings of tally clusters invarious areas on the matrix so that a great deal ofhelpful intbrmation concerning several components ofverbal classroom behavior can be obtained from asingle matrix analysis.

This brief and parsimonious summary ofsystematic interaction observation scales, in general.and the Flanders scale, in particular, is rather likeviewing icing on a cake. It tells very little about thetaste. composition, quality, etc. of the cake itself. Thatis only obtained by sticking a finger, fork, or otherutensil in, and bringing a sample to the mouth. In thesame way, interaction observation systems take onmeaning only when practiced, applied, and utilized forteacher decision-making.

References1. M. Sherif. "On the Relevance of Social Psycho-

logy." .4mericai Psychologist. 25:144-56. 1970.p. 147.

2. Cuba. E. G. and J. W. Getzels. "Personality andTeacher Effectiveness: A Problem in TheoreticalResearch." Journal of Educational Psychology.46:355-68. 1965, p. 355.

3. P. Gammage. Teacher and Pupil. Some Socio-pkychological Aspects. (Loudon: Routledge and K.Paul, 1971). p. 32.

4. R. H. Reno. The Impaci Teacher. (St. Paul, Min-nesota: 3 M Education Press, 1967), pp. 36-37.

5. N. A. Flanders. Analyzing Teacher Behavior.(Reading. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1970),p. 25.

6. R. L. Ober, E. L. Bentley, and E. Miller. Syste-matic Observation of Teaching: Interaction Analy-sis-Instructional Strategy Approach. (EnglewoodCliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1971) p. 13.

7. Ibid.. p. 17.8. Flanders, op. cit., p. 241.9. Ober et al.. op. cit.. p. 17.10. R. F. Bales. Interaction Process Analysis. (Cam-

bridge. Massachusetts: Addison Wesley, 1951).11. Medley, D. M.. and H. E. Mitzel. "A Technique

for Measuring Classroom Behavior." Journal ofEducational Psychology. 49:86-92. 1958.

12. J. G. Whithall. "The Development of a Techniquefor the Measurement of Socio-Emotional Climatein Classrooms." Journal of Experimental Educa-tion. 17:347-61, 1949.

13. Flanders, op. cit.14. Amidon, E. J.. and J. B. Hough. Interaction Analy-

sis, Theory. Research and Application. (Reading,Massachusets: Addison-Wesley, 1967).

15. Ibid.16. Ober et al.. op. cit.17. Bellack, A. A.. and J. R. Daritz. The Language of

the Classroom: Meanings Communicated in HighSchool Teaching. (New York: Institute of Psy-

60

chological Research. Teachers College. ColumbiaUniversity, 1963).

18. D.- G. Roans. "Assessment of Teacher Behaviorand Instruction." Review of Educational Re-search. 33:415-41. 1963.

19. Gallagher. J. J.. and M. J. Aschner. "A Preli-minary Report: Analysis of Classroom Inter-action," Merrill-Palmer Quarterly o/ Behavior andDevelopment. 9:183-94. I %3.

20. A. Combs. "Seeing is Behaving." EducationalLeadership. 16:21-26. 1958.

21. French, R. L., and C. M. Galloway. "A Descrip-tion of Teacher Behavior: Verbal and Non-verbal." Unpublished paper. The Ohio State Uni-versity. Columbus, 1%8.

22. Good. T. L., and J. E. Brophy. "Analyzing Class-room Interaction: A More Powerful Alternative."Educational Technology. 1 1:36 -40. 1971.

23. Smith. B. 0., and N. 0. Meux. A Study of theLogic of Teaching. (Urbana. Illinois: Bureau ofEducational Research. University of Illinois. 1%2.)

24. Medley. D. M.. and H. E. Mitzel. "MeasuringClassroom Behavior by Systematic Observation."In N. L. Gage. Handbook o/ Research on Teach-ing. (Chicago: Rand McNally. 1963.)

25. M. 0. Meux. "Studies of Learning in the SchoolSetting." Review o/ Educational Research.37:539-62, 1%7.

26. Smith et al.. op. cit.27. Bellack et al.. op. cit.28. Gallagher and Aschner. op. cit.29. Ober et al.. op. cit.30. Flanders, op cit.31. M. Hughes. The Assessment o/ the Quality of

Teaching: A Research Report. (Salt Lake City.Utah: The University of Utah Press. 1959.)

32. VV,hitbAll, op. cit.33. French and Galloway, op. cit.34. Ober et al., op. cit.35. Bales, op. cit.36. Medley and Mitzel, op. cit.37. Good. T. L.. and J. E. Brophy. "Teacher-Child

Dyadic Interactions: A New Method of ClassroomObservation." Journal of School Psychology.8:131-38, 1970.

38. Flanders, op. cit.. p. 34.

AWARENESS TRAINING

I Robert A. Bernal. Associate Professor. OgontzCampus, the Pennsylvania State University,Abington

The introduction of a new and often very differentscience curriculum to an elementary. secondary, orcollege classroom can be compared to a newly formingsocial system. If teachers of such a program are"aware" of a particular set of social science concepts.they may be able to facilitate the learning which shouldtake place in a modern science class. Ignorance of theseconcepts may actually result in teacher behavior whichis counter productive to achieving the sciencecurriculum goals.

Five social science concepts are most important toconsider when introducing "a new science curriculum."Perhaps the best way to understand the implications ofthese social science concepts is to define them and

compare what they would be in "traditional" and"modern.' science classrooms.1. Goals The proposed objectives uf the science

curriculum, stated when possible in terms of whatthe successful learner should be able to do by theend of the instructional program

2. Norms A set of accepted and expected social be-hmiors common to a group whose members havesocial interaction together. The classroom climate.

3. Roles The relationships between the members ofa social group which make clear the part or char-acter which each person assumes he has to play inthat social system.

4. Physical Arrangenienl.s - The placement or posi-tioning of the human and material resources usedin the learning situation.

5. Feedback Monitoring - Periodic collection of in-formation from the learners used to make infer-ences about the state of the social system and tomodify the instructional program.

For example. the goals usually associated withtraditional science require that the student learn a setof science content facts and demonstrate this learningby achieving a passing grade on a written test. On theother hand. "modern" science as typified by thediscovery or inquiry alphabet programs (SCIS, S-A PA,ESS. COPES, IPS. 1SCS. BSCS. CHEM STUDY. CBA.HPP. ESOP, etc.) emphasizes student learning of somebasic science process (problem solving) skills andscience concepts, as well as some science content facts.This learning is to be demonstrated by performance incarrying out science experimentatioa, as well as onwritten examinations.

The difference in the stated goals of "traditional"and "modern" science programs would make oneexpect that different norms. roles, physical arrange-ments. and feedback monitoring methods should resultin these two kinds of classrooms.

For example, some of the norms expected intraditional science classrooms are: quiet, studentsspeak only when called upon by the teacher; studentsmove about the room only upon direction of the tea-cher; interactions in general (questions, discussion. etc.)are normally between student and teacher, and seldombetween student and student. In a "modern" scienceclassroom the expected norms are: a moderate amountof noise, students speak to each other and have freedomof movement; and there are frequent interactions withother students as well as with the teacher.

In a "traditional" classroom the teacher's role isdispenser of knowledge. lecturer, and reward giver. Theteacher talks and the students listen. The students'roles are those of passive learners gaining informationfrom the teacher, and the textbook without too muchthinking or questioning about what is being learned.

In the "modern" classroom the students role is tobe an active investigator and learner; to gaininformation by experimentation and inquiry, as well asby reading; to constantly think and ask questions; tofrequently interact with other students and the sciencematerials. The teacher's role in the modern classroom isto facilitate inquiry, to ask questions which willpromote thought. The rewards in "modern" scienceclassrooms are supposed to come from satisfaction insolving problems as well as from the teacher.

Modern science programs are supposed to bestudent-centered and laboratory-centered. Traditionalprograms are usually teacher-centered. These wouldobviously call for different physical arrangements of

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students. teacher. and laboratory materials.In order to assess how the students perceie the

goals. norms, roles, and physical arrangements in ailsclassroom the teacher needs some feedback monitoringsystem of collecting information from students.

When students are accustomed to traditionalinstruction in most subject areas, and when theirpre% mus science instruction has been in a traditionalprogram. the introduction of one of the modern scienceprograms is similar to what Miles 2 calls a TemporarySystem.

Anyone entering a temporary system needsanswers to certain questions before productive workbegins. The learner needs to know : "Why am I here?""What is expected of me here'?" "What is acceptablebehavior here?" We can recognize these questions asasking about the goals, roles. and norms. Teachersmust be clear on goals. roles. and norms and mustconsider how these w ill be affected by the physicalarrangements in the classroom. Teachers need somemethod of collecting feedback data about theirclassrooms so that they can make instructionaldecisions.

Part 1.1 of this session will be a workshop onmethods of applying these social science concepts to theanalysis and teaching of "modern" science curricula.

I This paper is based upon a monograph "TheApplication of Temporary Systems Concepts toEffective Planning and Management of NationalScience Foundation Supported Educational Programs"being prepared under Grant GW-4508 made by theNational Science Foundation to The Pennsylvania StateUniversity, Ogontz Campus, Abington. Pa. 19001.

2 Miles. M.. "On Temporary Systems" in Innovationin Education. M. Miles editor. Teachers College Press.Columbia University, New York (1964)

SESSION E-2

SETTING A CLIMATE FOR CREATIVITYIN THE SECONDARY SCIENCE CLASSROOM

CREATIVITY

Eugene E. Nalence, Physics Teacher, Marple-Newtow n Senior High School, Newtown Square,Pennsylvania

I believe there are three ways the teacher canstimulate ct,:ativity. First, the teacher'should establisha classroom situation that allows for at least someindependent action by students. Second, the teachershould provide materials and activities that provideincentive for student interest and involvement. Third,the teacher should demonstrate his own creatiyi.. andactive interest in science and science teaching. Let'sconsider each of these ideas.

It is clear that young people need some guidance intheir learning experiences. This means that anyindependent study program must provide some built-inguidance. The best means for providing this is toestablish behavioral objectives in a logical sequencethat clearly state what is to be expected from thestudent. The means by which these objectives areachieved, and the time devoted to them, can be at leastpartially determined by the student. More area forindependent action can be created by building into the

program, optional objectives not required as a basicpart of the course

At Marple Newtown Senior High School. inNewtown Square. Pennsylvania, an independent studyscience program has been in existence for several yearsStudents enter the program on the basis of teacherrecommendation and student desire. About 10 to 20percent of the students in our college preparatoryprogram are in an independent study class. Students inthese classes proceed at their on pace. Testing is on anobjective -by-objective basis, at times selected b thestudent. Grades are determined by both the quality andthe quantity of the work done.

Data comparing the achievements of independent-study students with students in the regular collegepreparatory program having similar abilities show nosignificant difference. Then, one might ask, what valuedoes an Independent study program have? First, theprogram obviously must be more student-centered andindividualised. Second. the attitude of students towardtheir work is very positive since most activities areinitiated by the students. Finally, students are released.at least partially. from artificial harriers of time.

We have been satisfied enough by our efforts inindependent study to increase the number of studentsinvolved. We hope to he able to offer the possibility ofindependent study to all who w ish to take it.

I mentioned that a second means for encouragingcreativity was to provide stimulating materials andactivities. At Marple Newtown, we offer a program ingeneral science as well as the usual academic program.In trying to put together a quality program in generalphysics. we have been very satisfied w it h the use of casestudies. Case studies are independent units within thecourse. They focus attention on either a contemporarytechnological problem, or a recent technologicaldevelopment. The student is asked to propose andevaluate solutions to technological problems or toconsider implications of technological developments.To do either of these things. the studer.t must learnsonic physics probably the same physics he wouldlearn in any teaching approach. But case studiesprovide incentive for learning by providing immediateapplication for w hat is learned. They also give thestudent practice in reacting to situations he will face asa voter. tax-payer. and consumer; long after his formaleducation ends.

We have collected data on achievement bystudents of case-study and non-case study objectivesSonic data indicate higher lore's of achievement oncase-study-related items. Nonstatistical data such as

statements by students. reference materials gathered bystudents, and the level of student involvement in

classroom activities indicate greater student interestin ease-study activities. We think it might be possible tocontain all basic principles in physics within a set ofcase studies. We would also like to have enough casestudies to provide several alternatives for both students

and teachers.The last, and perhaps most important. means by

which student creativity can be stimulated is byexample. Our students will never retain all of theprinciples which we so carefully establish in our classes.But they will probably remember us as people for a verylong time. It is therefore essential that we clearlydisplay our interest and concern with our students andths.ir ideas as well as our concern with science-relatedprinciples and problems. We must also display our owncreativity in our teaching techniques. our quest for new

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knowledge. and our own search for rational solutions tocontemporary problems. By denumstrat mg theseattitudes to our students. we can pros ide them withideas useful in tacmg unexpected problems in anunknown future.

ROLE OF THE RESOURCE CENTER IN SETTINGA CLIMATE FOR CREATIVITY

Da id L. Cross. Science and Ens momenta!Education Consultant. Lansing School District.Lansing, Michigan

A slide cassette -tape program relates the role ofthe science and ens ironmental education center. theSEE. Center, in setting a climate for creativity. The SEECenter series 50 elementary and 9 secondary schools inthe Lansing School District in the disciplines of scienceai,d ens ironmental education.

FREE SCHOOL SCIENCEBaxter J. Garcia. Science Teacher. Alternative andIndependent Study Program (AISP), Toronto,Canada

As a science educator in an alternatne high school.I am directly concerned with the relationship betweenthe climate of creativity in the science classroom. andthe overall climate of the school itself.

The present crisis in science education evidencedby declining enrollments. and widespread disillusion-ment with science as a career Is inseparable from thewider crisis in edocation generally. These circumstan-ces dictate the necessity ton radical changes both in thescience classroom and in the total school environment.Some of these changes are beginning to he realised inthe alternative high schools.The Alternative High School

The Alternative and Independent Study Programwas established in Toronto in 1970 as an experiment insecondary education. Its general features andphilosophy are patterned after other establishedalternat is es, such as the Parkway Program inPhiladelphia. the Metro School in Chicago. and theSEED program in Toronto. The characteristics of theseprograms may be familiar to most of you. but let mesummarize briefly the essential aspects and goals ofA ISP.I. Any student from the school district (serving a

population of one-halt million) may apply to AISP.Selection for the 160 spaces is by lottery.

2. To maintain a human scale at AISP, numbers arekept small-160 students, 9 staff.

3. Compulsory aspects of schooling, related to atten-dance, dress. etc. do not exist at AISP.

4. Informality and close personal contact are stressedin staff-student relationships. Growth. for bothteachers and students, is assessed in terms ofmoral. emotional. and psychological factors, aswell as the traditional academic ones.

5. Staff function primarily as resource people. not asteachers in the traditional sense.

6. The school program is closely integrated withcommunity resources. We attempt to make fruitfuluse of the vast resources of an urban setting:museums, universities, libraries. theatres. etc.

7. Students are given the widest possible choice as

regards both what they choose to study. and hewthey choose to study.

8. Community government; involving staff, students,and parents. is evolving at A15:13. Studentsand parents assist staff in dealing VI tth administra-tive. curricular, and other aspects of the program.

Science at AISPHMI does the science program at AISP function?

The process begins w hen students identify an interestarea. Then, my first task as science resource person is tobuild a communications network, finding out VI hatstudents want to study, how they want to study; i.e..,odependently or VI ith a group, and if the latter, puttingthem in touch with other students who want to study inthe same area. Then. getting them startedwhatresources are available. books, course outlines, films,community resources and catalysts, or resource people,space for groups to meet. supplies and equipment forexperiments. etc. As you might imagine, this process isenormously time-consuming and tedious, and as such isinefficient in traditional terms. But time isn't reallybeing lost in this organizational phase because studentsduring this period are having a most significantlearning experierce; they are learning how to assembleresources and take responsibility for their ON n learning.

A fundamental premise underlying our operationat AISP is that most schools fail completely in thislatter areamost schools assume implicitly, if notexplicitlythat students are incapable of makingsignificant decisions about their own education. Henceit is necessary to compel students to attend school, as iflearning could be compelled. And so it is often statedthat students are not mature enough to bearresponsibility for their MI n learning. The irony of thislies in the simple fact that human beings becomemature through the very experience of bearingresponsibility, and being allowed to make significantdecisions about their lives. If schools are to encouragethe development of maturity in young people, let thembegin by realizing that learning cannot becompelledthat it can only flow from the free choice ofthe learner and that the learner gains maturity as helearns to accept the consequences of his on freechoices.Alternative Learning Forms in Science

The forms of learning in science that evolve atAISP are diverse, and highly individualized. Somestudents choose to study on an independent basis, somework in sn-all seminar groups, with me or anotherresource person as a leader. sonic groups work withinthe school, some work at universities or otherinstitutions in the community. Generally, eachstudent's learning pattern evolves in a unique way.Alternative Learning Content in Science

I have discussed alternative tivins for learning inscience at AISP. What about science content in analternative context? What trill students choose to studyin science if they are given a free choice?The patternthat I have tbund is not a surprising oneit mirrors thegeneral trend evident in recent years across the UnitedStates and Canada. Biology is by far the most popularscience area. Chemistry is a distant second, and physicsa lagging third. Clearly. placing students in a freeschool context does not imply that they will be liberatedfrom their preconceptions and prejudices about sciencecoursesin particular the physical sciences. School,and perhaps society, in a broad sense, has turned offstudents to these areas of science, physics andchemistry, and it is no easy matter to turn them onagain.

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Curiously. biology is an exception. Students seethis area as one with human content, as one w ithreloance to society in general. and to themindn 'dually . Within the scope of biology. extremel,successful courses have oohed at AISP in such areas a%ecology, nutrition, the human body. human sexuality.behavior, and sur%n al; although classical arca studiessuch as botany and genetics have also been popular.Also, it is interesting to notice that students are nota, erse to learning physics and chemistry when it IS

introduced in the context of a subject like the humanbody, or nutrition: i.e.. in a context percei%ed asrele vantImplications for Science Educators

There are some interesting implications for scienceeducators involved in the observations I've discussedabove. Perhaps we need to recall that the currentgeneration of students came of age in thescientific-technological era, and that they hac livedlong enough to assimilate some of the connectionsbetween science and technology, and the social ills thatcurrently plague us; poverty, urban decay, environmen-tal destruction, militarism. These students grow up toconfront a technological juggernauta societyapparently out of control, unable to use its vast wealthand resources to create a more humane level ofexistence for its people.

The challenge for us. as science educators, is clear.We must work toward bringing humanistic content intoal! science areas. We might begin by encouragingstudents to de%elop integrated approaches, crossingsubject boundaries to topics of interest to them, such asthe human body. One idea here might involve a systemsapproach. stressing the applicability of a single set ofconcepts to different systems such as cell. organism.and society. The immediate relevance of such studiescould be underscored by using current research such asthe MIT report "Limits to Growth." Or perhaps anentire curriculum could be set up around the theme:Alternative Science/Alternative Society. In this waystudents could explore different aspects of science, as akey to the future, and as a tool in the transformation ofsociety.

In summary. I want to affirm the need tifffar-reaching change% in both the form and content ofscience education at the high school level. Furthermore.I wish to emphasize that reforms limited only to thescience classroom will not in themselves lead to aclimate for creativity. What happens in the scienceclassroom is indeed dependent on what is happening inthe school generally. If the school environment is basedon compulsion and restrictions, it will be unlikely that atruly creative atmosphere can be established in thescience classroom. But if, on the other hand, the schoolenvironment is based on freedom and openness, thenthis atmosphere will infuse itself into all aspects of theschool program, setting the foundation for a trulycreative and liberating climate for learning in science.

SESSION E-4

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES: NECESSARY ORSUPERFLUOUS

Das id P. Butts. Professor. Science EducationCenter, The University of Texas at Austin

Whether performance objectives are springboardsor coffin lids will depend on the intent of the user. Just

as beauty is in the ewes of the beholder, the necessity forperformance object is es is a function of the people in thelearning context. The learning context is being used todescribe the coming together of many tier the purpose ofeducation. An assumption basic to this discussion isthat we all are agreed that the outcomes of this "comingtogether' should he sell-actualizing people people

ho can make "w ise choices and w orthy decisions.- Forthis potential of decision and choice-making to mature.our students must hase the freedom and opportunity tomake decisions or choices within known parameters. Inthis way, feedback on the consequences of their choicesmakes it possible for the student's action to becomeintentional rather than accidental.

The essential nature of parameters is that we mustknow the name of the game and the rules in order to be

a fully functioning participant. As one participatingperson in the learning context, it is my responsibility asthe teacher-guide. director, monitorto make thename of the game and the rules or the parametersopenly mailable to all the participants.

Performance objectises are an illustration ofintended parameters. They are devices that can helpclarify tasks and open channels of communicationbetween key people in the learning contextthestudent and the teacher. Please note the conditionalnature of this statementcan help. Performanceobjectives do not make good learning, they facilitatepeople.

In a learning context, students learn because of theteacher's instructional program. school environment.personal motivation, and home background. Withouttoo much difficulty. we could make impressive lists ofcreative efforts to show that each of these factors is anecessary and sufficient cause for successfullyfunctioning people who can make wise choices aniworthy decisions. But, it is equally simple to makealternative lists of evaluation studies that negate each ofthese factors, with the exception of the teacher. It'learning is an individual accomplishment, then thepersonal nature of this interaction between one who hasa greater insight cannot he overemphasised.

Performance objectives can facilitate tois interac-tion if we define them as indicators or as assertions ofwhat I as a teacher want my students to do because ofthe learning context. There is a very real distinctionbetween open statements of intent which are useft.1 forclarifying and communicating instructional intent.There are also closed descriptions that are hypotheticalstatements of what a learner should he able to do in apost instructional testing situation (1, 101.

In the former (open objectives), the emphasis is oncommunicating the intended outcome in the languageof the learner and a sharing of the relevance of thisoutcome in a way that will communicate to the learner.

In the latter (closed objectives), you will findcareful attention to the precise description of tasks.conditions, and criteria of the behavior which thelearner is to demonstrate. While these are useful inconstructing tests for assessment purposes. I see littlevalue in closed objectives to facilitate communicationbetween the teacher and student in the learningcontext.

Then what good are they?"Goodness" is a value judgment._ We may wish to

use Charlie Brown's answer to this question:I think the best way to solve (it) is to avoid them.This is a distinct philosophy of mine. No (ques-tion) is so big or complicated that it cannot be runaway from.

We can do a cop-out and merely ignore the questionWe can answer the question with a clear cut

-None.- This is a result of using the philosophy. knowyour stutt, know who sou are going to stuff. and stuffthem. Or we can saw "good- because performanceobjectives facilitate: directions for the [corning context.selecting learning opportunities. fitting the learningcontext to the learner. assessing success. For amlearning context, there are Intended (implicitly orexplicitly know n) goals. Performance objectives make itpossible for a teacher to define what it is that schoolsneed to do relatise to the basic goal. that is to teach

children to work and relate to each other 151.

Performance objectives push the teacher to he clearerand more specific in intentional outcomes. thus.resulting in greater teacher insight into the total tasksI 1. PertOrmance objectises also help a teacher to search

out alternative sequences of goals and to coordinatemans goals together. Because analysis of goals intosmaller performance objectives requires careful study.the objectives reseal situations in which there are goals

but no learning opportunities: and help both theteacher and student spot trash or trisia in the learningcontext 181.

Performance objectives provide a base of insightfor the learning context which facilitates selecting manylearning alternatives. The more I know about a subject.the greater the freedom I hase to act. The conserse is

equally true. The less I know, the more I ani restrictedto two pages a day of directed instruction. Withperformance objectives. a teacher has a basis to search

for relevant activities appropriate for individualchildren 14 A clear goal provides an insight intoselecting and using a variety of materials because theperformance objective helps us to focus on theconsequences. or the matter of the learning context.rather than on the manner 161.

Performance objectives have their greatest impactin helping us lit the learning context to the individualchild. Personalizing learning means greater freedom forthe child to decide pace. style, and substance of hislearning. With the performance objectives, a greaterclarity and mutual understanding. about the intent ofthe learning context between the teacher and thestudent is possible. Everyone knows what is expected

(1.81 because mutual thinking and planning areessential in the communication of these intentions instudent's language 181. Performance objectives are away to focus on a variety of pertOrmance levels, e.g..knowledge, consequence. exploratory or knowledge.practice and application. The sariety of expectedperformance levels known thus permits the teacher tofocus on the variety of needs of learner's interests andabilities as important dimensions in organizinginstruction to fit the child. Clear goals help teachersgain expertise in observing students and inrecommending alternative activities within the learningcontext 1 l 1. Thus, performance objectives facilitate theshift from the "telling" information- giving teacher who

makes all the decisions and choices to one whoorganizes the context with many options andrecommends that the learner consider those choices.The performance objective makes it possible for ateacher to develop sensible objectives and then to helpstudents to work toward these instructional outcomes.(51.

Assessing success is not new. We always have andalways will he involved in judging how well students areperforming both in short term tasks and longer tLrm

goals. When we do this, we are using performanceobjectives. for we are basing our judgment on()ken able beha% ior. We may not feel comfiirtable inbeing specific about the shallow level of the objeemesthat our assessments indicate. Indeed, we may elect todebate performance objecti% es rather than face theshallowness of our judgment. Performance objectivespermit us to gain more etidence that the learner hasgained what we had hoped 131. They make more preciseevaluation possiblel9lin that they help us translate ourintentions into measurable or observable evidence.Performance objecti% es also help us we where we hateevaluation or tests with no instruction or goals 131 andwhere we have goals or instruction with no evidence ofsuccess.

As used here. please note that performanceobjective% are part of a broader picture. Goals are thebroad target and performance objectives are the targetsheets. For the performance objective to be tallied. itmust exist tf ithin a larger conceptual context. Thus, themodel of the learning context here is not a closednarrow %%stem of performance objectives. instruction,performance assessment. but rather an open system ofjob, task analysis. learning, performance assessment.

Performance objectives are not the first step on theladder to perfection. They are inanimate until someonedoes something with them. But in our consideration. wemust he careful to distinguish between our concern forthe outcomes, consequences, or products of thelearning context, and the manner or processes ofinteraction within the context. We may he souncomfortable with the process that we use a fOcus onthe performance objective as a substitute because it iseasier to reach for technology for solution than it is toface our real problem.

References

I. Anderson, Hans 0. "Performance ObjectivesPanacea, Pandemonium or Progress." Mimeo-graphed. undated

2. Anderson, Ronald. "Formulating Objecti% es inElementary' Science." Science and Children. Sep-tember 1%7.

3. Butts. David. "Behavioral Objectives for ScienceTeachers, Why?" A speech presented to the Asso-ciation for Education of Teachers of Science.March 1969.

4. Canfield. Albert. "A Rationale for PerformanceObjectit es." Audiovisual Instruction, February1968, p. 127.

5. Glasser, William. "A Talk with William Glasser."Learning. December 1972 p. 28.

6. Houston, Robert and Hollis, L. "PersonalizingMathematics Teacher Preparation." Mimeo-graphed, undated.

7. Montague. E. and Butts, D. "Behavioral Objec-tit es." The Science Teacher. March 1968.

8. Popham, W. James. "Objectives '72." Phi DeltaKamm. March 1972, p. 432.

9. Thompson, John. "13thavioral ObjectivesThePaper Tiger of Accountability." Sensorsheet, Fall1972.

10. Walbesscr. Kurtz. Goss and Robl. Constructinginstruction Based on Behavioral Objectives. OSUSchool of Engineering, Stillwater, Oklahoma,1971.

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11. Wengei. Popham and Steers "Instruction,t1Objectit es." Lducational Res, relief. September1972. p 8.

SESSION E-5

TEACHING COLLEGE SCIENCE

Mildred W. Graham, Assistant Protessor ofScience Education. Georgia State Unitersitt.Atlanta

The colleges and unnersities ale the traininggrounds for science proft. ,sors. s is sciencedepartments are cognizant of this ,. je. Others. b%awarding graduate degrees, gwe teaching credentialswithout et en a cursory glance at the competencies oftheir graduates in other than their knowledge of thesubject matter and their research capabilities. 1 hequestion is whether this is a problem for the sciencedepartments, and if so, how should they deal with theproblem?

We do not deny that there are intuimelt goodprofessors. The multiplier effect of these professors Onfuture college science teachers who emulate them musthe great. However, there are some who cannot emulatea model. In addition, a gi% en professional model ma%not be appropriate to a particular student because ofdifferences in personalities, beliefs. and attitudes.Furthermore, the prospectite college teacher has littleopportunity for appropriate practice of a model.

We cannot believe that a particular chromosomalmakeup will produce creative college professors. Nor dowe believe that a great textbook knowledge of sciencewill guarantee effective college science professors.Neither do we say that a given number of collegeeducation courses will automatically produce aneffective college teacher, particularly without ascholarly base. Perhaps some insight into the problemis provided b% the impression that college professor%value their roles as researchers more than their roles asteachers.

Much time has been spent in science facultymeeting% debating graduate internship% and similarissues concerning the training of prospective collegeprofessor% in skills relative to communication ofknowledge about and attitudes toward science. Have weused internships to their maximum eflectiteness?There are some outstanding illustration% .here thisexperience is maximized, but often it is just a role thatis played in isolation toward financing a graduatedegree. Studies show the extensive role %train or conflictthis places on a graduate student.

We do believe that it is possible to help prospectivecollege professor% attain skills in handling thecomplexities of college teaching. How can we help thegraduate intern become an effective teacher? We muststudy the programs in operation and study thesituational aspects of our on departments. We mustdevelop programs which will offer optimum learningexperiences for our assistants as well as improve theinstruction of the multitude of undergraduate studentswho are under their tutelage.

SESSION F-1

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICPOWER GENERATION

Morton I. Goldman. Vice President and GeneralManager. NUS Corporation. Rockville. Mary law!

I have been asked to discuss the comparativeemironmental effects of energy usage and. particularly.of alternative methods of electric power generation.This is a difficult assignment under any circumstancesince the areas of influence of electric pow er generationare quite widespread. extending from the miningoperations through the transportation of fuel. and theemissions from the generating stations themselves. tothe transmission of the energy generated to the ultimateconsumer. and of course the disposal of waste productsfrom the generation process. In comparing thealternative methods of electric energy generation, onetrequently finds that the effects of one or another of thesegments of the operations are not strictly comparable.Newrtheless, there are sufficient means foi comparingthese effects to make a reasonable assessment ofmailable alternatives.

In this presentation. I will deal primarily with theenvironmental effects of currently developed technologyfor electric energy generation: hydroelectric generationwhich utilircs the energy of falling water to turnturbines which in turn drive electric gen:rators; amethod which utiliies the stored chemical energy offossil fuels in the Corm ot heat: and a method whichuses nuclear heat resulting from the fission of atoms.All dace of these energy sources are and have been inuse to generate electricity on commercial scales.

I will not deal with such exotic methods of energyj.,..7neration as solar power. geothermal energy, tidalpower. wind power. and thermonuclear fusion. None ofthese sources are likely to provide any significantfraction of the electrical energy needs of this nation orof the world over the next two to three decades. at theearliest.

One of the earliest and, where available. one of thecheapest methods of generating electric energy is fromthe energy of falling water. It requires about 300acre-feet or 370.000 cubic meters of water falling 100feet to produce about one mega?. att day or twenty-fourthousand kilowatt hours of electrical energy. Most ofthe available sites and water in the United States suit-able for hydroelectric energy generation have alreadybeen developed. and it is estimated that a very small in-crease in this method of energy generation will occurover the next 20-30 years. In 1970, approximately 16percent of the generating capacity in the United Statesderived from hydroelectric or pumped storage facilities.In 1980, this is projected to drop to 14 percent of thetotal capacity and in 1990. to 12 percent of the totalcapacity.

1 he environmental impact of hydroelectricgenerating facilities is, of course, not negligible.Substantial lane :eas are inundated by the impoundedlakes behind these dams. fhe dams are large structuresrequiring substantial quantities of concrete and steel,and these structures may impede the migration ofcertain fish species. The impoundment of water willusually increase the surface area exposed to sunlightand often waters in reservoirs are several degrees abovethose temperatures naturally reached in the unconfinedstream. Thus in this instance, we have an example of a

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thermal enhancement of confined water Il, theflow of water through the turbine, and its dfsc,:.,rge tothe stream below the dam may create changes in thedissolved gas content which may in turn lead to specificdiseases in fish.

Fossil -fuel steam electric plants provide the bulk ofelectric generation capacity in the world at the presenttune. Fossil-fuel plants are those which burncarbonaceous materials to release heat energy. Ot thetotal energy generated by fossil fuels. about 56 percentderived from coal. 29.5 percent from gas. and 14.5percent from oil. It required approv: natel &Nen tonsof coal to produce one megawatt-d of electric energy:about forty -tour barrels of oil and two hundred andfifty thousand cubic feet of gas were burned permegawatt-day of electric energy. The conversion of eachof these fuels to electric energy results in someenvironmental impact which, of course. varies betweenthe different fuels.

Looking first at coal. v. hich pro\ ides the majorportion of our electric energy needs at the present time.a number ot areas of environmental effect can beidentified. The first is the effect on laud use, includingthe ecological effects of mining operations, thecommitment of substantial areas of land for powerplant sites, rail delivery facilities, and coal storageareas, and the rt...juirements for disposal of solid wastesassociated with the flyash collection and (probably)trout processes for the removal of sulfur from Cluegases. Second. there are effects on air quality stt mmingfrom the discharge into the atmosphere of corrbustionproducts including nitrogen oxides. sulfur oxic es. andparticulates. Effects on water quality from thedischarges of waste heat and some chemicals. andeffects on land use associated with transmissionrights-ot-way are essentially common to all thermalgenerating stations and are not necessarily siweitic tothe use of coal as fuel.

The country's resources ot coal are xtremellarge. However, coal is not uniform in qualit ,.. varyingquite widely in both physical and chemical properties,and in terms of its costs to mine and transport. Forexample. the bulk of the low sulfur and

ofcoals which are found in the western part ot the countryare located ouite far from utility demand centers whichare predominantly in the east. Coals v. hich are nearer toload centers are generally rather high in sulfur. or areexpensive to mine.

The sulfur content of United States coals rangesfrom about 0.2 to 7 percent by weight, The ash contentnormally ranges from 5 to 20 percent by weight. 'Thebulk of the coal burned by United States utilities hashad a sulfur content in the range of 2 to 4 percent.Increasingly. electric utilities are being required by airquality considerations to burn fuel having a sulfurcontent ot one percent or less and, in some instances.the allowable limit has been set below 0.5 percentsulfur. The supplies of coal available with sulfurcontents as low as one percent are very limited inrelation to the substantial needs of the power industry.Neatly 70 percent of the toal resources of all types ofcoal are located west of the Mississippi River; all of thelow sulfur sub-bituminous coal and lignite resourcesand about one-half of the bituminous coal containingless than 7.5 percent sulfur by weight are located westof the Mississippi. In the east. the bulk of the low - sulfurbituminous coal reserves are located in Appalachia;three-quarters of that is metallurgical grade cokingcoal. which is in great demand both in the United

States and abroad. Substantial rese 1 es of this coal.therefore, are either dedicated to the metallurgical andexport markets, or are directly owned hs steelcompanies

The burning of coal results in the emission ofoxides of sulfur, and nitrogen and particulates: thedisposal of the ash resulting from the burning of coal isalso a major area of impact. For example. in 1970 thethree hundred and tssenty million tons of coal burnedbs electric utilities resulted in the generation ofapproximately thirty- thirty -five million tons of ashrequiring disposal as solid ssaste, and approximatelytweets -four million ions of sulfur dioxide assuming anaverage of 3.5 percent sulfur in the coal burned.

I he control of particulate emission fromcoal-burning plants is well established from atechnological point -of -view. Techniques include theinstallation of mechanical collectors and electrostaticprecipitators which can yield removal efficiencies inexcess of 99 percent from the flu gas streams at theseplants. The control of sulfur emissions from coal -firedstations is not nearly as well develolped as the controltechnology for particulate emissions. The present statusof these processes can best he described asdevelopmental. A number of processes have demon-strated a reasonable capability in small scaleexperiments or pilot plant operations and are now inthe testing phase at a number of different utility plantsaround the country to determine their effectivenessunder realistic operating conditions when associatedwith generating plants. One of the major dialoguespresently underway relates to the actual status of theseprocesses. The Environmental Protection Agency hasgenerally stated that technology has been demonstratedfor the sulfur removal processes; most utilities and theFederal Power Commission disagree with this position.

The emission standards issued last year by theEnvironmental Protection Agency ssou.d require coalwith a sulfur content of 0.7 percent or l'ss to be burned.or its equivalent in removal efficiency to be provided influe gas processes. As I indicated earlier. themailability of coal with appropriate sulfur content isrestriLt-d in availat*ility either due to location (atsubstantial distances assay from the site of generation),or is committed to or (tuned by the metallurgicalindustry. Additionally. the substitution of loss-sulfurcoals for those of higher content will usually reduce theefficiency of installed lectrostatie precipitators, due tothe higher resistivity of the loss-sulfur coal ash. Thestatus of technology available to assure the ability ofremoving sulfur reliably in commercial power plantoperation is also in dispute.

A final consideraron is that the loss-sulfur coalmailable in the western states would he extractedalmost exclusively tiirough strip mining techniques. Asyou are probably imam strip mining practices arecurrently under serious challenge by both environmen-tal groups and a number of members of Congress.Thus. although reclamation practices arc available fordealing with strip mining problems. the ads isability ofpermitting mining companies to use these techniques torecover low- sulfur coals is open to some question.

Turning to oil, its use has increased substantiallyby utilities as environmental restrictions on coal usageand the lack of availat 'ity of gas have grown. In 1970,approximately three 1 indred and thirty-fise millionof barrels of oil wen. consumed in United Statesgenerating stations. This increased by over 18 percentin 1971 to about three hundred ninety-six million

barrels of oil, while coal usage in 19-1 ss as only 2percent higher than in the preceding seat and gasconsumption increased bs mils I 5 percent. Since oilts weans contains less sulfur than does coal. it has beenutilized in many instances as a replacement for coalsince burning coal %whites air quality regulations.Assuming an average of 1.5 percent sulfur for the threehundred tliirts-tise million barrels of oil burned in 14-0bs electric stations. the emissions of sultur oxides inthat sear totalled approximately two hundred thousandtons. or less than 1 percent of the total contributed bsutility coal combustion in that same period

Although processes arc mailable for dcsulturizingoil. the capacity of existing refineries does not now (norwill it for several sears) match the demand for fuel oilwith a Iws sulfur content. Additionalls, therequirements for oil lime led Mall) suppliers topurchase oil from foreign sources a factor which hasphis ed a significant role in the United States balance oftrade and sshich has raised questions of nationalsecurity insolsed ssith the dependence on foreigngrnernntents for significant fractions of our total energysources. Oil imports at the present time apptommatethree million Ilse hundred thousand barrels per day;the is protected to increase to approximately 50 percentof Cie total United States oil supply by 1975. accordingto the National Petroleum Council.

There are other environmental problems assoc-iated with the use of oil as a fuel including: thepotential contamination of ocean skaters duringexploration. recovery or transportation pAxessesassociated with the development of oil re auiResCertainly the controsersy about the Alaskan pipeline,or the periodic episodes of oil spills from wells or fromtank mishaps in near coastal skaters have not escapedpubic notice. Additionally. the marine terminaltacit:ties required for docking and unloading of theso-called "super-tankers- tune found substantialopposition to their construction in most locations, dueto concerns about potential environmental effects.

The third fossil fuel. natural gas. which providedalmost 30 percent of the electric energy generated by Allfossil fuels in 1970, has been plagued by a shortage ofproven reserses. Thus, despite its desirabilits as aclean-burning fuel for many uses, including utilitygenerating stations, it has been increasingly unavailablefor the latter. Gas contains essentially no sulfur contentand no significant quantities of particulates aregenerated during its combustion in comparison to coalor oil. However, in common with the other two fossilfuels. nitrogen oxides arc produced and emitted to theatmosphere with the flue gases.

In order to fully utilize our domestic energyresources of fossil fuel% and meet the stringent airquality standards being legislated. efforts hine beenunderway and are being intensified to dodo') syntheticgas supplies from available coal resources, to developthe energy contained in oil shales located in large areasof the western United States. and to develop and utilizeprocesses for removal of sulfur oxides front flue gases.Hoss..wer. the fraction of the total electrical energyreuit.rements of the United States able to be suppliedby these cleaner energy sources will probably he in-significant until at least the end of this decade.

