5
IEEE TRANSACTIONS O N MEDICAL IMAGING, VOL. MI-5, N O . 2 , JUNE 1986 Distinguishability o f Conductivities by Electric Current Computed Tomography DAVID ISAACSON Abstract-We give criteria f o r t h e distinguishability o f t w o different conductivity distributions inside a body b y electric current computed tomography (ECCT) systems with a specified precision. It i s shown i n a special case ho w these criteria c a n b e used t o deter- mine t h e measurement precision needed t o distinguish between t w o dif- ferent conductivity distributions. It i s also shown ho w t o select th e patterns o f current to apply t o t h e body in order t o best distinguish given conductivity distributions with an ECCT system o f finite precision. I . INTRODUCTION T E problem o f reconstructing t h e conductivity inside a body from low-frequency measurements o n t h e body's surface h a s been discussed i n [1]-[10], [13]-[20]. Descriptions o f impedance cameras designed medical imaging a r e given i n [11], [16]. T h e first purpose o f this paper is t o give precise defi- nitions o f what i t means f o r t w o different conductivity dis- tributions t o b e distinguishable by finite precision mea- surements. T h e second purpose is t o give a careful dis- cussion o f ho w to select the patterns o f current to apply t o the surface o f a body to best distinguish between t w o conductivity distributions by a n ECCT system o f finite precision. W e also give simple examples that illustrate t h e definitions a n d th e discussion o f current pattern- selection. Since t h e conductivities o f blood, muscle, and lung dif- fer considerably, a n approximate reconstruction o f t h e conductivity throughout t h e thorax would contain mor- phological information a s well as electrophysiological i n - formation needed t o make more accurate solutions i n t h e forward and inverse problems o f electrocardiography [11], [21]. II. DESCRIPTION O F FORWARD A N D INVERSE PROBLEMS Throughout this paper w e l e t B denote a body a nd S i t s surface. W e assume that B i s a linear conductor with sca- l a r conductivity a = a(p) where p is  point i n t h e body. T h e voltage o r potential U = U(p) i s assumed t o sat- isfy V caVU = 0 in B. T h e current density vector i s denoted b y J = J(p) a n d i s given b y Manuscript received November 2 7 , 1985; revised January 2 7 , 1986. T h e author i s with t h e Department o f Mathematical Sciences a nd t h e Department o f Computer Science, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12181. IEEE Log Number 8607881. J _ - rVU. I n t h e forward problem w e assume that a a nd t h e nor- m al component o f the current density vector o n t h e sur- face S a re given. I n other words, on S w e a r e given a U J n = -a- = j a n where n denotes t e unit outwardnormal vector o n S. I f w e specify U a t o n e point i n B , a n d w e choose a j f o r which s j d A = 0 then there i s  unique solution U(p) t o t h e preceding equa- tions. W e denote i t s restriction to t h e boundary S by V = V(p) - U(p) f o r p o n s. Thus, t he forward problem is to find the voltage V o n t h e surface, given th e conductivity a a nd currentj. When w e want t o emphasize that t h e voltage V i s a linear func- tional o f j a n d a nonlinear functional o f a , w e write V = V(p; a , j ) . This forward problem c a n be solved numerically by f i - nite difference o r finite element methods. T h e inverse problem i s t o find t h e conductivity a i n B from a knowledge o f Vk - V(p; O r , ik ) f o r a sequence o f currentsik, k = 1 , 2 , 3 , . Descriptions o f attempts t o solve this inverse problem a re i n [1]-[10], [13]-[20]. III. DISTINGUISHABILITY We s a y that t w o conductivities a , a n d 9 2 a r e distin- guishable ( i n t h e mean square sense) b y measurements o f precision e i f f there i s a current j f o r which jil| = 1 a n d  V ( ;Ol, j )  K ; O 2 , j)11 > E Here i f f = a n d g(p) a re a n y functions o n S ( f , g _ f(p) g(p) dA s 0278-0062/86/0600-0091 01 . 0 0 © 1986 IEEE 9 1

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I E E E

T R A N S A C T I O N S

ON

MEDICAL

I M A G I N G ,

V O L .

M I - 5 ,

N O .