Nuclear energy provides a substantially differentalternatise to thel'ossil-fuel generating capability whichat present provides the hulk of the nation's electricgenerating capability. Although nuclear energyprovided only 1.6 percent of the total electric energygenerated in 1970. that value increased to 2.8 percent in

1971, to 3.4 percent in 1972, a:,d is projected to providealmost 19 percent by the end of this decade. and 44percent by 1990. Although nuclear energy has been

idely promoted a: "clean energy", it is not without itson environmental effects. In many cases. of course.these effects are similar to those associated with fossilenergy generation. such as the transmission linesrequired to move the energy from the generating stationto the consumer; the necessity for structures to housethe generating station. and the land required for thatpurpose; and the mining activities associated with theextraction of the uranium fuel for the nuclear plants.However. there are, in addition. a number of effectswhich are unique to the nuc:ear power generation field,and which generally relate to the nature of the fuel andprocess used to generate this energy.

Despite these other effects, the generation ofelectricity using nuclear means is substantially"cleaner" than the methods involving thecombustion of fossil fuels. In the resource extractionarea, the weight or volume of nuclear fuel required ismany orders of magnitude less than that associateswith coal or with oil, since the energy content ofuranium is many times greater than that of the fossilfuels. For example, the 10 tons of coal or 45 barrels ofoil needed for one megawatt-day of electric energy. canhe replaced by about three and one-half ounces ofslightly enriched uranium. Not only does this reducethe amount of land necessary for mining uranium, butit also reduces the needs for transport of the fuel, andthe requirements for large fuel storage facilities andareas at the power plant site. There are, of course, nocombustion products since the generation of heatresults from the nuclear fission process.

For all of its attractiveness, 1 ever, nucleargeneration is not free of potential _nvironmentalimpact. The extraction and processing of uranium doesresult in an element of risk for the miners (although to asubst atially lesser extent than in underground coalmining), and in the generation of substantial quantitiesof tailings, which do contain some residual naturalradioactive materials. Small quantities of radioactivegases, liquids, and solid wastes are p-oduced in anuclear plant as a result of its operation. and theseradioactive materials are many times n ,re toxic peru it weight than are the combustion products fromfossil fuel. At the generating plant site also, there is asubstantial increase in the amount of heat released tothe environment as compared to equivalent fossilplants, due primarily to the lower thermal efficiency ofthe nuclear units. Following their use in the nuclearpower plant. the radioactive fuel elements aretr,?, ported to fuel recovery facilities at which theradioactive materials generated in the fuel areseparated from remaining fuel values. This process is

the source of the long-lived, high activity waste whichhas been much deplored in the press during recentmonths.

Looking first at the radioactive wastes generates atthe power station site, there is a substantial body ofexperience which indicates that the processes availableand in use at the present time are etairely adequate tou,.sentially eliminate any change in the radiatione.ivironment of a nuclear power station from that whichexisted prior to plant operation. Nuclear power plantshave operated in this country since the late 1950's withsurveillance of their surroundings by both state andleftct.:11 agencies in addition to the plant operatorsthemselves. By and large, there have been no changes inthe radiation in the environment of th 'se power plants

08

as a result of power plant operations. A recent report bythe National Academy of Sciences - National ResearchCouncil supports this view. The experience in fact hasbeen sufficiently fas °rabic that within the last few yearsthe Atomic Energy Commission has proposed r' usingthe discharge limits at these plants by a factor ofapproximately one hundred, based on the fact thatoperating experience has demonstrated the capabilityof maintaining releases at about one percent of presentradiation exposure standards.

Continuing with the radioactive waste issue. by farthe majority of the radioactivity associated with nuclearpow er generation becomes available as a waste in thefuel recovery processing which is conducted at a centrallocation for a number of nuclear power plants. Federalregulations require that all such wastes be solidifiedand transferred to a federal repository for ultimatestorage. The site and nature of this repository has beenin controversy o'.er the past year or so. A deep salt minein Kansas, tentatively considered by the Atomic EnergyCommission as the storage site .:as. in fact, not entirelyacceptable due to the existence of penetrations fromother mineral explorations into or near the proposedstorage area.

The use of salt beds was recommended in 1954

originally by the National Academy of Sciences as thetype of geologic formation most likely to be acceptable.and the AEC is co-r,litty exploring other salt bedregions for suitable storage sites, but the AEC is alsoproceeding with an alternative plan for massive surfacestorage facilities for these wastes. It nit:-.t berecognized. however, that the volume of these wastes, (a

few tenths of an acre per year for solidified nuclear"ashes") and hence the facility required to deal withtaem. is of a substantially smaller magnitude than thatassociated with the burning of coal and the disposal ofthe ash (30 to 35 million tons of ash per year). Althoughthe time period ov.m. which protection must be assured

is longmeasured in hundreds of years orlongercurrently as tillable materials and technologyshould be able to match the relatively primitiveengineering techniques available to the Egyptianpharoahs which served in many cases to protectartifacts for 3.000 5,000 years.

There remains, however, the question of heatdischarge. s. hich is common to all steam electricstations, ,shether fossil or nuclear. For a given energyoutput, the amount of heat rejected and released to theenvironment depends on the efficiency of the system,which in turn is a function of the maximumtemperature at which the boiler can operate. The 1969average thermal efficiency for all United States fossilplants was about 33.2 percent. This results in slightlyover two kilowatts of heat energy being rejected forevery kilowatt of electrical energy generated. Of thetotal, approximately 15 percent is rejected in the stackgases and th' remaining heat is wasted to the condensercooling water. The most modern fossil plants havethermal efficiencies of up to 40 percent withcorrespondingly lower heat rejection to both the stackgases and the water. Since nuclear reactors do not rejectheat via combustion gases, all of the waste heat isrejected to the condenser cooling water. Presentlight-water reactors operate with an efficiency of about32 percent, just slightly under that of the averageUnited States fossil plant, but with greater heat rejectedand released to water. The high temperature gas-cooledreactor has a thermal efficiency of 40 percent,equivalent to that of the best United States fossil plant.However, again in this case no heat is rejected to a stack

and there is a higher heat rejection to the cooling v,aterthan is the case with fossil plants. It is estimated thatthe fast breeder reactors currently under developmentwill have efficiencies of between 45 and 55 percentwhich will reduce the heat rejection to the environmentbelow that currently attained with the best fossil plants.

The combination of lower thermal efficiency andlarger unit size for central station nuclear plants hasresulted in a more difficult situation with respect toheat rejection problems. This is particularly true sincethe tendency is to establish as much generatingcapability on a site as the environmental conditions willpermit. Thus, although the waste heat problem hasbeen raised primarily in association with nuclear powerplants, the difference between nuclear and fossil plantsis literally one only of degree. which relates both tothermal efficiency and station size. By the end of thecentury, the potential development of new processescurrently in the research stage, such as fusion ormagneto-hydrodynamics which would operate atextremely high temperatures, offers considerablepromise for still future increases in efficiency andresulting decrease in heat rejection to the environment.

For the present, techniques are available forcontrolling the discharge of heat to the waterenvironment on its way to the atmosphere, the ultimaterepository for waste heat. These involve the use ofcooling ponds or cooling towers to dissipate the wasteheat directly to the atmosphere from a more confinedvolume of water. However, these alternate methods ofheat rejection also have their own disadvantages whichmust ,me weighed carefully before a choice is made.Neglecting economics, cooling towers which may be astall as a 40- or 50-story building for a large plant, havebeen considered ..esthetically unattractive by some and,more importantly. they discharge a considerableamount of water vapor into the atmosphere which canhave significant climatological eftects in the vicinity ofthe generating station. In cold or 'tumid weather, thelikelihood of fogging and precipitatiol, increased, andin sonic cases with cold climates, these towers havecreated long p: )blems on nearby plant structures,roads. and streets.

Cooling ponds or lakes (sometimes augmentedwith sprays) are another alternative. These requiresubstantial land areas which, depending upon theclimate, may average one to three acres of water surfaceper megawatt of plant capacity; thus a plant with 1,000megawatts of generating capacity might require asmuch as 3,000 acres for a cooling lake or pond. Thesepond% also will create some local fogging on cold daysdue ) he evaporation of water from the surface.

Studies are underway to develop useful appli-cations of this wasted low-grade energy, but there arepresently no established uses for all of this waste heat.It is, therefore. important to consider all possibleenvironmental interactions when choosing a heatrejection system for whatever kind of power station isproposed. particularly since the benefits to the aquaticcommunity in a limited area near a plant discharge mayin some circumstances be greatly outweighed by thedisadvantages to the human population over a muchwider area.

In summary. the environmental effects ofalternative electric generating means require careful,and individual assessments since there are fewuncomplicated issues which lend themselves tostraightforward resolution. As H. L. Mencken oncenoted, "For every problem there is a solution - simple,neat and wrong". Unfortunately. some of the

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approaches proposed both by regulatory agencies andby the so-called environmental interests appear tofollow Mencken all too closely.

ENERGY OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE

William R. Gould. Chairman of the Board. AtomicIndustrial Forum, and Senior Vice President.Southern California Edison Company. Rosemead

I am honored to have been asked to address theNational Science Teachers Association.

I have a1 ays felt that I owed a great personal debtto the teachers v, ho awakened my interest in thesciencesand I can think of no contribution moreimportant to our nation than that of kindling this vitalspark.

The habit of learningonce acquiredis noteasily broken. I recall reading a friend of OliverWendell Holmes v,ho asked the great man why he hadtaken up the study of Greek at the age of 94. Holmesreplied: "Why, my good sir, it's now or never!"

Watching a recent television newscastwith itskaleidoscope of tragic, and hopeful, eventsI foundmyselt thinking of a paragraph from an old novel,

hich I'm sure you will recall:"It was the best of times, it was the worst of

times...i: was the age of wisdom, it was the age offoolishnessat was the epoch of belief, it was the epochof incredulity...it was the season of light. it was theseason of darkness...it was the Spring of Hope...it wasthe Winter of Despair.'

Charles Dickens' "Tale of Two Cities" waspublished more than a century ago hut to me it seemsstrikingly relevant to the America of the 1970's.

We, too, have the best, and the worst of times.existing side by sideand viewing the parallels inhistory, one is tempted to say, "Nothing, essentially. haschanged."

But it has.Ina number of important respects, the generation

which is now in your care is uniqueand so are theresponsibilities you face, as teachers.

1 he pressures on our young people areunparalleled.

They are the first generation to be toldby ourgloomier prophetsthat they might be the lustgeneration.

They boardecl the space ship Earth just in time,some said. There were already too many passengers,and there might not be room for their children.The air and water life-support systems were about to

give out, putting an end to life on this planet.They are the first generation to grow up with the

constant awareness that one miscalculation by theirgovernment could destroy the world in a fewminutesby nuclear holocaust.

Also, theirs is the first generation which, fromchildhood, had an opportunity to observe the entiremarch of events.through their own little window-on-the-worldtelevision.

Through this window they have witnessed theapparent disintegration of the dream of our generation.

Ourskls the first generation to see the light at theend of man's tunnel of toilfor the tech, ,iogicalrevolution promised to give every American a life ofcomfort and luxury.

Now, however, our children have been told that theaftluent society has been achieved at the cost of

frightful pollution and irreversible damage to theens ironment. Science has been blamed for designingthe flood of consumer products. and industry forproducing them.

We base heard shrill calls for a no-growtheconomy. for a return to a more primitive life.

Fortunately. most y oun. deopleand mostAmericansreah7e. intuitively ,1 it there is no turninghack the clock of histery And they would not wish to doso if they could.

As you people all know, the problems created b%ads ancing technology can only be solved. or alleviated.En more and better technology.

So far as my on industry is concerned, one thingis clearit is going to take a lot more, not less.electricity to help clean up our environment. Just aboutes ers important environmental project one can think ofrequires an enormous amount of electricpower whether it's recycling, rapid transit, sewagetreatment, or operating air pollution controlequipment.

Fur example, just one air pollution control systememployed by Bethlehem Steel takes as much electricpower as 1.7(X) average homes.

We hose machines that can gobble up a junked carand shred it into small chunks of raw,. material in 15seconds. This consoles voluble resources, but it takes4.(XX) horse.,ower to operateand it's electric!

One could go on indefinitely with similarexamples. During a recent 12-month period, more than5(X) patents granted by the U. S. Patent office dealt insome way with environmental problems. More than halfof them have one thing in common: they need electricityto make them work!

Our economic health, of course, also dependsheasils on electric power production. An industrymagazine reported recently that 2-1/2 cents w orth ofelectricity in U. S. industry produces a dollar's worth ofgross national product. Therefore. taking away amillion kilowatts of electricitythe capacity of onelarge power plantcould depress the U. S. economy by3-billion dollars in a year if that energy werc notreplaced by other sources.

Less than 50 percent of the world's populationconsumes close to 90 percent of its commercialenergywhich is a major reason for the great chasmbetween the advanced and the undeveloped nations.

Most utility companies, including SouthernCalifornia Edison. hose long since halted allpromotional athertising and are devoting a major partof their communications efforts to the conservation ofelectric power. Nevertheless, it is unrealistic to expectthat our best efforts will do anything more than alterthe upward demand curve by a few degrees, because itis built into our economy.

Similarly, our best efforts at populationcontrolfor the next several decades, at leastcanonly slow. nut halt, the increase in our population.

It is obvious, then. that my industry must continueto pro..::!e at least an adequa.,.e supply of energy toprovide fbr the needs of our people and to maintain aviable economy.

But this, as you know, has become an increasinglydifficult taskdue partly to environmental problemsand partly to problems of fuel supply. I should like todirect myself chiefly to the fuel problem and energyoptions for the future.

As this audience is no doubt aware, we are runningout of most fossil fuels, which required millions of years

70

to form and caonot he replaced. As oil and gas suppliesrun lower and lower, it becomes more and moredifficult to extract the remainder

Within the last three decades of this century. theUnited States is expected to consume more energy thanit has in its entire precious history!

By the year 2010 AD. less than tour decades fromnow, we are expected to reach the last I() percent of theEarth's supply of natural gas which is thecleanest-burning of the fossil fuels. A few decades later.we will reach the last 10 percent of the Earth''petroleum supply.

Coal. fortunately, is not expected to reach thisstage until about 2300 ADbut its use is seserelylimited in many areas by air pollution problems.

So tar as pow er generation is concerned. naturalgas is rapidly being phased out right now. As recently as1968, in companyfor examplewas fulfilling 86percent of its fuel needs with natural gas. By 1974 it isexpected to drop to 16 percent. and by 1976 to less thanI() percent.

The only other environmentally acceptable fo,s11fuel. for many areas. including ours. is low-sulfur fueloil. which must he imp, rted from far corners of theglobeprincipally from Indonesia. Many utilities arebidding for it, of course, and the price has more thandoubled in the last few years. Consequently. mycompany's fsiel hill for 1975 is projected at about onemillion dollars a dos!

In addition to the problem of scarcity, all fossilfuels, of course, are combustion fuelsand allcombustion creates some pollutants. So how aboutcreating electricity without combustion? Let's take aquick look at the alternatives.

We can just about write off hydroelectric power, sofar as future expansion is concerned, for the simplereason that virtually all sites large enough to heeconomically feasible are already developed.

Geothermal power obviously has potential, but itpresents a number of knotty problemsbothtechnological and environmental.

If we could tap the molten rock, or magma, whichis at the center of our earth, we could utilize largeamounts of energy from this source. We have triedmany times, but always failed, in efforts to drill deepenough to tap the magma.

What we are doing is scraping around in the crustof the earth, which is floating on the magma, trying tocapture bits of heat which have escaped throughrelatively shallow fissures. In doing so, we run into theproblem of how to extract this heat. Do we take it out inthe water that's there with it--or do we inject water intoa dry rock heat source and use the steam th,'sproduced to drive a turbine? This latter procedureinjecting Cie wateris probably more feasible so far aslarge-scale development is concerned.

The alternative method depends either uponfinding an absolutely clean source of steamwhich ismost unlikelyor finding a method of disposing of theresidue salts and minerals which remain when you takethe energy out of the steam.

No one has found an economic method ofdisposing of these salts or putting them back in theearth. The places where it has been tried aresurrounded by pools of dirty green water. Saltencrustations clog and ruin the generating equipment,and hydrogen gaseswhich smell like rotteneggspermeate the atmosphere for miles around.

This is true even at the Geysers, 90 miles north ofSan Francisco, which is the only geothermal field now

producing power in this country And the Geysers is thecleanest source of steam ever found in America. Theproblem is much more acute in other geothermal areas.such as the Imperial Valley of California, which severalcompaniesincluding my ownare now investigating.

My assessment of geothermal power is that it willmake a contribution to our vast power needs, but not ameaningful one. Unless man learns to tap the magma, Ithink he will do well to achieve 10 to 20 percent of hisrequirement from geothermal energv.

I would make a similar assessment of solar energy.so far as electric generation is concerned. It mi y serveas a useful supplement to our production of electricpower, but I do not see it as a main resource, or even asubstantial resource, in the forseeable future.

Nevertheless, utilities are contributing to a solarresearch program at the University of Arizonawhich Ibelieve is one of the world's most advanced researchefforts in this areabecause we are going to need allthe power sources we can get in the future, large andsmall.

A basic problem with solar power is that in itspresent state of development it requires more than 4square miles of the earth's surface for enough solarcollection equipment to produce I -thousand megawattsof electricitywhich is about the output of manyconventional steam plants.

I don't believe most peopleand certainly not theenvironmentalistsare ready to cover the earth withsolar collectors. The thrust of oar research, of course, isto miniaturize this process. but we have a long way to goto make solar electricity a practical reality.

There is also the problem of what to do about coldand overcast days, when you're getting little if anyinfusion of energy from the sun.

As for economic considerations, with presenttechnology, the cost of solar generation is approxi-mately 100 to 1,000 times that of other,conventional methods.

Some thought is being given to less concentratedlower flux wave transmissionbut this increases thearea occupied by the collection equipment back onearth. Obviously, much more work is required on thisconcept.

Still another experimental concept is tidal power.Harnessing the power of the ocean tides to spingenerators is an attractive idea, but unfortunately thereare only a few places in the world which have beenequipped by nature for this job.

A suitable site requires a beach area that has, first,a tidal rise of at least 20 feet, and preferably higher;and, second, a natural bay which can serve as a holdingreservoir for the water.

If a bay has to be dredged out,. this means that anarea perhaps 5 miles deep and 10 miles long would bealternately flooded with water, as the tide came in, andthen converted to a mud flat as the tide receded.

To produce 1,000 megawatts of electricity in thisfashion would also require a vast array of equipmentspread along about 50 miles of beach. Wit', recrea-tional beach areas already at a premium, it is safe to saythe public would not take kindly to such projects.

If my outlook on the immediate potential of allthese experimental power sources has soundedpessimistic, I appologize. But through this process ofelimination I have led you to a happier conclusion. Forthere remains one practicable alternative. I'm sure youall know I am referring to nuclear powerthe onlypresently-available source of combustion-free power

71

capable of meeting the energy crisis, with minimumimpact on the enironment.

Nuclear power has appeared on the scene at theprecise moment in human history when it wasdesperately needed to sore an otherwise impossibledilemma.

It is as though Providence had laid out a path forman to follow. For each step in man's exploration ofresources of our planet appears calculated to carry himjust far enough to reach the following step.

Fossil fuels have lasted long enough for us todiscover uranium, and tht process of nuclear fission.Uranium resoles are sufficient to carry us to the age ofthe "breeder-Teactor, which creates more fuel as fuel isconsumed. The breeder will greatly extend our nuclearfuel supplybuying time enough, if all goes well, forscientists to reach what appears to be the ultimatephase of power development: nuclear fusion.

There is great confidence in the scientificcommunity thatdespite the enormous problemsinvolvedwe will have the fusion reactor as a viablepower source by the end of this century. If so, ordinarysea water will provide all the energy man will need, intoinfinity.

Meanwhile, among the various converter reactorsnow available, I would expect to see much developmentcentering around the gas-cooled varietya relativelynew and advanced concept which offers great promisebecause of its higher efficiency.

Also, the gas-cooled reactor utilizes a thoriumfuel-cycle, and there arc almost as many thoriumreserves in the world as there are uranium reserves.

I have not had time to cover the so-calledr-1 --"hydrogen fuel ecohomy," which you may also haveread about in recent years. But even here, the nuclearreactor is regarded as a primary workhorse, producingelectricity which, in turn, would be used to makehydrogen from sea water through the process ofelectrolysis. Obviously, this would be an expensive-processand short-cut concepts are still in the researchstage.

As you are no doubt aware, the nation's Nuclearpower development is now under violent attack from arelatively small, but highly vocal, minority ofAmericans who view it as a threat to public health andsafety.

Since nuclear power was born with a bomb, it isnot surprising that there should be a resid'ie of fearamong those who are not familiar with moderntechnology.

It is disappointing, however, to End some of theopposition coming from another small, but highlyvocal, minority of scientists.

The conflict here, I believe, stems from differencesbetween the engineering approach to problem r.olving,and the purely scientific method.

It is inherent in the scientific approach to demandprecise answers to every questionsome of which, inthis instance,Igtvve unobtainable, or only obtainablethrough actu rating experience.

The engineer, however, knows that he can designsafely if he can determine the parameters within whicha piece of equipment operates, and then design wellbeyond those parameters to achieve a large margin ofsafety.

Most scientists understand this, but a few cling tothe insistence that all precise answers be known inadvanceeven if this is impossible. Had this theory

prevailed, I might add, man certainly never would havereached the moon.

I should like to discuss the issue of nuclear safetyin detailbut since time does not permit, I will settlefor a few general observations, in closing.

Nuclear power plants, on the record, are amongthe safest devices ever built by man. Not one person hasever been killed, or even hurt, in a nuclear accident at acommercial power plant. And we have hadra combined

vtotal of more than one-hundred years of power reactoroperation.

Frankly, I am puzzled over how we can beexpected to improve on a safety record of 100 percent.

As for nuclear waste, its handling and storage is acomplex process which must be accomplished withgreat care and constant surveillance. However, it neednot be dangerous or fearsome. Furthermore, we areconstantly improving the technology. The accumulationof this waste is a short-tcrm problemin that when wereach fusion power, we will be adding little or no wasteto the total stored.

Meanwhile, the volume of waste involved is muchsmaller than is commonly realized. If we chose to storeall tht w astes that would be produced by all the nuclearplants contemplated between now and the end of thecentury in a single warehouse, it would occupy landtherein equivalent to a football field and would beapproximately 50 feet high. If you then contemplatedispersing this volume of waste among severallocations, the problem quickly comes into perspectiveas one that is manageable.

I don't believe it is generally realized that of all thewaste currently being stored by the AEC, far less thanone percent is from nuclear power production. All therest is from nuclear weapons development.

I do not claim that the nuclear industry is withoutany risk whatever. There is no such thing as a risk-lesssociety. If man had insisted on zero-risk throughouthistory, he never would have progressed so far as toutilize fire, or the wheelmuch less the internalcomtwstion engine, with which we killed 53,000 peopleon U.S. highways last year.

Man's progress, it seems,to, me depends in largemeasure upon his wisdom in deciding which risks areaccyrible, and which are not.

you weigh the minimal risks involved in

handling the atom against the enormous benefits ofnuclear power -; .. and if you consider, also, themounting risks involved in continuing to escalate ouruse of fossil fuels .. . the choice is clear.

We must go forward.

SESSION F-3

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE INVOLVING FIELDSTUDIES AND LABORATORY WORK INSECONDARY SCHOOLS

Bruce L. Barrett, Head of Science Department,Cedarbrae Collegiate, Scarborough, Ontario,Canada

This paper is about an Environmental ScienceCourse which is currently being taught to the studentsin their second year of the high school scienceprogramme at Cedarbrae Collegiate in Scarborough,Ontario. The course was planned and developed by the

72

fourteen teachers of the Cedarbrae Science departmentin the 1970/71 school year. It was taught, evaluated.and revised by those same teachers during the 1971/72school year, and is again being taught and evaluatedduring the current school year. It will undergo anotherrevision in June. The planning, development andimplementation processes that we have been following

are so inexorably linked with the product that they arequite inseparable, and the success of an innovationdepends as much on how it was developed as on what itcontains. We hope that you learn something usefulfrom our successes and failures, and will be able toimprove on the methods, procedures and content ofyour own courses.

In 1969 the Department of Education, now theMinistry of Education, introduced a subject creditsystem into the secondary schools. Insteal of studentspassing or failing a year, they can now pass or failindividual subjectsa significant policy change for theOntario teachers. Students are now permitted to choosethe subjects they wish to study, right from Year I

through Year 5. Some schools. like CedarbraeCollegiate have maintained a system of core subjects.including science, in Years 1 and 2, but for the mostpart subject departments are now in competition withother departments.

The most interesting part of this innovation is thatthe Department of Education has relinquishedresponsibility for curriculum development, evaluation,and improvement to the local Boards ofEducation. Thelocal Boards, in turn, have directed the responsibility tothe individual schools. In practice, this means that eachsubject department in each school is in the business ofcurriculum development. Ultimate approval tointroduce a new course must still come from theMinistry of Education by way of the local Board, butchange must be initiated by the subject departmentheads in the individual schods.

In the fall of 1970 the Science Department headsat Cedarbrae decided to introduce an environmentalscience course at the Year 2 level. There were severalreasons for this decision. despite the fact that we feltthat environmental science was the sum total of all ofthe other sciences, and that a broad background inbiology, physic.,, and chemistry was a desirableprerequisite. Here are some of the reasons:1. Both teachers and students were experiencing a

growing disenchantment with the relevance ofmuch that was being taught at the Year 2 level. Forexample, a detailed study of the parts of thebuttercup was of relatively little interest to themodern fourteen-year-old urban dweller who hasthe whole world at his fingertips by way of thetelevision set. While we weren't prepared to let thestudents with their limited scientific experience,dictate what they would be taught, we were pre-pared to listen to their suggestions and make acritical appraisal of what we were doing.

2. The teachers were becoming increasingly aware ofthe fact that a science course with emphasis on theenvironment and environmental problems is essen-tial for every student. While the news media tendto emphasize the negative or pollution aspects ofthe environment, we felt that in order to provide aproper perspective we should offer a course whichinvolved an analysis of environmental interactions,not just a description of environmental problems.Since Year 2 is the last year that we are guaranteed

of reaching all of the students in the school, wedecided to design a course to be taught at thisloch

3. The teachers wanted to stimulate student interestin science through a study of the environment inorder to provide motivation for further study inbiology, chemistry. and physics. Students lifr.eoften asked the question. "Why are we studyingthis ?" and we are becoming increasing1y embar-rassed by our standard answer, "Be,ause you aregoing to need it later." One objective in the designof the course was to make the students aware ofwhat science they need to kuow to keep pace in afast-changing world where more and more stress isbeing placed on environmental issues.

4. The science department heads wanted to balancethe total science programme in the school to satisfythe new Ministry of Education policy require-ments. In addition to the introduction of a credits)stem, the scope, depth, and variety of curricularchoices was to be expanded to ensure that suitablecourses were available to satisfy all possiblestudent needs and desires. The goal is unattain-able within the existing physical and financialframework, but we were, and still are, prepared toimplement the current Ministry policy as fully aspossible.

Before briefly discussing the development stage ofthe course it should be pointed out that all of the workwas done by classroom teachers who were teaching afull timetable. No special concessions were made withrespect to the regular teaching work load, so the entireproject had to be carried out after school hours, and ourcurriculum meetings were constantly in competitionwith extra-curricular activities, additional help sessionsfor students in difficulty, lesson preparation, themarking of tests and laboratory reports, and otherregular school meetings. It should also be pointed outthat the course is very much the work of curriculumdevelopment amateurs, a fact which resulted in more ofa pragmatic than a theoretical approach to thedevelopment of the course.

Undoubtedly, the most significant decision madeduring the entire development process was the decisionto involve all fourteen members of the sciencedepartment in the preparation of the course outline.Despite the problems of continuity and timing thatresulted, and the problem of maintaining the centraltheme of the course from beginning to end, there was aymise of committment to implement the coursesuccessfully that would not have existed had thedevelopment of the course been more rigidly controlledby the heads of the department. Furthermore, the longrange benefits to be gained in terms of building up theskills of the teachers in course development and ofhaving colleagues work closely together on major

\ projects are of far greater significance than short-terminefficiencies.

The Implementation StageIn September of 1971 twenty-one classes

comprising some 550 students and 12 teachers beganthe environmental science course, The main feature ofthe implementation stage was that the teacher whodeveloped each sub-unit was put in charge of the entiregroup while his section of the work was being taught.Not only was he asked to present a detailed firllbriefing about his portion of the course to the other

73

members of the department before the work w astaught, but he as also made responsible for thepreparation arid distribution of any resource materials.experiment sheets, and projectuals to all of the otherte3;liers. It was not the intention of the departmentheads to stifle individual ingenuity in the teaching ofthe subject but rather to provide the teachers with acommon starting point, and to reduce the amount ofindividual preparation to a minimum. Coincidentally.with the introduction of the environmental sciencecourse the work load of the science teachers wasincreased to six classes per day from five classes theprevious year.

Shortly after the beginning of the school year itbecame clear that despite the ellen put intolesson-by-lesson planning for the course outline, thetiming of the course had been badly misjudged. To do ameaningful job of the work in a unit requiredapproximate!) twice as long a- had been planned,meaning that only half of the e ire course could betaught during the school ye.,. unless significantadjustments could be made. In retrospect, it seemsunreasonable to have expected that we could teach asmuch as ve had planned in one school year. It was quitea demoralizing experience to realize that despite thetime and effort that had gone into the development ofthe course outline, radical changes had to beintroduced to make it viable. A number of other factorssuch as a dissatisfaction with the quality and quantityof the laboratory and field work further contributed toa general feeling of frustration among the teachers. Iam firmly convinced that unless all of the teachers hadbeen directly involved in the planning and developmentof the environmental science course, it codld very wellhave collapsed during the first year of implementation.Education has a long history of innovations that havefailed because they were imposed on classroom teachersby external agents. The successful institutionalizationof an innovation is highly dependent on how involvedthe implementers were in the planning anddevelopment processes.

In addition to the day-to-day informal evaluationof the course by small groups of teachers and theinevitable classroom comments of the students aboutthe course, a summary of the ideas of the entire groupconcerning the work that had been recently completedwas made at the regular monthly department meetings.At the completion of the Rural Environment andUrban Environment units, 105 students were asked tosubmit a written appraisal of the course content and themethods used in its presentation. Of the 98 studentswho responded to the questionnaire, 50 indicated thatthey thought the course was "relevant," "up-to-date,""useful," or at least, "interesting" or "enjoyable."Twenty-six thought that the experiments were generally"interesting" or "relevant to the course;" 25 found thatthe films "helped their understanding" or "helpedrelate the course to the real world." and 18 particularlyenjoyed the class discussions, A further 14 studentsspecified that they liked the outdoor work and the fieldtrips, and another 14 especially enjoyed the groupprojects and independent studies, On the negative side,21 students felt that there were "not enough classexperiments ;" 15 criticized the difficulty or fairness ofthe tests; 14 felt that there was "not enough detail inthe course" and 13 said the course ire olved "too muchwriting."

Needless to say we were fairly Well satisfied withthe students' responses, and we general's agreed withtheir criticisms. In the revision of the course. we hasepaid particular attention to improving the quantity and

quality of the experiments, and to flier .asing the

amount of detail in some of the subject areas

By far the most popular subject topic with thestudents w as the pollution study, including noise and itseffects on the human organism. Fifty-seven studentsshowed a preference for this work, while 38 studentsindicated that the least enjoyable subject matter wasdairy husbandry and poultry production. We felt thatthe main difficulty in these areas was the lack of directcontact with the animals being studied. To alleviate theproblem this year. we included a field trip to the RoyalAgricultural Winter Fair in Toronto in November for asmany students as possible. and are currently workingon a series of field trips to working farms in the vicinityof the school for the remainder of the students.

Because of our time difficulties we dropped thedrug section of our Urban Environment unit andreplaced it with most of the work that we had intendedto cover under population and resources in the unit.Future K Man. Our Space and Man unit was droppedentirely, and most of the final term was spent on the

unit. Water and Man. Immediately adjacent to ourschool is an excellent park. part of which is covered by arelatively undisturbed forest. Through-the park runs astream which is wide enough and deep enough to makethe study of cross-sections and flow-rates moderatelyexciting. and which is sufficiently polluted to makewater quality studies both interesting and slightlydisturbing. Undoubtedly the combination of laboratoryand field studies in the unit on Water and Man was thehighlight of the year for both the students and the

teachers.

The Cedarbrac teachers were firmly convinced thatthe course warranted a second year of implementationdespite the difficulties of the first year, but we are alsocertain that some substantial changes in the courseoutline were necessary.

Even though the Year I course is specificallyoriented toward the processes and methods of science.with particular emphasis on graphical and organiza-tional techniques. experimental procedures. and modelbuilding. there was still an inadequate generalbackground of biology, chemistry, and physics for thekind of work that we wished to carry out in the Year 2environmental science course. The amount of work thatwas done on the natural environment in the early partof the Year 2 course was insufficient for the students tohe able to grasp the extent and the significance ofman's manipulation of the environment for his ownpurposes. The decision was made, then, to reorganizethe course.

The revision process, which in fact has been goingon throughout the current school year has not beencarried out in the same way as the development of theoriginal course outline. Instead, the department headsand two or three of the teachers who have a particularlykeen interest in the course have been meeting regularlyto detail the changes. Once the revised outline for thework of a unit or portion of a unit is completed. it isdiscussed. criticized, and altered by the teachers of thecourse at a special meeting. It is then written up in a

74

lesson-by-lesson form and circulated for impleent-tion. Since the specific skill. concept. and attitudinalobiecti% es for each sub-unit arc essentialls the same asfor the precious sear. and since we otter I 1 othercourses that also place se% ere demands on ournon-teaching time. the resised outline describes onlthe content of the course and a possible methodology tohe used. A complete recision of the outline sill hecarried out in June when we hase had a chance toc% ablate the work of Hi,. second sear of implementation.and to evaluate the position of the environmentalscience course in relation to the science courses we otterin earlier and later grades.

Since we are now just two-thirds of the w asthrough our school sear it is still difficult to assess thechanges we hase made in both the content of the courseand the procedures followed to make the changes. Aformal assessment of the content and methodologyinvolving both the teachers and the students is

scheduled toward the of Mat. Meanwhile. thepreliminary reports by the teachers are generally. quitetasourable. The amount of experimental work hasincreased considerably, and the quality of theexperiments has been somewhat improved Also thecontinuity of the course has been improved. primarilybecause we have had the benefit of a year's experienceat implementation.

On the other hand, not all of the changes have haddesirable effects. Because the first half of the year hasbeen spent mainly in building up the basic science skillsand knowledge necessary for an understanding ofman's role in using and changing nature, the key themeof man as a manipulator of the environment cannotreally he exploited until the latter halt' of the year LastYear the buildi g of the knowledge and the analysis ofman's role were carried out concurrently. While thechange was made to improve continuity and to allow amore rapid development of complex environmentalinteractions involving man, we will have to wait toassess the overall effects on the course. The mostobvious improvement with regard to revising the courseis in the general efficiency of the operation. With thebenefit of the original course outline and a year'sexperience teaching the course, the three or four peopleinvolved in the course revision have been able to suggestimprovements with a minimum of time and effort.Since no one w ho wishes to help with the coursechanges is excluded. and since the entire group ofteachers discuss the proposals for change before theyare implemented. there is a minimum of teacher feel-ing that the course is being taken out of their hands.Understandably enough, however, the people mostdirect! involved in altering the course are the ones whoare the most enthusiastic about the revised outline. Oneparticularly healthy aspect of the second year ofimplementation worth mentioning is that there hasbeen a much greater diversity in the interpretation ofthe outline and the approaches used by individualteachers than there was during the first year. This trendto individuality has been further encouraged by thedepartment heads.

It must be stressed here that this course is not"finished" in any sense of the word. Any course dealingwith the environment and environmental issues mustconstantly he revised and up-dated. This is one of thechallenges to the science teachers of the seventies.

.1

SESSION F-5

THE PORTAL SCHOOL PROGRAM OF THEUNIVERSITY OF WYOMING

Bill W. Tillery. Director: and Vincent Sindt, Coor-dinator: Science and Mathematics TeachingCenter, University of Wyoming, Laramie

The ProgramThe Portal School Program of the Science-

Mathematics Teaching Center of the University ofWyoming is well under way, and in operation in severalschools in Wyoming and other states in the region. Theprogram, as it relates to the University's Comprehen-sive Project to Improve the Teaching of PhysicalScience, is supported by a grant from the NationalScience Foundation, by the University. and by theschools and teachers.

Arising trom the needs generated by thegeographic expanse of the State of Wyoming and thesurrounding region and by the rapid explosion ofcurricular developments in science and mathematics.the Portal School Concept operates from a localleadership base. Many local master teachers andadministrators of the state and region have, throughattendance at National Science Foundation Institutes,participation in var:eties of protessional workshops.and other grAuate studies. qualified themselves asleaders in the curricular areas of science andmathematics. Often these leaders develop a philoso-phical orientation toward the teaching of science andmathematics which leads to a richer, more activeenvironment in their classrooms. Students in theseclassrooms are often actively involved in the process ofscience and mathematics. They are allowed toexperiment in the broadest sense of, the term:manipulating symbols, posing questions, and seekingtheir own answers. Students acti%el, reconcile what isobserved at one time with what is tound at another, andhave ample opportunity to compare findings with fellowst udents.

Basic to the Portal School Program of theUniversity of Wyoming is the concept that oncerecogni/ed. the leading educators previously describedshould he encouraged, gisen certification credentials.and then ally wed to work with their colleagues in thefurther implementation of the philosophies. materials,strategies, and techniques which are found prevalent inthe leaders' classrooms. In many cases these leaders aresecondary teachers who are helping elementaryteachers implement new science programs.

Programs now under way at the University canhelp qualify people in critical curricular areas.Identified leaders who need competencies in thecurricular areas can receive training at the campus. Inmany cases funds from our National ScienceFoundation grant are available to support thisleadership development.

The program is implemented through a variety ofnatural science and mathematics courses offeted on aflexible basis. Local areas are encouraged to determinetheir own objectives and basic goals regarding whatdirection they would like their science and mathematicsprogram to take. It is suggested that local schooldistricts carefully develop statements as to why scienceand /o: mathematics is taught in the schools, whatscience and/or mathematics students should be able to

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do upon completion of the programs. and howprograms might he directed in order to meet these localneeds. [lie Science-Mathematics Teaching Center ofthe Unnersit% otters ads isor% ser% ices to assist arcaschools in arri% ing at these important conclusions.On& the basic ideas are established locally, courseformats can be do eloped cooperatoely which aid in theimplementation of these ideas. The persons responsiblefor the actual local conduct ot the courses will he thepreviously identified leaders

The Portal School operation requires considerablecommitment on the part of many groups, beforesuccessful establishment. If new mate:tals are to beexplored during the courses, the administration,curriculum committees. teachers, and school boardsshould be ready and willing to miplement whatocrmaterials are recommended. II, during the coursesoffered, the teachers are "turned on to a hew was otteaching and new materials to use, the district ought tobe committed to providing materials fOr teachers to usewith their students.

With the above considerations in mind, we requestthat the following points be firmly established betorePortal School courses are launched:

I. The courses are usually designed to explore thenew curricula in science and mathematics. i.e.,ESS. SCIS. etc.. for the elementary teachers, andISCS, IIS, Project Physics, etc., for secondaryteachers. Before the courses begin, materials to beexplored should he available in representatisequantities so that teachers can perform the activi-ties in the course, and, utilize the units in theirclassrooms.

The environment of the course should be non-threatening in terms of grading and requirementsif we expect teachers to establish the excitementand flasor of science and mathematics in theirclassrooms. We strongly suggest that the partici-pants be encouraged to register for S/ U (Satis-factory, Unsatisfactory) grading.

3. Establishment of courses should he flexible withthe changing needs of school districts. The finan-cial details ha%e varied from situations where theschool board paid the entire cost of the course tothose where tuition paid by the participantscovered the entire cost.

4. Local determination of the curricular materials tohe examined, at least to the extent that materialsconsidered are philosophiea4 consistent with thenew curricula developed with funds from theNational Science Foundation are recommended.

The Science-Mathematics Teaching CenterIntimately associated with the Program is the

Science-Mathematics Teaching Center on campus. Aninterdisciplinary endeavor. sponsored jointly by theCollege of Education and the various Mathematics andScience departments of the College of Arts andSciences. the ( :nter is now in its third year ofoperation. In this time it has become a major influencein the development of science and mathematicsteachers in this region. It is a resource center with amultitude of materials recently developed for scienceteaching and available for consultant use. and as suchis the focus for many facets of the ComprehensiveProgram.

THE PETER PRESCRIPTION FOR INTER-

DISCIPLINARY TEACHING

Peter M. Metro, Elementary Science Coordinator.Rocky River Public Schools, Rocky River, Ohio

"The Peter Principle" as explained by Dr.

Lawrence J. Peter. spells out why the author feels so

many people become frustrated and ill at ease in our

day. The thesis of his principle is that "in everyhierarchy every employee tends to suffer from the final

Placement Syndrome."According to Dr. Peter, our society is tilled with

people who have been promoted beyond their level of

competence. This is generally a result of doing your job

w ell and as a "reward" being promoted to a job

:quiring a greater responsibility. Such promotions

continue until that person reaches a level that is too

much for him, and there he remains in a state offrustration until he dies or retires.

We often jokingly refer to "The Peter Principle"particularly when we, as teachers, discuss school

administrators and sometimes coordinators. However,

haw you ever considered "The Peter Principle" asapplying to the classroom teacher? It is true that we are

not seeking a higher position through our efforts, but

we are always seeking new approaches to teaching. We

are constantly seeking better ways to make oureducational program more relevant. We are constantly

seeking better ways to individualize the studentlearning situation so that the student may progress at a

speed commensurate with his abilities. We areconstantly seeking methods through which a student

might develop a healthy self-image. We are here today

to share ideas on how we can implementinterdisciplinary approaches in the classroom. For theteacher who is conscientious and sincere in his effort to

do the best he can by his students, there must be a point

where he realizes that he cannot hope to teach as well as

he already knows how.I believe that every good teacher is a victim of "The

Peter Principle." The good teacher, however, is a victim

of his own ambitions for his students. His urge to

continually improve their educational program is

commendable, but he must learn to approach suchimprovements in logical steps. In some cases I haveobserved teachers who were in such a hurry to change aprogram or adopt a new ic'.ea that they floundered in

the organization and mechanics, and lost some of the

personality traits that made them outstanding

educators. Acts of kindress, understanding of student

needs, inflections in the voice, courtesy, respect. areonly a few of the wiated traits that. put together, make

up the quality teacher. any program a teacher or school

adopts should be done in such a manner that it has

every chance of succeeding. The teacher must be

comfortable in the program and not be harried by lack

of materials, equipment, etc.My talk today should be entitled, "The Peter

Prescription for Interdisciplinary Teaching." If you are

interested in investigating the possibility of theinterdisciplinary approach the few suggestions I amabout to share with you may help to ease the

interdisciplinary syndrome.My school system is relatively small. We have only

five elementary schools with an average of twoclasses/grade level. My responsibility in the school

system is to coordinate K-6 science and manage a

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26-acre outdoor education center. I haw ample time to

act as a resource person for indoidual teachers and

teaching teams.At present, we have four basic organizational

teaching patterns within the school system for grades

K-6:1. Pattern A The selt-contained classroom

2. Pattern B - Two member teams teaching at one

grade level3. Pattern C Two member teams teaching across

grade levels: 5-6 or 4-5

4. Pattern D three member teams teaching at one

grade loci5. Pattern E - Three member teams teaching across

grade levels: 1 and 2.Our K-6 science program has also taken several

patterns user the past 10 years.

1. Pattern Al - A conceptual approach

2. Pattern B1 - A thematic approach

3. Pattern C1 A process approach.Pattern Al was developed as a complete and

thorough conceptual guide for teacher use with activity

packets for student use at-the upper elementary school

level. The conceptual approach w as moderately

successful but was difficult for the teacher to managedue to a lack of sufficient hands-on materials for

students, and a lack of conceptual knowledge on the

teacher's part. It was. however, a good stepping off

point fcx the thematic approach.The thematic approach. which is what I would call

the interdisciplinary approach, had a relatively short

life span. It was used sporadically throughout the

system, and generally took the form of selecting a

theme and using science in a supportive role. Students

often initiated the theme and helped in the planning of

the program. The big drawback was that the thematic

approach required much more planning time than

teachers had to devote. and that it was difficult tosecure hands-on materials in science. The thematic

approach did not provide an opportunity for students to

develop process skills in science prior to undertaking a

problem. Much of the science was done because of the

dramatic impact, and youngsters seldom took the time

to investigate a problem objectively.We now have Pattern C !as a program within our

schools. S-APA has been implemented in grades K-3

and grades 4, 5 and 6 are using process-oriented

materials developed by our staff and put into kit form.Such a program is designed to give youngsters anopportunity to develop observation, classification,

measurement. inference, and communication skills. In

addition, youngsters are given an opportunity tomanipulate variables and experiment. This is a

self-pacing program and is flexible enough to tit into

any pattern of teaching. To the teacher, one great

advantage is that she need not worry about materials;

they are supplied with a minimum of confusion.Our next step may well be to branch, once again.

into the thematic or interdisciplinary approach. The

science skills we hope will be developed through ourpresent K-6 program can then be put to practical use.

Summer school has been our time to test newprograms. On several occasions over the past years the

thematic anroach was used. In each case, a great deal

of planning was involved, and in each case the teaching

team consisted of a well-trained science teacher, a

music teacher, an art teacher, and at least twoelementary ;eachers: one of which could handle drama,

The average teacher-pupil ratio was I to 10. An actual

working outline of a typical thematic program is asfollows:

Theme WaterI. Water Scientific

A. PollutionB. UsesC. ConservationD. Ecology

11. CulturalA. Art

I. Crayon etchings2. Geometric designs

B. MusicI. Group singing2. River music appreciation3. River chants

C. Literature1. Huckleberry Finn and Tom Sawyer2. Individual research projects

D. Drama1. Mark Twain stories2. Minstrel movements3. Pantomiming

A lother thematic program that had beenpreplanned in greater detail, and one in which studentshad more selection of areas they wished to explore.was that of "Our Heritage." A brief working outline ofthis program is given here for your convenience.

Each area of study was then broken down intosupportive activities.I. Art

A. MuseumB. Investigation of various mediaC. Investigation of various techniquesD. An on-going projectE. Contribution to societyF. Scenery for a dramatic presentationG. Sources of informationH. Creation of an expanding, system-wide gallery

11. MusicA. Creative sounds and rhythmsB. Orchestra rehearsalC. Instrument-makingD. Cultural influences on "American" musicE. Original words and musicF. Contribution to societyG. Sources of information

III. Natural ResourcesA. Definition and investigationB. Uses and misusesC. ConservationD. Contribution to societyE. Sources of information

1V. GovernmentA. History and developmentB. Investigation of local governmentC. Strengths and weaknessesD. Contribution to societyE. Sources of information

V. Bodies of Knowledge (history. science. economics.geography. mathematics)

A. History and developmentB. Techniques and skills peculiar to eachC. InterrelationshipsD. Contribution to society.E. Sources of information

VI. DramaA. History and development

77

B. Investigation of technique.% and mediaC. Student development and presentationD. Karam and,or other appropriate examplesE. Contribution to societyF. Sources of information

VII. LiteratureA. Development of American literatureB. Contribution of foreign literatureC. Investigation of typesD. Contribution to societyE. Sources of information

VIII. Vocations and AvocationsA. In-depth investigation by interestB. Aptitudes and abilities requiredC. Contribution to societyD. Sources of informationE. Future possibilities and limitationsThe two programs outlined here were summer

programs for grades 5. 6. and 7. They were exciting forstudents and teachers, but they were conducted underthe most ideal conditions We have never, however,tried to implement them during the normal academicyear. They simply were too ambitious and tootime-consuming from the aspect of planning andstaffing.

But need you be so ambitious? Last year afirst-grade team and their students decided they wantedto study fish. Utilizing resource people such as parents.other teachers, the school principal. etc.. they were soonstudying what fish eat. which fish live in our region.what is meant by mercury poisoning. how pollutionaffects fish, how fish get oxygen. hots fish hear. theimportance of fish 'is a world food, and how to tie afishing fly. The entire program was topped off with afishing contest at a local pond. Prints were made of thefish that were caughtthis was an art project; the fishhere weighed and measureda math project. And weshould not forget that while practicing with rods andreels the students had a good lesson on simplemachines. With a little outside help, a littleimagination, and a great deal of enthusiasm on the partof students. parents. and teachers. an idea turned into abeautiful interdisciplinary experience. The teacherswant to repeat the program this year. 1 am sure otherteachers will want to do the same. This is the type ofinterdisciplinary exposure I like. The youngsters areinvolved in the planning and the entire project simplygrow s.

A three-momber team at the sixth-grade level wasdiscussing pollution problems with their students. Itwasn't long before the discussion turned Lao afull-fledged project with committees established tostudy various aspects of pollution; clean-up projects gotunderway. local government agencies were sooninvolved, and local pollution problems were identified.The end result was an evening program in whichstudents exhibited homemade movies of pollutionproblems, tapes of noise pollution. and photographicstudies of attractive and unattractive aspects of ourcommunity. The program was so successful thatparents wanted it continued the following year.

Our big push now is to develop a 26-acre tract ofland centrally located in our city into aninterdisciplinary outdoor education center. We feel thatall of the experiences we have had to date will be of helpin developing a meaningful outdoor educationalprogram that is interdisciplinary. To date we havewritten much of the K 6 science materiel for the siteand some of the history of the land. We arc not going to

be in a big hurry to develop the social studies. math.art, and music portions of the curriculum. We hopethat tiles will develop gradually. Nov, that we time astart with science. teachers will contribute ideas theyhaw tested in the other disciplines. Ultimately. we w illbase enough material to weave into a meaningfulinterdisciplinary outdoor education program.

We have already found that we may not want toclean up the junk on our 26-acres. This was one of ourtirst objectives. Much of the junk is turning out to beartifacts of past life. The place is an antique pot luck.You can imagine the excitement and resultingdiscussion that took place when a youngster found abottle that originally contained honey and tar. This wasthe start of a discussion and study of old time remedies.Old pieces of harness, milk cans. shaving mugs. bedsprings, hand-made tile, and unusual kitchen devicesall tell us something about the people who lived on thisland in years past. Is this our key to social studies? Itmay be, but we are not going to be in a great big hurryto develop a social studies unit. We are going to let thestudents and the teachers help in a gradualdevelopment of such a program.

Our site will offer many opportunities forinterdisciplinary student involvement. A group of fifth-and sixth-graders have already given us a great start onour outdoor education program. They have mappedtrails. conducted surveys of trees, birds, insects, andvirtually all types of living organisms on the site. Theyhave developed taped educational programs related tothe site.

High school students have designed a temporaryshelter for the site and plan to construct it this spring.These students must work with city hall and the sitemanager. secure a building permit. and calculate theamount and type of material they will use in theconstruction. They must be concerned about the effectsof freezing and thawing on the structure's footing. Ifthe activities these youngsters are doing on the site arenot interdisciplinary, and if they are not worthwhile, Isimply do not know what is.

In closing, if you want to avoid the frustration ofmany interdisciplinary programs, you may want tofollow this prescription :

I. Work as a team either at grade level or acrosslesel. A three- or four-member team offers supportin many areas.

2. Be certain you have sufficient hands-on materialsto do the job. Avoid wasting valuable time bymaking do with odds and ends.

3. Utilin local talents. Mothers are good resourcepools.

4, Start with small, manageable programs.5. Avoid the tendency to include activities simply be-

cause they are dramatic.6. Plan well but provide enough flexibility in the

planning to permit student participation.7. Good planning is the most critical aspect of inter-

disciplinary teaching. Avoid situations where theteam hurriedly decides on the day's activities justprior to the opening of school.

8. Don't bite off more than you can chew. If you do,you may soon become a member of a not too selectgroup suffering from the "Peter Principle"syndrome.

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SUMMARY OF CONCEPTS INVOLVED IN EARTHSCIENCE ACTIVITIES

John A. Wirth, Science Teacher, Mt. PleasantHigh School. Mt. Pleasant, Michigan.

As Science is generally a required course of studyin the intermediate and junior high school programs.considerable difficulty is encountered with studentdisinterest as well as lack of background in the subject.Areas of earth science lend thcmsels es very well to thisproblem be'2ause the subject can be directly related tothe student's own ens ironment. In order to encouragestudent interest in the immediate surroundings.activities should he tailored to the situations thatstudents might encounter in escrsday life. With this inmind. I would recommend the tollowing procedures.I. As mans activities as possible should he of the

"hands on" type.Observations and activities conducted in classshould correlate with later activities that deal withearth history and geologic processes.

3. Each step in the activity sequence should relate toupcoming concepts used in future activities in thesame general field.

4. The school yard can he a very effective workshopin the study of geologic processes.

5. Equipment and procedures should be kept assimple as possible so that the student can morefully comprehend the activity.

2.

SESSION G-3

PUTTING LIFE INTO THE LIFE SCIENCES

INNOVATIONS FROM ME AND MY ENVIRON-MENT

Josephine A. Bennett. Biology and ChemistryTeacher. Whitehaven High School, Memphis.Tennessee

The initial entry of the BSCS into the field ofspecial education began several years ago with thepreparation of instructional materials fOr the tenthgrade "underachiever" or "academically unsuccessful"student. This effort resulted in publication of the BSCSspecial material. Biological Science: Pattern andProcesses. Two other publications were concerned withthe gifted students in high school: A Guide to Workingwith Potential Biologists, and the BSCS second course,Biological Science: Interaction of Experiments andIdeas.

However, in spite of the breadth of concern fordiffering student populations, a significant portion ofthat population was. until recently, essentially ig-noredthe educable mentally handicapped. The in-creasing size and visibility of this population. and newcommitments on the part of the Bureau of theHandicapped in the Department of Health. Education.and Welfare. provided the challenge and the means bywhich the BSCS could turn its attention to the needs ofthese children.

During the last ten years. special educators haveseen many innovative changes in educational programsfor the mentally handicapped child, and in theexpectations and attitudes that society has toward thechild. Research has found that the trainable retarded

child is a competent worker. displaying abilities tolearn, attend to. and complete a task. He can adjust to awork situation and can socially integrate with thenormal work force. The changes in societal attitudes.coupled with research findings. have greatly affectedthe preparation of educational programs.

All children are entitled to equal opportunities forself-development to the fullest extent of their individualphysical. mental. and emotional capacities. Instruc-tional programs specifically designed for their needsand abilities require learning experiences that facilitatemastery of useful concepts and provide a sense ofpersonal satisfaction with the learning experience. It istrue that what children can be expected to accomplishand to contribute to society is a function of what we, asteachers or curriculum designers, can contrive asinterventions and improvements upon their usual ex-periences "Inquiry teaching" with the involvement ofstudents is the only way to "Put Life Into the LifeSciences." This approach is definitely stressed and re-flected in the content materials of "Me and My En-vironment." a curriculum of four units of study de-veloped for ages 13-15 years. Unit IExploring MyEnvironment.

This introductory unit contains activities of anexploratory nature which assist the student in learningto communicate about his environment, and to relatevarious environmental components to his own needs,problems. and interests.

In activity 1-6 the child explores his immediateenvironment through a variety of sensory experiencesand physical contac,i. For example. students identifyvarious components of the environment by listening topretaped sounds, and slides picturing the source of thesounds reinforce the students' guesses. (Demonstration)

Activity 1-7. "The Environmental Orchestra,"develops an awareness that sounds are generally heardin conjunction with other sounds rather than inisolation. and that certain sounds are clues to certainkinds of environments. This activity will further stressthe importance of listening.Unit IIMe As A Habitat

In unit two, the students are introduced to theword "habitat" as, "a place where something lives." Inthis activity, through a series of slides, students willdiscover that animals and plants can be habitats forother animals and plants. and ultimately that manhimself can be a habitat.

Experiments with agar dishes and the growth ofmicrobes from areas of the environment reinforces thestatement that microbes are a part of the living world.

In activity 2-16. students develop smokingmachines from plastic bottles and a type of filter in thecap. The children actually filter smoke in theclassroom. This may be extended by comparing thesmoke blown on the filter paper to a person who inhalessmoke. Surprising results occurno tar appears on thefilter paperwhere did it go? From this activitystudents are equipped to make a personal decisionabout smoking.

Activity 2-17 emphasizes that the human body canbe vitally affected by both living and non-living factorsin the environment. The effects of certain elements inhis environment (disease, drugs. alcohol. and smoking)and some of their social and psychological aspects areexplored. Hopefully. the child will realize that he hassome control over his immediate environment and canobtain a greater degree of well-being through consciousefforts. (Slides)

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Unit IIIEnergy Rele.umshIps in 110' EnvIronmentIn Unit III the student explores how the

environment meets his needs for food. air. water. andshelterthe energy inter-relationships betweenorganisms.

Activity 3-9. "Food. Go Power" establishes arelationship between energy and the food students eatatter defining energy as anything that moves or changessomething. and that there is energy stored in chen,;-als.A demonstration of hycopodium powder in a can v.ith atop will definitely "put them w here the action is" as theexplosion reinforces the topic of "Go Pow er.''

Another hying activity is found in activity 3-15. MySource of Food. By tracing food chains to their source.the students will say that plants are the source ofenergies in the food they consume. This is an importantconcept for their understanding of man's dependenceon green plants for food. Flash cards can be used toillustrate the activity. (Demonstrate) (Game time)Unit IVTrunsfi,r and Cycling of Materials in MyEnvironment

This unit allows the student to explore societalneeds. population dynamics, and utilization of space.The ecological themes that are interwoven throughoutthe materials enable the student to interact with nature.

Do you need real "grabbers" for initiatingdiscussions in your,classroom? Try using Me and MyEnvironment to accomplish your goals in scienceinstruction. For inquiry teaching is much needed in allclassrooms today it' we are to prepare the student tocope with problems of tomorrow.

Florence Haag, one of the 1971 summer writingteam members, responded with a short story whenasked, "What is Inquiry Teaching?" I would like toshare this story with you:

Master. Is Your Damper Turned Down?As we look to the far end of town we can see a

house that is closed to all who may wish to enter.The doors and windows are kept locked so thatthose who do come by feel like intruders. Thelovely fireplace is never used, therefore. thedamper remains closed. When a "passerby" doesstop in to offer a bit of news, they soon walk awaywith an overwhelmed feeling because the master ofthe house has a constant compulsion to do all thetalking. What a cold, dreary. and unfriendlyatmosphere!

Could this cold, dreary place be an example ofyour classroom environment? Is it a place w herethe powers of thinking are locked out beeau'c youhave a compulsion to do all the talking: provide allkinds of intdrmation and answer all the ouestions?Is it a place where the fire of creative' is neverkindled because the damper is closed in:A ne ::leasonly filter into the crevice of the %vat's his hethe case. let us seek a new master tor the i, , ise Amaster that will open up the windows 'hat wemay look out into the world of wonder'', Openup the doors so that we may go out to ..ocL obser-vations, to explore. and experiment. ,I;ow us toseek and find answers to questions :hch confrontus.

Yes. we now have a master of inquiry in our house.He has opened up the windows and doors of our minds.and we now look forward to each new day withanticipation and enthusiasm. Yet. these is one thingthat our master of inquiry doesn't keep open and that ishis mouth.

As you. my fellow colleagues, return to yourhometowns, I hope that you will rededicate anew thephilosophy of inquiry as a method of teaching. This is asure wa. of "Putting Life Into the Life Sciences."

THE LIFE SCIENCES AS PREPARATION FORLIVING

Barbara G. Clark, Science Teacher, HoughtonHigh School, Houghton. Michigan

it has been said that education is "preparation forliving." Even using this limited definition, education isin trouble. What kind of "living" are we trying toprepare students for? How can we "prepare" themwhen we have little idea what the world they will beliving in will be like? In the life sciences, especially.knowledge is outmoded in a few years and even basicconcepts are becoming c'solete within decades. So weare shifting the emphasis from "what to know" to "howto learn" and we are trying to teach values, attitudes,and processes which will help in this endeavor.

The conscious effort to teach values is trickybusiness. The question immediately comes up, whosevalues? This is pertinent because it recognizes thatwe've always been teaching values, if not on purpose,and quite successfully. If we think now that we haven'tbeen teaching the most useful ones for the 21st centurycitizen it must also be recognized that it is our values,our society's values, which need examination andmaybe relearning. We surely can't teach values wedon't believe in!

Within the life sciences, however, I assume we allbelieve that there will be a future and that an individuallife has importance and meaning. We also believe in thedesperate need to understand and preserve the planetwe share with all living things. Based on thisevaluation, what are some of the attitudes we candevelop and processes we can employ in the classroomwhich will be useful to students in their unl.nowablefuture?

One group of attitudes I think are important arethose I associate with scientific inquiry. These include:dependence on careful observation before makinginferences, acceptance of new ideas, willingness toinvestigate, and admission of fallibility. Teaching theseattitudes is partly a matter of providing an example.This means that the teacher can't jump to conclusions.be inflexible, or know all the answers.

These attitudes can also be developed by providingstudents with the opportunities to actually practicescientific inquiry. I don't have a classroom with desks inrows; we meet daily in the laboratory where studentsconduct their investigations, usually in groups of four.Too often the typical laboratory sequence provide. arecipe which leads to the "right answers" and thosewho get the answers (by guess or by gosh) get the prizes.Instead I try to develop the feeling that we're all in thistogether, to learn what the outcome is as we set upcertain conditions.

It is not really easy to get students to cooperatewith each other. There are several reasons why. One isthat it's usually been forbidden. Another is that theyhave their own "pecking order" and if students whobelong to different social or intellectual levels findthemselves in the same small group it may be very hardfor them to work together. This can begin to work if thegoal of learning from a jointly prescribed situation is

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clearly defined. There must be several jobs to he done,and all must be essential. An example of such anexperience could be investigating the relationship ofheart rate to exercise. Obviously, in groups of tv o. oneis the subject and one the data taker. The roles must bereversed to obtain all the data required, and eachperson's contribution is essential to making a

class -wide generalization. A more sophisticatedexample might pose the problemhow does light affectthe uptake of water by a branch. Many hands areneeded to set up the experiment, then someone mustcatch the clock, someone must watch the bubble in thepotometer, someone must record the data, andsomeone must watch the lamp, the branch, and thenearby elbows. Slowly the students learn to depend oneach other, and maybe more important, learn that theyare themselves an important part of the group.

In most of their investigations the students are leftto choose their own hypothesis and to devise their ownprocedure to test it. This decision-making is hard forthem but improves as the year goes on. If the problemposed is what effect plants have on each other, and theavailable organisms are a variety of seeds, twigs, androots, there are many decisions to be made. "Whatparticular plants or plant parts shall we try?" "How dowe proceed?" "What do we measure?" Muchcommunication and cooperative planning must occurbefore even a simple experiment can be started. Itwould probably teach as much about seeds and plantinhibitors to prescribe the experimental procedure andthe materials to be used but that doesn't help developthe skills of working together, making reasonabledecisions based on scanty information, finding out thatas a group more can be done than by one alone, andthat even the kid who was in the slow English class lastyear can be involved and useful. One last result is thateach group must ultimately describe and defend itswork before the rest of the class. It is gratifying whenthe usual loud-mouth bossy type finally lets anothermember of his group make the report. This may neverhappen, but by rearranging groups occasionally,different combinations of kids may work out thesedifficulties satisfactorily.

Simulation games can be used to extendimaginatively the opportunities in the lab. One which Ihave used provides data cards by which students can"test" hypotheses concerning the maze-running abilityof a variety of laboratory animals in nn assortment ofmazes. Again, the goa's of the investigation are toinvolve the student in making hypotheses and analyzingthe data obtained.

A second set of attitudes which I value highly, andtry to teach, relate to an understanding, respect, andeven affection for all living things. To accomplish thisgoal, living plants and animals are used almostexclusively in my laboratory. Rather than preparedslides, a hand microtome, razor blades, and simplestains are used to make wet-mounts of leaf or stemsections. What is lost in detailed accuracy is more thanmade up by the reality gained. The activity of theearthworm found alive and burrowing in a shoebox ofsoil in which items of feed and trash were buried twoweeks ago is far more relevant to tojay's needs thanidentifying the seminal receptacles of an embalmedspecimen.

Sowbugs can be collected in the fall, on a field tripif the schedule permits. Found under rocks and boards,they can be kept all winter in a large covered pail withsome soil and lots of dead leaves. These are useful for

.

experiments in animal responses to environmentin% estigations into micro-habitats and behavioraladaptions for sur% ival. Plastic port dishes in whichholes can be melted with hot rods, and the dishesjoined, can protide a choice of "habitat." The sow bugs,when placed in the dishes, w ill show their preferencesfor wet or dry, salty or unt avored. light or darkness.Flour beetles may he kept ffom year to year in jars ofwholew heat flour or wild I id seed. The showinteresting similarities and differences in behaviorcompared to sowbugs and are examples of insects withcomplete metaporphosis.

Dime-store goldfish respond to temperaturechanges from near 00 to 35°C w ith rare casualties. Theyalso endure ordinary city tap water.

Frogs can he kept in a wire-covered plastic dishpan. tilted in a sink with tap water running slowly andholes near the bottom for drainage. The frogs will eatflies. meal worms, and other live animal5;;_---viLimallerfrogs). They can also be force-fed once or twice a weekwith livera job students love to help with.

My point is that common ordinary creatures whichcan survive laboratory use are available, easy to care forand invaluable teaching tools. Developing concern fortheir health and welfare, and responsibility for humcnetreatment of animals are goals in themselves in lifescience.

One other concern which I feel must be taught inthe life sciences, as well as in all subject areas, is anunderstanding of man's environmental relationships.Several specific techniques are useful, but none is moreimportant than the priority the teacher places on thisissue.

A simulation game that deals with attitudestoward the environment involves managing a planet for50 years by choosing the projects which will be funded.It is designed to show the effect of industrial expansion.agricultural mechanization, and environmental oreducational expenditures on population. income, food.upply and environmental quality. I have used twoadditional techniques to extend the use of the game.Before starting the play. the students, in their groupsare given the choice of a project: to draw a typicalhumanoid inhabitant of the planet. to map a city. todescribe a young inhabitant's day. to prepare the frontpage of a newspaper, to describe and picture theinsects, to describe the symptoms of a disease. It issurprising how unimaginative some results arebutthis is, after all, the first time the students were everassigned to be strictly imaginative in a science class! Tothink concretely of the 21st century, however, is hardlyless imaginative, and the practice is not without value.After playing the game through twice, and finding theinevitable population rise, it is determined by classdiscussion that. among other conclusions, the gameisn't built rightyou should be able to do somethingabout the population. The students are then required tosearch out in newspapers or news magazines examplesof how our nation. state, or city is spending itsmoneywhat are our priorities? What programs arefunded (or unfunded by executive decree)? Do we, infact, place a high riority on population control? onenvironmental quality? on education? It is anilluminating exercise.

Another type of game. a role-playing experience.has other uses and could be tailored `o meet localsituations. One game of this type establishes a hearingbeing held concerning setting aside land for a nationalpark. Students are assigned roles as senators with

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described constituencies and as witnesses both for andagainst the proposed park. All sides of the issue arerepresented from the meal mayor looking at taxes andlobs to the far out consert atiomst who can see only thetrees. The students, pretty much in spite of themselt es.get int tilted in the issues and begin to see how hard it isto soh e the real political and social problems ot the dat.It was helpful in preparing for and interpreting thisgame to hate been a witness at a senate hearing forwilderness status for Isle fity ale National Park imselt.last May. It was even more helpful to take my classes toa State Department ot N ral Resources land-usehearing at which some students testified. Thesestudents will be % oters in only two or three years. soalthough their experience in citizen participation isn'texactly biology, it surely is related to lite.

In other ways, also. class work can he related toreal life. Just after studying predator -prey relationships.using coyotes in thew extern states as an example. a callca me out along the environmentalist line that PresidentNixon, was being pressured to lift the ban on emotepoisoning. A student responded to this information bywriting a letter, which w as signed by 85 other kids,urging the President to keep the ban, for reasons thestudents understood.

The final point I will discuss here is related to thevalue I place on environmental education. I advise anextra-curricular club. The Students for PollutionControl. which meets at least one noon hour each week.The club gets involved in all kinds of local, state, andnational issues. It belongs and contributes to otherenvironmental organizations. Members send letters tolegislators and testify at hearings. We have raisedmoney for the local "Save the Pines" campaign.convinced a creamery to change its misleading cartonadvertising, and established a city-wide newspaperrecycling procedure. We have had roadside litterpic.,-ups, and are now publicizing the values of buyingreturnable beverage bottlesa direct relationship.

Probably what these 20 or so kids learn as theydeal with all levels of government and all aspects of thelocal community is my most successful teaching. Theyhave found, for example. that grocery managers don'treally want to put licize the difference in wholesale costof returnable vs. throw-away containers. They havefound that their state senator is dead set againstwilderness areas or land use control, regardless ofargument. They have found that about half of thepeople in Houghton are willing to save their newspapersfor recycling if they're picked up monthly. They call thebank manager to request a courtesy ad, put on a radioprogram. talk to the Kiwanis Club, attend city councilmeetings. and speak before the state Natural ResourcesCommission. They really know what some of the forcesare that are shaping their future, and they are toolingup for their contribution toward directing these forces.

THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATIONOF A DRUG EDUCATION. UNIT

Leonard M. Krause Science Department Chair-man. Akiba Hebrew Academy. Merlon Station,Pennsylvania

The presentation is based on the development andimplementation of a Drug Education Unit for ninth-grade level biology classes in a Philadelphia suburban

pri\ ate, school, and includes a 10-minute slide-soundresume of the program described hclow.I The unit was developed inuuctively through

student committees which functioned to evolve aseries of open-ended biology laboratory activitiesdurir.g w hich the effect of various household drugson several invertebrates was tested.

2. The unit is investigatiye, allowing individualstudent committees to analyze data collected, toreformulate hypotheses. to test these latter hypo-theses, and to draw tentative conclusions.

3. The unit's challenges embrace the community asstudents visited numerous drug rehabilitationcenters to study the extent of drug abuse in Phila-delphia and its environs.Beyond collecting sociometric data through

interviews and questionnaires, two student teamstaught drug education units in several Philadelphiajunior high schools and in one elementary school,basing their instruction on the activities developed intheir biology lab.

SESSION 6-4

CHEMISTRY BRIDGES TO THE HUMANITIES

CHEMISTRY AND THE BUSINESS OF LIVING

Jay A.Young, Professor of Chemistry, AuuurnUniversity, Auburn, Alabama

Part of our obligation as educators of the nextgeneration includes the engagement of a holistic

perspective about the business of living; thisperspective, if it is to be truly integrated, must address

questions of relationships between and amongartificially separated disciplines, in all areas of humanactivity is possible to show that science is intimatelyrelateu to any other broad field while it is at the sametime distinct from each such field; that science inparticular has a warrant to interact with and enrich thedevelopment of these other areas. To demonstrate these

assertions in detail, I have selected an apparentlydisparate field of interest to humanity: the fine arts, tobe compared with science.

I suggest that the words, imagination, criticaljudg ient, and esthetics form a bridge joining scienceand the tine arts. That is, both science and the f , arts,considered together, c,..n be said to have this purpose:To provide a means for contemplating the physicalworld with an ever new, ever deeper, admiration andawe, as a result of a display of the power of theimagination of the scientist or artist.

Both the scientist and the artist begirrby-observingtheir environment, carefully distingirishirig betweenf ct and illusion in what they observe. Those facts thatare observed are, then, arranged in a kind of order, andcertain facts are selected from this arrangement. Theselection is based upon a discernible connectionbetween or among them, or upon an intuitively feltconnectiun. Any other facts are discarded, or relegatedto a secondary position.

Note that in these actions, the critical judgment ofthe scientist or artist is used, in depth. Further, exceptfor the initial observations of the facts and illusions,imagination is used as the tool to order and to select, to'

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discern obvious and !multi\ e relations between andamong the facts

In a second step. the scientist or artist uses boththe faculty of critical judgment an the faculty ofimagination. to bring torth some kind of unifyingstatement (which may not he in wards) that serces toshow how all of the selected facts form an integrated,non -con t rad ietory w hole.

Some of the facts obtained from observation areeasily seen to be consistent, each cc ith the other. If thisis true for all of the facts obtained, there is no problem.But, if some el the facts, noted during the first step,contradict each other, it can be suspected that this isonly an apparent contradiction; and now the artist orscientist has a challeuge, to find out how the apparentcontradictions can be related. The creative act, Isuggest, consists in first recognizing that there is anapparent contradiction, and, second, in discovering theunifying ideas which demonstrate that there is nocontradiction.

There are many examples. Consider first a

masterpiece of tin: fire arts, Rembrandt's "AristotleContemplating the Bust of Homer." The contradictoryfacts, in this case, pertain to the problem of handlingthe light in the work. It is a fact that the pigtrtmts in oilpaint retlect light; they do not, unless fluorescent, emitany light. It was a fact also, that Rembrandt wanted touse pigmented oil paints in such a way as to force thesepigments to glow with their own light. This is clearlyimpossible; yet when you look at the work itself, it hasbeen done.

Or, consider another, modern, contradiction. Attemperatures of about 2°K or lower, liquid heliumbehaves in an unusual manner. How is one to accountfor this behavior? Today, one explanation involves theemphatic statement that at temperatures of about 2°Kor lower, liquid helium is not composed of atoms;instead it is a continuum, one "thing." dere is acontradiction, perhaps an apparent contradiction, thatstill awaits the creative act which will show that there isno contradiction.

To find a unifying explanation which demonstratesthat an apparent contradiction is nct contradictory is

useless unless the matter can be communicated to othermen in the third step, still involving theimag .cation, but in a different way, the scientist orartist must find a means of relating his unifying idea toSome other idea which is already well known to manyother men. In science, by using a mathematicalequation, or by the description of an analogy betweenthe new idea and what is already well known; in the finearts, by the disposition of pigment on canvas, or thecareful choice of words in poetry, or by the use of formsand shapes in sculpture.

Finally, iti the fourth step, what has beenaccomplished, as now presented to others, is seen to bee-thetically pleasing. Unless it is delightful in some wayor other it clearly is not a fine work of art. And, even inscie..ce, though the esthetic beauty is sometimesdi _ rnible only to others who are themselves scientists,there is an esthetic aspect which if not present, rendersthe accomplishment sus ct.

There are contrasts also, as expected; since afterall, science is not the same as the tine arts. Thesecontrasts are best shown in columnar form, as parallelstatements;

Science1. Discoveries are often

made by intuition.and later found to belogical.Mathematics is usedas a tool.

3. Work of averagequality is often use-ful.

4. The aesthetic as-pects usually are ab-stract. the beauty isexpressed indirectlyto the senses.

5. A work of science isfirst under tood,and then expert-

by one otherthan the scientist.

6. An important ideausually arises duringthe period of activeconcentration whichfollow s the period ofintensive data-gathering.

7. The val-.^ of a scien-tific statement de-pends upon its pre-cision of expression.

8. The symbols usedmust mean the sameto all. Subjectivefeelings are elimi-nated, at least in theformal descriptionof the finished work.

1.

Fine Arts1. Masterpiece, are

often conceivedthrough intuition.and then ni:iterial-'zed by exper) tech-nical skill. ann logic--illy executed.

2. The correspondingtools are rhythm,proportion, har-mony.

3. Work of averagequality is usuallysterile.

4. The esthetic aspectsare abstract, butthey are based upona physical object(except perhaps inpoetry); the beauty isexperienced directlyby the senses.

5. A work of art is firstexperienced andthen understood, byone other than theartist.

6. An important ideausually arises dur-ing the fallow periodof relative inactivitywhich fellows activesaturation with theproblem. (In this re-spect. mathematicsis like the fine arts.)

7. The meaning of astatement in the finearts (that is, thework itself) dependshoon its richness ofexpression.

8. The symbols canmean differentthings to differentpeople. Emotions,passions, faith,hope. all play a partin the completedstatement.

The author will include two other diverse areas ofinterest in his presentation and challenges others tocompare science with other areas. It seems to me thatone value of this kind of ir,rospection lies in thestimulus it has upon our teaching of chemistry, and alsoupon the increased enjoyment it provides when we enterinto discussions upon non-chemical topic- with ourstudents, or with other adult friends, always asserting.(I would hope) the dramatic importance chemistry hasfor all, at the end of any such discussion.

CHEMISTRY: A STUDY OF IMAGINATION ANDIMPLICATION

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A. Truman Schwartz. Assocm Professor ofChemistry. Macalester College. St. Paul.Minnesota

The title of tnis symposium suggests that chemistrycan be a bridge between science and the humanities.This bridge rests upon two pillarsiniagination andimplication or, if you prefer alternative alliteration.concepts and consequences. There are few. if any, otherfields of human endeayor, which reseal so much ofprofound beauty and wonder, and simultaneously exertso great a practical influence upon everyday existence.Of course. the correlation is hardly coincidental. It isprecisely because chemists have succeeded indiscovering so many unexpected and lovely thingsabout our world that they have gained Cm, power tochange it.

Uwen this dualism or, to use the more apt termwhich Bohr applied to the particle/wave nature of theelectron, this complementarity, it is somewhatsurprising that chemistry courses for science majorshave traditionally paid only scant attention to theapplications of chemistry, or even to its creative aspects.

Perhaps the implicit assumption, that studentscontemplating careers in science, are already aware ofthe intellectual and practical significance of theirchosen disciplines, is justified. I frankly doubt it: I fearwe are producing too many technicians and titratorswho are more or less ignorant of the nature andimportance of chemistry.

On the other hand, the vast majority ofnonscientists are probably even less well-informedabout the science. Nor are they likely to gain such aaunderstanding and appreciation from "exposure" to adiluted majors' course, bereft of both intellectual rigorand pragmatic relevance. On this there seems to belittle debate. The "watered-down" majors' course isdisappearing. But no widely accepted replacement hasas yet emerged; there is no consensus on what chemistrya nonmajor should know. I do not consider this aserious problem. for heterogeneity in course contentand approach reflects the humanity of thechemist/teacher and the humaneness of the science.However, I must confess to sonic serious misgivingsabout courses which overcompensate for pastpedagogical errors by concentrating almost exclusivelyupon the applications and misapplications ofchemistry, to the all-but-utter exclusion of the basicprinciples of science. Beyond feeling that it is dishonestto offer a chemistry course without teaching somechemistry, I fear that the "relevance" of chemistryappreciation courses may be illusory and ephemeral. Adiscussion of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbonexhaust emission will have little lasting value without aparallel study of combustion. And topics such as theenergy crisis and thermal pollution are empty without arudimentary understanding of thermodynamics.

Therefore, I return to my original thesis, that thisbridge between science and the humanities must bebased upon both the intellectual content of chemistryand its useful ubiquity. By leading our students acrossthe chasm which seems to separate the two cultures, wecan not only humanize the scientist, but simonize thehumanist.

I would like to mention also some specificcharacteristics of chemistry which illustrate itshumanistic nature. Along with these, I will citeexamples which I have used in my teaching of bothscience majors and nonmajors. Originally, i attempted

to classify the topics as being either in the"imagination" or "implication" category. But I soondiscovered the arbitrariness and essential .futility ofsuch an artificial separationa good argument, I

think. for the importance of teaching concepts andconsequences concurrently in an integrated syllabus.

1 Chemistry (and all science) is full of ambiguityand the clash of ideas. Teachers often hide this factfrom students and misrepresent science as a mono-lith rising majestically to) ard omniscience. Any-one growing up in the last half of the 20th centuryhas probably developed some tolerance for uncer-tainty. Indeed, a student majoring in art, litera-ture, or political science may have so chosenbecause he loves the ambiguity of men and natureand fails to see this ambiguity recognized byscience. He may perceive only what a student ofmine called the "antiseptic arrogance" of scienceand scientists. Fortunately, it is easy to dispel thismisconception by re-introducing controversy intoour courses and demonstrating that behind almostevery law set in sacred bold-face type there was anencounter between conflicting ideas: phlogiston oroxygen, atoms or a continuum, particles or waves.and so on. You can supply many more examples,hopefully some contemporary ones like polywater.However, certain curve chemical contr )versies

are too specialized to Br easily understood by be-ginning students. Pivotal issues ib the earlier devel-opment of chemistry are often more readily com-prehended. And, therefore, I find real merit in ahybrid historical /ph' lmenological approach tothe subject. But I a,.° grant that this approachmay be more successful with nonscience majorsthan with their technically inclined fellow studentswho already know the "right" answers (thoughperhaps for the wrong reasons, or no reasons atall.) I think members of both groups could gainvaluable perspective from Thomas Kuhn's TheStructure of Scientific Revolutions.

2. Of course, the clash of concepts implies some wgyof evaluating hypotheses. Chemistry teachers have

an excellent opportunity to illustrate the experi-mental, logical, mathematical, and even aestheticbases for validation in the sciences, and to com-pare and contrast them with evaluative proceduresin the social sciences, the humanities, and the arts.Wy was Rutherford's solar system model of theatom more satisfactory than the Kelvin-Thomsonraisin pudding? On what evidence did CountRumford discount the caloric theory? And why is itreasonable to speak of an electron as both aparticle and a wave?