2 ,

J U N E

1 9 8 6

D i s t i n g u i s h a b i l i t y

of

C o n d u c t i v i t i e s by

E l e c t r i c

C u r r e n t Computed

Tomography

D AV I D

ISAACSON

A b s t r a c t - W e

g i v e c r i t e r i a f o r

t h e

d i s t i n g u i s h a b i l i t y o f t w o

d i f f e r e n t

c o n d u c t i v i t y

d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n s i d e

a

b o d y b y

e l e c t r i c

c u r r e n t

c o m p u t e d

t o m o g r a p h y

( E C C T ) s y s t e m s

w i t h

a

s p e c i f i e d

p r e c i s i o n .

I t i s

s h o w n

i n

a

s p e c i a l

c a s e how

t h e s e c r i t e r i a

c a n

b e u s e d t o d e t e r -

m i n e t h e m e a s u r e m e n t

p r e c i s i o n n e e d e d

t o d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n

t w o

d i f -

f e r e n t

c o n d u c t i v i t y

d i s t r i b u t i o n s .

I t

i s a l s o

s h o w n

ho w

t o

s e l e c t

t h e

p a t t e r n s

o f

c u r r e n t

t o

a p p l y t o

t h e

b o d y

i n o r d e r t o b e s t

d i s t i n g u i s h g i v e n c o n d u c t i v i t y

d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h

a n E C CT

s y s t e m o f

f i n i t e

p r e c i s i o n .

I . I N T R O D U C T I O N

T

E

p r o b l e m

o f

r e c o n s t r u c t i n g

t h e

c o n d u c t i v i t y

i n s i d e

a

b o d y

f r o m

l o w - f r e q u e n c y

m e a s u r e m e n t s

o n

t h e

b o d y ' s

s u r f a c e

h a s

b e e n d i s c u s s e d

i n

[ 1 ] - [ 1 0 ] , [ 1 3 ] - [ 2 0 ] .

D e s c r i p t i o n s

o f

i m p e d a n c e c a m e r a s

d e s i g n e d

f o r

m e d i c a l

i m a g i n g

a r e

g i v e n

i n

[ 1 1 ] , [ 1 6 ] .

T h e f i r s t p u r p o s e

o f

t h i s

p a p e r i s t o g i v e

p r e c i s e d e f i -

n i t i o n s

o f

w h a t

i t

m e a n s

f o r

t w o

d i f f e r e n t

c o n d u c t i v i t y

d i s -

t r i b u t i o n s t o b e

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e

b y

f i n i t e

p r e c i s i o n

m e a -

s u r e m e n t s . T h e

s e c o n d

p u r p o s e

i s

t o

g i v e

a

c a r e f u l

d i s -

c u s s i o n

o f

how

t o

s e l e c t

t h e

p a t t e r n s

o f

c u r r e n t

t o

a p p l y

t o t h e

s u r f a c e o f a

b o d y

t o

b e s t

d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n

t w o

c o n d u c t i v i t y

d i s t r i b u t i o n s

b y

a n

ECCT

s y s t e m

o f

f i n i t e

p r e c i s i o n .

We

a l s o g i v e

s i m p l e

e x a m p l e s

t h a t i l l u s t r a t e

t h e

d e f i n i t i o n s

a n d

t h e

d i s c u s s i o n

o f

c u r r e n t

p a t t e r n -

s e l e c t i o n .

S i n c e

t h e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s

o f

b l o o d , m u s c l e ,

a n d

l u n g

d i f -

f e r

c o n s i d e r a b l y ,

a n

a p p r o x i m a t e

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f t h e

c o n d u c t i v i t y

t h r o u g h o u t

t h e t h o r a x

w o u l d c o n t a i n

m o r -

p h o l o g i c a l

i n f o r m a t i o n

a s w e l l

a s e l e c t r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l

i n -

f o r m a t i o n

n e e d e d

t o

m a k e

m o r e

a c c u r a t e s o l u t i o n s

i n

t h e

f o r w a r d

a n d

i n v e r s e

p r o b l e m s

o f

e l e c t r o c a r d i o g r a p h y [ 1 1 ] ,

[ 2 1 ] .