3. The fact that the evolutiw, of chemistry, throughthe process alluded to in my first two points,suggests a series of approximations, represents aninteresting characteristic of scientific truth. Yourmore metaphysical (or metachemical) studentscould easily spend an hour discussing whether alltruth is equally relative.

4. It is also important to emphasize that the interpre-tations of the ambiguities of nature have requiredthe exercise of creative imagination every bit asbrilliant and perceptive as that which has pro-duced mankind's greatest music, painting, andpoetry, Perhaps nowhere is this inner vision betterillustrated than in its application to the unseenworld of the atomfrom Democritus throughDalton to de Broglie and beyond. And nowhere is

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the creative kinship between art and science betterstated than in J. Bronowski's little book. Scienceand Human Values.

S. In their need to know. scientists have employed awide variety of approaches. not a single method.Remember that the serendipidous discover). ofBecquerel and the methodical search of the Curiestook place in the same laboratory, only a few yearsapart. Moreover, the methodological diversity ofchemists only reflects their personal vpriety. Askyour students to read Watson's The Double Helix!E they need convincing. And. if they think ssience

is a passionless pursuit, tell them about Da) ycavorting in his laboratory or Travers rhapscdizingOver "the blaze of crimson light" that signaled thediscovery of neon.

6. In addition to their scientific contributions, manychemists have been deeply involved with humanity.Lavoisier's contributions to educational, economic.and agricultural reform would have insured hisplace in history, even if he had never written Trait('elementaire de Chimie. His contemporary. JosephPriestley. is probably better know n as a theologian.philosopher, and social theorist than as the dis-coverer of the gas which helped the Frenchmanrevolutionize chemistry. Indeed. several years ago,Priestley served as the focal point of a seminar inwhich students and faculty from the chemistry,philosophy, hicory, and English departments ofMacalester explored British intellectualhistory in the late 18th century. Most students ofiiterature (and of ihentist, y) arc probably unawarethat Davy proofread the second edition oftWords -worth's Lyrical Ballads and shepherded it throughthe presses. and was himself a poet, if a mediocreone. Even antiestablishmentarianism is nothingnew. A century ago hirsute Dmitri Mendeleev re-signed his professorship over a dispute in which heespoused and advocated student objections to theirrelevancy of the curriculum, which says. I sus-pect, something about relevance. For more modernevidence of the social involvement of scientists oneneed only think of Linus Pauling debating EdwardTeller on nuclear testing and policy, of BarryCommoner debating Paul Ehrlich on the ecologi-cal crisis and population growth.

7. But a chemistry course, even one which recognizesthe diversity of chemists, should be primarily con-cerned with the specific science and its impact. Anoften-neglected aspect of this influence is upon thewider world of ideas. Admittedly, the most dra-matic and far-reaching scientific intellectual revo-lutionsthe Copernican. the Darwinian. and theFreudiando not directly involve chemistry. Butalchemy was an important manifestation ofmedieval man's self-conception, and the trans-mutation of that protoscience into chemistry hadsignificant intellectual implications. On a some-what more specific level, the idea of entropy comesas a great and often disturbing revelation to manynonscientists; and in lectures to art students andaesthetics classes, I have frequently foundaudiences fascinated with the fundamentals ofquantrm mechanics and the UncertaintyPrinciple. But v.hat may well turn out to be themost mind-boggling scientific achievement in thehistory of thinking man still lies ahead, as bio-chemists and molecular biologists delve deeperinto the mysteries of life.

8. As to th' specific practical consequences ofchemistry, the topic is currently popular, and theexamples are legion. The Haber processlengthened World War I, but produces low-costfertilizer wnich has saved thousands from star-vation. The atomic bomb hastened the end ofWorld War II but killed over 150.000 humanbeings in the process. Insecticides and herbicidesincrease crop yields in famine-ridden countries.but accumulate in song birds and children.Modern miracle drugs increase the span ofexistence. but not always the qu»lity of lite on anovercrowded planet.It is, I think, instructive that all these instances of

the implications of chemistry pose ethical dilemmas.We are back to ambiguity. often in matters of life anddeath.Traditionally it has been the role of thehumanities to consider the human condition and thechoices which mankind must make. And, withoutdoubt, scientists need the wisdom of philosophers andtheologians, the perspective of historians andanthropologists, the insight of psychologists and poets.the imagination of artists and composers. But I submitthat science, too, can contribute to our common anduniversal cause, the enhancement of the humancondition. Perhaps, in the final analysis, the primaryachievement of science is. in the words of L. S. Kubie,"the humility and honesty with which it constantlycorrects its own errors." It is this, he goes on to state,which makes science the greatest of humanities.Perhaps the chasm between the two cultures is anartificial creation, after all. And maybe the bridge ofchemistry can demonstrat; the fundamental unity ofknowledge.

SESSION G-5

SHOULD SCIENCE EDUCATION BE DIRECTEDTOWARD SOCIETAL PROBLEMS?

Lester Paldy, Associate Director, Student and Co-operative Programs, Pre-College Education inScience Division, National Science Foundation,Washington, D. C.

Today, more than at any other time in history,peoples throughout the world are becoming aware ofthe implications of basic scientific advances, and theirrelated technological applications for the humancondition. This audience needs no reminding of thegreat contributions of science and technology to thepast and present quality of life in our society. Nor doesit need a reminder of the harsh consequences of thefailure to assess technologies before they are given freerein.

The National Science Foundation, as a principalsupporter of science and as an important agent ofgovernment activity in nce, has a responsibility totake an active role in porting studies and projectsinvolving the implications of science awl technology forsociety and for the ethical and human valueimplications of scientific and technological progress.Projects relating to these subjects have already beensupported by various organizational units of theFoundation, and it is intended that sach s .pport shallcontinue. For example, the National ScienceFoundation is now engaged in a collaborative enterprise

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with the National Endowment for the Humanities toencourage research activities in the fields of ethical andhuman value implications of science and technology. Itis hoped that the results of supported research in theseareas will illuminate many areas of current concern.

In addition to its interest in supporting research inthese fields, the Foundation is very much aware that theinstitutions that you represent. the elementary andsecondary schools, provide the major p--t of theeducation in science for the average nonscientist. Untilthe late 1960s, the Foundation's efforts in your schoolswere largely centered on identifying at the earliestpossible stage those students with scientific talent andmoving them along in scientific preparation as fast astheir abilities allowel. Now we have come to see theimportance of scientific literacy to all who live in asociety that is ever more influenced by science andtechnology.

In recent years. the Education Directorate of theFoundation has sponsored institutes to provideinterested teachers with the opportunity of obtainingspecial summer training to prepare them to injectinterdisciplinary elements into standard science coursesor, in some cases. to create new courses especiallydesigned for the task at hand. For example, theFebruary 1973 issue of The Science Teacher carried anarticle entitled "Science and Societya Step TowardRelevance for High School Students" by Raymond W.Merry, which described an elective science course forgrades 10 through 12.

Organized primarily arour. d group discussions, thecourse had as its major general objective thestimulation and development or intellectual, physical,and social capabilities. Its specific objective was toincrease the understanding of the mutual interde-pendence of philosophy, science, technology, andsociety as well as the effects that change in one will haveon the others. In order to implement these goals thefollowing topics were covered during this year:ecosystems, population biology, urban problems,cybernetics and automation, energy needs, the natureand history of science, the nature of engineering andtechnology, values, education, biological engineeringand drugs. technological assessment, the future.

Not surprisingly, the instructor found that it waspossible to cover a great deal of pure science in thesetopics. Quoting Mr. Merry:

"Energy needs can introduce force, work, power,energy, electricity, fossil fuels, geothermal power.basic heat and thermodynamics, solar power,fusion and the like. Urban problems can be used tointroduce the conservation of mass-energy. Airpollution and garbage disposal problems resultfrom man's apparent inability to understand theconservation of matter on a large scale. Whatcomes into the city must either stay or be hauledout! What is burner. stays on the ground or goesinto the air!This example seems to me to provide convincing

proof that an innovative and creative teacher can, ifprovided with a little ammunition, organize a coursearound these topics that is satisfactory both to him andto his students. In this case, ammunition was providedby a Foundation-supported institute at Knox College inGalesburg Illinois, directed by Professor HerbertPriestly. Other institutes designed along somewhatsimilar lines are scheduled to operate this summer andwill undoubtedly provide fertile soil for other newcourse designs.

Are existit,; science programs in our educationalinstitutions, both secondary school and college anduniversity, adequate? If the major criterion fog successis taken to be the production of tirst-rate scientists andtechnologians. the answer is undoubtedly "yes."Howe%cr. examined from the standpoint of theexpectation, -,;;;; ",-,;;:lety will have then. we cannot bequite as confident. All of our educational institutionshave made great headway in building a core oftraditional science courses. Neveitheless, it is clear thatwe shall have to accelerate the evolution of our scienceprograms if they are to foster the kind of socialconsciousness and social perception needed by bothprofessional scientists and the broader public.

Last April, seeking to bridge the Fa!) betweenscholarship and public affairs, the National Endow-ment for the Humanities inaugurated an annual lectureseriesThe Jefferson Lecture in the Humanitiesaddressed to a national aTalet."7-e-.rtie- series was sonamed because Thomas Jefferson epitom ed boththeory and action: he was President of the AmericanPhilosophical Society as well as President of the UnitedStates. Lionel t tilling, a writer and teacher with aninternational reputation. was chosen as the firstlecturer.

In a superb address, "Mind and the ModernWorld," Dr. Trilling examined our societies'diminished confidence in mind and in the concept andvalue of objectivity. The humanistic disciplines, heobserved, have suffered. And we have lost confidence :n

science as well, which now "lies beyond theintellectual grasp of most men" except for the suspicionthat it is dehumanizing. We do not lack resources toreverse this trend. The return of confidence is withinDur graspif we reassert humanistic values, if we seekthe restoration of ethical criteria in human enterprise,and if we propose the renewal of rationality. Who willdeny that a portion of this task must be borne by thosewho teach science in our schools and colleges? Perhaps,echoing Tennyson. " 'tis time to seek a newer world."

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ABSTRACTS OF CONTR!BUTED PAPER

0

GROUP A

THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO SCIENCEEDUCATION: THE DELAWARE MODEL (h -12)

A-I DEL TECH/DEL MOD: THE ROLE OF ATECHNICAL AND COMMUNITY COLLEGEIN THE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Ethel L. Lantis, Dean of Development, DelawareTechnical and Community College, SouthernCampus. Georgetown

How can a college which prepares anyone at least18 years of age for entry jobs through the technicianlevel contribute to a system which preparesprofessionals to be better teachers and researchers?"Del Tech/Del Mod" describes the operation of atwo-year technical college and its contribution to DelMod. It also delineates benefits derived fromparticipation in the Del Mod system.

This paper concludes that neither makes anyattempt to be innovative, having a modus operandibased on educational and industrial experience.Modern manageme. ( techniques and applied humanrelations make both systems go.

A-2 THE ROLE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PUB-LICINSTRUCTION IN THE DEL MODSYSTEM

John F. Reiher, State Supervisor of Science andEnvironment. State Department of PublicInstruction, Townsend Building, Dover, Delaware

Within its current framework the Department hasthe personnel to conduct needs assessment and tomeasure student achievement and aptitudes in scienceand mathematics on a statewide basis. Theseassessments are a necessity because no othercomponent can do them and because they have neverbeen done in a reliable. systematic fashion.

The Research Division should gather the specificdata required by the supervisors of science andmathematics.

It will be necessary for the science andmathematics supervisors to act in concert to assessneeds and translate them into integrative programs. Inaddition, these supervisors must press for developmentof projects which reflect local district as well asstatewide needs.

The Department of Public Instruction should alterits structure to permit the supervisors to exercin morecontrol over all federal grants dealing with science andmathematics. Del Mod is a source of certain types offunding support, btu the Department has access toESEA and other federal funds which can complementlte Del Mod spet.1ing.

Since the childreu of Delaware stand to gain from allDel Mod projects, regardless of the componentconducting the projects, the responsibility fordisseminating results of Del Mod programs would bean ideal Department of Public Instruction function.

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A-3 THE ROLE OF FIELD AGENT

Barbara Logan, Field Agent. Del Mod System.Dover, Delaware

The Delaware Model: A Systems Approach toScience Education (Del Mod) is a cooperative adventureattempting to Initiate change in an evolutionary way.Del Mod focuses on changing the behavior patterns ofthose involved in science education and addresses itselfto the needs unique to the specific school districts.

One of the distinctive features of Del Mod is thatof the Science Field Agei.t individuals whose primaryfunction is that of assisting teachers to attain a level ofconfidence required to sustain quality teaching.

The field agent's program is orgznized around threelevels: confiderce building. development. and imple-mentation.

Level I activities concentrate on encouragingteachers who are afraid of science. Inservice workshopsinvolving small groups provide the atmosphere in whichthe field agent cangffer individual assistance toteachers at different cognitive and affective levels inscience. The one-to-one relationship helps provideassurance for the teacher hesitant to use inquiry-centered techniques.

The Level II program centers on improving teachereffectiveness in the classroom. During bi-weeklyinservice sessions the teachers are systematicallyexposed to the new curricula in science education. tothe methodologies these curricula utilize and to theresearch from which they developed.

The sessions provide a variety of experiencescentering on the various modes and methods ofteaching. learning theory. planning and evaluation.On-site visitation by the field agent allows for diagnosisof the teacher strategies. During teacher-field agentconsultation the effectiveness of the strategy isdiscussed and ways to improve determined.

A-4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DEL MODINFORMATION NETWORK

David W. Morgan. Information DisseminationSpecialist. Department of Public Instruction,Townsend Building, Dover, Delaware

Concurrent with the first year of operation. DelMod personnel and those supporting De' Mod efforts toimprove science and math education in Delaware'sschools became increasingly aware of the need tocommunicate more thoroughly and effectively with theeducational community and the general public. TheDepartment of Public Instruction, under the directionof the Del Mod Component Coordinator (i.e.. StateScience Supervisor), developed and implemented aprogram of information dissemination for Del Mod.

The operational philosophy of this information-dissemination program is based on the assumption thatevery science and math teacher should be madecognizant of new research and developments in the fieldas well as the activities of their own state. It does notimply supervising or monitoring of school programs noradministration of programs in the schools.

The Del Mot; newsletter, presentations to schoolfacilities, displays. quarterly abstracts of scientific andmath journals, dews releases to newspapers. radio, and

television, as well as contacts with civic groups. form acomprehensive network of communication.

A-5 RESEARCH WITHIN DEL MOD, A SYSTEMSAPPROACH TO SCIENCE EDUCATION INDELAWARE

John R. Bo lig, Director of Research andEvaluation. Del Mod System. Dover. Delaware

The Del Mod System. a consortium of theUniversity of Delaware, Delaware State Cc-liege,Delaware Technical and Community College, alit thepublic schools of the State of Delaware, is working toimprove the quality of science education in Delawarethrough a large variety of programs.

Evaluation of these programs. and researchopportunities within a systems approach, require amulti-faceted design. The programs include college anduniversity courses and institutes, year-long field agentprojects within the schools, local district workshops.and individual research in the sciences.

A-6 APPLYING THE DEL MOD MODEL

Charlotte H. Purnell, Director. Del Mod System,Del Mod System. Dover. Delaware

The Del Mod System has been in operation oneyear. Three points seem to contribute to its success: (a)development of a communication retrieval system. (b)grassroots input to needs and ideas, and (c) quick,appropriate action on requests.

The communications system depends on bringingpeople together who have similar problems and needs.It takes advantage of the demographic structure andutilizes a variety of feedback mecha , isms.

Grassroots input at the teacher level is built uponto design programs suitable for local situations. Fieldpersonnel capitalize on their rapport with teachers toencourage expression of ideas.

After needs are known, quick action is taken eitherat the local or institutional level t i satisfy the needs. Allideas are encouraged with the expectation thatevolution will take place

A-7 DESIGNING AND EVALUATING THE DELMOD SYSTEM

Robert L. Uffelman, Coordinator, Del ModProjects. University of Delaware. Newark

The Delaware Model: A Systems Approach toScience Education (Del Mod System) identifies needs ofteachers, schools, institutions of higher education, andthe system itself; allocates resources to remediationprojects: assesses its effectiveness and provi,feedback information to participants. Del Mod evolvedfrom a cooperative statewid- plan for the publicschools, State Department of Public Instruction, andthe University of Delaware. Del Mod System expandedto include Delaware State College, Delaware Technicaland Community College, and the private and parochialschools as components of the System.

Institutional roles and participant activities areplanned to utilize existing resources. The Colleges andUniversity provide education for technicians and

90

preservice teachers. The State Department of PublicInstruction coordinates curnculum revision, and theschools adapt or implement new science andmathematics programs. Ali three component agenciesprovide for inservice education of teachers and evaluateprogram changes. School district personnel participatethrough projects. symposia. field-agent workshops. orformal courses. Activities are conducted in localschools. Del Mod Resource Centers. and collegeclassrooms or laboratories. Assessment data areprocessed by the Director of Research anddisseminated to component coordinators at eachinstitution to provide for systematic planning andimplementation.

This System encourages research and evaluationdirectly related to the improvement of teachereducation and to teacher adaptation of science andmathematics materials in their own classrooms.Evaluations assess the impact of institutional projects.staff members, teacher participants. and new materialson each other and on pre-college students. Time-seriesdesigns provide more useful data than do traditionalexperimental or quasi-experimental investigation.Variables related to teacher knowledge. classroomperformance, student achievement and attitudes, andthe information processing system serve as bases forjudging the effectiveness of the Del Mod System.

GROUP BTEACHER EDUCATION [ELEMENTARY]

B-I COMPETENCY-BASED CERTIFICATION:IMPLICATIONS FOR THE SCIENCETEACHER

Richard W. Gates. Director, Teacher Education?rograms, St. Bonaventure 'Jniversity. St.Bonaventure. New York

Since 1936. New York has required the bachelorsdegree as a m'airt.-'m standard for teaching. Therequirements have steadily increased. and presently 30graduate hours are required to qualify for permanentcertification. Education of the teacher is looked upon asthe first means of determining the certification of theteacher.

Along with several other states (Washington.Florida, Texas) New York State has proposed acompetency-based and field-,..entered system of teachercertification. This new system dictates that:1. Pupil performance should be the underlying basis

for teacher competence.2. Certification should be based on teacher com-

petence rather than on completion of courses.3. Te. ^hers should be required to demonstrate their

competence periodically to retain their certi-fication.By 1980. New York expects to be on a total

performance-based certification and teacher educationprogram.Implications .for the Science Teacher1. Who will determine the competencies needed?2. Will college degree requirements be disregarded?3. What evidence is there to support that this change

is necessary?

4 What effect will this have Upon existing graduateand undergraduate teacher education programs?

5. What is meant by "field- centered ?"6. Can we adequately measure "Pupil perfor-

nce?Who will assess teacher competencies'?&hire New York State. or an other state

mandates certification change, these questions must beanswered. What role will professioaal organwationsplay in this proposal? Where does NS FA stand?

B-2 ACTIVITIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OFAFFECTi .-E DOMAIN OBJECTIVES IN ELE-MENTAh 1 SCIENCE INSTRUCTION

H. Martin Bratt. Graduate Instructor. ScienceEducation. Purdue University. West Lafasette.Indiana

This study examined the effect% of se% eral activitieson the attitudes of prospeethe elementary scienceteachers. The activities were chosen for their Utherentproblem-wising characteristics and relation to scienceinstruction in the elementary school.

Experimental and control groups were pre-pre-tested. pre-tested. post- tested and post -post -tested in atime series design to determine the status of theiraffective behavior. The pre-pre-test was administered inspring of 1972. the pre-test in fall 1972. the post-testatter the completion of the methods course. and thepost-post test after the comoletion of student teaching.A parallel test has been developed fin- children and is inpreliminary testing phase at the time of thi, writing.The test is designed to determine the carry-over aspectsof the 'reatment to children.

At the time of this writing. data arc incomplete.but it is expected that this study may provide insightsinto the following areas:1. The use of factor analysis to revise attitude

inventories.2. The use of factor analysis to alidate attitude

inventories.3. Further research concerning the attitude scale

construction model proposed by Moore andSutman (1970).

4. Activities s hich may he used to develop affectivedomain objectis :s in elementary science in-struction.

5. Measurement of science attitudes in elemental-%children.

11-3 ONE APPROACH TO RELEVANT SCIENCECOURSES FOR PRESERVICE ELEMENTARYTEACHERS

Carl Stedman. Associate Professor of ScienceEducation, Austin Peay State University. Clarks-ilk. Tennessee

The relevancy of any science course or sequence ofcourses is directly related to the perceived needs of theeducational audienee for which the instruction wasdesigned. It is difficult to translate the needs ofpreservice elementary teachers into classroom proce-dures and educational content. However, to proside asimplified translation to educational experiences forp reser,. ce teachers t hat are perceived as rewarding.relevant to needs, and productive in changing attitudes

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about science. certain assumption% ace necessaryConcisely statvd. these assumptions are:1. One should proceed %kiwi% from the known to the

unknown in both content and methodology.2. Teachers teach as the haw been taught and to

bring about a significant clank: in teachers'attitudes and beha% air necessitates first of all achange in their teacher's attitudes and behasuirs.

3. Presersice teachers learn science best in a teach-ing-learning ens minimum that enables them tobecome personally hooked and acme in theirlearning.

4. If becoming an adequate teacher of science isviewed as being important. preseni;e teachersmust be rev ardcd for desirable behavior in de%eloping teaching skills as much as they alerewarded for comprehending scientific concepts.

5. Lack adequate facilities and budget. althoughthey represent a real problem, are no excuse forinferior teaching and pro% iding inferior educa-tiolial experiences.

h. Mont enthusiastic learning will occur if oresersiceteaehe-% are given alternatives from which tochoose nd they are provided with opportunitiesfor self =c aluation.

Conclusion: The primary eyaluation of how successfulthe college or inns ersits loci science experiences hasebeen for preser% ice teachers must be a measur,nnent ofhov, successfully these students perfOrm in their ownclassrooms In the author's experience. theseassumptions have produced enough success to warranttheir sert,:as consideration.

B-4 A COMPETENCY-BASED ELEMENTARYSCIENCE PROGRAM FOR PRESERVICETEACHERS

Ronald W. Clem mson. Paul L. Jones, Nel:e E.Moore, Associate Professors of Education, Mem-phis State 1111Oct-shy. Memphis. Tennessee

At present. we are witnessing a tremendousimprovement in the preparation of elementary scienceteachers. The report of the AAAS Commiss:,... onScience Education. "Pre-serv;ce Science Education ofElementary School Teachers." has been primarilyresponsible foi this improvement. pros iding anexcellent basis for undergraduate program develop-ment.

Memphis State University. using the above reportand -additional resources, is attempting to identifycompetencies our students should possess to teachchildren successfully. They represent a minimal set ofterminal behas tor% for our students. The instructor or.as in this case, learning manager. provides aself-evaluation scale and competency checklist for eachstudent and meets individually iv:th students (4 to 6)during each class period to evaluate progress. Duringthis time. each ,tudent demonstrates his success witheach competency.

The competencies are grouped into three sectionsfor organisational purposes. The first section.Inquiry-Proces.s Skills (A). contains competenciesappropriate for students at all levels. An attempt wasmade to describe the competencies so as to enablestudents to use this section in their own teaching.Section (B), Instructional Skills, lists the competenciesnecessary for teaching seient.,. to children. It has been

designed to prim& esperiences that develop teachingand classroom in-gam/animal skills. Students selectactisities from mailable programs (COPES. ESS.MINNFAAS'I. S-APA. SCIS. etc . and, or developactisities to teach a concept to children during theacademic period. 'I he third section of competencies.Re.seurch-Curnulum Knowledge (C), requires studentsto read articles and hooks for the purpose ofsmall-group interaction and continent. They are askedto csamme and to compare the activity-based scienceprograms current's mailable. In addition. studentshave an opportunity to present Piagetian-type tasks tochildren of different ages in order to understand betterhow they learn.

GROUP C

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION (ELEMENTARY!

C-1 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION-AN AWARE-NESS APPROACH

K,:imeth Frasier. Project Coordinator, and Jeri-%Dunn. Project Associate Director. Ames Commu-nity School District. Ames, Iowa

This paper describe, an environmental curriculumopportunities study funded by a grant from ESEA TitleIII. P.L h9-10 in May of 1971.

The project was undertaken to broaden and enrichthe base of activities in an Iowa school system toenhance the understanding of, and stimulate a desire topreserve the environment. This was achieved by gettingthe students involved with the natural environment in assstematie manner. including some measurablelearning outcomes.

Although the project includes both elementary andsecondary involvement, this paper focuses on theelemcntar portion of the project.

Environmental education cannot succeed unlessthe general public becomes aware of the complexity ofthe ens ironment because a commitment to preserve canonly follow an awareness of existence.

Four components are discussed:1. An outdoor, living laboratory on a school site.2. A student transportation unit that is considered an

integral part of the program.3. A mobile laboratory for use in representative

en. ironments.4. Teacher inset-vice training in the areas that are

introduced to the student.The following are statements of global objectives

which have been further refined in the project to thepoint of individual behaviors.1. Students will engage in activities appropriate to

their level of maturation which will include obser-vation. investigation, and evaluation of a variety ofecological relationships and conservation practicesin central Iowa in order to develop the concept ofstewardship of natural resources.

2. Teachers will support the major objective andassist in its accomplishment as a result of theactivities of this project.The methods of evaluation and the interpretation

of existing data are also included.

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C-2 SLIDES AS ATTITUDE INDICATORS IN ANLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTAL

.'1-:OGRAM

Ss is to Leith. Assistant Professor. University ofManitoba. Winnipeg. Manitoba. Canada

arefully selected and tested ensiromnental slidesare used as concepts or stimuli to measure attitudechanges indicated by 12 adjectise pairs front Osgood'sSemantic Differential list of adjectise pairs. Eight colorslides of different ens ironn ent al situations are used-2p)sitn.... 2 negative. and 4 puizling in a pre-post-testto es: the abilits of an Environmental AttitudesProw. to change teachers' and pupils' attitudestoward th .mironment.

C-3 ENVIRONMENTALMENTAL BIOLOGY FOR ELEMEN-TARY SCHOOL

.1 J Olenchalk. Staff Biologist. Lawrence Hall ofScience. Unisersity of California. Berkeley

rs, ns teachers in elementary school arc hesitant tohit rotnice a ,tudy of the ensironment into their scienceprograms because they feel they are inadequatelytrained in biology and they need speciali/ed material.and equipment. This is an attempt to show theseteachers that elementary science can become torerelesant by using cservoay materials found around thenom and school. In addition, the schoolvard becomes

than a recreation areait serves as the laboratorya, :-.:comes a place for discoserv.

Three facets of environmental biology are studied:(al an aquatic environment using the concept of the"Mint Pond." (h) microclimates of the sehoolyard. and(c.) studying soil as an environment using the "Soil

Box.-

GROUP DINDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION (K -12(

D-1 INDIVIDUALIZING SCIENCE AT THE PRI-MARY LEVELRATIONALE AND METHOD

Cecilia C.. Grob. Third Grade Teacher. AirportElementary School, Berkeley. Missouri

Educators have focused much attention recentlyon informal, or open. approaches to learning..Severalwriters have described the general philosophy of theopen concept approach at all levels of instructio-1.Others have discussed the human interactionsoccurring in an open environment.

A survey of the various sources would findconsistencies in descriptions of open learningenvironments. The consistencies would he found less inthe methods that are used to establish the openenvironment than in the essence of the openenvironment itselfin the attitudes and beliefs of thepersons involved in the open situation.

In order to integrate the major goal of educationformulated by Goodlad and the central goal of scienceeducation defined by the National Science TeachersAssociation, the author derived a rationale for

individualizing science at the primary level. Particu-larly. the author was concerned with the role of sciencein the total organization of a third-^rade team roomcalled the Individualized Learning Lavironment. Thisis defined as a classroom established on the basis of aset of attitudes consistent with the informal approach tolearning.

Organization of science activities was related tothree major considerations in designing an instruc-tional program: the learning environment, the child.and the teacher. The rationale formed the basis for theauthor's attempt to individualize science through theregular program, as well as through development ofindividualized science packets. Description of theprogram includes materials, directions. notes to theteacher. and evaluation techniques.

D-2 THE MINI-PATT APPROACH TO INDIVI-DUALIZING INSTRUCTION

responsibility for their ow n progresswith teacher helpwhen needed

Analysis of test scores. coupled with homeworkperformance intent. should serve as a reliahle indicatorof success. Students working hard and earningconsistent A. B. or C grades should be able to achievethe same level of performance in the independent studysituation.

In an effort to develop a simple. reliable set ofcriteria for awarding the independent study oppor-tunity. two medium groups (48 students) were started inthe school year with teacher-paced instruction usingcurriculum materials suitable for either teacher-paced.or independent study instruction.

The results of the investigation are described in thepresented paper.

D-4 INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING IS BETTERGerald P. Krockover. Assistant Professor ofScience Eiucation. Purdue University. Lafayette.IndianaJimmy R. Jenkins. Assistant Professor of ScienceEducation. Elizabeth City State University.Elizabeth City. North Carolina

The preparation and use of audio-tutorial tapescan serve as an effective adjunct to the development ofindividualized instruction materials. However, thepreparation of A-T materials has often been quiteinvolved and time consuming. The Mini-PATTapproach to the development of audio-tutorial tapesresults in the rapid development of A-T materials. Thismethod has been tested with teachers drawn from alleducational levels (kindergarten through college) usinga variety of content material and has been extremelysuccessful.

Using a cassette tape recorder with microphone, acassette tape, a partner (either a child or fellowteacher). and the necessary materials; an effective A-Ttape can be prepared in 15 to 20 minutes.

D-3 IDENTIFICATION OF STUDENTS FOR SELF-PACED, INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

Robert W. Bibeau, Teacher of Chemistry.Wayland High School, Wayland. Minnesota

Many teachers would like to incorporate theself-paced. independent s'udv in their curriculumorganization but hesitate to de so because they may bedepriving students who are incapable of utilizing thistype of instruction of a sufficient exposure to chemistryto meet the course objectives.

In view of the many advantages of self-paced.individualized, independent study instruction to thestudent, the teacher, and the administrator, theindependent study opportunity should not be withheldfrom the educational scene because of uncertain qualityexpectations in the learning products.

It should be possible to reliably select from arandom student population students capable ofsuccessfully discharging their responsibilities in theindependent study situation.

A continuing, cumulative anal, sis of test scores inthe teacher-paced situation should reveal the identitiesof students deserving to be trusted with much of the

Ronald J. Snyder. Instructor of Chemistry-Biology,Hudson Community School. Hudson. Iowa

Individualized teaching is by far the mostsuccessful and most meaningful mode of learning to thestudent yet devised in education. The student can learnat his own level in his o vn time by doing thingsbasically in his own way. Educator., have said for yearsthat students retain 10% of what they hear and 30% ofwhat they do. but we are just now really allowing thestudent "to do."

Three years ago. fresh out of co'lege. I had 20students enrolled in chemistry. The zond year 55

'students were enrolled in chemistry. year 35students are enrolled from a junior class of only 45.However, with the nine-week chemistry courses, thereare a total of 59 students in chemistry. Why such anincrease in enrollment? This is exactly the samequestion asked by the administrators. I would like tothink it is all due to me as the instructor, but, most ofthe credit goes to the teaching method: individual-ization!

On the Iowa Tests of Educational Developmentrno'e students scored higher percentile-wise in the areasof Background in Natural Sciences and Interpretationof Natur Sciences in terms of their score the yearbefore th.:-. in previous years. with each student's scoreeither increasing significantly or remaining the same.

The second year six students who had been D andF students all their school careers, enrolled inchemistry. The reason? Simply because they had nowhere else to go except study hall and they neededcredits. I. therefore, let them into chemistry. Results:three maintained at least a C grade, one a B. and theother two, Ds, which is quite impressive in spite of thelast two. Results were similar on the ITED, though notquite so good as in the previous year. This was due to alarger population and a larger cross-section of studentsand abilities.

During class. students are free to come and go asthey please since the lab is open. In this way biology andchemistry studrats often work side by side, and thisinitiates a lot of cross-learning between disciplines. Asis obvi:ms, the program is successful. The students arelearning and having fun at the same time.

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D-5 AN ENRICHMENT PROGRAM THAT PRO-VIDES FOR INDIVIDUALIZATION WITHIN ASTRUCTURED CHEMISTRY COURSE

Jon R. Thompson. President. Colorado Science

Teachers Association; Chemistry Teacher. Gene, alWilliam Mitchell High School. Colorado Springs.Colorado

It is difficult to individualize instruction with largenumbers of students. In this situation it is necessary tostructure the learning process at least partially. In ourchemistry program at Mitchell High School we feel thatwe have achieved a compromise. We have initiatedindividualization into a structured course. (The courseis team-taught by Gary Modic and me.) Our course canbe divided into two main headings: a required portionand an enrichment portion.

The required portion is much like the standardhigh school chemistry course. A student can earnregular credit by completing satisfactorily only thisportion; however, the enrichment portion is quiteinviting. Students who complete enrichment activitiesare introduced to the relevancy of chemistry and at thesame time improve their grade.

Students can complete a variety of activities in theenrichment program. Activities available include fieldtrips to industry and chemical laboratories, completionof: consumer experiments, environmental experiments.career chemist simulations, open-end inquiry typeexperiments, experiments utilizing instrurhents. experi-ments that are no longer used regularly (such aspreparation of oxygen). experiments closely related tocurrmtly used required experiments. etc. Otheractivities may be: chem-art related projects. chemistry-photography projects. preparation and presentation ofdemonstrations, reports on chem-related articles andreprints, and work on the computer. As can be seen bythis partial list many choices are available.

In order to provide as many choices as possible, we

prepare the experimental activities in kits. We makeavailable only a portion of the total list of enrichmentexperiments at one time. For activities that requiresupervision students must utilize contracts. To alleviate

clerical problems the use of point coupons or"chemistry dollars" is utilized.

Students at Mitchell have responded quitefavorably to this program. and the program is nowbeginning its third year. While working with thisprogram we have realized several advantages, Theprogram allows greater flexibility and individualiza-tion. It Provides for the introduction of relevant topics.It prc. ides students with a chance to get involved withchemistry in addition to the usual problem solving andrequired theoretical experiments.

GROUP EAREAS FOR SPECIAL CONSIDERATION

E-1 OPEN EDUCATION:' STATE OF THE ARTAND SOME UNANSWERED QUESTIONS FORSCIENCE EDUCATORS

Marvin D. Patterson. Research Fellow, NovaUniversity. Ft. Lauderdale, Florida

This paper will explore these questions: What isopen education? What are the theoretical foundations

94

of open education? What is known about the

ettectheness of the various approaches to openeducation, both in terms of cognitiN e and affectivedimensions? And final!). what will an open educationmmemett mean to science education research anddevelopment?

A brief re% iev. of the histort of open education willbe pros ided b) tracing its des elopment from the BritishInfant School to the U.S. Open Classroom. A

description of how science activities occur in the openclassroom will be discussed. Since the open classroomrequires a new approach to instruction 2nd classroommanagement, the pending impact on teacher educationis predictable. A lack of experienced practitioners toretrain traditional teachers and train new teachers israpidly producing an expertise gap in education.Science curriculum specialists will similar!) need

retraining to implement open science educationprograms that are not only child centered but morehumanistic tbr all concerned.

E-2 CRUCIAL ISSUES IN SCIENCE EDUCATIONA "NITTY-GRITTY" VIEW

Jerry L. Tucker. Professor of Science Education,Boise State College. Boise, Idaho

The curriculum revolution in elementary science of

the past decade has produced some outstandingprograms. In spite of all these efforts by hundreds ofeducators, scientists. psychologists, and kids. a numberof crucial problems face teachers of science. In fact, the

revolution itself, its imperatives, character, andproducts, is responsible for some of these issues.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss three issues

significant to the "nitty-gritty" level of scienceinstruction: (I) the "Hurry up, so we can stop"syndrome: (2) "gatecrashing:" and (3) "abstractionfoisting."

Issue (1) concerns the sterility of the objective-dissectionist approach to science and its effect with/onchildren. The development of programs for effectivelytraining children to '' :ie. ,e" in the technical sense has

also led away from the _a: world of the child. Scienceteachers seem be be in a content-rationalityrace. Several suggestions for avoiding this type of"science" instruction are offered.

Issue (2). "gatecrashing" refers to the wayunskilled teachers imp,se their own static imagery onchildren. The writer contend. that few elementaryteachers ever enter the child's world and communicatewith him . . . by providing intrinsic motivation,fostering child-generated inquiry, and allowing ampletime for free exploration.

Issue (3), "abstraction foisting." is not a newproblem. However, conceptual schemes, scientificgeneralizations. key concepts. etc., are often foistedupon teachers (and subsequently children) at nationalmeetings. summer workshops, and in teacher guides inthe belief that understanding is concommitant. Whileconceptual schemes have provided a useful frameworkfor curriculum development, the recent curricularrevolution has generally ignored the societal implica-tions of these ideas, or the interactions of science withculture and human values. Several suggestions areoffered for selecting and developing science under-standings as they relate to the child's total culture.

0

This paper outhnes three issues implicit in an"illusion of science" which has led us to believe we mustprepare our children to compete in the worldknowledge struggle and train them to be more rationalby our standards. Lessons from Sylvia Ashton Warner,Kenneth Grahm. and Richard Bach suggest that wemust slow down, give kids interesting materials, propup the wall. and join the slippery. sliddey, water worldof "Mr. Water Rat." "Johnathan Livingston Seagull."and our children.

E-3 A PILOT PROGRAM FOR EMOTIONALLYDISTURBED CHILDREN

Lorne H. Cook. Senior Education Officer. OntarioScience Centre. Don Mills, Ontario, Canada

A Science Centre can play a vital role as aneducational laboratory in the community. Free from therestraints of curricula, new programs and approachescan evolve in a true atmosphere of experimentation.Ow such program is outlined below.

Etobicomm was a special three-month pilotprogram for a small group of emotionally disturbedchildren, classified as dyslexic. These children, 8-12years old, had physical and psychological problemsresulting in their inability to relate to the printed word.After "years of frustration and failure they haddeveloped a poor self-image.

Initial meetings were held between the ScienceCentre staff and the special education consultants andteachers of one of the local school boards. The purposeof these meetings was twofold: first to identify thespecial needs of these children; second, to developmeaningful intensive nonprint learning experiences inthree areas of science.

It was planned that each child would receive slides.tapes. or packages of material to take back to theirclasses so that they could share their experiences bydemonstrating and teaching their classmates.

The three experimental programs developed were:I. Kites and Aeroplanes, which explored the aero-

dynamic principles involved in designing and fly-ing model planes and kites.

2. Chemistry, which involved the students in learningsome of the principles of chemistry using commonmaterials.

3. Weather, which introduced the children to theweather instruments at the Science CentreWeather Station, as well as interesting and un-usual weather phenomena.Final evaluation of the Etobicomm project is not

complete. However, the enthusiasm and interest of thechildren involved indicate that it has been a successfulventure. Initial reports from their teachers indicate thatthey have gained considerably in self-esteem andprestige among their peers.

E-4 EDUCATION FOR THE POST-PEPSIGENERATION

John Fowles. Senior Education !IP OntarioScience Centre. Don Mills, lit -.nada

The African continent in the t. ith centurywas dominated by foreigners. Now it is eterogeneouscollection of independent nations having little in

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common and often being hostile to one another.At present. African education k dominated the

"system" but the already strong vibrations of unrest areincreasing in frequency and amplitude and must atsome stage inexorably shatter the "system." Theartificial structure of schooling will collapse. Theteachers. unions. and associations which tend toperpetuate some of the most sinister aspects of the"s stem" must be completely remolded to ensuresun iv al: the technology of education will be vastlymodified.

Possibly. the most vigorous revolution will occur inthe field of applied and natural sciences w here theinformation explosion has been incalculable. Scienceeducation may well focus on industry but moreparticularly on science museums.

Having worked since its opening. in the Fall of1969, with the Ontario Science Centre, which I believeto be one of the most stimulating science displays inNorth America. I feel that such establishments canoffer some of the most innovative and excitingalternatives to the "system" and also recz.pture thehuman quality of education.