I I .

D E S C R I P T I O N

OF FORWARD

AN D

I N V E R S E

P R O B L E M S

T h r o u g h o u t

t h i s

p a p e r

we

l e t

B

d e n o t e

a

b o d y

a n d

S

i t s

s u r f a c e .

We

a s s u m e t h a t

B

i s

a

l i n e a r

c o n d u c t o r

w i t h

s c a -

l a r

c o n d u c t i v i t y

a

=

a ( p )

w h e r e

p

i s

 

p o i n t

i n

t h e

b o d y .

T h e

v o l t a g e

o r

p o t e n t i a l

U

=

U ( p )

i s

a s s u m e d t o s a t -

i s f y

V

c a V U

=

0

i n

B .

T h e c u r r e n t

d e n s i t y

v e c t o r

i s

d e n o t e d

b y

J

=

J ( p )

a n d i s

g i v e n b y

M a n u s c r i p t

r e c e i v e d

N o v e m b e r

2 7 , 1 9 8 5 ;

r e v i s e d

J a n u a r y 2 7 ,

1 9 8 6 .

T h e a u t h o r

i s

w i t h

t h e

D e p a r t m e n t

o f

M a t h e m a t i c a l

S c i e n c e s

a n d

t h e

D e p a r t m e n t

o f

C o m p u t e r S c i e n c e ,

R e n s s e l a e r

P o l y t e c h n i c

I n s t i t u t e , T r o y ,

NY 1 2 1 8 1 .

I E E E

L o g

Number

8 6 0 7 8 8 1 .

J

_

-

r V U .

I n

t h e f o r w a r d

p r o b l e m

we

a s s u m e t h a t

a

a n d

t h e n o r -

m a l c o m p o n e n t

o f

t h e

c u r r e n t

d e n s i t y v e c t o r

o n t h e

s u r -

f a c e

S

a r e g i v e n .

I n

o t h e r w o r d s , o n S we

a r e

g i v e n

a U

J

n

=

-a-

= j

a n

w h e r e

n

d e n o t e s

t h e

u n i t

o u t w a r d n o r m a l

v e c t o r

o n

S .

I f

we s p e c i f y

U

a t

o n e

p o i n t

i n

B ,

a n d

we

c h o o s e

a

j

f o r

w h i c h

s

j d A

= 0

t h e n t h e r e

i s

 

u n i q u e

s o l u t i o n

U ( p )

t o t h e

p r e c e d i n g e q u a -

t i o n s .

We d e n o t e i t s r e s t r i c t i o n t o

t h e

b o u n d a r y

S

b y

V

=

V ( p ) - U ( p )

f o r

p

o n

s .

T h u s ,

t h e

f o r w a r d p r o b l e m i s

t o f i n d t h e

v o l t a g e

V

o n

t h e

s u r f a c e , g i v e n

t h e

c o n d u c t i v i t y

a

a n d

c u r r e n t j .

When

we

w a n t

t o

e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h e

v o l t a g e

V

i s a

l i n e a r

f u n c -

t i o n a l

o f

j

a n d

a

n o n l i n e a r f u n c t i o n a l

o f

a ,

we

w r i t e

V

=

V ( p ;

a ,

j ) .

T h i s f o r w a r d

p r o b l e m

c a n b e s o l v e d

n u m e r i c a l l y b y

f i -

n i t e d i f f e r e n c e

o r f i n i t e e l e m e n t m e t h o d s .

T h e

i n v e r s e

p r o b l e m

i s

t o f i n d

t h e

c o n d u c t i v i t y

a

i n B

f r o m

a

k n o w l e d g e

o f

V k -

V ( p ;

O r ,

i k )

f o r a

s e q u e n c e

o f

c u r r e n t s i k ,

k

=

1 ,

2 , 3 ,

.

D e s c r i p t i o n s

o f

a t t e m p t s

t o s o l v e t h i s i n v e r s e

p r o b l e m

a r e

i n

[ 1 ] - [ 1 0 ] ,

[ 1 3 ] - [ 2 0 ] .

I I I .