GROUP F

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION (SECONDARY'

F-1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCEA STUDENTCENTERED APPROACH TO OUTDOORLEARNING

Stuart Freudberg. Student Coordinator; ScottSaroff. Student Director; and David Keyes,Student Aide: Environmental Science. NewtonSummer School. Newtonville, MassachusettsPeter G. Richter, Science Department Chairman:Richard M. Staley, Earth Science Teache.,Newton South High School. Newton Centre. Mas-sachusetts

Environmental Science is a multi-faceted ap-proach to truly student-centered learning. presented inthe belief that students are the most important part ofthe educational process.

The program is sponsored by the Newton PublicSchool, in Newton. Massachusetts, and is given for fourweeks in July to junior high school students. The-coursehas been offered and modified for the past six years.

Environmental Science is a field-oriented ecologycourse. It is taught by a combination of former studentsand teachers with varying field experiences ineducation. Each member of the staff leads a smallgroup of 4 to 7 students who have preselected their sitesfor that day. Many walking and bicycle trips are takento local areas to observe contrasting habitats, as well asseveral bus trips to other New England sites. Theclimax of the month's study occurs during a three-daytrip to Mt. Washington. New Hampshire.

Some topics dealt withi the course of the summerinclude mountain zonation, the seashore biome,foodchains, decomposition. succession, and the effectof the weather upon an environment. Man's interactionwith his environment, especially the idea of"pollution," is also covered.

Improvements and changes last summer wereimplemented by a student and teacher planning board.This group was composed of the previous summer's

statt and the ninth-grade participants of that year. Asimilar group is planning the July 1973 program.

A teature which separates Environmental Sciencetrom other summer programs is its student-orienta-tion--one without disciplinary pressure, and one inwhich the students and teachers are given themaximum freedom to learn within the public schoolstructure.

This winter. a new expansion of the program isoccurring. The expertise gained during the summer bythe older students and past student staff is being usedto help elementary and junior high teachers to takefield trips with their classes, thereby further spreadingthe field approach.

A new idea to be experimented with this comingsummer is he professional development of teacherswho are urudmiliar with some of the field techniquesused by the staff. These teachers will learn new methodsby being a "student" in one of the small groups.

Thus Environmental Science is a program whichdevelops and tests curriculum and at the same timegives teachers a chance to try out their ideas. It gives thestudent teachers as much responsibility as the adultmembers of the staff. Its continued success is the resultof an open-ended approach to science education.

F-2 A RATIONAL APPROACH TO POLLUTIONCONTROL

Gary F. Bennett, Head of EnvironmentalEngineering. University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio

In recent years the public has reacted to thepleagive more consideration to the ways in which weare neglecting our environment. Environmental scienceproblems are considered by army to be the mostimportant problem facing society. The attention givenand concern expressed have .nounted tremendouslyduring the past three years.

F-3 SOURCES OF INEXPENSIVE ENVIRON-MENTAL EDUCATION MATERIALS

J. L. Underfer, Associate Professor, DirectorEnvironmental Education Institute, University ofToledo, Toledo, Ohio

As an outgrowth of the Environmental EducationInstitute conducted this past year at the University ofToledo, numerous free and inexpensive materials havebeen collected for the participants' use. The variousmaterials were obtained primarily from public andprivate service agencies, and these materials will bedisplayed and discussed in the session.

F-4 TEACHER'S EVALUATION OF INEXPE:4SIVEENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATIONMATERIALS

John White, Director, Natural Resources, ToledoZoo, edo, Ohio

Utilizing the materials obtained for the Environ-mental Education Institute, the participants evaluatedthe materials and the results of this effort will bediscussed at this session. The author has utilized manyof the materials in his own classes.

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GROUP GSIMULATIrN GAMES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION

I K-12J

G-1 PSYCOLOGICAL AND ACADEMICRATIONA'.E FOR SIMULATION GAMES

Don M. Flournex. Dean. Unixersity College. OhioUniversity College. Athens

Charges that education is irrelo ant. impair,creativity. and fosters mediocrity' seem to be increasing.What can he done for students at the elementary,secondary, and college level who find school a dullplace?

Certainly the drop-out problem is more severe, andthe necessity of having at least a high school diploma inour society is obvious.

Simulation games represent a promising innma-tixe technique for learning. Seseral psychologicalreasons why participants of simulation g: nes becomemoth ated will be discussed.

Simulation techniques can he used in any area ofthe academic program. but techniques particularlygeared to science will he discussed.

G-2 CRITERIA FOR DEVELOPING INSTRUC-TIONAL GAMES AND TOYS IN SCIENCE

Mary Hawkins, Associate Executive Secretary,National Science Teachers Association, Wash-ington, D. C.

Games should have wide age-grade appeal. Theyshould be educational, appropriate for use in theclassroom, yet suitable for use by children or adultswith little or preferably, no supervision.

Games should be fun. While games may vary inthe "academic load" they carry, they must he satisfyingto the player. the game, or fun experience should be atleast as strong as the instructional value.

Games should be original. The game board,materials for play, directions, etc., should be new ratherthan a modification of some existing game.

A good working procedure is to identify the name,title, topic, or concepts covered in the idea or game.This would help in the identity of components andmaterials required for completion of the game. Themost likely age or grade level, number of players, andgeneral method of play must be established. It is help-ful to identity some of the features of the game whichwill make it fun.

Finally, the instructional value of the game and itsrelationship to the science curriculum, leisure time,general knowledge, etc., should be identified.

G-3 MANUFACTURING, PROMOTING, ANDMARKETING EDUCATIONAL GAMES

Robert E. Cooley, President, Union PrintingCompany, Inc., Athens, Ohio

ManufacturingThe first step in manufacturing a science game is

to identify the various components, presuming that

ownership is established. and that copyrights, patents.etc.. are m proper order. Make sure there is a goodrelationship between author and manufacturer.

Cost estimates. prior to commercial development.are contingent on the number and types of tokens, dice.gimmicks. cards, boxes. and printed materialsnecessary. Games should be developed with anunderstanding of production techniques in mind. Metalcomponents, for example. unless already available (likewashers. etc.). may he so expensive as to inflate sellingprice beyond realistic levels.Promoting and Marketing

Feu games have ever survived when marketedinch% idually. A game developer has feu alternatives togiving a game, idea. or scheme over to one of the severalnational game-toy manufacturers. In your cost of thegame you should set aside a certain percentage forpromotion and advertising, as it will cut into yourprofit. Make sure you are reaching the correct marketin your promotion and advertising.

6-4 A REVIEW OF CURRENT SCIENCE SIMULA-TION GAMES

Jerry D. Wilson. Lecturer in Physics, Departmentof Physics, Ohio University, Athens

A large group of game buffs has developed in oursociety. As a mini-national pastime, games are playedby people of all ages. Educators and teachers,particularly those of science. always alert for newteaching methods, have begun to capitalize on thismeans of communication in an effort to make learninga more pleasant experienceeven fun. Although theeffectiveness may he debated, educational games dointroduce and make familar, topics which mightotherwise he avoided completely.

Within the last few years several scientificsimulation games have been marketed. Some of theseare described and their teaching effectivenessexamined.

GROUP HEVALUATION AND TESTING ISECONDARYI

H-I EVALUATION AND ISCS

Sara P. Craig, Assistant Professor, ScienceTeacher, Florida State Developmental ResearchSchool, Florida State University, Tallahassee

I. Rationale for ISCSwith particular attention tokinds of evaluation needed for this kind of selfpaced course.A. Purposes of ISCS evaluation

1. To gauge rate of progress along the maintrack

2. To provide guideposts for excursionsneeded or indicated for that student

3. To check on the stage of development ofconcepts and ideas

4. To check on the development of theneeded skills and attitudes

5. To help the student progress as fast as hisability permits

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B. Cognitive domainkinds of tests a hick havebeen used in this area1. Paper and pencil testsPre-. post-.

chapter. etc.2. Teacher -given oral testsmdk idual or

small-group3. Oral tests on tapes for poor readers4 Oral tests on tapes with oral answers on

tapes for poor readers and writersSelf-assessment testsPerformance tests

5,

C. Affectiye domain nays of testing to showprogress in developing'1. Ability to cork with partners2. Ability to work without constant super-

vision by teacher3. Independence enough to initiate activi-

ties without teacher suggestion4. Ability to assume responsibility for

equipment5. Ability to pace self according to ability

level6. Ability to fit into peer group activities7. Ability to solve problems without asking

teacher help

D. Psychomotor domainways of testing toshow development of:1. Ability to manipulate equipment

meaningfully2. Ability to assemble equipment3. Ability to make simple repairs

H-2 NONCOGNITIVE EVALUATION: A P.RIDGETO THE 21ST CENTURY

Ronald D. Simpson. Assistant Professor of ScienceEducation. University of Georgia. Athens

Assessment, in one form or another, controls manyactivities in our life. All of us are products of aneducational system that reinforced us negatively orpositively by our cognitive performance on paper-and-pencil tests. The standardized aptitude and achieve-ment test often dictates to students which college oruniversit!, they may enter.

One of the most profound breakthroughs,sociologically, of the past decade has been theperfection of the opinion poll. Political campaigns arecreated and conducted on such data, TV shows live anddie by ratings. and indeed the entire mood of thecountry can be quickly detected within a few days afterpoll-taking.

Most science educators agree today that how astudent feels toward science and related issues may beas important as his understanding of sciencecognitively. Attitudes held by the non-science majortoward science-based societal issues may exert as muchsubsequent influence on the future of science in ourdemocratic society as the activity we generate from thefuture scientists we produce in our classrooms.

If' we are to give more than lip service to thenoncognitive (affective) domain in science education wewill inevitably have to develop new instruments andmethods of assessment. The 21st century may well findus designing educational strategies that will lead tosignificant gains on scores of evaluative instruments

designed to measure group attitudes and cultural issuethat pertain to phenomena central to the enterprise ofscience.

A tew instruments have been constructed tomeasure attitudes toward science. There still exists agreat need for valid and reliable instruments that arepractical for usage with students in the scienceclassroom. Once these instruments are perfected, it willhe necessary for teachers to incorporate them into theirnormal evaluation procedures and, v.e hope. plan thefuture curricula, carefully designed to bring aboutdesired results.

H-3 AN ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OFTHE ACS-NSTA HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY,ACHIEVEMENT TESTS USING BLOOM'S"TAXONOMY"

Kenneth V. Fast, Science Teacher, Kirkwood R-7Schools, Kirkwood, Missouri

A total of 955 items from 12 tests were classifiedaccording to ci -nitive levels (Bloom's). Each test wasdescribed according to the number of items at eachcognitive level.

Pretest forms and item analysis data wereprocured on each item in order to make comparisons ofthe difficulty and the discrimination with the cognitivelevel classifications. These values, as well as the percentof omits, were reported on each item.

The ACS-NSTA High School Chemistry Testscontained items in the followinp, proportions:knowledge, 40.2%; comprehension. 25.6%; application,24.8%; and analysis and/or al-ove, 9.3%. No synthesislevel item was identified. The six most recent testscontained a greater percentage of higher cognitive levelitems than aid the six earlier tests. The average percentof analysis items in the advanced series was 13.7% ascompared to 7.7% in the regular tests. The difficulty ofthe items increased with the hierarchy of the Taxonomylevels. The discrimination index averages indicated theapplication level items were the most discriminating.Application level items were most frequently omitted.

H-4 SELECTING A STANDARDIZED TEST FORCLASSROOM USE

Janet Wall, Department of Science Education,University of Georgia. Athens

The number of tests measuring in the cognitivedomain has increased over the past decade. Tests arenow available for use at the elementary and secondarylevels for assessing student achievement in specificscience content areas, progress in science, and scienceunderstanding. The number .)f tests and the valuableinformation one can expect from interpreting testresults can be confusing to a science teacher. Theproblem may be particularly evident to those who wishto tie-s/andardized testing instruments for assessingstudent 3-0 hieyement, evaluating the science curricu-lum, and judging the effectiveness of instructionaltechniques. It is the purpose of this paper to identify thecritical points in selecting appropriate standardizedtests and to highlight the valuable information theteacher can obtain by analyzing test items and testscores. The paper is particularly aimed at science

98

teachers who wish to select and use standardized testsas part of their instructional evaluation.

Several factors must be considered for selecting anapproprate standardized instrument. The mostimportant of these is the reles ance of the test to theclassroom objectives. Unless a test is examined by thtteacher with this purpose in mind, test scores may notpros e helpful in providing desired intim; Ilion. Validityand reliability are two additional characteristics whichprovide the teacher ,v ith information on the ability of atest to measure accurately and validly. Other qualitiesof a test such as balance, difficulty. speediness,discrimination, and objectivity are equally important inthe process of standardized test selection andinterpretation of the test results.

Before selecting a test, the teacher should seekinformation sources such as Buros' Mental Measuremerits Yearbooks. test rev iews in journals. publisherstest catalogues. None of these sources, however, surpassthe close examination of test malluals and specimensets by the teacher prior to test selection.

The paper may provide the science teacher with aset of guidelines for selecting an instrument that meetsthe specifications ()fa well- constructed test and providedata to the teacher in improving and understandinglearning outcomes.

GROUP I

TEACHER EDUCATION [ELEMENTARY]

I-I FIELD TAUGHT ELEMENTARY SCIENCEMETHODSTHE PROMISE AND THEPROBLEM

Russell M. Agne, Assistant Professor of Educa-tion, The University of Vermont, Burlington

This paper reports on the conduct of anelementary science methods course for junior-yearelementary education majors concurrently partici-pating in a 16-week student teaching experience.Offered at a staff development center away from theUniversity of Vermont's College of Education at theschool where the interns were teaching, this field-taughtscience methods course forced substantive changes inthe usual university-taught science methods course.

Major consideration includes: (a) what theinstructor thought the experience was going to he, andhow the course was initially planned; (b) what theconstraints and opportunities were which modified theoriginal course, and; (c) what the instructor andinvolved collegues would suggest as a better model forscience educators participating in similar undertakings.

Is the science methods experience best offeredbefore, after, or in conjunction with student teaching?How do the needs of the interns differ from those of theuniversity-based methods student? How does thefield-centered methods student get "shortchanged,"and how ck.t.N he get tae "better deal?" Evidence onwhich to base partial answers to these questions isdiscussed.

1-2 COMPETENCY IN UNDERSTANDINGSCIENCEOVERCOMING THE ELEMEN-TARY TEACHER'S FEARS

Darrel W. Fate. Assistant Professor of Education.Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green.Ohio

Overcoming the tear of science is a major concernof the teacher educ. or. It may he attacked in morethan one w ay. One that shows good results, fromcomments of students. is the use of small-grouplaboratory situation in which a series of generalizationsfrom one field are explored in mini-experiments.

Materials are arranged. before class. around therooms ay ailable Small groups of students, the sizedepending on the number of activities. move from oneactivity to another. They individually record reactionsand responses to questions about the actin ties.

Some of the activities are brief discussions,centering about a topic provided in writing. Othersinvolve manipulation of materials and reporting theresults. A few activities involve descriptions of theapplication of the generalizations of science to a speci-fic area of teaching elementary science.

1-3 AN ON-SITE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL MATH-EMATICS AND SCIENCE METHODSPROGRAM

H. Gene Christman, Assistant Professor of Edu-cation; and Ramon E. Steinen, Associate Professorof Education, The University of Akron, Akron,Ohio

We began with an opinion that one of the biggestweaknesses of teacher education programs was that toomuch time was spent on theory and not enough time onactual practice. Just as prospective physicians need anextended period of controlled and carefully supervisedexperien,e to acquire the art of medicine (as opposed toits science), we felt that prospective teachers needsimilar experiencesopportunil les to contend with therealities of teaching.

In an attempt to accomplish this, we decided toteach two methods courses in a public elementaryschool. Our starting point was an inthrmal discussionwith a building principal We then gained approvalfrom the city school system and the university andproceeded as follows:1. We identified a group of students who wanted to

participate in an experience program.2. We would he at the school from 1 pm through

5 pm every school day for one quarter. The twomethods courses would take place from 3:30 pm to5 pm every day. The college students would beactive+ involved with elementary pupils from 1 to3:10 pm every day. The college students receivedtis c quarter hours of credit for the science course,five quarter hours for the mathematics course, andfive quartet hours for participation experience.This would give them fifteen quarter hours ofcredit with no class work required on the universitycampus.

3. We wanted to obtain the cooperation of as many ofthe elementary school teachers as were interested,because we wanted to put the ideas covered in the

99

two methods classes into practice in the elementaryschool. 'I he actual participation by our collegestudents could take many forms. from helping onechild for a day to teaching a unit to an entire class.The extent and duration of the participation wasdecided by the elementary teachers my oh ed.(*he program generated informal and formal data

used in eYaluation of the project

1-4 AN INSERVICE PROGRAM FOR PRIMARY(K-2) TEACHERS USING SCIENCEAPROCESS APPROACH

Ward L. Sims. Associate Professor of El v,entaryEducation. Unhersity of Nebraska. Lin.oln

Forty-one primary teachers participated in aCooperathe College School Science* program todevelop skills in teaching ScienceA ProcessApproach to kindergarten. first- and second-gradechildren. A team consisting of three science professorsand two science educators worked with the teachersduring a two -week summer workshop. Emphasis wasgiven to the processes of science. to contemporaryscience topics. and to peer teaching of selected S-APAlessons.

During the school year the 41 teachers taughtscience to their pupils and trained a colleague in theirschool who taught a primary grade. Six inservicemeetings were held during the school year in which allof these teachers came together to share informationand ideas.

Each teacher administered competency measuresto her pupils for one or more lessons. The results ofthese competency measures were compiled and arebeing utilized in feedback to the teachers to improvethe program.

There was enough enthusiasm for S-APA amongteachers, children, and administrators that the LincolnPublic Schools will endeavor to have this scienceprogram K-6 by 1973-1974.

l*Funded in part by NSF Grant GW-6419, Lincoln,Nebraska, Public Schools and the University ofNebraska, Lincoln.)

GROUP JENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION (SECONDARY)

J-1 ENVIRONMENTAL FORECASTINGANECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THEWORLD'S FUTURE

Richard G. Dawson, Chemical Science Depart-ment, Shawnee Mission South High School.Shawnee Mission, Kansas

Students have been told the population bomb isour greatest threatand also that it is unimportantcompared to technology. Is a Utopia coming, or anArmageddon? Should we help industrialize the poorcountries, or would that bring world disaster? Theenvironmental trends discovered in the last 20 yearshave driven scientists from the lab into political andsocial action. Today's environmental crisis comes fromecological ignorance, as shown by failure to foresee the

multiple interacting effects of technological solutionsapplied to supposedly simple problems. This module.based on cognitite and affective behavioral objectives.gives students experience with major future forecastingtechniques as applied to the environment of SpaceshipEarth. Simple predictions of single factors based onlong-term trends and extrapolation of data pate theway fir cross-impact matrix analysis and the moresophisticated Delphi methods of Industry which 'mon cmultiple influences. Use of games and simple classroomcomputer simulations lead up to study of the largecomputer-based analyses of interacting tactors found inthe Club of Rome effort at MIT. A multimediaapproach with man} options uses video and audio tape.slides, filmstrips, movies, journal and book readings.and computer programs. Disagreements among expertsare examined. Approaches to international environ-mental law are considered, and world goals areidentified with plans by which students could work toachieve them. Parts of the module can be used inexisting courses in earth, biological, or unified sciencefor two weeks or more, or the entire module can beadapted to a unit or mini-course of from a month to asemester in science or humanities, from junior high tocollege.

J-2 PLASTICS AND POLLUTION: AN INTRO-DUCTORY CHEMISTRY LABORATORYUNIT

John W. Hill. Professor and Chairman: and LeonM. Zaborowski, Assistant Professor; Departmentof Chemistry. University of Wisconsin. River Falls

A small but increasing portion of the solid-wasteproblem is the disposal of waste plastics. Most plasticsin use today degrade at an almost infinitely slow rate.Whether discarded along the roadside or buried in alandfill, the component elements are not returned tothe natural carbon cycle. The burning of plastics doesreturn carbon (as carbon dioxide) to the natural cycle.but other products are also formed. Some of theseby-products are noxious; some are quite toxic. Thus theburning of plastics contributes to air pollution.

We have developed a series of open endedlaboratory experiments based on the burning ofplastics. Combustion is carried out in a simpleapparatus which is easily constructed from readilyavailable glassware and tubing. The products areanalyzed for particulate matter. Gaseous products aretrapped in aqueous solution and analyzed byconventional methods. We have determined thathydrogen chloride is produced from burning polyvinylchloride and cyanide is produced from burning Orlon.These experiments yield either qualitative orsemiquantitatiye data. The method is readily extendedto other plastics and other analyses.

3-3 DEVELOPING CURRICULUM MATERIALSDESIGNED TO INCORPORATE ENVIRON-MENTAL TOPICS ttNTO SECONDARYSCHOOL SCIENCE

James L. Milson. Assistant Professor ofCurriculum and Instruction. The University ofTexas at El Paso

A set of 80 instructional activities was developedfor use with secondary school science students, here

100

defined as students in science classe. grades 7 through12. These materials include guidelines winchemphasized first-hand concrete experiences withspeLial consideration given to compensating forproblems w ith communication skills The activities,which are competency based. followed a format whichincluded behavioral objectit es. equipment. an actit itydescription including pre-lab discussion, lab instruc-tions and post-lab discussion, and a competency mea-s,.re. Environmental topics cotered by the activities in-clude air, water. noise and thermal pollution; popula-tion grow th problems; disposal of waste, and use ofnatural resources. The activities were piloted during thefall semester in two school districts.

J-4 GUESS WHAT I SAW TODAYTECHNIQUESOF TEACHING ENVIRONMENTAL AWARE-NESS

Felicia E. West. Research Associate. AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science,Washington, D. C.. and Thomas Gadsden. Assist-tant Professor of Education. P. K. Yonge Labora-tory School. University of Florida. Gainesville

This paper will discuss th° activities and methodsused in an experimental attempt to bring about positivechange in levels of awareness and observational skills ofstudents in the environmental science classes at the P.K. Yonge Laboratory School. The students involved arethe members of two environmental science classesprimarily composed of ninth-graders with a very smallpercentage of 10th-. Ilth-, and 12th-graders. Althoughthis was a research study. this paper emphasizes thetechniques and methods of treatment rather than theresearch design, etc. However, the results of this projectare available and will he presented briefly to justify thetreatment and/or its suggested revisions based on theresults of the study.

The treatment for the participants in this projectinvolved the use of "walking field trips" completed

ithin the 11/2- to 2-hour laboratory blocks for theclasses and restricted to the community surroundingthe school. The field trip route remained constant whilethe tocu for each student changed as he participated inthe same walk on three different occasions. During thefour-week period over which the field trips wereaccomplished, each class participated in 7 to 10specifically designed class activities woven into theintroductory portion of the environmental program.These included situational activities such as stagedincidences. optical illusions, situations that involvedmost of the senses. situations emphasizing interrela-tionships existing between objects. etc. The specifictreatment ended after a four-week period when apost-test was administered. Regular class activities forthe remainder of the year, however, continued to bedesigned to encourage the students to remain at a highlevel of awareness and to foster progress in thedevelopment of their observational skills. A follow-uptest will be given in May or early June to identify thechanges over the school year or any long-term gain thatwas accomplished.

GROUP KTEACHER EDUCATION (SECONDARY)

KI PRESERVICE EDUCATION FOR THE"I LACHER OF UNIFIED SCIENCE

Donald P. Alfieri. Director. Arts. Science andBusiness Dtsision. Caldwell Community CollegeAid I celmical Institute. Lenoir. North Carolina

1 he piper presents a mot'el for the presersiceeducation of the teacher of unified science. The needfor such a model ss ill he discussed and documented.

1 he following asstrtimtions upon ss hich the modelis based will be discussed in detail. It is important forthe prospectRe teacher of unified science to haw:1. An indepth knowledge of at least one area of

science.Esposurc to as mans different science concepts aspossibleOpportunity to he invoked in sonic type of scien-tific research

4 Course work presenting the social significance andimplication of scienceContact w ith students of the age they are preparingto teach in order to test out the learned academicand pedagogic ideasA total unifying prcservice program rather than anarray of fragmented methods and content coursesOpportunity to design. plan, implement, andcsaluate his ow n program for student teachingThe main thrust of the program lies in assumption

1 he prospective teacher of unified science must havefreedom to explore many ideas and then have anopportunity to test these ideas. Implicit also inassumption 7 are some ideas quite foreign to manycolleges of education. The ramifications of this idea u illalso he explored.

Flow charts and diagrams will be used to visuallyexpress the ideas presented.

3,

K-2 MASTERY OF BIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES: AMODEL FOR TEACHER EDUCATION

Paul C Beisenherz. Department of Elmentaryand Secondary Education. Louisiana State Univer-sity. Liiketront. New Orleans

Are there techniques and skills that prospectivebiology teachers should master prior to their firstteaching position? This report describes a completedstudy' involving the utilization °fa set of 154 techniquesestablished by the author designed to provide a basisfor identifying such skills and techniques.

The 52 classroom biology teachers participating inthe studs were full-time high school teachers from fourmetropolitan areas. in responding to each of the 154techniques. they chose one of the following fouralternatives:

I. I have utilized the skill or technique in my teachingA. I did find prior training advisable before my

initial use of it in my teaching.B. I did not find that prior training was neces-

sary before my initial use of it in my teaching.II. I base not uti ized the skill or technique in my

teaching

101

find the technique potentuIN ,11nable inimplementing nis instructional objectiscs. butlace of initial exposure has prohibited ms useof it in my teaching,

B Know !,..dge ot the skill or technique has notbeen essential in implementing my instruc-tional °Incenses.

Thirty -tise techniques were identified by 40 ormore of the 52 teachers as those in ss Inch masters priorto tea, hi lig was ads isable (responses 1 A and 11A) Widedifferences were found in the number of techniquesmastered (responses IA and I13) and the number oftechniques considered unimportant (response 1113) hseach teacher. Significant. positiy c correlations werefound between the number of techniques mastered andnumber of ears of biology teaching and number ofsemester hours of biology taken by the teacher. Asignificant negatisc correlation w as (+so-% ed betweennumber of semester hours ot biology taken and numberof skills and techniques considered unimportant hseach teacher.

From this studs. techniques haw ''ern identifiedthat can pros ide the basis for courses for pre - serviceand 'risers ice biology teachers.

k-3 TRAINING SCIENCE TEACHERS FOR THEINNER CITY: A HIGH SCHOOL ANDUNIVERSITY COOPERATIVE PROGRAM

Martin N. Thorsland, Assistant Professor ofEducation; and Walter E. Mass,!y. Associate Pro-fessor of Physics; Brow n Uniyersity, Providence.Rhode lsl .d

1 here has been des eloped at Brown Uniscrsits anesperimental program For the preparation of qualityscience teachers for inner-city high schools. 1 he1,rogram is a cooperatne effort of the Departments ofPhysics. Chemistry. Biology, and Education, and theProvidence Public School System. The program is afour -sear Bachelor of Arts concentration with the possi-bility of a fifth year leading is the AM degree. Studentstake a minimum number of introductory courses in bi-ology. chemistry. physics. mathematics, and adsanccdcourses in the discipline of specialization. The majorityof the basic science courses have been developed es-pecially for the program. These courses stress the unityof the sciences, emphasize student participation ratherthan formal lectures, discuss the role of science andtechnology in modern society, familiarize the studentwith traditional and recently developed secondaryschool science curriculum materials, and provide fordirect interaction with local high school students andteachers The education courses z.re designed tocombine theory with extensive practical experience inboth classroom and community. Education coursesspecific to the program include inner-city education:methods of teaching science in the inner-city; andtheory. design, and construction of scientific apparatus.The clement of practical experience is a central featureof the entire program. In each year, beginning yv ith theintroductory science courses of the freshman year. thestudent spends substantial time in local secondaryschools working with students and teachers. We willreport on the progress made and problems encounteredin the first year and one-half of operation of theprogram.

K-4 SKILL DEVELOPMENT IN PRESERVE: 4:SECONDARY SCHOOL SCIENCE TEACHERS

Patricia E. Musser. Assistant Professor, ScienceEducation, The Ohio State Unnersits. Columbus

Asking questions has long been accepted as aieachin teehriq Ile, One of the current emphases inscience education is the use of "inquirs- which impliesthe use of questions structured to enable students todiscover information for themselves rather than the useof the lecture method. Teaching methodolopadvocated as desirable and that actuall practiced inclassrooms has not always been identical.

:Us studs. onginattng from one completed for adoctoral dissertation. was designed to ins estigateproblems of skill doelopmem in questioning as

bs students enrolled in the junior sear of ascience preserviee education program. Problemsins esngated related to influence of length of instructionon skill development, progress in skill development.and effects of concurrent involvement in classroomswith instruction in questioning,

Three teacher hehasiors were used as criterionvariables in the studs: (a) asking open questions (thoseto which there is a variety of acceptable responses). (b)pausing tOr at least three seconds after asking aquestion in order to allow pupils time to think beforeresponding, and (c) questioning in a manner designedto decrease the percentage of teacher talk during thelesson. The design of the study was:

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All three groups received the same instruction inquestioning. Variation occurred in the timing of thisinstruction and in the intensity of instruction(co,ucentrated vs. diffuse). Data were gathered byaudio-taping science lessons with elementary schoolchildren as they occurred in public school classroomsduring Quarter Two. Transcripts of the tapes weremade and questions from the lessons were categorizedusing a Question Category System developed during thedissertation study. Data were subjected to tests of

102

multiple regressioi:. multivariate analysis of %ariance,hikes multiple comparisons. and repeated measures ofanalysis at sanance

K-5 L SING TAPE RECORDINGS AS AN AID INTRAINING SCIENCE TEACHERS

Gerald C Llewellyn. Assistant Professor atBiology Education. and Frances Briggs. Professorof Education: Virginia Commonwealth L'imersin.Richmond

It us generally agreed that beginning scieneeteachers mimic their past instructors and oftenunconscionsls. both the strong points and theundesirable traits gathered in their college training. Wehave expanded the idea of recording the teacher'spresentation (e,pecialls that of the student teacher inscience) a step further than lust an occasional self -studsof a lecture.

During the student teaching experience (eightweeks) our science teachers were recp ,ted to record atotal of eight of then classes. It is fair to report that wehad the noriaal complaints bs the sti,:ent teachersabout these requirements. but the complaints quicklydisappeared atter the participants found that manssecond an or middle schools have tape recordersas adahle for use in the science department. Also mansof our students utilize their own or a borrowed cassettetape recorder. The student teachers were requested toexchange one tape recording per week with the collegesupers isor. The return of the pro inns weeks recordingfor the current recording normally occurred at theweekly seminal. At times tapes were returned when thesupervisor visited the teacher's classroom.

Students could record as many classes as theywished or tht same class several times. Tht.: wereencouraged to select the best recording for submission.Obviousls they listened to these recordings prior tosubmission and benefited in this process.

The college supervisor would listen to these tapesat a consenicnt time, often during travel from oneschool to the next. At the end of each recording hewould record a brief series of comments about thelesson.

It was also found that the inclusion of anintroduction -Ai the lesson planned. and made b% thestudent teacher at the beginning of each tape was ofvalue. Often this introduction included behavioralobiecti% es, concepts, and the logistics planned for theclass or laboratory to be taught.

From the use of this tape-recording cm:ham .2system we round many benefits. Student teachersreadily deye'oped audio skills. notably that of using,successfully, at least one type of tape recorder. Theywere able. it addition to listening to their own yoke, tobecome aware of other happenings in the classroom.I hese happenings were especially evident duringlaboratory sessions. Also the student teacher coulddocument his own improvement in teaching by listeningto tarlicr recorded tapes At times exceptionally goodrecordings were used as examples during seminars.Also student teachers became interested in otherclassroom uses for the tape recorder. includingenrichment centers and audio-tutorial teaching.

Benefits for the college supervisor included extra"audio visits" with the student teachers in addition, ofcourse, to the normal observations. "Dead time" fortravel between schools when the college supervisor was

y !suing and (+wry ing student teachers was betterand if recordings for a particular student were

played prior to the obscry main, the college supervisorwas better informed about that particular situation andbetter able to assist the student teacher.

1 he eyalnatIon of this program ht the studentteaeheis alter the experience was %cry favorable.

GROUP LAu-)

TEACHER EDUCATION: TRAININGINNER-CITY TEACHERS

L-1 A RELEVANT MODEL FOR TRAINING ELE-MENTARY SCIENCE TEACHERS

Rodger W. 13% bee. Project. New York Univer-sity. Washington Square, New York City

During the past academic year the Tyr Project atNew York University taught a special section of scienceand methods classes in tour New York City schools.Forts student teachers and eight TT[ staff wer,2 locatedin Public Schools 11. 41. 42. and 188. in Manhattan.

Because of the teacher-student ratio in this coursethe majority of interactions were individual or smallwon!). I here w as a greater emphasis on actual teachingand reduced time spent on "teaching more science" inthe methods course. The actual course varied amongthe individual instructors: however. there werecommonalities unique to this program.

First. the personalization of instruction had atremendous effect on the student teachers. A great dealof planning. teaching, and immediate feedback onscience lessons was available. Second. the studentteachers had access to curriculum materials, films. andother supplies for their lessons. Third. the methodsinstructors sery cif as a ''support system" that, in theend. prosed to be %cry important.

FY ablation of the program attempted to answerthe tollowing ypiestions:

1. To what degree does this approach help thestudent tacher overcome problems encountered inthe field?

2. To what degree does this approach aid the studentteacher in an effective use of self in the actualteaching performance?

141 whom and for w hat reason does the studentteacher listen and respond with changes in be-hay tor relatise to teaching science?

1 here were some problems and some areas notcoyeled for the student teachers: but. in general, thisapproach does appear to be at least as successful astraditional methods, 'I his protect did take a major stepfor the schools; it increased the stall student ratto andthe interaction time. From the beginning we did notattempt to replicate w hat is: we attempted todemonstrate w hat can be done in the training ofelemy titan science teachers. [his type of methods classis effective: especially relative to teaching performance.

10,1

L-2 MESSAGES AND MEDIA: HELPINGTEACHERS NALNZE DIMENSIONS OFTEACHING BEHAVIOR

Fred Goss. Adjunct Professor, T 11 Program. Nework l noersity, Washington Square. New ~ ork

('its

As part of the clinical teacher training program.being supported by VIT. we hate made use of bothyideotapes and classroom transcriptions to initiate theanalysis of teaching hehas iors by both student teachersand inserY ice teachers. I he initial tapes presentrylasisely clear examples of y arious teaching styles butin subsequent efforts more complex behaY tors arecyamined. and the teachers and student teachers areencouraged to go on to sell analysis of tapes of theirown teaching. It is our opinion that different messagescall for different teaching styles and that a clearunderstanding of the nature of a satiety of teachingstyles will help teachers select the approach which ismost appropriate for a given lesson.

L-3 CHANGING THE SYSTEM FROM WITHIN

Flhannan Keller. ['cachet Trainer New YorkUniversity. ITT Program. Wa,hington. Square.New York City

The science education component of the TTIProject at New ' ork University as it relates to theschmls. has been designed to accomplish three majorgoals. One is to find a dynamic method introducingprospective elementary school teachers to the teachingof science. Another is to use the student-teachingcyperiences of the prospective teachers as the clinic forbringing about change in the teaching of science in theelementary schools in which they are doing theirstudent teaching. The third is to insole a T I.Rhannan Keller. and a group of regular teachers in acooperative investigation of selected teaching materialsas one means of changing the predisposition of teachersto teach science. The writer's approach to theaccomplishment of these objects has been through themedium of COPES. of the new elementary schoolscience curriculum.

In an effort to accomplish the first and secondgoals. ten prospective elementary school teachers havebeen encouraged to use COPES teaching materials l rthe grade level at which they are doing their studentteaching. In preparation for teaching these materials.they go through the experiences they are expected topros idc for children. Their experiences are carried outunder a supervisor. Subsequently, he °ken es themyy hen they teach the materials and uses his observationsas the basis for critiques. Although the critiques arcloced primarily upon observed lessons conducted bythe student teacheis, the supervisor uses these sharedexpenerees to develop more generalized concepts.skills, and attitudes regarding the teaching Of science.'HU% is accomplished through dis:ussions, demon-strations. observation of films and sideotapes, as well asthrough reading of recommended literature.

The third goal is being accomplished through aresearch studs in which the effectiveness of selected(luillord structure of intellect abilities predictachievement in the chemical bond sequence of COPES.l'he fifth- and sixth-grade teachers, who are involved,stand to benefit greatly from their participation

L-4 PREPARING INNER-CITY TEACHERS FOR

ENVIRONMENTALSTUDIES: THE USE OF

WEEKEND WORKSHOPS

Jack Padahno. TTT Staff. New York University.

Washington Square. New York City

It etementary school teachers need help to acquire

the confidence. know ledge. and skills to teach

ens ironmcntaleducation at a resident tacilitx. then

program components of resident ens ironmental

education should be provided for via teacher hawing.

Investigation of the environments that a child is a

part of is one of the most salient w s to have him appl

skills acquired in the classroom. A significant and

timely application of the school's role as part of the

total educative process affecting the child is to pros ide

opportunities for observation, collection, and interpre-

tation of data from the child's environment;

exploration of cause-and-effect relationships; and

identification of alternate modes for environmental

stew and ship.People perceive their ens ironment to their usy n

personal way. Environmental perceptions arc internal-

ised thrt.,igh direct interactions and experience with

that which szarounds us. Many educators and

natural-resource managers are concerned with the lack

of in-school learning experienceswhich will help a child

relate to his environment. Some teachers are interested

in providing their students with direct environmental

learning experiences;however, they lack the skills

and or the experience to accomplish the task. For the

purpose of this investigation, pros iding direct

experiences for learners. both children and teachers, at

a resident environmental education facility will be

considered.

GROUP M

SCIENCE TEACHING AND THE

COMMUNITY COLLEGE

M-1 TECHNOLOGICALEDUCATION AND THE

COMMUNITY COLLEGE

George Charen. Dean of instruction. Bergen

Community College.Paramus. New Jersey

this paper will trace the origin of the community

college. emphasizing technological education. The

speaker will develop the concept of service to the

community as the college's major role. the need tOr

technically trained young people in a technological

society. and the parameters of technological education.

M-2 THE TECHNOLOGICALSTUDENT: NEW

TEACHING CHALLENGE FOR THE COMMU-

NITY COLLEGE

Miles D. MacMahon. Director. Natural and

Applied Sciences, Essex County College, Newark,

New Jersey

This paper will discuss the problems of effective

science teaching within the constraints of the

traditional concept of allied health education, the need

104

to dodo!) new goals for the technological student, and

mii% anions in teaching the technological student

M-3 THE HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE CURRICU-

LA_ M: PREPARING STUDENTS FOR TECH-

NOLOGICAL EDUCATION

Roller! S. Sc trson. Spence 1 cacher. Barringer

High School, Newark New Jers

1 his paper will stress the need for cooperation

between high schools and community colleges. examine

new high school science courses as preparation for

technological education. and highlight what an

truer -city high school is dome for the potential

technological sin den t

M-4 ALLIED HEALTH: NEW CURRICULA FOR

THE BIOLOGIST

Carl D. Prom Assistant Dean of Instruction.

Bergen Community College. Paramus. New _terse:,

this paper will discuss the parameters of allied

health. problems of obtaining allied health faculty. how

biology courses can he tailcred for allied health

curricula. and the implications and significance of

allied health curricula to the biologist.

GROUP N

INTERESTING APPROACHES (SECONDARY)

N-1 THE BIRTH OF A MINI-COURSE: A STU-

DENT SELF-SELECTIONAPPROACH TO

TEACHING SCIENCE

Joseph R. Barrow. Chairman, Science Depart-

ment. Nordoma Hills Junior High School. North-

field, Ohio

Minicourse, are the topical presentation of science

units. When tI'e student can choose from a great variety

ofsueh units he naturally becomes more interested and

more motivated. This motivation can he utilized by the

teacher to realize more achievement than might be

otherwise possible.The construction of a minicourse program can be

long and detailed or brief. However, more planning

time leads to more flexibility and efficiency. The

important elements in planning a minicourse program

are.1. The evaluation of the existing curriculum to deter-

mine w hat is valuable and what is not.

2. An assessment of the students' desires and the

community's wishes.3. Allotting a common

denominator length of time

(six- or nine-wed( units) to tit the topics to he

taught.4. Writing the curriculum(s) for the minicourses so

that it (they) will be of practical value to the

teacher.5. Construction of a departmental master schedule of

the minicourses. The timing and sequence of the

minicourses on this schedule are of critical

importance.

ii Ithit aunt; the students and their parents as to thenature tit the program.Des ismg an optimum sign-up procedure so thatmost of the students get their first choice most ofthe time.