D I S T I N G U I S H A B I L I T Y

We

s a y

t h a t t w o

c o n d u c t i v i t i e s

a ,

a n d

9 2

a r e

d i s t i n -

g u i s h a b l e ( i n

t h e mean

s q u a r e s e n s e ) b y

m e a s u r e m e n t s o f

p r e c i s i o n

e

i f f

t h e r e i s

a c u r r e n t

j

f o r w h i c h

j i l |

=

1

a n d

 

V (

; O l , j )

 

K

;

O 2 , j ) 1 1

>

E

H e r e

i f

f

=

f ( p )

a n d

g ( p )

a r e

a n y

f u n c t i o n s o n S

( f , g _ f ( p )

g ( p )

d A

s

0 2 7 8 - 0 0 6 2 / 8 6 / 0 6 0 0 - 0 0 9 1 0 1

. 0 0

©

1 9 8 6

IEEE

9 1

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I E E E TRANSACTIONS O N M ED IC AL

I M A G I N G ,

V O L .

M I - 5 ,

N O .

2 ,

J U N E 1 9 8 6

a n d

I l f

-

f l i

  p ) 2

d A

1

We

a l s o

s a y t h a t

t h e

c o n d u c t i v i t i e s

a 1 a n d U 2 a r e n o t

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e b y m e a s u r e m e n t s

o f

p r e c i s i o n E

i f f

f o r

a l l

j

w i t h

l j

1 1

=

1 we

h a v e

t h a t

I I V

;

O 0 1

j )

-

V (

; 0 2 ,

j ) 1

<

We

i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e t w o d e f i n i t i o n s w i t h a s i m p l e t w o -

d i m e n s i o n a l e x a m p l e [ 1 4 ] ,

[ 1 5 ] .

L e t B

b e t h e

d i s k

x 2 +

y 2

<

l

a n d S

t h e

c i r c l e x 2

+

y 2 =

1 . U s i n g t h e p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s

x

=

r

c o s 0 a n d y

=

r s i n

0 ,

we

d e f i n e

a i

=

U 1 ( r ,

6 )

_

{ a

1

i f 0

c

r . <

R

i f

R

<

r

c

I 1

a n d

O 2

=

a 2 r ,

6 )

1

f o r

O c

r

1 .

We

n e x t

a s k

w h i c h

i n h o m o g e n e o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n s

a ,

a r e

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m

t h e h o m o g e n e o u s

d i s t r i b u t i o n

U 2 b y

m e a s u r e m e n t s

o f

p r e c i s i o n E ?

F o r

U 2

1 ,

we h a v e

t h a t

V

.

VU

=

0 .

I f

0 0

j ( 6 ) =

E

C n

c o s

n6 +

S n

s i n n O

n =I

w h e r e

1

2 r 2

C n

=

±

j 6

c o s

n O d O

= o

1

2 r 2

S n

= -

j O ,

s i n n O d O

i r

o

a n d

U ( r

=

0 ,

0 )

=

0 ,

t h e n

b y s e p a r a t i o n

o f

v a r i a b l e s

00

U ( r ,

0 )

= -

E ( r ' l n )

[ C n

c o s n O

+

S n

s i n n O ]

n

=

1

a n d

00

V

=

V ( 6 ;

c 2 ,

j )

=

-

E

n - 1 [ C ,

c o s

n O +

S n

s i n

n O ] .

n

=

I

T h e

s o l u t i o n

t o t h e i n h o m o g e n e o u s p r o b l e m i s

a g a i n

f o u n d

b y s e p a r a t i o n

o f

v a r i a b l e s

a n d

b y i m p o s i n g

t h e

c o n -

d i t i o n s

U ( R - ,

0 ) =

U ( R + , 6 )

a n d

a u a u

--(R-,

0 ) =

-1-(R + , ) .

a r a r

I t

i s

c O D

I

1

- , t , R

I n

V ( 6 ;

, 1

j )

=

-n i n

1

 

2 n

{ C ,

c o s

n O

+

S n

s i n

n 6 }

w h e r e

_ ( a -

1 ) I ( a

+

1 ) .

N o t e

t h a t i f a >

0 ,

t h e n

I u

<

1 .

T o

d e t e r m i n e t h e

d i s t i n g u i s h a b i l i t y

o f

a r 2

f r o m

a , ,

we

c o m p u t e

I I V

;

  0 2 , j )

-

V

O i ,

j I I

-

o o

1 / 2

= Vi 2 I i

L

E ( R 2 n

l n ( I

+

i t R 2 2 n ) ) 2

( C 2 +

S 2 )

n~~~~~~~~

n

S i n c e R 2 n l n ( 1

+

/ l R 2 n )

d e c r e a s e s

a s

n

i n c r e a s e s ,

a n d s i n c e

00

1

=

l i j

1 1

=

r E ( C 2

+

S 2 )

n -

n

n

we h a v e t h a t

I | V * ; 2 , 1 j )

-

V ;

a O l , J ) I

<

2 1 / L R 2 1 ( 1

+

/ L R 2 ) .

T h u s ,

i f

2 1 / I

R 2 1 ( 1

+

A R 2 )

  E

t h e n

a ,

a n d

u 2

a r e

n o t

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e .

We

n o t e

a l s o

t h a t t h e

c u r r e n t s j ( 0 )

=

( c o s

6 ) I V

o r

( s i n

0 ) / v G 7

w i l l

d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

o 1

a n d 0 2

i f

2 1 / 1 l

R 2 1 ( 1

+

A R 2 )

>

6 .

T h u s , t h e

c u r v e i n t h e

a

-

R

p l a n e g i v e n

b y

2 1 / l I

R 2 1 ( 1

+

L R 2 )

=

C

d i v i d e s t h e

p l a n e

i n t o

r e g i o n s

i n w h i c h a 1

a n d

9 2

a r e d i s -

t i n g u i s h a b l e

b y

m e a s u r e m e n t s

o f

p r e c i s i o n

E

f r o m t h o s e

r e g i o n s

i n w h i c h

t h e y

a r e

n o t

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e .

I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e d i s k

o f

r a d i u s

R

a n d

c o n d u c t i v i t y

a

i s

i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e

f r o m

t h e

h o m o g e n e o u s

d i s t r i b u t i o n

w i t h

c o n d u c t i v i t y

1

i f

a

a n d

R

l i e

i n

t h e

r e g i o n

U-

{ U , R ) I a m R )

.

a

<

a c m ( R ) ,

a n d

0

c

R

1 }

w h e r e

o m ( R )

m ax

{ O ,

( R 2

-

c I ( 2

+

E ) ) I ( R 2

+

c I ( 2

+

E ) ) }

a n d

1

+

( 2 E / ( 2

-

6 ) ) I ( R 2 - E / ( 2

-

c ) ) ,

f o r

2

<

R 2

<

1

2 -6E

r M ( R )

-

+ 0 0 , f o r R 2 6

e

9 2

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ISAACSON:

DISTINGUISHABILITY

OF CONDUCTIVITIES

0 l l ,

R

F i g . 1 .

I t

a l s o

f o l l o w s

t h a t

d i s k s

w h i c h

l i e

i n t h e s u b s e t

o f

{ 0

<

a ;

0

<

R

c

1 }

t h a t

i s

o u t s i d e

o f U a r e

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e

f r o m t h e

h o m o g e n e o u s

d i s t r i b u t i o n

b y

m e a s u r e m e n t s

o f

p r e c i s i o n

e . S e e

F i g .

1

f o r a

d i a g r a m

o f

t h e s e

r e g i o n s .

T h i s s i m p l e c a l c u l a t i o n t e l l s

u s t h a t we c a n n o t d i s t i n -

g u i s h a n y

c o n d u c t i v i t y v a r i a t i o n s

a t

a l l

f o r d i s k s

o f r a d i u s

R m

o r

l e s s

w h e r e

R m

=

[ 6 1 ( 2

+

6 ) ]

1 / 2 .

T h u s , i f we

w a n t

t o s e e c o n d u c t i v i t y v a r i a t i o n s

i n d i s k s

o f r a d i u s

R ,

we

n e e d a p r e c i s i o n

e s m a l l e r t h a n

2 R 2 / ( 1

-

R 2 ) .