8 How to tried, the students and report then prog-ress.

4 Resource bows of materials for each minkourseand construtoon of a tiling system for each studentinsolscd (these items are optional).I here arc a Less disads a wages to !limit:muses. but

these are tat outweighed bs their ads a wages The extrawork ins olvcd is a small sacrifice for the motivationgained This program can be adapted to any Junior highschool or middle school program

N-2 THE PROS AND CONS OF A MINI- COURSECURRICULUM

John William Lakus. Science Teacher, NordoniaJunior High School. Northfield. Ohio

1 he minicourse method of curriculum presenta-tion permits student selection of science courses at thetun ior high level. In a properly constructed program notonly do the students select their teachers but theteachers choose the sublet:es they wish to instruct.Because of the built-in motivation for the teachers andthe students, both seem to perform better.

Through the use of mini.ourses the following canbe accomplished. individualised subject material; acommon level of interest for instructors and students;increased student motivation: increased teachermotivation; impro..ed use of school's facilities; moreefficient use of supplies and materials; balanced classsiies; and reduced spending for materials.

Hosseser, a great deal of work is involved inscheduling and adn inistering tf,e program. Because ofthe registration proccoure. .,tudents arc sometimesforced into an unwanted course. Also, student-trackingand teacher-scheduling is difficult. Long-term relation-ships between students and teachers are reduced to thelo,s est level.

There are many variations of the minicoursecurriculum, one of which will suit any school. Flexibilityand mons anon arc the chief assets of the program whilescheduling of students and teachers is the maindraw back. Although the program is not perfect theadyantages outweigh the disadvantages.

N-3 IDEA-CENTERED LABORATORY SCIENCEII-CLSIA "THIRD GENERATION"

Sharon E. Kitchel. Head of Science. Deleon-Kellogg Schools. Deleon Intermediate School.Deleon. Michigan; and W. C. Van Deventer. Pro-fessor of Biology. Western Michigan University.Kalamaioo

Idea-Centered Laboratory Science (l -CLS) is anactivity-based program for intermediate level students.It is a successor to the Michigan Science CurriculumCommittee Junior High School Project (MSCC-JHSP).The writers have conducted a research program with

105

slow Icarneis based on 1-CLS since 1968. As a result a"third generation" program is now beam; written forthe "ieluetant learner"

1 he writers hold tw o basic assumptions w hleoni to ',caching this is pe of student First. reluctant'cattier% arc of three types. students ssho (a) lack andusto wad scientific (b) lack Antas to deal it it/scientific material, ant. (c) lack interest in scientificmaterial. Second. an unabashed teaching of socabularsis necessary in heltn.,; reluctant learners to doctor) anmulct standing of scientific ideas and in learning to"think as a scientist does

I-CLS tar the' R,Inetant Learner requires mils aminimal amount of reading, and subject matter isintroduced only as it contra utes to the underseat dingof an Idea. Each laboratory experience is dir,etedtoward an idea. and stresses one or more key ssordswhich arc necessary for understanding that Idea.Vocabulary is thus taught through these laboratoryexperiences.

The student is guided to continually use the keywords in solving scientific problems. Vocabulars usageand reinforcement through acme application of thesewords aid the student in dealing with and becominginterested in scientific materials.

"I he student's understanding of the idea can beeffectively evaluated by the use of Inquiry TechniqueTests (ITI ), as reported by the writers in 1971 and1972. This method of testing esaluates the student'sability to ti-ank in relation to an idea by the questions htasks rath:r than by the answers he gives. Thus there isminimal emphasis on the retention of memorised factsand mammal emphasis on understanding and use ofknow ledge. Comparable methods of testing fOrunderstanding and use of socahulary are yet to hedes eloped.

N-4 THE DAY WE HUNG THE EIGHTH GRADE

Nancy Griffin and Robert Hawkins, Instructors, PK. Yonge Laboratory School, University ofFlorida. Gainesville. Florida

This paper presents ways to use concrete activitiesto motis ate students in middle school science.

Confronted with a hot science classroom full ofless-than-eager learners, the authors recently brokethrough those common summer- session doldrums byinsohing students in a series of "body experiments."The exercises aimed at teachinr concepts likecenter-of-gravity. density of mass. water displacement.etc. Rather than relying on the traditional blocks.weights and balances, students were asked to volunteertheir own bodies. Borrowing ropes from the physicaleducation department. we hung eighth-graders fromshoulders. feet. and knees until their centers-of-gravitywere determined. The effect on the learning climate wasimmediate. Our hanged students were ready for more!There followed other such experiences includingimmersion in tubs of water (measuring the volume ofwater displaced) and human pendulums. What hadbegun as another straining summer school ended withboth students and teachers convinced they had learnedfrom and enjoyed the "body experiments.-

N-5 PROJECT AND OCEAN STUDY: AN INAPPROACH

August Bote lho, Director, Guiteras School.Bristol. Rhode Island

Project Ocean Study is a joint effort bets% ee i me,as Director and deyeloper of Project Ocean Study andRoger Williams College as an assisting educationalinstitution. 1 he prime object of the project is todemonstrate to students, at the seventh-grade le% el.that science is important in all realms of learning. Thisis the second year the project has been in operation, andit has been expanded to include social studies and art astools which will help the students to learn about marinescience and its increasingly important role in today'ssociety.

Areas included in curriculum content are thechemistry of seawater, the geology of the ocean floor,marine life in all three areas (benthic nekton andplankton groups), water pollution and its effect on manand his society. the importance of the fishing industry,sketches and drawings of beach areas for purposes ofmapping and recording seasonal changes in beachareas, etc.

Roger Williams College supplies instruction in theclassroom and on field trips, uses the marine sciencefacilities for labs at the college to discuss the socialaspects of the countries where oceanography has playeda part, such as effects on commercial fishing and theways in which water pollution has altered man's life, theeffects of the ocean on the physical geography of NewEngland, ,!specially Rhode Isle nd.

The facilities of the Rhode island Department ofNatural Resources are also utilized in that students aretaken to the Wickford Marine Base of the Departmentwhere they tour the lab facilities and take a trip on oneof the research vessels. The department will also send arepresentative to the school to give a series of threelectures on the rois of the Department of NaturalResources.

Field trips play an important role in the project asstudents are taken to the Ocean and salt water marshesfor the purpose of conducting field research andmaking maps and drawings. Although the studentsreceive similar information as one large group, eachindividual student chooses a particular area in which hespecializes and performs additional research work inthe preparation of a report showing how varioussubjects are interrelated through the study of marinescience.

A final aspect of the project is career developmentin the marine sciences. Material on the various aspects.requirements, and employment opportunities of marinescience occupations. The Department of NaturalResources is assisting in the compiling of this material.

My role as project director is to coordinate all ofthese activities, in the proper sequence, so as to meetthe objectives of the program. This includes assistingand developing curriculum content for the staff' ofProject Ocean Study and the Guiteras School as well asworking with the staff of Roger Williams College ininforming them of the needs of the project participant,:.

106

GROUP 0EVALUATIVE STUDIES (K -12)

0-I FACTORS RELATED TO ENROLLMENT INSECONDAR1 SCHOOL PHYSICS

William F. Poole, Jr . Physics I eachcr. SalemClassical and High School, Salem. Massachusetts

The percentage of students studying physics insecondary schools of th's count n has been steadilydeclining in recent sears. Enrollment in physics in 1958

w as 24.t percent of the senior class, and by 1970 it haddropped to less than 19 percent. Thus, a iesearch studyw as initiated to identify sonic of the possible factorsrelated to the downward trend m secondary schoolphysics enrollment in the United States.

The prime consideration was. Do the attitudes ofstudents tow ard the study of physics differbetw een those students w ho study high school physicsand those who do not? Secondary considerations w ere.Do the attitudes of students w ho study physics differfrom students who take other science courses such aschemistry and biology and is the attitude of boys to andphysics different from that of girls toward physics''

A 40-item Likert-type scale Science AttitudeInventory was developed and administered to mer3.700 science and non-science college preparatorystudents in 11 secondary schools in Massachusetts.Students were asked to respond to statements aboutphysics, chemistry, and biology.

The re indicated significant differences in

overall attitude and in certain specific attitudes towardscience between students enrolled and unenrolled inscience and among the three science groups. Physicsstudents had more favorable attitudes toward physicsthan had non-physics students, chemistry students whoelected physics were more positive toward chemistrythan were chemistry students who did i.ot elect physics.and boys had somewhat more posithe attitudes towardphysics than had girls.

The conclusions reached were that overall attitudeand certain specific attitudes toward physics andchemistry were important in influencing students'choice of electing or not electing physics. If thedownward trend in physics enrollment is to he reversed,the attitudes of students toward science must become

more positiYe.

0-2 BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES AND THE IPSPSII PHYSICAL SCIENCE CURRICULA

Floyd M. Read, Jr., Associate Professor of ScienceEducation, East Carolina University, Greenville.North Carolina

Granted that the objectives of a science programare clearly specified and the program is evaluated andmod'fied to maximize the extent to which theseobjectives are achieved, it is equally crucial to selectproper objectives. Questions that immediately cometo mind arc: (a) How well do the IPS-PS II physicalscience curricula satisfy the agreed-upon objectives ofscience education? (h) Can the stated objectives of theseIPS-PS II physical science curricula he evaluated in thelight of measurable changes in pupil behavior? (e) How

can the new physical science curriculum programs besthe evaluated''

I hese questions are explored and sonic comix.ri-sons are --iade concerning behavioral objectues andthese specific physical science programs. The objectivesut the IPS-PS II physical science curricula are stated inthe form of behay ioral object es and the evaluation ofthese behavioral objectives is discussed.

0-3 PROBLEMS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF NEWSCIENCE PROGRAMS

Moses M. Sheppard. Associate Professor ofScience Education. Fast Carolina Unnersity.Greenville. North Carolina

Finlay. 15 years alter the first major impetus forscience curriculum revision. many schools arc notutilizing any of the recently developed science curricula.Ptohahly this is due to the many problems encounteredin the implementation of new science programs and thedifficulties teachers. supervisors, and administratorshone faced in finding solutions.

For the purposes of this presentation theseproblems arc divided into five major headings:I Selecting the appropriate science curriculum

program:Getting the approval of the program from stateand local authorities:

3. Obtaining adequate funding for materials, equip-ment. and facilities for implementing the program;

4. Preparing the teachers for teaching and using thenew science curriculum materials; and

5. Pros tiling an adequate follow-up and evaluation ofthe implemented program.'I he problems and some possible solutions, as well

as specific examples of solutions to these problems, arediscussed.

1.

0-4 A STUDY OF CONTENT DEVELOPMENT INSELECTED SECONDARY BIOLOGY CLASSES

Betty J. Stoess. Assistant Professor of ScienceEducation. Eastern Kentucky University,Richmond

The purposes of the study were to analyzeinteractive processes used by a sample of eight biologyteachers (tenth grade) in developing content with theirstudents and to describe predominant teachingpatterns utilized. The analysis of interactive processeswas accomplished by encoding 64 audio-taped lessons(hill class periods) using the Content Analysts Systemfor Chemist!). (Ramsey. 1969). Here the unit ofbehavior coded is the "content event." Each contentevent is assigned three codes: (a) a semantic code(Background. Figure or Digression). (b) a syntactic code(one of 12 logical operations or Management) and (c) anInitiate-Supply code (identifying speakers). Differencesamong teacher. and days (four for each teucher) andbetween class sections (two) were determined. Fivehypotheses retatie to these differences were tested bymeans of analysis of variance. Teaching patterns weredescribed by means of a series of first-order transitionmatrices.

For the sample, the major findings were: (a)extensive teacher lecture (ranging from 45 to 93 percentof all content events). (b) a strong tendency for teachers

107

to seek low -".1o..1 responses nom students. (C) a rapidNee of discussion (an ay crap.: of 103 content enemy perlesson). (d) little use of either Background or Digressioncategories. (e) limited student participation indiscussion except for iesponding to teachers' requestsfor tactual intormation. and U') when students did seekinformation they sought amplification

When relanYe uses of categories and subcategoriesof the CASC instrument were determined. fewsignificant differences among teachers and days orbetween class sections w ere noted. However. threedifferent teaching patterns were identified I he mosttrequently occurring one (common to six teachers) wasthe presentation of concrete examples which wile thennamed and of described. lhe soenth teacher used amaim pattern of inferring follow ed by a willexample. The final pattern was a series of designatingand describing dents

*

0-5 AN INSTRUMENT FOR ASSESSING ELE-MENTARY SCIENCE CURRICULUMPROJECTS

George P. I oth. Instructor in Elementary ScienceMethods. Doctoral Student. 'Hie PennsylvaniaState University. Unnersity Park

'(he need for an instrument to assess programs uisecondary school science was stated in NS TA's LifeMembers' Breakfast "Info Memo" of April 9. 1972.The need for such an instrument is even greater at theelementary school level since at this time there is nocomprehensive rating-guide yk Inch can be used toevaluate the churaiensiies of the major innoyatiY cscience curriculum projects (S-APA. FSS. SCIS. etc.) inthe elementary school.

The purpose of this sell-assessment instrument isto determine which project is best tin a particularschool or classroom. The instrument does not attemptto compare one project with another and allows for theunique approach of each project.

The format of the instrument was modeled afterSuydam. (Suydam. Marilyn. "An Instrument forEvaluating Experimental Educational Research Re-ports." The Journal of Educational Research, January1968.) who developed a scheme for evaluating experi-mental educational research projects. The content wassynthesized from criteria published by USOE. NSSE.and the Pennsylvania Department of Education. It ismade up of nine categories each further divided intosub "key points" to provide a more detailed andcomprehensive rating of each category. The ninecategories include:1. Objectises and philosophy of school and project2. SP:dent-material interaction3. Individual differences4. Teacher training (insersice)5. Integration of conceptual themes6. Learning activities

. Ey aluation provisions8. Cost of project9. Organization of project

The actual rating is based on a Live -point scale.The instrument has been presented to:

1. Sixty -five undergraduate students in an elemen-tary science meth ds class for clarification andsuggestions,

2. .1y (Any -eight master's degree and doctoral stu-dents with teaching experience at the elementaryloci for re% ision and validation, and

3. A group of elementary teachers ill a summer work-shop for turth.T validation and clarification.fhe instrument will be revised and used in several

local elementary schools within the next few months.The instrument will be available for school use and

may be part of the solution for those concerned with theneed for accountability in elementary school science.

GROUP P

SCIENCE TEACHING ANDCURRENT SOCIAL CONCERNS

P-1 VALUES EDUCATION IN THE SCIENCES:THE STEP BEYOND CONCEPTS ANDPROCESSES

David J. Kuhn. Assistant Professor, EducationDivision. University of Wisconsin-Parkside,Kenosha

The 1960s emphasized the understanding and useof science concepts and processes. The newer scienceprograms met these concerns quite well; they were aconsiderable improvement over what had gone on in thepast. But the 70s are an age of' new realities; a time thatdemands a greater relevance of the science curriculumto the social issues that affect our lives. This directionhas been given much vocal concern, but there has beena conspicuous absence of realistic methods ofimplementation in the day-to-day science classroom.

This paper is concerned with the question of howthe value systems of individuals may be clarified andapplied in the science classroom and in the real worldoutside. Science teaching is considered as occurring onthree levels: the fact level, the concepts-process level.and the values level. The fact level was often stressedprior to the 1960s; the concepts-process level of scienceteaching received added attention during the 60s; thevalues level will gain increasing importance during the70s. Values education in the sciences must be built onthe sound understanding of science concepts andprocesses.

Values education will require innovative strategies.a new perspective on science education, and differentroles for teachers. A number of strategies includingsimulations, role playing, sensitivity modules. valuescontinuums. and the use of attitudinal surveys aredew.; ibed. Appropriate teacher behavior in the

classroom c g., asking evaluative questions andpromoting a classroom climate conducive to valueexploration, are examined.

There is a pressing need for a citizenry that has thescientific literacy and the awareness of values necessaryto make decisions or influence decisions about suchquestions as population control, radioactive fallout.pesticide usage. and industrial effluents. If thischallenge is to be met, science instruction must reach anew plateauone that makes the exploration of valuesystems paramount.

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P-2 SOCIAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN PSSC PHYSICSINSTRUCTION

Gideon 0. Hirsch. `cience Coordinator. DobbsFerry High School, Dobbs Ferry. New York

Students today are interested in social andbeim% lora, problems and don't really care w by electronsorbit the nucleus. Social illustrations. w here appro-priate. immensely increase the class interest in thephysical phenomena. Establishing these social illustra-tions as possible models of understanding. or at least asnot el ways of describing social behavior ischaracteristic of the PSSC curriculum.

PSSC is different in concept from Project Physicsbecauw the social and behavioral phenomena discussedapparently have no relation to science. It is thesimilarity or analogy in principles and basic conceptswhich is emphasized. Students interested in only one ofthe disciplines gain, as a result, a better understandingof those concepts in that discipline and some motivatedinsight into the other disciplines.

Three years' results of social illustrations in PSSCphys;es instruction are vcry encouraging in bothquantity and quality. Illustrations used include: (alpolitical influencevector addition, (b) ecologylawsof conservation. lel loveelectrostatic induction.Detailed example:

New ton's second law (F=ma) as applicable to theissues of Equal Opportunity and Education I'm theDisadvantaged. Head Start, its limitations and reasonsfOr its relative failure.

P-3 POPULATION EDUCATION: CREATING ANEW DISCIPLINE AT THE SECONDARYLEVEL

Thelma M. Wurzelbacher, Lecturer. BiologicalSciences Department. University of Cincinnati.Cincinnati. Ohio

The need for population education in the schoolsystem is a growing concern in sonic academic groups.in many professional circles, and in the lives of moststudents. Diversity of view-point surrounds need.content, and methods of instruction.

Whether or not an individual understandspopulation dynamics. need can he assumed on the basisthat educators have a commitment to examine objectiveand relevant problem areas; content, by its nature.should be conceived in a genuine interdisciplinaryatmosphere. In addition. method of instruction restsheavily on the state of the art. At this time definitions ofpopulation education vary enormously; curriculumprojects involving natural and social sciences areundeveloped; few school systems have inaugurated firststeps; efforts for teacher training remain isolated;resources and clearinghouses do not exist or arescattered.

The setting is perfect for self-study, spontaneity.and creativity by the individual teacher on the theory,methods, and materials of population education.Communication of trials, errors, and successes is

paramount in the development of operational curricula.With this in mind three dimensions arise: theindividual unit construction at junior and senior highlevelboth single and multidisciplinary; isolated

fornmlation, game construction, and simula-tion types; lesson plans based on the inclusion method;

and finally, semester and year-long course construction.Selected models and materials in each of the tour area,based on personal experience and the hybridization ofpatterns and processes developed by participants in anational population institute are presented.

P-4 VALUES AND SCIENCE: FACING THE CHAL-LENGE

homas Gadsden. Jr . Assistant Professor ofECucation, P. K. Yonge Laboratory School.University of Florida. Gainesville

Unhealthy attitudes toward science are widespreadin our society. Science is viewed, on one hand, as thesolution to man's many problems. Unquestionable faithis nlacd in the ability of applied science to stop death,starvation. overpopulation, discomfort, and environ-mental crisesbefore it's too late. The attitude thatthere is no need to worry, science will take care of us,abounds.

lust as frequently. and often by the same voices,science is criticized and held responsible as the cause.through its technology, of' most of the problems of oursocietywar, pollution, the decline of morals, andmany more. The result is a growing anti-scientismalong with a willingness to let science "do it all."

Too often in our science classes we perpetuate theconfusion of the role of science in our society. We dothis by ignoring the issues and attempting to teachscience as if it existed in a social void.

The students in our science classes are citizens of atechnological democracy. Many a them will neveragain have a direct contact with science or scientists.Any further knowledge and attitude. toward sciencewill come from public media and from the way tech-nology affects their lives.

This paper will raise and attempt to answer fourquestions:1. Is it worthwhile for the science teacher to attempt

to help students develop values and value systemsconcerning the interplay of science and society?

2. Can operational definitions be found which willpermit teachers of science and social science tocommunicate and cooperate in this interdisci-plinary venture?

3. Can instructional resources be developed whichwill be useful in meeting this challenge?

4. How radical a modification of courses designed toteach the concepts of science would he required?In answering these questions an approach to

dealing with issues of science and society is suggested.This approach centers on three broad areas of learningassociated with each instructional inputthe compre-hension of the input, the relation of the input to theconceptual focus of study, and questions of valuesconcerning both the input and the conceptual focus.

Specific examples are offered that, we hope, willencourage teachers to seek additional ways of dealingwith the interactions of science and society.

This paper was developed as a cooperative effortamong science and social science educatcrs and class-room teachers.

109

GROUP QMOTIVATING THE UNMOTIVATED

(SECONDARY)

tz

Q-1 MOTIVATION OF STUDENTS THROUGHSUCCESS

Gerald Skoog. Associate Professor of Curriculumand Instruction. Texas Technical Uno ersity.Lubbock

Many science classrooms in our nation operateunder the assumption that failure or the threat offailure can he used as a continuous motivating force.That is. there is belief that failure is good for people.

However. there is a ing body of systematicevidence and the, ..crated by individualssuch as Arthur C 'it Purkey. and WilliamGlasser which inch . that teachers should give thehighest priority to establishing a classroom environ-ment of success rather than failure. This body ofresearch indicates that success. ratacr than failure,motivates students. Furthermore, there is muchevidence that students w ho have positive feelings aboutthemselves and their abilities are the ones who are mostlikely to succeed. Those who see themselves as less ableand less worthy are more likely to he underachieversand nonachievers. These individuals arc motivated inthe direction that involves the least amount ofpainwithdrawal and uninvolvement.

To achieve an atmosphere of success, a classroommust he structured so that the self-concepts of studentsare being enhanced rather than negated. The studentsmust have opportunities to be involved with each other,the teacher. and the subject matter and the phenomenaof science. There is growing evidence that the studentsmay need us, the teachers, more than our knowledge.Then as the students grow in self-esteem, achievesuccess, and find involvement, they will be motivated inacademic affairs and move toward, rather than away,from people.

In too many classrooms of the nation. anatmosphere of success does not prevail. Genuineinvolvement is not encourages'. Self-concepts areignored. Student response to these conditions has beencharacterized by alienatioi: frustration, noninvolve-ment, and an alarming tendency to drop out and turnon to something outside of school.

Q-2 EXPLORATORY BIOLOGYA PROGRAMFOR UNMOTIVATED STUDENTS

G. Wayne Mosher, Chairman, Science Depart-ment, Parkway North Senior High School, CreveCoeur, Missouri; and Lona Lewis and StevenTellier, Biology Teachet.s. Parkway North SeniorHigh School, Creve Coeur, Missouri

The exploratory biology program at ParkwayNorth Senior High School consists of a series of singleconcept sheets called "Explorations." Major areas ofconcentration covered by Explorations include ecology,the cell, plants, and animals. For each concept to belearned there will he two to eight Explorations to cnoosefrom in order to complete the task. The number ofExplorations to be done depends upon how many areavailable for a particular concept. Evaluation is quick

and accomplished verbally or through laborator,reports. This is a multi-text, self-paced program.

Q-3 CAREER SIMULATION EXPERIMENTS INCHEMISTRY

Jon R Thompson, Chemistry Teacher. GeneralMillion Mitchell High School. Colorado Spring..Colorado; President, Colorado Science TeachersAssociation

In most ". chool chemistry courses the majorityof the stag c .), going to become chemistrymajors. Sine, ai ot future chemists it is necessaryto demonstraic the important applications of chemistryin everyday living and to teach the students to berespectful of what chemists really do. I have developeda series of experiments that students can perform wherethey may actually experience what different types ofchemists do in their work. These experiments are notrequired and are completed only by those who wish tocomplete them as part ,,f an individualized enrichmentprogram.

The experiments are prepared as a kit. To do anexperiment, the student agrees to a "contract" that hew ill perform the necessary instructions safely and askfor supervision if he needs it. The student then maycheck out the kit and do the experiment at hiscons enience in the laboratory.

Some of the simulation-experiments are: The FDAChemist, The Forensic Ch mist, The IndustrialChemist. The Geochemist, The Chemist And Dentistry,and others. Each simulation-experiment consists ofseveral "sub-experiments." For example the ForensicChemist simulation-experiment provides the studentwith information about seven crimes that need to besolved in the Forensic Laboratory. The student choosesfour cases to work on and reports his findings on an"Official Analysis Report" form. The analysis willdetermine whether a suspect is guilty or innocent. Theseven crimes require the following experiments:classification of broken glass fragments, test formarijuana (catnip will give an almost positive test), testfor blood, test for heavy metal poisons, test for aspirin,test for textile fibers, and fingerprinting. Each testsolves an imaginary crime. For example, the test fortextile fibers involves tin_:;ng out if a fragment ofclothing came from a murder victim or if the suspectwas really telling the truth about where he got thesample! Students enjoy doing the experiment and feelthat they are really a Forensic Chemist at the sametime.

In other simulation-experiments, the studentsperform experiments representative of what that type ofchemist does. In each one they may choose from severalchoices of sub-experiments. This lets them know that aparticular type of chemist doesn't just do oneexperiment all of the time.

Q-4 CONSUMER REF LARCHSUPERMARKETSCIENTISTS

Suzanne Zobrist Kelly, Sixth-Grade ScienceTeacher, Meeker Elementary School, Ames PublicSchools, Ames, Iowa

Trends in science education have moved consider-ably from a factual, basic text approach, to an

understanding of the scientific processes. If students

110

must understand this process of inquiry to sets c thefuture. then w c. as teachers, must pros ide opportunityfor this grow th of underst andin,z, To the educator w horecognizes the necessity of teaching problem solving.but feels limited by realistic circumstances, a consumerresearch project may serge the purpose of pros idmg forindividual needs.

This project w as designed to provide a frameworkfor learning, but also flexibility for various interests.ages. and abilities. Each student selected three similarproducts. such as three dry 'breakfast cereals, orlaundry detergents, or kinds of chocolate candy. Hisresearch was a comparison of these brands. The projectw as organized into four topics: (a) collecting data oncommercials and advertisements and formulating s clue

judgment statements. lb) collecting data fromcompanies concerning factual content materialconnected with the products, (c) organizing andconducting a field research survey, and (d) organizingand conducting an experiment of comparing productsby controlling and manipulating variables.

Understanding of scientific processes ss as evidentin an increase in individual student's interests,enthusiasm, and inquiry in problem-solving skills. Labexperiments which followed were conducteo with moreorganization and depth. Later, generalizing experienceswere given to substantiate evidence of progress in basicscience processes.

GROUP R

AVIATION EDUCATION (SECONDARY)

R-1 STATUS OF SECONDARY AVIATION/AERO-SPACE EDUCATIONSCHOOL YEAR 1972-73

C. E. Neal, Aviation/Aerospace EducationConsultant, Sanderson-Times Mirror, Denver,Colorado

This presentation consists of statistical data andinformation pertaining to the organization, develop-ment, and operation of secondary aviation/aerospacecourses throughout the nation. Facts are presented onscheduling, staffing, budgeting, plant requirements,teacher certification, course content resources,enrollment restrictions, flying activities and liability.richt trips, justification, and program evaluation. Alldata were 'obtained from an extensive nation-widesurvey conducted in September 1972 by the presenter.

R-2 AVIATION EDUCATION AT A TOTALLYAVIATION-ORIENTED UNIVERSITY

Daniel D. Sain, bean, College of AeronauticalStudies, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University,Daytona Beach, Florida

The purpose of this paper is to inform elementaryand secondary school teachers of opportunities inaviation education both for themselves and theirstudents.

A brief' history of the development of aviation,ducation in higher education is presented, pointing

out that aviation or aeronautics has become a

recognized academic discipline. There are presently 200two-year colleges in the nation offering associate

degrees in some aspect of aviation and at least sixteensenior colleges or um% ersities offering the bachelor'sdegree in some phase of ay iation. In addition there areapproximately forty universities with aeronauticalengineering degree programs,

Next a few statistics highlighting the many andvaried career opportunities in aviation are given.

fhe paper deals primarily with the aviationprograms at the nation's only totally aviation orienteduniversityEmbiy-Riddle Aeronautical University,Daytona Beach, Florida. This university offers trainingand education in aircraft maintenance, flight, aviationmanagement, aeronautical engineering, and appliedmathematics. By combining the applied sciences withthe basic academic programs, six different majors are()tiered on the bachelor's level.

In the summer of 1972 an experimental aviationeducation seminar was conducted for elementary andsecondary school teachers. This seminar will be offeredagain in 1973. It wif involve the participants in the totalrealm of aviation in general, including field trips toairports, the John F. Kennedy Space Center, an airtraffic control center, and to an airline operationscenter. Each participant will also receive the completeclassroom course for the private pilot's license andapproximately 18 hours of dual training in an airplaneand flight simulator. In the seminar, each participantwill gain the personal experience of piloting, as well asinformation to be used in teaching aviation at thepre-college level. The seminar will carry six hours ofgraduate credit.

R-3 AVIOLOGYA COURSE WITH A LIFT

P. A. Becht, Instructor, P. K. Yonge Labora-tory School, University of Florida, Gainesville

The field of aviation is becoming more and more anecessity of everyday life. Our world is shrinkingbecause of aviation and soon almost everyone will beaffected in some way by aviation. If education is tofulfill its role to society, it should prepare individuals tounderstand and meet the demands of aviation now andin the future.

Using aviation as a motivator, physical sciencecourses can be made interesting and stimulating tomost students. Aviology is designed to be taught by aphysics teacher with a minimum of speeial preparation.The program uses regular high school facilities andrequires no more expense than an average scienceprogram. The course can be offered as an elective inscience for students in grades 9-12. It is taught using amultimedia approach, An inexpensive electronic flightsimulator along with films, tapes, and actualintroductory flights in light aircraft are used tostimulate student interest. Laws of physics arediscussed in detail along with meteorology andenvironmental aspects of aviation.

Field trips are used to give "hands on" experience'n aviation-related activities. People involved in aviationwithin the community are invited to discussaviation-related topics with the students.

Aviology is being field tested this year in fiveFlorida schools in different counties to test theeffectiveness of the type of program in different types ofpublic schools. It is designed to be low cost and teachthe physical science, technology, and environment ofaviation to high school students.

111

This program is designed to be one of the firsteconomical and popular ay iology courses to be madea' adable to high school students throughout Floridaand the nation. It is designed to he useful to a widespectrum of students including the low-income.migrant, and Black student. It will not he expensive tothe student or the school and will give the student an

areness as to the impact aviation will hay e on himand the future of the world. The outcome of the fieldstudy will indicate the effectiveness of the program inthe pilot schools and, we hope, merit a larger scalefield-testing and possibly translation into Spanish forthe tollowing year,

GROUP SCOLLEGE SCIENCE TEACHING

S-1 CONTEMPORARY TOPICS IN SCIENCE

Laurence W. Aronstein and Kathryn J. Beam,Assistant Professors of General Science, StateUniversity College, Buffalo, New York

A college-level course on contemporary topics inscience offered to non-science majors at the StateUniversity College of New York at Buffalo is discussed.Comparisons of objectives, methods, and outcomes ofthe course for large groups (up to 200), large groupscombined with small groups, and small groups aremade. Considerable time is devoted to the practicalaspects of offering the course, such as methods of topicchoice, topics chosen, preparation, ways of dealing withcurrent topics that continue to evolve, utili7ation ofresource persons, and motivation. Tcachers of such acourse are constantly reminded of why so few of thesecourses get off the ground, but also informed that whensuccessful, the reward is as great as the work to achieveit.

S-2 USE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AS THECONTENT FOR GUIDED INDEPENDENTSTUDY BY SCIENCE TEACHERS

Philip M. Becker and Earle R. Ryba, AssistantProfessors of Fuel Science, The Pennsylvania StateUniversity, University Park

A course in materials science designed for scienceteachers has used a "guided independent study"approach for the past year. During an introductorysurvey the teachers examine properties of vary usman-made materials around them and how theseproperties depend on the internal structure of thematerials. The rest of the course consists of solvingseveral problems.

In one problem each teacher had to design a beermug by defining the properties of a good mug andchoosing an appropriate composition of metal, ceramic,or polymer satisfying the requirements. Since thesubject and the materials literature were new to them,they were forced to come to class asking questions.Through the ensuing discussions, they were guidedthrough the problem. After two weeks they were readyto present their results and defend their decisions in apanel discussion.

Another problem included "hands-on" laboratorywork. Teachers were given some pieces of metal from

%allow, parts of an automobile (such as carburetor,bumper, fender), show n how to use X-ray diffracto-meter and fluorescence equipment, and asked todetermine, the composition of the parts. Then they hadto find out from the literature why each part had thatcomposition and to suggest another material whichwould he an acceptable substitute.

Even though this field is new to most teachers, theyfound they could rapidly learn both the concepts andthe experimental techniques by diving into theproblems with the guidance provided. Most of themhave felt that both the content and the methods will beuseful to them as teachers. They obtained some specificexamples of why some materials have particularproperties, how to organize for themselves a body ofknowledge which is new to them, and one practicalmethod for having students generate their own desirefor items of information.

S-3 SCIENCE IN 'THE EDUCATION OF THEHEALTH PROFESSIONAL

Pauline Gratz, Professor of Human Ecology, DukeUniversity School of Nursing, Duke UniversityMedical Center, Durham, North Carolina

In 1969 the Duke University School of Nursinginitiated an interdisciplinary course in science forsophomore students planning to enter nursing or anallied health profession and for university studentsinterested in a human-oriented science experience. Thecourse was initiated on the basis of a recommendationby the Undergraduate Studies Committee, atask-analysis approach, a study of the learner product,and consideration of two questions pertinent to thedevelopment of a science sequence.

1. What are the goals of the sciences in a particularnursing and/or allied health program?

2. What is expected of the graduate as a member ofhis/her profession and society?

Consideration of two basic points of view involvedin science teaching led to this recommendation by thecommittee. One advocates teaching a bare minimum ofscientific principles underlying health, which is likely toresult in a hodgepodge of "principles," scarcely, if atall, comprehensible to the student. The other requiresstudents in health areas to take science coursesidentical to those required for a science major or minorin his respective field. Unfortunately, many of theprerequisites for science majors and minors areadditional to those pertinent to nursing or allied healthprofessions and make it academically andeconomically unfeasible for many students.

The task-analysis considered the development of abasic science sequence for students entering the nursingprofessions or allied health professions, 1 1 j

How the content of the 1969 course evolved, wastaught, and evaluated is also discussed in the report.

Re /erences1. Gratz, Pauline, Integrated Science. F. A. Davis,

Philadelphia, 1966.

112

GROUP TSCIENCE CURRICULUM DE VELOPMENT:

AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

T-1 SCIENCE CURRICULUM CHANGEHOSTNATION AND PEACE CORPS EFFORT

Velma Lintord. Recruitment Resource SpecialistEducation, ACTION-Peace Corps, VISTA,Washington, D. C.; Peter Dziwornooh. Pro-fessor of Physics, University of Science and Tech-nology, Kumasi. Ghana

African developing countries, the Caribbean andPac;fic Islands. and Asian school systems are asking forhundreds of Peace Corps science teachers who can helpthem shift schooling from the traditional "rotelearning" method to one of discosery and problemsoh ing techniques. They w ant to preserve the strengthsof their heritage while they shape their resources tomodern society and technology. Host countries look tothe Peace Corps teacher to bring know ledge of newmethodology, a vocabulary of scientific terms, and anunderstanding of expanding science potential for theircountries.

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Volunteer abilities and capabilities are matched tospecific requests, and Peace Corps teachers work withnative teachers in local school systems under theministry of education. Sometimes they replace teacherson leave for training.

Peace Corps Volunteers may be assigned to juniorand senior high schools throughout the landsome ofthem modern and well equipped, but many Volunteersgo to rural areas where buildings are small, inadequate,and overcrowded. Jthers work under ministries ofeducation to organize workshops, provide inservicetraining for elementary and secondary teachers; theyoffer demonstration classes, participate in seminarsand stimulate professionalism through national scienceprograms. Some Peace Corps Volunteers teach in

teacher colleges and universities.Opportunity is limitlessparticipate in change,

evaluate and improve curriculum, improvise apparatusfrom local resources, develop methods to stimulatelearners to relate ideas, and analyze problems.

Peace Corps Volunteers involve themselves in suchscience-related programs as nutrition, food production,ecology, health, economics, and communicationssystems. They enter into a community partnership tobuild schools, obtain equipment, organize school foodprograms, and convert schoolhouses into centers forcommunity education. Their overall concern is to helpthe host nation make the educational system relevant tothe country's development of human and naturalresources.

T-2 PHILIPPINES AND PEACE CORPS SCIENCECURRICULUM

Bruce Taylor, Education Specialist, ACTION-Peace Corps/VISTA, Midwest Region, Cincinnati,Ohio

The Philippines, an Asian country with about 40million people, has one of the highest literacy rates inthe developing world today. English is the medium ofinstruction in the schools beginning at the third-grade

Icy el '1 he National System of Education is operated bythe Bureau of Public Schools (BPS) of the Republic ofthe Philippines

L. the mid-60s the Bureau recognized the need tointroduce modern curricula in all subject areas. Severalhighly qualified American and Filipino educatorsdeveloped teaching guides in the process approach toteaching science. Peace Corps Has ins ited to participateand Volunteers initially experimented sith modelclasses and control groups; teaching, modifying, andrevising the lesson plans until Filipino educationalleaders were satisfied with the material. The Bureaupublished an initial series of teacher's manuals forgrades three and four. followed by manuals for five and

I en "Pilo/ Demonstration" schools vier: locatedthioughout the country to try out the materials. Inalmost all the schools, a Peace Corps Volunteer workedwith the guides and "co-taught" with Filipino teachers.l'he next. and most important, step was introducing thecurriculum in all the elementary schools; the BPSdidn't base enough supervisory staff to implement thisprogram effectively and therefOre requested PeaceCorps Volunteers to work on insersice trainingprograms and classroom -up.. Today, theprogram has developed to the point of revising andupdating the teacher's guides to meet the increasedabilities of the students.

I his co- operative program between the Bureau ofPublic Schools of the Republic of the Philippines andthe Peace Corps offers an interesting example of thedcyclopment and implementation of the processapproach to the teaching of science on a national level.Significantly, this program attempts to break the yokeof traditional ote learning and substitute inductiveieasoning on toe part of teachers and students, makinga cultural as well as an attitudinal change.

T-3 WEST AFRICA AND PEACE CORPSPART-NERS IN SCIENCE TEACHING REVISION

Kenneth Shewmon, Area Manager, ACTION-Peace Corps/VISTA, Midwest Region, Cincinnati,Ohio; and Herman DeBose, Recruiter forAC-HON/Peace Corps/VISTA, Chicago, Illinois

High school students in West Africa must pass theschool examination fir the Secondary Certificate(similar to the scholastic aptitude test prepared by theUnited Nations). Bc:ause they learn by rote andmemorization, often as few as 5 percent passthere-fore, West African countries have requested PeaceCorps to assist them in changing traditional teachingmethods. Volunteers tOund no scientific understandingamong students. They took for granted weather,disease, and water pollution.

Peace Corps teachers, working through localschool systems, under the ministries of education, arefaced with the problem of helping teachers modernizeteaching methods and subject matter. They teach in atightly structured situation among members of a highlyrespected profession. They must introduce a newmethod of teaching. but the method must fit into a rigidschool system. Students resist the Peace Corps teacher'seffort to have them observe, discover, and understandunless the teacher can show how this informationrelates to and is truly in the syllabus.

Peace Corps teachers and their African counter-parts are involved in exciting experiences as they use

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such materials as salt, starch. sugar to teach by feel.taste, and texturethus broadening the frame ofreference of most pupils. Pupils learn problem sohmg.then discover that the new approach has helped themthrough the all important exam

Examples of progress in the application of the unitteaching in science, problems and aclueNements. andthe applicability to the experiences are discussed.

GROUP UINDIVIDUALIZING SCIENCE PROGRAMS

(SECONDARY-COLLEGE)

U-1 MINICOURSES AND MASTERY

S. N. Postlethwaite. Professor of Biology, PurdueUniversit, Department of Biological Sciences.Lafayette. Indiana

A -team of instructional deselopers at PurdueUniversity is preparing minicourses I'm a core programin undergraduate biology. As the name implies, anumcourse is a short course usually requiring one ortwo hours of student time to complete. Each minicourseis .accompamed by a statement of objectiyes, studyguni,:. and suggested test items. The materials andmedia provided include tangible items. printedmaterials projected 2 x 2 slides and films, andaudiotapes. minicourses are self-instructioal,allowing each student to proceed at his own rate, but aninstructor usually will be available to answer questions.