I f

R

=

0 . 1 , t h i s

e x p r e s s i o n

s a y s e

m u s t

b e s m a l l e r t h a n

0 . 0 2 5 .

We

s u s p e c t

t h a t

t o

d i s t i n g u i s h

c o n d u c t i v i t y

v a r i a t i o n s

i n r e g i o n s o f t h e

s a m e s i z e b u t n e a r e r t h e

b o u n d a r y , t h e

s a m e

e s t i m a t e s

w i l l

y i e l d

s u f f i c i e n t

p r e c i s i o n .

I V .

S E L E C T I O N

OF

C U R R E N T S

TO

A P P L Y

I n a

c e r t a i n

s e n s e

we

g i v e

a n

a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n :

w h i c h c u r r e n t s

i k ,

k

=

1 , 2 ,   * * ,

s h o u l d

we

a p p l y t o S

t o

b e s t d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n t w o

c o n d u c t i v i t i e s

a ,

a n d

a 2 ?

T h e c u r r e n t

j i

w i t h

i i j l

| |

=

1

i s s a i d t o b e

t h e c u r r e n t

t h a t b e s t d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n

a 1

a n d

a 2

i f f

| | V ;

a r 2

j , )

-

V (

;

  1

i l )

 

= max

i

V ( ;

a 2 , j )

-

V ( K ;

a l ,

1 ) 1

L e t

A ( a )

d e n o t e

t h e l i n e a r

o p e r a t o r

d e f i n e d b y

A ( a )

j ( p )

_

V ( p ;

a ,

j ) .

T h e

b e s t c u r r e n t

j

i s

t h e n

t h e

c u r r e n t

j

t h a t m a x i m i z e s

I

I A a 2 )

-

A o r )

j

1 1 2

a n d h a s

l i j

I |

=

1 .

S i n c e A ( r ) i s

s e l f - a d j o i n t w i t h r e s p e c t

t o t h e i n n e r

p r o d u c t

p r e v i o u s l y

d e f i n e d , we h a v e t h a t j

m a x i m i z e s t h e

e x p r e s s i o n

  ] ,

[ A ( 2 )

 

A J 1 ) ] 2 j > I < j , j

>

L e t

D

[ A ( a 2 )

-

A ( o 1 ) ] .

  n

g e n e r a l

D2

i s

a

c o m p a c t

s e l f -

a d j o i n t

n o n n e g a t i v e

o p e r a t o r

w i t h

a

c o m p l e t e

s e t

o f

o r -

t h o n o r m a l

e i g e n f u n c t i o n s

j l ,

] 2 ,

j 3 ,

* * * ,

a n d

e i g e n v a l u e s

X

>

X 2

>

*

*

0 .

I n

o t h e r

w o r d s ,

D i k  

X k

I k

a n d

D 2 i k

=

X k j k

fork=

1 , 2 , 3 ,

I t

f o l l o w s

f r o m

t h e

m i n i - m a x

p r i n c i p a l [ 1 2 ]

t h a t

t h e

b e s t

c u r r e n t ( o r c u r r e n t s ) t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

u l a n d a 2 a r e

t h e

e i g e n f u n c t i o n s

o f D2

h a v i n g

t h e

l a r g e s t e i g e n v a l u e .

I f ,

f o r

e x a m p l e ,

X 2

i s n o n d e g e n e r a t e ,

t h e n j l

w o u l d b e

t h e

b e s t c u r r e n t .

I t

a l s o

f o l l o w s t h a t

m a x

1 1 A 0 2 )

-

A o l ) ] j

 

I D j i I I

= 1

X I

1 1 1

1 1

 

T h u s ,

a ,

i s

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m u 2

b y

m e a s u r e m e n t s

o f

p r e c i s i o n

e

( u s i n g

j 1 )

i f

X

I

>

c ,

a n d t h e y

a r e n o t d i s t i n -

g u i s h a b l e i f

1

I

<

e .

T h e

n e x t

b e s t c u r r e n t we c a n

a p p l y

t o S

t o d i s t i n g u i s h

a 1 f r o m

U 2

i s j 2 w h e r e

1 0 D 1 2 1 1

=

m a x

I l D I l l

=

i X 2 1

( J l )

= 0

( a s s u m i n g

X ' s

a r e

n o n d e g e n e r a t e ) .