The minicourses are subjected to three levels ofevaluation by students and teachers which usuallyresult in revision and retesting. The first level isDevelopmental Testing in which a few students gothrough the materials and provide feedback directly Si'the developer. Next, each minicourse undergoes PilesTesting in an appropriate course at Purdue underactual classroom conditions. The final level cfevaluation, Field Testing, is currently being conductedon a limited basis at ten cooperating institutions.Achievement scores are obtained to measure theeffectiveness of the materials, and a scale to measureattitudes toward biology has been developed.

U-2 A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO MASTERY

Kenneth H. Bush, Science Coordinator, WestLafayette Community School, West Lafayette,Indiana; and David McCaw and Curtis Smiley,Biology Teachers, West Lafayette CommunitySchool, West Lafayette, Indiana

No abstract submitted.

U-3 INDIVIDUALIZATION-GIVE CREDIT WHENIT'S DUE

John Edington, Science Teacher, Munster SeniorHigh School, Munster, Indiana

The biology program at Munster Senior HighSchool is an individualized curriculum utilizing amulti- sensory systems approach. The enrollment ispresently (1972-73)458 general biology students and 36

ads aneed oiology students who are distributed amongsip 55-nurute periods per day and taught by a team ofthree teachers and one lara-protession al.

Each student ninst c implete 24 units to recose 2

credits in biology. The units are designed to include:unit title and numb2r, a brief introduction, objectives.ocabulars development, reminders or announcements.

appnisimate length of time needed for completion.reading assignments and sell-evaluation. audios isualpresentation of seit-es aluation. laboratory andsell-es aluation. seminars, and a unit test. Students mayelect to work a eon in any order but must concludeeach unit with a seminar and a test. Students maycomplete units as quickly as their abilities allow. Alllabs. audios isual presentations. and tests are givenconcurrently and continuously throughout the hour.

Credit for the course is issued on the basis of unitscompleted rather than or Cie traditional time basis.Sonic students may complete all z." 4 units in 18 weeks orless. Others may require 52 weeks to complete therequired unit ,. Students are counseled to progress attheir optimum rate. increasing the rate only when thedesired toel of competency is held constant orincreased.

Presently being developed is a series of eightfundamental units. These units will be accompanied by

36 companion units of a saried degree of difficulty. Thestudent may choose any 16 of these 36 units to completethe required 24. This freedom of choice will allow evenfurther depth in the quest for more completerid is id u aliza tion.

U-4 NON-SEQUENCING OF PHYSICS CONCEPTS

Lawrence E. Poorman, Associate Professor ofPhysics. Indiana State University. Terre Haute

Defined concepts necessary to the successful studyof physics are: length, time, mass. temperature. electriccharge. and the photon. Using these concepts. fivephenomena may he operationally derived: energy. flow.field. periodic and quantum phenomena.

Traditionally. it has been assumed that these mustbe taught in a highly sequential structure for matureunderstanding. It is my contention that sequencing isunnecessary, even bode. for most students encounter-ing physics.

Evidence is presented to show: deeper under-standing of the concepts using a random approachtopic -wise with a group of beginning students at thesecondary and college level a much greater retention ofthe concepts for longer periods of time. and a muchgreater application of conceptual ideas by students in anon-sequenced course than in a sequenced course.

U-5 STUDENT INTEREST SEQUENCING OF ISCSLEVEL III

Charles E. Richardson. Head of Science Depart-ment. Belzer Junior High School. Lawrence.

Indiana

ISCS material? What happens when the eightunits of the program are laid out for students 1,1 pickand choose? Doesn't the learning environment becomechaotic? It does require some role changes on the partof the student and the teacher.

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It does require a management scheme. It canbecome chaotic but in a rich learning en% ironment it

Mkt s much hopeI his paper reports an sonic of the experience

gained over the past tko %ears with this approach.sucess. failure, and future.

GROUP VINQUIRY TEACHING (SECONDARY)

V-1 ASKING OPERATIONAL QUESTIONS: A

BASIC SKILL FOR SCIENCE INQUIRY

Dorothy Alike. Associate Professor of ScienceEducation. The PennsIsan,a State l`nisersits.Lino ersity Park

I he writer has coined the phrases "operationalquestions" and "non-operational" questions to helpunsophisticated science students become productiveinvestigators. -These term% es ohed from a grossingconviction that "why" questions are usually the leastuseful questions for children and non-scienee orientedstudents. "Why" questions (non-operational) usually

solicit answers which can best be obtained fromauthority. Such answers are likely to result in

theoretical explanations fur which students lacksufficient background.

An "operational question" states or implies whatone must do to seek an answer. It leads the insestigato;into doing something to yield knowledge which is hisown. Cumulative answers to operational questionsbuild the broad conceptual base essential iorunderstanding theoretical and abstract answers to

"why" questions.Example: When students first study siphons they

usually ask "why it works." But explanations of winhave little meaning. Hoxxever, beginners can generateand profitably investigate related operational questions

Will it vo.ck with a long looped tube? Whathappens if we use a different liquid?). Such operationalquestions lead to investigations which. collectively.build meaningful background tOr eventual under-standing of "why" siphons function.

The writer works primarily with future elementarteachers. Initially they tend to pose non-operationalquestions as they encounter science phenomena:seeking premature theoretical explanations, acceptingthem and struggling to reproduce them verbally.

However, when encouraged to generate opera-tional questions as. they investigate, more desirablebehaviors become evident. Activity. involvement.creativity, positive self image. and confidence replacecontusion and meaningless verbalizations. Sin'results have been obtained with elementary chit,'

Teachers seeking to teach for developme.learning skills and meaningful knowledge might findthat greater focus on skills of asking and pursuingoperational questions is one key to success.

V-2 THE INQUIRY CURRICULUM

K. R. Sic. i, Associate Professor. University ofManitoba. Faculty of Education. Winnipeg.Canada

This work is a direct result of study and research inthe area of curriculum development. A two-part formatis utilized.

Part 1 rhe purpose of part one is to report on thedo elopment of a presentee teacher education coursewhich uses the inq in mode of instruction to encouragep1ospeetie teachers to inquire into their own beliefss stem and its associated teacher behaviors. The c:larseis presented as a usable document for instructors andeducation students. It is structured as a one-termcourse of studs (phase 11. and a one-term studentteaching exper.-nce (phase 11).

Part 11: I-he purpose of part two is to repot t on themethods used to determine a measure of effect's enesslot the I iquirs Curriculum course of study. This wasaeompli-,hed bs insestigating the course's influenceupon a number of selected decision-making attributesof students w no did and did not experience the courseof studs.

Results The studs identified a number ofsignifica it differences for both the experimental andthe control group Generalls. the prospective teacherswho experience the Inquiry Curriculum course of studyare nit re able and or more willing to make decisionswhich locus upon their students and options for theirstudcts. The control group. who experienced a"conventional" methods course and student teachingexperience. produced a significantly higher index ofteacher focus. Members of the control group tended tofocus their decisions more on themselves as teachers.1 he experimental course of study was generally wellakcepied 1),. preset-% ice teachers and their cooperatingteachers.

V-3 BUILDING THE BRIDGES TO THE 21STCENTURY THROUGH INQUIRY

Dcloce L. Wright. Assistant Professor. Universityof Nebraska, Department of Secondary Education.Lincoln

BSCS teachers in Omaha and Lincoln. Nebraska.have applied a recently developed program in inquirylearning to prepare students of today for coping withthe future.

1 he program Incuses on: (a) skills to improveteacher-student communication as well as student tostudent communication. (b) cooperative group effOrtswhen inquiring toward the solution ofproblems, and (c)developmeat of student competencies in both thecognitne and affective behaviors of inquiry. TheUniversity of Nebraska Teachers College at Lincoln incooperation with the Mid-continent Regional Educa-tional Laboratory. Kansas City. developed the programuser a three-ear period. Lincoln BSCS and socialstudies teachers participated in the developmentalphase and in 1471-72 Omaha BSCS teachers joined theprogram.

Doeloping inquiry skills in students begins withteachers in an Instructional Staff Developmentprogram designed to enable teachers to: (a) recognizethe skills and behaviors which promote inquiry. (b)learn techniques of analyzing and of planning forappropriate behaviors. (c) practice and analy7ebehasiors they !lase identified. (d) implement the newlylearned behaviors in their classrooms. and (e) assess theinqairy behaviors in terms of their planning.

Assessments of student behaviors in theclassrooms of the Omaha BSCS teachers indicated notonly an increase in the use of inquiry in general. butincreased competencies in group cooperation. incommunications skills. and in specific cognitive and

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allectise behaviors which promoted the solution ofidentified problems

1 he Instructional Staff Deselopment (1SD)Program in Inquiry is a packaged program including1. Procedural manuals for trainers working with

teachers.Instructional %Rico and audio tapes."Iransparencies.Handout materials for participants. andAssessment instruments.This package has been do eloped. field-tested. and

is scheduled for dissemination to interested publicschools or higher education institutions.

3.4

GROUP W

EVALUATIVE STUDIES (ELEMENTARY)

W-1 THE CORRELATION OF SCIENCE ATTI-TUDE AND SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE OF PRE-SERVICE ELEMENTARY TEACHERS

Robert L. Shriglev, Associate Professor. ThePennsylvania State Unis crsity. University Park

ProblemThe purpose o this study is to assess thecorrelation of (a) science attitude and (h) scienceknowledge of preset-% ice elementary teachers.

InstrumentationThe Science tor Concepts Achievement Testdo eloped by Christman will be administered to assessthe understanding of science concepts taught byteachers in the elementary school. The Shrmlev ScienceAttitude Scale for Proervice Elementary Teachers willhe administered to assess the attitude of the subjects inthe study.

Design of the StudyThe sample for the study will be 120 third-yearundergraduates enrolled in a science education coursefor prescrvice elementary teachers at The PennsylvaniaState University. The instruments will be administeredby the investigator during the first week of enrollmentin the course. The two scores. aunt de and knowledge.will he tested by the Pearson product-momentcorrelation coefficient.

Assumptions and ImplicationsThe investigator assumes that elementary teacherswith a positive attitude toward science are moreeffectise science teachers than those with a negativeattitude. The investigator further assumes that a highcorrelation between the knowledge and attitude scoresof preservice teachers could indicate that knowledgemay he one of the variables that affects the scienceattitude of preservice elementary teachers. A low,correlation between the two variables could mean thatteacher educators need to explore variables other thanscience knowledge as a means of improving the attitudeof preservice teachers toward science.

W-2 AN ASSESSMENT OF SCIENCEA PROCESSAPPROACH PROGRAM'S PLACEMENT OFCLASSIFICATION SKILLS BY COMPARINGCHILDREN IN PIAGET'S PRE-OPERA-TIONAL AND CONCRETE OPERATIONALSTAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOP-MENT

Theodore M. Johnson. Director, CurriculumMaterials Center, The Pennsykania State Univer-sity, Unicrsity Park

The ProblemThe intention of this study is to determine how

Serer:ccA Process Approach program's placement ofspecitic clayatication skills agrees or disagrees withPiaget's theory concerning preoperational and concreteoperational stages of intellectual development.

BackgroundPia.!,et views intellectual development in children

as occur-ing in four successive levels or stages which areinvariant and cumulative. These stages include: the

sensory motor: the pre-operational: the concreteoperational: and the formal operational. This study is

concerned with the following stages: The pre-opera-tuntalThis stage characterizes the intellectual level ofthe two- to eight-year-old. A major feature of this stageis the child's attention to only one object. property. orexperience at a time. His categorization of objects andexperiences are on the basis of a single characteristic.such as color or shape. Because of this feature, childrenutilize single dimension classification strategies and canrarely verbalize logical classification strategies.Multi-classification is, thus, seen perhaps beyond thepower of the child's prelogical thought. Concreteoperational stageat this stage a child is between eightand eleven !ears old. His thinking is concrete. and theuse of abstractions is rudimentary. Multi-classificationmay he possible at this stage because dealing withpart-w hole relationships can be thought of in eitherorder. The operation of reversibility also assists inperforming multi-classification skills. These operatior shelp the child deal with superordinate and subordinateclasses in higher classification exercises.

SampleA total of 80 second-grade children were initially

screened using tests based on Piagetian theory. Thirtychildren. 15 pre-operational and 15 concreteoperational were finally selected.

ProcedureThe 30 students were divided into two instructional

groups. each containing pre-operational and concreteoperational children. Each group was presented withnine S-APA classification exercise and their prerequi-sites. Testing was done using the S-APA competencyexercises.

Analysis of the DataThe matched T-test program at Penn State's

computer center was based to compare the groups. Theanalysis of variances for repeated measures programchecked for teacher affect and other interactions.

ResultsThe groups wee! significantly different in favor of

the concrete operational groups as hypothesized on themulti-classiticatior, exercises.

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W-3THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING SCIENCEMETHODS THROUGH AN OPEN LEARNINGENVIRONMENT ON SELECTED ATTITUDESAND PERCEPTIONS OF PROSPECTIVE ELE-MENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

Charles W. Mitchell, Assistant Professor ot Educa-tior, State Uniyersity of New York. College of Artsano Sciences, Plattsburgh

This studs imestigated two aspects of the scien -emethods course for elementary school majors. The sir tmeasured the effects of three different instructionalstrategies of teaching science methods on selectee,

attitudes and perceptions held by prospeetReelementary school teachers. The second measured theeffects of these instructional strategies on childrens'interest in science: childrens' perception of teachingstyle, and of the teacher behavior %ambles of warmth,demand, and utilization of intrinsic motivation.

Three instructional strategies were deneloped and

used as a basis for data with prospectiYe teachers-

I. An open-learning environment allow ing freedomto inquire, conceptualize. self-direct learning acti-vities and to experience structured learning acti-y Ries.

2. A formal lecture-discussion approach in a tradi-tional. passive, inactive environment.

3. The classroom teacher situation where the pros-pective teacher received no treatment.

Thirty undergraduate education students wererandomly selected by lottery from a total population of40 elementary education majors slated to studentteaching during fall 1971. The public school childrenutilized were those in classrooms of the prospectiveteachers. Due to the design of the instruments used inLille investigation only grade levels 1. 4. 5. and 6 wereappropriate.

The results of the analyzed data showed nostatistically significant difference. at the .05 level.among the prospective teachers groups. The datagathered from the instruments responded to by thechildren. on the other hand. did show statisticallysignificant differences. at the .05 level. relative to theirperceptions of their prospective teachers and relative toscience understandings.

The trends in the results, as indicated by a gain orloss in test score means within the groups of prospectiveteachers, do offer some evidence for intuitive clinicalspeculation.

The trends suggest that prospective teacherstrained in an open-learning environment respondedpositively to instruments which measured experimen-talism, open-mindednes.... teacher-pupil relationships.and interest in science.

These same prospective teachers un positivelyaffect student interest in science. student perceptions ofthe teacher behavior variables of demand andutilization of intrinsic motivation. science knowledgeand skills, and at least sustain a neutral positionrelative to the students' perceptions of the teacher'sstyle of teaching.

W-4 TEACHER RATING OF STUDENT LEARNEDBEHAVIORS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLSCIENCEWHAT SHOULD BE AND WHATIS

Douglas R. Macbeth. Science Curriculum Coor-dinator. Lewisburg Area Schools. Lewisburg.Pennsvly an ia

Teachers in today's schools are increasinglyconcerned about preparing instructional objectives in amanner that permits an es aluation of the objectives asrepresented in oy ert student behavior. This concern hascaused many teachers to retlect more critically on thetypes of learned behaviors that they perceive as beingimportant for a child to exhibit. The merits of learningfor simple recall or understanding and learning forcritical tr analytical thought are being weighed. Thecontribution of science teaching in the development of aoungster's attitudes and interests is also being

considered.During January 1972. 44 elementary school

teachers (grades K-5) in the Lewisburg Area SchoolDistrict (Pennsylvania) were surveyed to determine theiropinions about the importance of certain instructionalobjectives or student learned behaviors in elementaryschool science. i.e.. What should we teach or helpstudents learn. Further. the teachers were asked theiropinion of the extent to which the pupils in ourelementary schools generally possess certain learnedbehaviors or arc now being taught certain instructionalobjectives.

Sixt4wo behavioral objectives. selected fromelementary school science textbooks. programs. andprofessional books. comprised the opinionnaire.Objectives were chosen from each of the six levels of thecognitive domain and the first three levels or theaffective domain.

'The 44 teachers were asked to respond to eachobjective in two ways on an A to E Lickert-type scale.Their first response w as to indicate their opinion on the"should- component: their second response the "now-component.

The results were analyzed using a discrepencymeasure technique; several conclusions and implica-tions are suggested:I. The K-5 teachers generally feel that the science

teaching and learning in our elementary schoolsshould he altered from its present condition.

2. This teaching and learning should he improved inall of the cognitive and affective levels sampled.

3. The greatest need for improvement is seen in thehigher levels of the cognitive domain and in allthree levels of the affective domain.

4. The total concern that teachers had for teachingand learning in the affective domain was greaterthan their concern for learning in the cognitiveareas.

GROUP XTHE NATIONAL ELEMENTARY SCIENCE STUDY

X-I DESIGN OF THE NATIONAL ELEMENTARYSCIENCE STUDYJerrold William Maben. Director. Bureau of Edu-cational Grants, Herbert H. Lehman College of theCity University of New York

No abstract submitted.

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X-2 MAJOR SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCESIN NATIONAL TEACHING PRACTICES

Bess Nelson. Teaching Associate. Faellit% ofScience and Mathematics Education. The OhioState UniyersIty. Columbus

No abstract submitted.

X-3 THE CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THENATIONAL ELEMENTARY SCIENCE STUDY

Mel in R. Webb. Associate Professor of Educa-tion. Clark College. Atlanta. Georgia

No abstract submitted.

GROUP YSOME SUGGESTED CONSIOERATIONS

(JUNIOR HIGH)

Y-1 WHY NOT EVERYONE?

Thomas M. Baker. Science eachef. Star HillSchool. Camden - Wyoming. Delaware

A teacher is a person who arrives at an educationalinstitution usually on time. approximately 180 days ayear. What happens when that teacher enters theclassroom? Dots that teacher give everything he is ableto give to help the students? Very seldom.

The role of the teacher in a classroom encompassesmany assorted fields. A teacher's main responsibility ina classroom should he that of a motivator. but how doyou really rank the many duties performed during theday? A teacher is a guide. an organizer. an evaluator, abookkeeper. a research assistant. a moderator. and atutor. How is one person able to assume all of theseroles? Individualised instruction is one method.

Individualization has many connotations and oneis an open school. no curriculum, and few guidelines forstudent or teacher. Individualization can mean thedifference between instruction to each chilli at hisunique ability level and force-feeding materials to acaptive audience.

An educator concerned with helping all hisstudents should be aware of the particular needs of thestudent and how he can best use any and all materialsavailable. From efficient utilization of all educationalareas in a school situation to student evaluation andselection of materia's, the educator must be aware oftheir needs and tot to meet them.

The main advantage to the student is the challengethat each student receives. No matter what theindividual ability level each student should meet withwork that is within his grasp but that he still must reachfor.

Individualization necessarily causes more planningfor an educator, but reaps its re..ards through studentsuccess and high levels of motivation.

Y-2 WHAT IS THAT IN THE EYE OF TM. BE-HOLDER?

Kathryn J. Beam. Assistant Professor of GeneralScience, State Umsersits College. Bufialo. NewYork

A study of Western New York Junior High Schoolscience classes attempted to pros ide some evidence asto whether teachers and students intend. perceive. andexhibit classroom interactions differently and the roleof feedback in reducing any' differences. Specialreference is devoted to the effect of such differences onthe meeting of educational objectives and thedes clopment of curriculum.

Other questions considered include:I What may account for the lack of display of

classroom interaction patterns espoused by certaincurricula?

2. Do teachers intend or perceive classroominteraction differently from their students?

3. What types of classroom interaction are difficultfor teachers or students to perceive accurately?

Y-3 HAVE WE COPPED OUT ON THE PREPARA-TION OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCETEACHERS?

Kenneth It Mechling. Associate Professor of Bio-logy and Science Education. Clarion State College.

Clarion. Pennsylvania

More pupils study science in grades 7. 8. and -9than in all the senior high school science courses puttogether. Yet, statistics released by the PennsylvaniaDepartment of Education show that during the 1969-70school year Pennsylvania's teacher education institu-tions produced five times more biology teachers thangeneral science teachersa gross imbalance betweensupply and demand for science teachers.

Even more disturbing were the findings of a recentsurrey of junior high school science teachers in westernPennsylvania. The study revealed that most junior highschool science teachers had majored in undergraduateprograms not specifically designed to prepare them fortheir jobs.

Although science has been a part of the junior highschool curriculum for half a century. teacher educationprograms have traditionally ignored the preparation ofscience teachers specifically for the jt..:or high schoollevel. Ifs high time something is done about it.

Colleges and universities must accept the

responsibility for developing preservice and inservicescience teacher preparation programs specifically forthe junior high school level. These programs must havestaff and resources that are on a par with those nowavailable for the preparation of biology. chemistry, andphysics teachers.

State and national agencies must develop, publish,and enforce accreditation guidelines and certificationstandards for the preparation of competent junior highschool teachers of science. The,practice of certifying(my science major to teach junior high school sciencemust be stopped.

Professional organizations such as NSTA andAAAS must vigorously support undergraduate andgraduate teacher education programs for junior highschool science teachers. They

ofprovide the stimuli

for overcoming tl;e inertia' of past practices.

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Junior high school science teachers !lase beenprepared by detault rather than design. It is now timeto reserse the process.

Y-4 MIDDLE-JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCEFOR 1970'S AND 1980'S

John F. Reiher. State Supersisor of Science andEns ironment. State Department of Public In-struction. Townsend Building. Dos er. Delos+ are:and Thomas M. Baker. Science Teacher. Star HillSchool. Camden-Wyoming. Delaware

When Sputnik was launched in the late 50s.

science assumed a new prominence in education. Sincethat time accelerating change and rapid grow th havecharacterized all areas of education, and in particular.the field of science education. The area of greatestconcern is the middle/junior high school.

We are w itnessing an explosion of knowledge. andyet we are still on the frontiers of new scientificdiscovery. The big questions that come to an educator'smind are: How do we prepare our teachers to meetthese new challenges? Do we need emphasis on the

content areas? Do we need emphasis on the

methodology of science teaching? Other questions toconsider are: How well are we teaching science? Whatare we teaching in-science? How well have we evaluatedwhat is going on in science?

A number of basic changes in the philosophy ofscience education have galled prominence in recentyears: more student centered activity. more individual-ized instruction, use of the inquiry method. etc. it is anexperiential fact that in a specified act of teaching. anew environment is created and in responding to tl.'new environment. a learner gains abilities not achievedthrough prior experience, but which are specified in thegiven art of teaching.

We are no longer concerned with the facts butrather the concepts; not information but experimenta-tion; not teacher demonstration but teacher directions;not rapid procedures but flexibility; not conformity butcreativity; not learning situations but problem-solving;not telling but hypothesizing; not !earning rules butlearning how to learn; not observation butparticipation.

All these terms have become the slogans, not onlyof the philosophy of science education, but also of allmajor areas of education. Since experiments with thephysical. chemical, biological forces have helped toshape students' lives and influence their destiny. it canbe assumed that the primary purpose of scienceeducation is to develop individuals capable of suchindependent thought and action as to be self-directiveand self-educated.

GROUP ZINDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION:

DETAILS AND DANGERS(ELEMENTARY-COLLEGE)

Z-1 DIAGNOSTIC AND PRESCRIPTIVE ASPECTSOF INDIVIDUALLY GUIDED EDUCATION

V. Daniel Ochs, Assistant Professor, Miami Uni-versity, Oxford, Ohio

For many years educators have been attempting toeducate the masses while meeting the needs and

interests set the indwidual. Techniques. methodologies,and mechanics were all lacking. howeyer. we seem to bedraw ing closer to the goal of indk idualwation as eachof these problem areas has been soled. Today,null% ulualization is nearing reality. vet mans teachersare not prepared for the next step: assessing what hasand w hat has not been learned and prescribing thenecessary remedial ,ceps.

This paper desvrihes the techniques used at theMeGultcy Laboratory School in diagnosing learningneeds. in considi.ring student interests, and inprescribing remedial steps. if an are necessary.Extensile use of packets, programmed instruction.arious packaged materials, and a well-equipped mediacenter free the teacher from the front of the classroom.The time sased is spent in meeting with students.cY aluating their work. locating their interests, and thenprescribing future activities which will provide thenecessary opportunities for learning.

Z-2 DANGERS RELATED TO THE MISUSE OFOR LACK OF PLANNING FOR INDIVIDUAL-IZED SCIENCE INSTRUCTION

J. Truman Stesens, Assistant Professor of ScienceEducation. University of Kentucky, Lexington

Frequently, schools and school systems becomeenamored with change for the sake of change. As aresult. we often adopt a "new idea" or program withlittle or no prior planning. Too title consideration isgiven to the applicability of the "innovation'' in a givensituation and its relationship to curricular objectives.Due to this lack of planning and subsequent misuse ofa"new idea... new problems are often created. Thus, thetreatise work of a given classroom teacher or schooldistrict fails to become the "godsend" for otherteachers and other school systems.

In light of the above discussion, this paper willconsider selected approaches to indisidualizing scienceinstruction and examine sonic of the problems whichare commonly associated with the implementation ofthese approaches. Special consideration will be given toquestions dealing with a possible conflict between theincreased use of certain types of individualizedinstruction and the inherent structure of many of thescientific disciplines.

Z-3 INDEPENDENT RESEARCH PROJECTSAPRACTICAL MEANS OF INDIVIDUALIZINGINSTRUCTION

Stephen A. Henderson. Assistant Professor ofScience. Supervising Teacher. Eastern KentuckyUniversity. Model Laboratory School. Richmond

Independent research projects can add dimensionto any science curriculum. Very often the "project"becomes the most meaningful part of the student'sscience program and serves as motivation for futurescientific pursuits.

Independent research projects lit into any type ofcurricular or scheduling pattern, and only time andstudent imagination curtail the output, Researchprojects can play a major role in contract sciencecourses, phase-elective curricula, and open classroomsas well as holstering existing traditional approaches.

Teachers are often reluctant to encourageindependent projects due to previous encounters with

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noncompletion, student frustration. and the extra el tortrequired on their part. How es er. the pitfalls ofindependent studs can gencially he identified andeliminated prior to undertaking the downy and theresulting product is well worth any extra time. Mostproblems. such as identilying a challenging. yetreasonable topic. locating materials and equipment.and reeeking adequate eonsu:tant help can hemercome with teacher student pre-planning andresou ruin I ness

Independent stud% comes closest to the actualactin ities of a scientist. I he quality of independent workin a school may -ery well be the measure of success ofthe total science curriculum.

GROUP AAINSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS (K-12)

AA-1. THE USE OF TOYS IN THE TEACHING OFSCIENCE: A UNIT FOR TEACHERS

Mitchell E. Batoff, Associate Professor of ScienceEducation, Jersey City State College. Jersey City,New Jersey

The use of toys in the teaching of science can betraced hack to the 1890s in Germany, when "sci,:nceteachers produced a complete series of miniature toyswith which to demonstrate the basic principles ofphysics through home experimentation" (Meister).Since that time a number of distinguished educators.scientists, and entrepreneurs have developed and usedtoys or quasi-toys for educational purposes. Amongthose who have worked in this field are St. John, Porter.Gilbert, Woodhull, Meister, Lynd, Lunt, Zim, Joseph.raplitz. Miller, Roskin, and Ruchlis.

Despite the long history of toys in science teaching.there has never been a teacher's guide or modular unitdeveloped on the subject until 1972. As part of thispresentation the author will expose the audience to arecently published unit, "Science from Toys."developed in Britain by Don Radford and the Staff ofthe Science 5/13 Project.

Also to be used in the presentation are anassortment of scientific toys from the author's extensivepersonal collection (accumulated over four decades).

AA-2. VIDEOTAPED MINI-LESSONS FOR ELE-MENTARY SCIENCE TEACHING

Donald J. Schmidt, Associate Professor of ScienceEducation, Fitchburg State College. Fitchburg.Massachusetts

A series of short (three-minute) videotaped sciencelessons were developed by students and used at theelementary school level (K-6) to introduce a full-lengthscience lesson and then were followed by a 30-minutescience activity in the classroom. The presentationsused a wide variety of simple equipment, materials, andvisuals to present a single idea or concept. Both videoand sound are on the mini-lessons.

Examples of mini-lessons include:I. Carbon Dioxide Production During Exercise

Students demonstrate phenolphthalein titrationmethod of determining CO2 in breath, before andafter exercise.

2. Balance. With and Without EyesightVideotaped demonstration of the ability to per-form tasks requiring balance with and without ablindfold.

1. Protein in Dail) DietActual foods high in protein content are usedalong with charts to develop the idea of includingadequate amounts of protein in daily diet.

4 Both 1 emperatureVisual% are used to indicate normal body tempera-ture. actual demonstration of proper use of oralthermometer in taking bock temperature.

5. Structure and Function of LungsLire demonstration b% student of chest movementsduring breathing. Models are used to illustrate thebasic function of lungs. diaphram. and trachea.Other mini-lessons include: (a) Reflex Action, (b)

Anatomy and Function of Joints. (c) Coordination.

AA-3. TEACHER, LET ME DO IT MYSELF

Joyce Swartney, Associate Professor. Buffalo StateUniversity College. Buffalo. New York

With the increase of open classrooms in westernNew York the students enrolled in LaboratoryTechniques for Elementary School Teachers have seenthe need for materials that a child can use in a scienceinterest center. These teachers have developedmaterials for children to use with little personalte. cher-direction. These materials may be individual-ized materials developed from any of the existingelementary or junior high school curricula or they maybe developed independently by the teacher.

The graduate ,tudents who have developed thesematerials are not science majors, This presentationdiscusses their personal experiences in developing theactivities. the use of the materials in the classroom, andthe students' reactions to the materials.

AA-4. SUPPLYING ELEMENTARY AND SECOND-ARY SCHOOLS WITH SCIENCE KITS ANDMATERIALS VIA THE OSACS SCIENCECENTER

J. Bruce Holmquist. Director; and Jack Head.Science Education Specialist; OSACS ScienceCenter, Gretna. 4ebraska

and

AA-5. LIVE MATERIALS BANK FOR ELEMEN-TARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Joe Pinkall and Gary Brown, Science EducationSpecialists. OSACS Science Center, Gretna.Nebraska

The Omaha Suburban Area Council of Schools(OSACS) Science Center is a Nebraska ESEA Title IIIProject serving seven school districts which includemore than thirty-seven thousand students. Slide tapepresentations outline the development, organization.and operation of a live materials bank which suppliesthe schools with science kits and materials.

Cost benefit data are presented to encourage otherschools to adopt these procedures and operations.

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GROUP BB

INTr..:RESTING APPROACHES (JUNIOR HIGH)

BB-1. UNIQUE CAMPING AND TRIPPING PRO-GRAMS FOR SECONDARY STUDENTS

Lam A. Hardt. Chairman. Science Department.Valle% View Junior High School. Omaha.Nebraska

The Omaha Suburban Area Council of SchoolsScience Center. a resource area for seven schooldistricts. has grown tremendously in its fimr-yearlifetime. Emphases have been on developing inset-% icetra;ning programs, maintaining a system-wide ma-to' ials bank. and supplementing student programs notnormally found in the usual school curriculum. Thecamping and tripping programs invol% e a mobile daycamp program for the seventh- and eighth-graders. overnighters for ninth-graders, and extensivetravel for high-schoolers.

Day camp programs involve moving studentsout-of-doors into local field situations rock quarries fOrstudies of stratification and fossil collection; floodplains and bluffs to study contrasting vegetative forms;native prairies to study life forms as they once existedthroughout our area; industrial sites to visualize sonieof man's technological impact on his environment: andmuseums and historical sites to interrelate man'scultural background with his modern-day influences.

Overnight programs involve student groupscanoeing down the wide shallow sand-covered riverstypical of our area, or studying the water lite of a deepglacial blue water lake some two-hundred miles fromour schools.

High school students trip the length and breadthof the country. During this past year. for example.students studied glaciation and alpine ecology bybackpacking over the Continental Divide in the WindRiver Range in the Rockies. Some journeyed to theTexas Gulf Coast. engaging in beach collection andmarine investigation aboard an ocean-going tloatinglaboratory, while others traveled to Prince EdwardIsland. Canada, to observe, photograph, and study lastsummer's solar eclipse.

All tripping programs are planned and staffed byexperienced, qualified science instructors and areavailable for credit. They are designed to bridge the gapbetween the classroom situation and randomfamily-type vacationing and balance a combination oflong -term recreational skill development with highintensity field science education in a way that is bothinteresting and educationally rewarding for thesecondary student.

BB-2. INSTRUCTIONAL FLOWCHARTING INSCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

Michael Szabo, Associate Professor of ScienceEducation, The Pennsylvania State University.University Park

The act of specifying multistage processes in alogical and ordered fashion (flowcharting) has beendeveloped and utilized by computer scientists, systemsanalysts, and others. Recently. educators, in attemptsto systematize certain components of the educationalprocess. (e.g.. PPBS and PERT) have adopted

tlow duo nog as a useful tool far depicting certainAllot ohms

lowdiarting has reeenth been further extra-polated flow the business-Industrial world througheducatio, al administratne le% els and has emerged as auseful tool in classroom instriktional procedures Anmstinetunal flowchart t is a graphic method for

,representing an algorithm for a cognitue orpsychomotor process winch has a beginning, sonicdefinable path or paths to billow to completion. and atleast one identifiable endpoint. I his paper is anattempt to increase the awareness ut publk schoolsuenke teachei s to techniques and ads antages ofli net tonal llow chat ting Examples from actualLlassioom use arc presented.

Instructional flowcharts Ilk) assume sonic of thetasks of Instruction borne hs the teacher. There arenumeious purposes for which IFs are well suited.including the handling of classroom managementdetails. laboratoi% classification functions. andtick ision making (problem -soh mg) algorithms.

Some of the potential benefits of doelopment andof II s b% the classroom teacher arc that theypro% ide a %chicle for the teacher to be thoroughand (bladed.pro% ide replicable and permanent means of com-munication and instruction.

3 portray to the student w hat is expected of him(much like beha% hind obiectises).force the student to aensely participate. andpros ide a meth.41 of inci.easing a student's self-reliance through reduced dependency upon theteacher.

useI.

4

BB-3. A RESOURCE UNIT ON POLLUTION FORJUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

Frances Weiss. Coordinator. 'I eaeher-Lite Soience.Warren Junior High School. West Newton.Massachusetts

I he rationale behind the development of this kitand tutu was to provide the classroom teacher with a%mkt% of materials. written and auditnisual, dealingwith pollution on a local and national scale. Thematerials included in the kit and the purposes theysole arc listed below:1. Student pamphlets and hooks can he used with

w hole classes or for indisidualized instruction.2 1 vacher pamphlets and hooksprovide the

teacher w ith subject matter background informa-tion.

iisit% sheetsillustrate pollution concepts withlaboratory actisities that require little specializedequipment.

4. Reportsfurnv.h useful local data for studentsand teachers.Filmstripspro% ide an alternative to readingabout pollution.

n. Slide setsdeal with local pollution problems andReveling: make the subject matter relevant tndsuggest ways in which students can become act: e-1 involsed in recycling.Films---dramatize pollution problems and presentpossible solutions to these problems.

ft. Gamespros ide opportunities for students to usetheir knowledge of pollution and ecology in role-plasing situations.

9. Individual insestigations and student projects-

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pros ide suggestions for controlled experiments andprotects dealing w ith pollutionTeachers probabh would not w ant to use all of

these materials %sun a class, since sonic would beepentious. I he %arm% of materials offered in the kit

can he tailored to teachers of an -t% egsubicet-matter oriented. aetnist. large group ersusinch% indued instruction, etc.

GROUP CCINTERESTING APPROACHES (SECONDARY)

CC-1. A ONE-SEMESTER ACTIVITY-ORIENTEDCOURSE IN ASTRONOMY AS A HIGHSCHOOL SCIENCE ELECTIVE

John E. Kuser, Instructor. and Richard W. Snydle.reacher. John F. Kennedy Senior High School.Bloomington. Minnesota

Electise science courses can he flight% rewardingand secs itch% its -centered. Fhese courses can bestructured around a well defined tr11111CM ork ofbehasioral outcomes.

l'he semester-long elect's c astronomy coursedescribed includes sell- structured act is its -orientedpackets in the billow mg areas. telescope optics.constellation orientation. celestial coordinates. planets.comets and meteors. the earth-moon ss stem, stars andstar ss stems. galaxies. ;Ind solar and lunar eclipses.Students operate independently in the class betweenscheduled unit exams utilizing references. audios isualmaterials, laboratory and field glen% itics, and problemsand questions from sarious sources.

Data from tests were obtained through the use of atest-analyzing comput r program. Results consideredwere quantity and specificity of material learned.Comtxtrisons were made to relate students' generalsuccess and academic ability, achievement and prey iousmathematics and science background. and generalstudent appeal.

CC-2. UTILIZING SCIENCE VIA SPECIAL EX-HIBITS IN MUSEUMS

Phil Gephardt. Education Officer. Ontario ScienceCentre. Don Mills. Ontario. Canada

The program offering the greatest reward andsatisfaction in our exhibit. Ham Radio station. is theinvolvement of school groups. Students, generallybetween ages 9 and 13. are invited to the Science Centreto become involved in an actual transmission to otherlocations. Armed with a list of questions and a taperecorder. approximately half a dozen studentsrepresent their class in a quest for first-hand up-to-dateinformation from station operators from Newfoundlandin the east to British Columbia in the west and up toAlert in the North. Some groups are involved for se\ eralsisits in doing a study of Canada. whereas others comefor a single session when they are interested.particularly. in a region such as di,. Canadian North.

The variations are almost limitless on this theme.so that we can sometimes have one ,cLool group contacta similar group elsewhere, either as a ogle-time effort oras a penpal relationship. Occasionally stations inAustralia or Tanzania call in and offer to speak withthe pupils. But these contacts are by no means limited

to general background information about the area- we'hoe helped one high school group who wanted tocalculate the circumference of the earth. Contacts w ere

made with so eral stations to determine the angle of thesun's rass, and therebs pros ide the information needed.Eratosthenes did it in the 3rd centurs B C. in Egypt.We did it using science in the 20th eenturs A.D. at theOntario Science Centre.

At the other end of the educational level. we wereable to link a group of miner-say level sociology

students with emote Northern communities to gaininformation unasailable elsewhere.

To all of these people science has become a tool,something they can use to further other aims

CC-3. FROM PAPER AIRPLANE TO SST

George Vanderkuur, Education Officer, OntarioScience Centre. Don Mills, Ontario, Canada

The teaching of simple aerodynamics is a longneglected topic in elementary and secondary. schoolprograms. The Ontario Science Centre uses slides,films, and nutted birds to first msestigate how naturedesigned het airplanes:. From the simple flight of adandelion seed to the spectacular soaring of analbatross, the ious fundamentals of aerodynamicsare illustrated.

The class then builds a series of paper airplaneswhich illustrate these fundamentals. The flying of thepaper planes is the climax of the course and even themost reluctant students are eager to participate.Adapting this program for the needs of the classroomteacher is discussed.

CC-4. PORTA-PAKS AN EFFECTIVE TEACHINGAID

William Sorenson, Education Officer, OntarioScience Centre. Don Mills, Ontario, Canada

The use of I, 2- videotape norta-pales can occupy asaint place in the modern curriculum. They areespecially useful for pupils that have difficultyexpressing themselves in the more traditional terms ofnote keening or direct individual-to-group verbalreporting.

Pupils as young as nine years of age can effectivelyuse a 1, 2'' system, Given a TV camera that O. portableand that has a built-in microphone system a studentrejects our idea of TV and its ultimate use and theporta-pak becomes an extension of his eyes. mouth,and thoughts.

After one session of picture-taking most peoplecan quickly point out their mistakes and approach tL,use of the camera more effectively on the second try,The limits of a TV camera and portable system are heldonly to the confines of the students' imagination oncethe basic techniques have been mastered,

GROUP DDDD-1. THE ELSA CLUBS OF AMERICAHELP-

ING TO SAVE ENDANGERED SPECIES OFANIMALS

Elaine A, Alexander. Teacher, Life Science, Han -Icy Junior High School, University City, Missouri

No abstract submitted.

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DD-2. AN ANAL1SIS OF THE LITERATURE OFSCIENCE EDUCATION

Jerry B. Ayers. Assocwe Professor of Fdtiyanoti.ennessee I cchnolowcal t iii\ersit \. Cookess the

I he gitm th of the literature of science educationhas been rapid in the last decade I his giow th has ledto mans changes in the ore "out n .1 IS and theaddition of new tournals. 1 he purl ose of this inesentstuds was to analy nine tournals. that arc high'srelated to science education, with iegard to such tactols

as s% ho are the authors. the type of articles beinLpublished, and the scope of aitieles

All issues of the nine journals published in thecalendar years of 19-0 and 19-1 were included in thestudy. Frequency counts were made of such factors asthe number of articles in each iournal speedicallsrelated to preschool and elementary science educationand research and history of science education. Analyseswere made of the employers of the authors of the

articles and the geographic area in which the authorwas miployed.

Acsults of the study ,howed that the nine iournalscontained a total of 2,092 articles during tiro and19-1, that were an average of 3.0(X) words in lengthAbout twenty-foe percent of the articles were relateddirectly to preschool, clemcntan, or tunior high scienceeducation. .1 he remaining articles were di tiled aboutequally between secondary and college science teaching

and a category of miscellaneous articles. Aboutthins-foe percent of the articles were related (breeds tothe application of methods of teaching science anddims percent to either research in teaching or put cresearch. 'I he remaining thirty -five percent of the

articles were di% idtd between such categories as

philosophy and history of science education Osersesenty-rise percent of the articles were prepared b'authors associated with more than four-hundreddifferent colleges and unis er,ities. Based on thegeographic disisions of NS1 A, the largest percentage(17 percent)of the authors were employed in Region II.'I he smallest production of articles was from Region

This studs of the literature of science educationhas implications for future publication of articles in the

area of science education. It appeared that sonic areasof concern have been neglected and that other areashave been overworked.

00-3. COMMUNICATION DYNAMICS

Laurie Fountain, Education Officer, OntarioScience Centre, Don Mills, Ontario, Canada

This program deals with the problems involved incommunicating simple concepts from one intelligenceto another. Based on concepts developed by Piaget,Cherrs, and MeLuhan, it allows analysis of

communication processes and communication break-down, The program consists of an introdue' try lectureand a practical communications laboratory situation.

In the lecture session. children are introduced tothe problems of communication and arc gisen theopportunity to participate in experiments demon-strating the principles and inherent problems ofcommunicating, Sonic concepts used are the one-waycommunications technique employed by NASA indeveloping the Pioneer 10 spacecraft message to

hypothetical aliens, as v.ell as the earthboundproblems that hate produced communication gaps.Selected topics in linguistics. logic, mathematics, andprinciples of information rioss are discussed prior to thelaboratory activities.

'I :le laboratory program is designed as aprob1,-m-solving situation sshere the children arechallenged to apply their net knowledge incommunicating information, they consider relevant, toa second party located in a duplicate lab. Variousmodes of communication are available, excluding voicetransmission. Thus, the development of informationcoding and decoding principles in the child's mindoccurs as a natural part of the laboratory situation. Thepotential for diseotery is limited only bx the ability ofthe children int olved.

Demonstrations as to how this program is beingpresented at the Ontario Science Centre and acomprehensite outline shoring how a similar programcould be used in the classroom situation are part of theprogram.

DD-4. WHAT'S MISSING? IMPLEMENTATION

William Phillips, Director, Habitat. Inc.. Belmont,Massachusetts

Modern higher education does a reasonable job inhelping students Kientitv problems and a credible job inhelping them generate solutions. It has failedmiserably, hto ever. in teaching anyone hors toimplement solutions.

The re,tilt drop outs, demonstrations ordisillusionment. The classroom is a center for ideas, butlacks the practical knowledge of the market placetthich i. necessart to implement ideas.

Scientists have been particularly troubled by theso-called misuse of their discoveries. This arises froman appalling lack of implementation-training.

The author presents sonic techniques forestablishing implementation training.

DD-5. A COOPERATIVE COLLEGE-HIGHSCHOOL PROGRAM FOR ADVANCED HIGHSCHOOL CHEMISTRY STUDENTS

Gary A. Greening. Chairman. Science Depart-ment, Jetterson Senior High School, Division ofTechnology. Bloomington. Minnesota

The adsaneed chemistry progr,.m at JeffersonSenior High School in Bloomington. Minnesota, is acooperative program in chemistry between the highschool and tl.e Augsburg College Chemistry Depart-ment in Minneapolis. Minnesota. The main objective ofthe program is to enhance the advanced chemistryprogram in the high school by introducing newexperiments and concepts that are not now a pert of thecourse during visits to the college by the high schoolstudents and their teacher.

The sessions at the college include lectures,problem discussion and experiments on topics such asgas chromatography. visible and infrared spectrophoto-metrv, and electrical-analytical methods. Afterintroduction and some basic experiments students areencouraged to bring samples of their own choosing tbr

nalvsis.

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GROUP EE

EE-I. CUYAHOGA RIVER WATERSHED PRO.I-"'TA NATIONAL DEMONSTRATIONPh:.7ECT FOR ENVIRCNMENTAL EDUCA-TION AND SERVICE

Joseph H. Chadbourne, President, and DeborahLloyd, Adjunct Instructor, Institute for Entiron-mental Education. (let eland, Ohio

The Cuyahoga Riser Watershed Project, begun inJuly 19'2, is the largest single Project funded by theOffice of Ent ironmental Education. and it isdesignated a National Demonstration Project. one ofonus ttt 0 in the countn.

I his Project is a regional ern ironmental cancanonand serene program ssith nine member school systems.including Akron and Cleteland Public Schools plusseseral SCI1 ice agencies. including the State of OhioThree Risers Watershed District and the VS ArmyCorps of Enginecis.

It is co-sponsored bs the Oct eland HealthMuseum and Education Center. Oct eland StateUnitersitt and the Institute for Ens ironmentalEducationthe successor to the former FordFoundation and Department of Interior fund TiltonWater Pollution Project. IFE conducts an !list:niceMaster's of Environmental Science course series %Nulla mobile tacultt of professionals, college graduates.undergraduates, high school students. and ACI IONpersonnel rho cork ssiah teacher trainees in their (milrespectite schools.

As a rest. of the first fens months of the three-yearProject. teachers and students are studying andseeking to supply information to main, regionalagencies. expanding the career skills of ,tudents andbecoming trainers of other teachers and students intheir (mil and neighboring schools. libraries. andcommunity associations. This regional (lineation andsemee model is being examined by other regions. Thefirst oto volumes of their tt, ritten activities are beingpublished by GPO later this sear.

EE-2. AN APPRAISAL TECHNIQUE FOR ESTAB-LISHING AN ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAM

Patricia M. Sparks, Instructor, Temple University,Philadelphia. Pennsylvania; and John T. Hershey.Environmental Specialist, Project KARL BlueBell, Pennsylvania

The necessity for concern about the rapidity ofenvironmental deterioration has been voiced by severalwriters in the past few years. As education is seen as amajor key to solving our environmental problems, manypeople have attempted to establish working environ-mental programs.

In planning an environmental program threedimensions must be considered, assuming that theprogram can be tailored for any site group: that is, asmall group of students, a class, an entire school,commiiraty or region :ould he involved in yourenvironmental program. The three dimensions can hephrased as:I. Where are yourural, suburban. urban?2. With whom and shat are you workingstudents,

te-ohers. administrators. community. resources(human and material)?

3. How do you proceedoperational (problemstudies), transition, awareness?

EE-3. ECOLOGY FIELD WORK DURING WINTER

James E. Murphy, Research Assistant, The Uni-versity of Iowa, Iowa City

This lecture-slide presentation will be designed toexpose teachers to some basic techniques for collectingecology data with their students during the wintermonths. Consideration will also be given to theinterpretation of field information collected. All activityis designed for use in parks and vacant land that existsaround most schools. Specific areas to be covered are:

1. Methods to record the temperature above, at, andunder ground level. This information will be re-lated to the winter survival of plants and animals.

2. Readings for wind speed, the wind chid factor, andits effect on living things.

3. The intensity, distribution, and role of sunlight inthe winter environment.

4. How to study and observe hibernating animals inthe laboratory and field.

5. Field techniques for investigating animal life thatis active during the winter months. Emphasis willbe placed on the organism's food sources and theselection of living areas.

6. How to survey active and passive plant life. Specialconsideration will be given to seeds, plant rem-nants and plants 1 'rat are green during winter.

7. The nature of snow and ice. The emphasis will be

on snow and ice measurement as well as the en-vironmental conditions that produce them andhow they in turn have an impact on other livingthings.

8. A look at how pollution affects a frozen environ-ment.

9. How to put the winter ecosystem together.

EE-4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MINICOURSES INECOLOGY

John 0. Towler, Associate Professor, Departmentof Education, Purdue University, Lafayette, In-diana

Class work on the environment and man's effects

upon it is becoming more popular as our awareness andconcern grows. However, since few, if any, schoolsystems have courses specifically devoted to environ-mental education, there is a great deal of confusion asto where and how to introduce units on the topic intoexisting curricula. In the absence of a specific "slot,"teaching about the environment tends to be rather "hitand miss" depending upon the teacher's knowledge,interests, and energy.

A better and more practical method for dealingwith this subject is the creation of minicourses whichcan be used by individuals, or small groups of students.Each course is audiotutorial in nature and gives thestudent accurate background infor.lation about aspecific area, poses a problem for investigation, andthen outlines and demonstrates the investigativeprocedure to be followed. The courses consist of audiotapes, filmstrips, and worksheets and cover topicsrelevant to teachers in chemistry, biology, physics, andgeneral science classes. Each course takes from one toten 'days to complete and has the advantages of:

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supplying background information not readilyattainable to the teacher, helping students set upexperiments and reports without demands upon theteacher, and enabling the teacher to be extremelyflexible in his choice of how the course shit,. fit into theregular course of studs.

EE-5 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION ACTIVI-TIES FOR SCIENCE CLASSES

Dasid L. Branchley. Professor of EnvironmentalEngineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette,Indiana

Environmental education activities which are to beused in science classes were developed dur.ng the pastthree years. These include units on air, w ater, noise andland pollution. During spring of 1972, 18 units werefield-tested by about one thousand children in theChicago and northwest Indiana areas. Results of thisfield study and remarks from teachers and childrenregarding the effectiveness and acceptability of themethod and materials will be presented.

GROUP FF

INQUIRY TEACHING (SECONDARY-COLLEGE)

FF-1. PATTERNS OF ENQUIRY: MODULARUNITS IN HOMINID EVOLUTION

Geraldine A. M. Connelly, Biology Head, St.

Joseph's High School, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

We believe that a curriculum is effective if' itfosters in people the outlook and habits of thought thatencourage independent learning This is the central aimof the Patterns of Enci.:ii) Project at the OntarioInstitute for Studies in Education, which seeks tohumanize instruction in science through classroomdiscussion that centers on the more enduring aspects ofscience-i.e., on the nature of scientific enquiry, and onhow enquiry functions in establishing scientific

knowledge.The Project had its origins in workshops for

science teachers that have been held at OISE since thesummer of 1968. In these workshops, the teachers areprovided with the conceptual framework and the skillsuseful in developing enquiry curriculum materials.They examine and discuss "Enquiry into Enquiry" (ateacher education film on the enquiry met :od oflearning), study original research papers in science.writings on the history and philosophy of science,textbooks, case histories, biographies, enquiry-orientedfilms and film-loops, and selected science fictionstories, They also construct short units of discussion-based curriculum materials, which they are expected to

use in their classes during the following school year.Most of the materials that have been developed in thePatterns of Er quiry Project originated as projects inthese workshops. To date. the Project team hasproduced a film and user's manual, four majordiscussion units (each divided into modules), onepuzzle, and one game. In addition, preliminary workhas begun on the use of science fiction literature. Theseexperimental materials are currently being used in avariety of schools and are undergoing evaluation.

This paper gives a description of the theoreticalstructure of a series of instructional units (The Role of

Paleontology in the Formulation of Theories ofHominid Evolution). Special attention is given tocompeting theories and their corresponding sources ofes idence using casts of fossils finds, especially skulk ofteeth.

Aspects of classroom teaching, student responsesand the place of these units in a half-year course inEs °Mum are discussed.

FF-2. PATTERNS OF ENQUIRY: TEXTUAL AN-ALYSIS OF A UNIT IN ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

Richard W. Ruins, Research Assistant, OntarioInstitute flir Studies in Education, Toronto,Ontario, Canada

This paper deals with another unit of the Patternsof Enquiry Project at the Ontario Institute for Studiesin Education. Various sections of a classroomdiscussion unit (Honey Bee Communication: AnEnquiry into two Conceptions of Animal Behavior)with particular reference to the goals and orientation ofthe unit, the structure and format of the textualmaterials, and suggested ways of using the unit areanalyzed. The textual analysis is directed toward thepractical aspects of implementing an enquiry unit.How ever, brief considerations concerning the philoso-phical basis of this approach are made.

FF-3. PATTERNS OF ENQUIRY: A PRACTICALTECHNIQUE FOR SMALL GROUP DISCUS-SIONS IN LARGE CLASSES

Stewart A. Robinson, Research Assistant, OntarioInstitute for Studies in Education, Toronto, On-tario. Canada

This paper describes experiences in the use of adiscussion technique for large classes detailed in a unitof t Patterns of Enquiry Project at the OntarioInstitute for Studies in Education. The textual materialused was the unit, The Role of Paleontology in theFormulation of Theories of Hominid Evolution.onsideration is given to the place of the discussion

unit in the context of a high school science curriculum.

GROUP GGSCIENCE FOR THE MENTALLY HANDICAPPED

GG-1. THE USE OF MOTOR ACTIVE'Y IN THEDEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE CONCEPTSWITH MENTALLY HANDICAPPEDCHILDREN

James H. Humphrey, Professor of Physical Educa-tion, University of Maryland, College Park

The idea of motor activity learning is not new. Intact, its origin can be traced to the Froeheliankindergarten around 1830. In the present contextmotor act is ity learning refers to things that children doartisely in a pleasurable situation in order to learn. Thissuggests that motor-learning activities can be derivedfrom basic physical education curriculum content.Thus, motor-actnity learning might also be referred to

as the phssical education learning medium.The opportunities for science experiences through

phssical education are so numerous that it would be

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difficult to s isualize an activity which is not related toscience in sonic way. This is particularly true of physicalscience principles, since practically all \ oluntar bodynio ements are based in some way upon one or moreprinciples of physical science.

The was in which motor activity learning is used toteach science insolses the selection of a physicaleducation activity in which a science concept isinherent The actisity is taught to the children and usedas a learning actk its for the deselopment of the scienceconcept An attempt is made to arrange an activelearning situation so that a concept is being acted out,practiced, or rehearsed in the course of participating inthe physical education actkity.

The underlying theory of this approach to learningis that children. by their very nature, aremovement- oriented and Ilse in a "movement world" soto speak Thus, w hen engaging in such a learningexperience the des elopment of the concept be,:omes apart of the child's physical reality. He is imohed in anenjoyable concrete experience rather than an abstractone, which is an important consideration when dealingwith the mentally handicapped child.

Our research over the years has built an obteetisebase under this hypothetical postulation, and ourexperiments with mentally handicapped children has ebeen most gratifying when this approach to learning isused.

GG-2. A PILOT SCIENCE CURRICULA FOR EMR(EDUCABLE MENTALLY RETARDED) CHIL-DREN EMPHASIZING CHILD-CENTEREDACTIVITIES

Das e Brotski, Curriculum Coordinator, Rivet-slewSchool, Manitowoc County, Manitowoc, Wis-consin

Risers iew School is a central facility providingeducational services for approximately three-hundredand fifty mentally handicapped children. The school,with its open concept design and multi-unit approach,provides services to a population of 20,000 students ingrades K-I 2 from Live participating school districts inManitowoc County, Wisconsin.

In April 1972, a proposal was granted under TitleVI-11 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Actto develop a science curriculum for EMH (educablementally handicapped) children attending RiverviewSchool. During the following summer a four-weekworkshop was held to begin work on the curriculum.The five participants in the workshop were the unitleaders from Riverview School representing all agelevels of students at the school.

The workshop participants developed a philosophyof science that reflected our concern with helping theindividual child become interested in and aware of theimmediate world in which he lives, and to relate himselfto it and become better atjusted in it. To accomplishthis. it was felt that the mentally handicapped childmust be prepared and taught with the awareness of hisparticular need to develop independent thinking skills.In turn, this could be best accomplished in anactivity-centered approach, emphasizing direct ex-periences, giving the child the opportunity forsocialization, discussion, and the trying out of his ideason his peers. Such experiences will broaden andimprove the child's self-concept.

The orkshop also provided an opportunity tolook at many of the new science materials available andto look more closely at the science materials already inthe school, Many of the Elementary Science Study Kitshave been purchased and are being used in ourprogram. These ESS kits have helped to implement oilscience philosophy of aetiv e student involvement withan emphasis on the processes of science.

GG-3. SOME SCIENCE IDEAS FOR THE MEN-TALLY RETARDED

Lloyd M. Bennett. Professor of Science Education.Texas Woman's University. Denton

There is a definite need to include adequatescience training in the academic teacher-in-trainingprograms for the various types of special educationstudents learning to be teachers of mentally retarded.physically handicapped. etc ; if these students are tohave a well-balanced et4 icational background whenthey enter the public school classroom. It is even moreimportant for the special education student to learnsomething about science in a balanced. integratedbehavioral program of education if he or she is to be acontributor in society as well as a user.

A limited number of science programs developedat Texas Woman's University have been tried in varioustypes of special education classes around theDallas Fort Worth Denton area. The curricularprograms discussed have been developed mostly byundergraduate students. with a few being developed bygraduate students who are teachers in one of the areapublic school systems. There is some concrete evidence(data) to support the contention that science is

applicable as an academic area for the various specialeducation classes and that special education studentscan and do learn science.

Each curricular program that has been developedand implemented in the classroom followed this format.generally: (a) rationale/overview. (b) behavioralobjectives (cognitive. psychomotor. and affectivedomains), (c) concepts in science. (d) activities/experi-ences/experiments. (e) pre-assessments in many cases,(I) initiating and QuIminating acti.ities in most cases. (g)audiovisua' materials, (h) references, and (i) often apost-assessment.

Some of the science topics that have beendeveloped into curricular materials for specialeducation as well as a few of the "more or less"standardized new science curricula that have beenpurchased and adapted to special education groupsinclude: soil. weather, your bodyit grows andchanges. seeds and plants in the Sprang, magnets,animal behavior, ocean, light and color, soind, the fly(WIMSA). AAAS-K package, SCIS. The teacher neednot have a background of depth or sophistication inscience to teach science to special education youngsters;just a real desire to learn with them and to try new ideasand innovations.

GG-4. BSCS LIFE SCIENCES FOR THE EDUCABLE, MENTALLY HANDICAPPED

Manert Kennedy. Associate Director, BiologicalSciences Curriculum Study, Boulder, Colorado

The Biological Sciences Curriculum Study hasdeveloped Me Now, a life sciences program for

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educable mentally handicapped youngsters in theintermediate group (11-13 sears of age). and is

developing Me and My Environment for the junior highEMH youngster (13-15 years old). To help compensatefor the various learning disabilities characteristic of thispopulation. the materials use a multi-media approachthat permits the students to participate in all sensoryareas and provides tier redundancy andoverlearning in a manner that greatly lessens thedisinterest inherent in unimaginative drill.

One of the objectives in the "Digestion andCirculation" unit of Me Now states. "Students willassociate the circulation of blood with heart action andpulse." To accomplish this objective, the students listento their ow n heart beats, and locate and feel their onpulsebeats. They watch a filmed sequence of a humanheart beating during open chest surgery, locate thepulse and surging of blood through an arteriole in amotion mica )photograph and observe and feel the flowof "blood" hi a functioning torso model as they squeezethe model's heart. They describe their understanding ofthe relationship as they look at a daylight projectionslide of any of a number of pulse locations and assesstheir understanding through questions that are visuallyand verbally presented in a multiple four-choiceformat.

The "hands-on" varied-approach philosophy ofthe program has been highly successful. Teacherfeedback on this particular objective is typical of thosein which the multi-media approach was used; forexample. "These devices aided even my slowest(students) in discussing the questions freely and in aknowledgeable manner." Success is indicated furtherby the fact that most teachers felt that 75 percent oftheir students were able to perform all of the behaviorsasked for in reaching the objective. In addition to thesubjective indications of success, all objective measuresof the various pretest/posttest assessments. includingmultiple stepwise regression analysis. item analysis.biserial correlations, and residual gain scores, indicatedsignificant learning.

GROUP HHUNIFIED SCIENCE (ELEMENTARY)

HH -I. HOW SCIENCE AND MATH COOPERATE

Alan J. Holden, Consultant. Educational Develop-ment Center, Newton, Massachusetts

Mathematics is about what goes on in the head.and science is about what goes on in the external world.But their methods are both invoked in the solution ofmany problems, and hence there is much reason to mixthem in elementary instruction. The reason isexemplified in the problems of counting corners onpolyhedra. making five-sided dice. and making solidsfaced by triangles.

HH-2. USMES: PROBLEM SOLVING IN THE ELE-MENTARY SCHOOLS

Robert M. Farias, Teacher, Adams School, Lex-ington. Massachusetts

My paper deals with actual experiences ofelementary school children with USMES materials.These experiences revolve around specific problems

1children were confronted with and how they went aboutfinding solutions to these problems. Major emphasis isplaced on problems related to the following twoUSMES units: Pedestrian Crossing and Soft DrinkDesign.

In addition the paper evaluates the criteria used inselecting USMES units as to their relevancy andworkability in the elementary schools. These criteliaare:1. Attainable resultseach challenge is practicable

in that it allows students to reach some resultswithin the time and resources available to them.

2. Academic Achievementeach problem has thepotential for a substantial amount of the acquisi-tion of facts and scientific concepts. and also formathematical structuring appropriate to theability level.

3. Interdisciplinary Natureproblems selected havea large amount of overlap between the natural andthe social sciences, and different aspects of math.

4. Long-Range Naturelong hours are available topermit the important process of investigation totake place. and the student is able to exercise op-tions or build on a series of models.

HH-3. USMES AND THE PRESERVICE TEACHEREDUCATION PROGRAM: A MODEL FORCHANGE

David H. Ost, Associate Professor of Science Edu-cation. California State College. Bakersfield

California State College. Bakersfield. becameassociated with the Unified Science and Mathematicsfor Elementary Schools project in fall 1971. At the'time it was the first school in a pilot program to educatepreservice teachers of elementary schools in therationale and approach of USMES. The preserviceteachers were schooled sufficiently in the materials touse them during their student teaching experience.

A common problem facing any new approach toteaching is one of acceptance by the inservice teacher.This was of particular importance in our case sincestudent teachers were being trained in an open,hands-on approach to science and mathematicsteaching in the elementary schools which was not in fullagreement with the conservative philosophy of manyteachers w ho serve in the master teacher role. It wasdecided to face this problem with the development of amodel which included all aspects of our teachereducation program. The focus being upon implemen-tation of innovative teaching strategies and materials.Essentially the model has four components:I. We endeavor to provide the prospective elementary

school teacher with experiences in learningscience. mathematics. and social science in anopen environment. In addition. we attempt to pro-vide prospective teachers with skills related to theteaching of these disciplines in a unified mannerstressing student-centered activities.Efforts are made to identify and prepare masterteachers for supervisory roles. It is particularly im-portant that the master teacher understand andappreciate the program which the preserviceteacher completed and understand USMES activi-ties, in general. This necessitates providing themaster teacher with experiences in unified science.mathematics. and open learning environments.Emphasis is not only on developing teaching

2.

strategies but fostering a tolerance to allow thepreservice teacher to try these various approaches.

3. One ot the main problems encountered was thatthe master teacher did not have sufficient guidancein developing an open learning environment forscience. mathematics, and social science. Assist-ance was provided to the master teacher so that ifhe or she was so inclined USMES units could hetried in his or her classroom. The prime ingredientappears to he one of support. both emotionally andphysically. with the provision of science. socialscience, and mathematics manipulatives.

4. An effort is made to match student teachers withmaster teachers based on factors suspected to berelated to success in a student teaching experience.Three such factors are rigidity. dogmatism, andself-ictualirng abilities.la all phases of the program. emphasis is on the

rationale ot the USMES program. Preservice andinservic,: teachers go through at least two of the units tosee for themselves the requirements for independentthinking and problem solving placed upon the student.

GROUP IITOTAL EDUCATION IN THE

TOTAL ENVIRONMENT

11-1. TOTAL ENVIRONMENT-SCHOOL-COM-MUNITY WORKSHOPS

William R. Eblen, Executive Director, Total Edu-cation in the Total Environment. Wilton. Con-necticut

Total Education in the Total EnvironmentBETE), Wilton. Connecticut. and The Center forCurriculum Design. Evanston. Illinois, are conductingnine regional EE workshops involving an average of 24key EE and community resource leaders from each ofthe 50 states.

The Total Environment School-Community(TES-C) Workshops are designed to be useful for thefollowing individuals/organizations who are directlyconcerned with environmental education. or who have asignificant environmental responsibility or impact:1. State Department of Education2. Local/state/federal agencies3. Business/industries/professions4: Teacher-educators5. Teachers/professors of environmental subjects.

K-adult6. Students (high school, college. graduate. at large)7. Directors of local/state/federal funded EE projects

and programs8. Community resource leaders (youth. civic, and en-

vironmental organizations)9. School officials and administrators10. Environmental designers11. Environmental activists

Systematic attempts are made to invite individualsfrom each of these constituencies to each of theworkshops.

The objectives of the workshop are:I. to expose participants to EE approaches which

tiicus on School-Community interaction within aTotal Environment perspective, engaging students(K-adult) in direct research. study, and problem-solving in the social and natural environments of

their immediate community;2. to motivate participants toward local as well as

stateg ide ap.lications of Total Environment-School-Corn munity approaches to EE.The TESC Workshops are not on end in

themselves. Participants in each of the Workshopsreceive significant feedback from other Workshops asgen, and will have the opportunity to participate in a

continuing Environmental/ Education network of.eventually, international scope. The ultimate goal ofthis networking project is the development of acomputer-facilitated system of Information exchange

among all network participants.

11-3. A TOTAL COMMUNITY PROGRAM

David Archbald. Environmental Education Con-sultant, Madison Public Schools, Madison, Wis-consin

We believe that mounting socio-economic-environ-mental problems and issues have reached such

proportions that we are in critical need of effectivesystems-approaches of similar magnitude to achieveacceptable solutions.

The major objectives of the Total Community Pro-

gram are:1. To improve the structure for information storage

and processing (projects 1 -5, and 8):

2. To marshal! facts and generate new information(projects 6-8);

3. To communicate the above, initially at the com-munity level and later among communities(projects 9 and 10);

4. To encourage student learning through participa-tion (projects 1-10);

5. To accomplish the above inexpensively.The projects in the Program are:

1. Community resource personnel. community re-source groups and agencies, and community prob-lems and issues which all handle inventory forstorage, retrieval, and school-community use.

2. Learning experiences, and instructional materialswhich both deal with inventory, evaluation, andstorage for retrieval and educational use.

3. Development of new learning experiences and in-structional material based on identified need.

4. Goals for Madison.5. The SEESM. a computer-based total community

Socio-Economic Environmental Systems Model.

6. The SEESM Game, a total community Socio-Eco-

nomic Environmental Systems Model game sim-ulation.

10. Implementing the school-community communica-tions network.

11-2. INTERNATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OFTOTAL EDUCATION IN THE TOTAL EN-VIRONMENT

Ruth A. Casey, Executive Secretary, Total Educa-tion in the Total Environment, Wilton, Connec-ticut

Total Education in the Total Environment wasestablished in Wilton, Connecticut. in 1964, to provide

a blueprint for the redirection of any curricula througha "Total Environment Approach to Learning."

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In 1970, TETE gas awarded a grant by the NewYork State Council on the ASIT) direct a pilot projectin New York. illustrating the Total EnvironmentApproach. The Hudson River was selected as a"microcosm, of the world'. and the Env ironmental Artsand Science Division was established at the HudsonRiver Museum. The program was initiated in tourschools in four cities along the Hudson River from NewYork City to Albany.

In 1971, TETE g as requested to submit a ca,estudy as an action model for the United NationsConference on the Human Environment in Stockholmin June 1972. The case study, one of two Americanprograms included in the official library of theConference. was cited as or, excellent contribution. TheUNA-USA and TETE co-sponsored an exhibit. "TheABC's of Ecology" at the UNA Center on the UnitedNations Plaza from September 1971-June 1972, and

held two receptions tbr the Stockholm Conference

Preparatory Committee and International Youth

Conference.In January 1973. TETE was funded to conduct

international workshops for teacher training expertsand curriculum specialists. The primary objectives are

to share our Total Environment Approach to educationwith educators from varied geographic and culturalareas; to stimulate other countries to organize similarenvironmental education exchanges, fellowships, andworkshops. The long-term objectives are to motivateand develop more comprehensive, integratedapproaches to teaching, incorporating all relevant

aspects of the learner's environments.At this point in history, the only relevant scale

upon which to work is a global one. To the degree thatpeople believe their solutions are the only ones, theybegin to limit themselves and their futures. We mustshare and compare.

LATE PAPERS AND REPORTS OF SESSIONS

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF GEOLOGYTEACHERS MEETING

POLLUTION AND WEATHER

Janet Woerner, Earth Science Teacher, FreelandSenior High School, Freeland, Michigan

Many earth science students spend weeks in theircourses studying the atmosphere, meteorology, andweather. Although local conditions are often observed,little time is spent in Lorrelating these observations withother local phenomena. For the student with even atwinge of curiosity, the range of air-pollution activitiesis almost limitless. Correlation between the localweather patterns, the quality of the air, and the abilityof the air to disperse pollutants can be dealt with by allstudents, and offers enough variety to interest nearlyeveryone. Some students can be involved in libraryresearch to discover how the air quality affects thehealth of the population. while other students areoutside gathering information about relationships intheir own environment.

The particular activity in which we will h. involvedrequires correlating several different sets ,f observa-tions. which were gathered by my students, in order todetermine whether there are any relationships betweenconcentration of pollutants and weather conditions.

NSSA CURBSTONE CLINICS

CLINIC N-3

ATTITUDES OF SCIENCE STUDENTS ANDTEACHERS: IMPORTANT? MEASURABLE?CHANGEABLE?

Michael Gonzales. Science Learning Specialist,Adult Education, Hillsborough County PublicSchools, Tampa, Florida

The human mind can endure many taxing stimuliin a hostile and toxic environment. but only throughsome meaningful and reinforcing experiences will it beable to combat this milieu. Whether this situationbecomes* a tragedy depends on the empatheticresponses that other minds have for this one strugglingprimate. The educational environment is for manystudents such a hostile and toxic environment, butleachers have the opportunity to alleviate the negativeaspects of that environment.

It would be absurd to think that the attitude of astudent toward science has no effect on hisaccomplishments. Can we really communicate totallywith an individual if his knowledge within the sciencespectrum is the only thing that interests us? Should wenot be concerned about his attitude toward the subjectmatter? I distinctly remember my strong dislike ofscience throughout my junior and senior high schoolyears. The reason? No one really cared whether I likedscience or not until I began attending the university.Interestingly enough, my hospital job. not my academicexperience at the university, really turned me on toscience.

It has been my experience that human beings areextremely alienated from each other. It seems to methat many teachers can be held accountable fordepriving human beings of happiness by their fostering

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of alienation. One prime example of this alienation isthe apparent separation between the young and the old.The young are regarded as lost hippies: the old ashopeless. unhappy, depressing. forgetful people.

. The teacher faces in the classroom the same type ofpotentially tragic experience that he faces in the"outside" world. A good analogy springs fromencounters with co-travelers on a recent trip to Spain.Most of the people on the trip were traveling to adifferent locatiop without getting involved w ith itsunique features. They were concerned only with thephysical aspects of their glorious visits; only thehighlights were important.

The tendency to avoid involvement with uniquefeatures and to concentrate on highlights characterizesmany teachers in the classroom environment as well asthese American tourists abroad. Michael is viewed bythe teacher in terms of his credentials as a student who:1. Does his laboratory work2. Never answers back3. Always does his homework4. Gets "A's" on his tests5. Dresses nicely.

It doesn't concern us that he may have some innerfeelings which desperately need expression. That isn'tpart of our role. Our role is to objectively report thedegree of success at which he functions in theclassroom.

I submit that it is part of our role to get involved. Itwasn't enough for me to report the physical beauty ofSpain. because that wasn't all that interested me. I wasinterested in the human beings that made Spain what itis. What they laugh at, what they do throukltout theday. what they think, and everything that ischaracteristic of them as human beings is important tome.

Michael isn't just someone who received an "A" ona test. He is someone w ho cries, laughs, thinks. Shouldwe be concerned about his thoughts? Would it befeasible to become more empathetic ith Michael? Itmay mean that we would have to spend, more timerelating to him. Could it be possible that Michael madean "A" on his test and really dislikes science? How cana human being do well in something he dislikes?Measuring Michael's success in terms of how well hememorized the specific subject matter is no index to hislikes and dislikes.

In the past teachers have viewed students almostexclusively in terms of their performance as it related tothe classroom environment. From my own experience inscience courses my teachers and professors respondedwith excitement primarily to:

1. How well I could memorize the names of the phylaand their respective characteristics,

2. How well I could regurgitate the locations of theorigins and insertions of mammalian muscles,

3. Whether I could identify all of the given unknownsin a chemistry laboratory,

4. Whether I could solve a Mendelian genetics prob-lem,

5. Whether I could apply a mathematical formula toa physics problem.

h. Whether I could draw "pretty" pictures.I learned to do these things well and the only

reinforcement I received was a "nice" grade on a test. Inever was asked if I liked what I was doing. A recentanecdote amused me no end since it relates beautifullywhat I sincerely feel is happening in the classroom

today. On a recent visit to my optometrist he told methat a young man had posed a question to himconcerning his profession. The young man said. "Doc,do you like what you are doing?" As a matter of fact,the doctor enjoyed this question and remarked that hethought about his role for the first time in a deep sort ofw ay. Wouldn't it be great if all students were asked thatparticular question.

Suppose that a student dislikes science. Thatwould he rather shocking to a teacher if he becomesaw are of the fact at the end of a science course. I'm sureMichael didn't start disliking science at the end, butdue to phychological alienation, the teacher wasn'tconcerned enough to know this. It is important to knowhow Michael feels about science, since the climatewithin that science classroom should be a happy one,not a tortuous one. It is our job to placate Michael inevery possible way.

Maybe I'm asking that we all become Don

Quixotes in our own unique way. That includesstudents too. We each have a dream that is beautiful.No one vs ants his dream to be destroyed. Schweitzerwanted to help the young by getting them to think.Martin Luther King wanted human beings to expresstheir love for each other in every possible way.

Would it he totally illogical to think that somestudents may want their total environment to be likeCamelot add that what happens to them in thatclassroom can destroy that dream? They want to beshown that their likes and dislikes are part of themakeup of Camelot. It is important to know how thestudent feels about everything, since that is part ofbeing a human being.

There is no end to the diverse topics that can becovered with students. They are tilled with meaningfulfacts, and they can express themselves in an indefinablemanner. There is a sincere feeling behind each verbalexpression, and their faces epitomize the "realness" ofhumanity. The uniqueness of students never ceases to

amaze me. They are individuals with hang-ups, beauty.feelings. prejudices, logic, love, and all of the things weoften use to describe "other" human t:eings.

I sincerely submit that we owe it to ourselves toappreciate the "love" entwined within the students inour class and also share our "love" with them. It is ourresponsibility to establish an emp.hetic relationshipwith them, since they have added to this life of ours asmuch as every living organism.

We need them as much as they need us. Let us allmeditate on this important responsibility.

There are several factors to consider in relating toMichael as a fellow human being and some of thesearen't easily measured. The following are some of my

beliefs:1. The student has feelings, and these feelings un-

doubtedly influence his behavior in every respect2. It is our duty as educators to have respect and em-

pathy for his feelings, since he does become part ofour life, and our life should be part of his

3. To be able to listen patiently to the expression ofhis feelings isn't enough, we must also live thosefeelings

4. The classroom environment is not separate fromany other environment, because the human beingdoesn't live in isolated places. He lives the wholeday, and the whole day encompasses everythingthat is a part of him

5. It is most important that his attitude about learn-ing become part of his total life and not just a

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classroom attitude6. We should be concerned about his attitude, but we

should not force our attitudes on hintWe should all be in the business of growing. andthis art should never cease

8. Let our dreams be foret,er heard, since they arepart of us. It would he a great injustice to hu-manity to deprive human beings of the beauty ofdream ing

9. Let us be proud to otter ourselves to each other10. It isn't enough simply to care, we must also show

that we care.

LaMoinc L. Motz, Director of Science Education,Oakland Schools, Pontiac. Michigan

The development and fostering of scientificattitudes has been a much neglected area in educationand particularly in science instruction. Scientificattitudes can be identified behaviorally. Properattitudes are an imperative prerequisite to problem-soling. Attitudes are developed as a student see.s.understands and interprets reasons for experiencespresented to hint Attitudes, of course, are concernedwith motivation and discipline. Motivation must heeffective at the individual student level, hence it mustbe created by the student. Certain attitudes that can befostered and recognized through behaviors are.1. Curiosity-seeking reasons fitr phenomena,2. Evaluating the extent of reason-inquiry willingness

to participate,3. Objectivity,4 Open - mindedness,5. Persistence in solving problems,6. Continued search for reasonable causescause

and effect relationship.The key to building positive and realistic attitudes

in students lies largely in what the teacher believesabout himself and his students. These beliefs not onlydetermine the teacher's behavior, but are transmittedto the students and influence performance as well. Yetwe cannot ignore what the teacher does in theclassroom, for the behavior he displays and theexperiences he provides, as perceived by students, havea strong impact in themselves. There are two importantaspects of the teacher's role: the attitudes he conveys;and the atmosphere he creates or develops.

It is difficult to overestimate the need for theteacher to be sensitive to the attitudes he expressestoward students. Even though teachers may have thebest intentions, they sometimes project distortedimages of themselves. What a person believes can behidden by negative habits that have been developed orpicked up long ago. Teachers should ask themselves:1. Am I projecting an image that tells the student

that I am here to build rather than destroy him asa person?

2. Do I let the student know that I am aware of andinterested in him as a unique and individualperson?

3. Do I convey my expectations and confidence thatthe student can accomplish work, can learn and is

com petent?4. Do I provide well-defined standards of values,

demands for competence and guidance towardsolutions to problems?

5. When working with students and parents do I

enhance the academic expectations and evalua-tions which are held of the student's ability?

6. By my behavior do I serve as a model of authen-ticity for the student?

7. Do I take every opportunity to establish a highdegree of private or semi-private communicationwith my students?These questions attempt to indicate how the

teacher may check himself to see if he is conveying hisbeliefs in an authentic and meaningful fashion.Teachers' attitudes towards students are vitallyimportant in shaping the self concepts of their students.

What goes on in the classroom or in ourinstructional programs must reflect people valuesrather than merely factual information. These peoplevalues are the attitudes with which we face theopportunities of living and the behaviors that accruefrom them. Content must be relevant to the fostering ofdesired attitudes in students. We can no longer assumethat attitudes will develop of their own accord.Teachers must exhibit and teach so that desiredattitudes are openly cultivated. Effective evaluation(there are a few valid and reliable measures available)and practicing what you preach also exhibit and assistin developing and fostering desirable attitudes.

To effect positive attitude change a teacher mustbe enthusiastic and use more indirect, than directteaching behaviors. Teachers need to radiateenthusiasm for science and show an eagerness tointeract with, relate to. and to understand students.

Students should be granted more open-endedlearning experiences, more freedom of choice, andexperiences to help foster problem-solving anddecision- making skills.

Teachers need to recognize that all students canlearn, and help these students with experiences that willprovide them with maximum success and the rewardfor success. The experiences that a studentencounters in science should nonetheless help him to besuccessful, enable him to develop a positive self-imageand also to develop a value system and to be able tooperate on his value system in his own way.

Science should help young people:I. Make free choices whenever possible in the whole

range of living.2. Search for alternatives.3. Examine the consequences of the alternatives.4. Consider what they prize and cherish.5. Affirm those things and experiences they value.6. Do something about their choices.7. Consider and strengthen the patterns in their own

lives.The development of several attitudes enforce the

development of values. Values dictate behavior.The attitudes of teachers and students are

important for effective learning to occur in theclassroom. The attitudes of teachers and students aremeasurable, such as by a self-report inventory, and theyare changeable by the use of different instructiona!strategies and techniques by teachers. The importanceof what the teacher believes about himself and abouthis students and attitudes oward students are moreimportant then the instructional strategies andtechniques and materials utilized. The attitudesconveyed and the atmosphere created is directlyproportional to the kinds of attitudes exhibited by bothstudents and teachers.

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