T h i s n e x t

e i g e n f u n c t i o n w i l l a l s o d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n

a 1 a n d 2

t o

p r e c i s i o n

e i f f

X 2 1

> 6 .

By

c o n t i n u i n g t h i s

p r o c e s s we

s e e f r o m t h e m i n i - m a x

p r i n c i p a l [ 1 2 ] t h a t

t h e

e i g e n f u n c t i o n s

j I , j 2 ,

* * * ,

1 k

o f D f o r w h i c h

X k

>

e

a n d

X k

+ 1 1

e a r e

i n t h e l e a s t

s q u a r e s

sense t h e

b e s t

c u r r e n t s

t o

a p p l y

t o

S

i n

o r d e r t o

d i s t i n g u i s h

a 1

f r o m a 2 b y m e a -

s u r e m e n t s

o f

p r e c i s i o n

6 .

I t i s

p o i n t l e s s

t o

u s e t h e e i g e n -

f u n c t i o n s

j ,

w i t h

1

>

k

b e c a u s e t h e i r u s e

w o u l d

r e s u l t

i n

m e a s u r e m e n t s

o f

v o l t a g e s

w h o s e

d i f f e r e n c e s w o u l d

b e

s m a l l e r

t h a n

o u r

g i v e n

p r e c i s i o n .

We i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e

i d e a s

w i t h

a s i m p l e

e x a m p l e . L e t

B ,

S ,

a , ,

a n d

  r 2

b e

t h e

s a m e a s b e f o r e . T h e n t h e b e s t

c u r r e n t s

t o

d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n

a 1

a n d

a r 2 a r e t h e

e i g e n f u n c t i o n s o f

D 2

c o r r e s p o n d i n g

t o i t s

l a r g e s t

e i g e n v a l u e

X 2 ,

w h e r e

D 2 j

=

[ A ( a l )

-

A ( a 2 ) ] 2 j

00

E

Z

[ - 2 l t R 2 , ) / n I

+

A R 2 , ) ] 2

n

=

I

 

( C n

c o s

n O

+

S n

s i n

n O ) .

a n d

00

i

=

>

C n

co s

n O

+

S n

s i n

n O .

n

=

I

T h e

e i g e n v a l u e s

b y

f o r n

=

1 , 2 ,

3 ,

t o

X n

a r e

n

a r e

d o u b l y

d e g e n e r a t e a n d

a r e

g i v e n

- A / 1 \ 2

2 I t I

R 2 n

A

K

L +

R

R2ns

 

. . T h e

e i g e n f u n c t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g

i C n

c o s

n O i -

9 3

e

I

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I E E E

TRANSACTIONS

ON

M E D I C A L

I M A G I N G ,

V O L .

M I - 5 ,

N O .

2 , JUNE

1 9 8 6

a n d

i n - s i n

n O I V 7 .

T h e l a r g e s t e i g e n v a l u e

i s

X 2

=

[ 2 1 i p l

R 2 / (

1 +

t t

R

2 ) ] 2

a n d

t h e r e i s a

t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l

s p a c e

o f b e s t

e i g e n f u n c -

t i o n s s p a n n e d

b y

c o s O i V - 7

a n d

s i n o/1.

I f

o u r m e a s u r e m e n t s

a r e

m a d e

w i t h p r e c i s i o n

c we o n l y

n e e d

t h e

e i g e n f u n c t i o n s

w i t h

X n l

>

E ,

i . e . ,

t h o s e w i t h

1

2 1 1

R 2 n

n

1

+ R 2 n

S i n c e ,

f o r

s m a l l R ,

t h i s

e x p r e s s i o n

g o e s

t o

z e r o

r a p i d l y

a s

n

i n c r e a s e s , o n l y

  f e w

f u n c t i o n s

w i l l b e e f f e c t i v e .

F o r

e x a m p l e

i f

R

=

0 . 1 ,

a

=

2 ,

a n d

e

=

1 0 - 3

o n l y

c o s

0 /

v r

a n d

s i n

o i V

w i l l

y i e l d

d a t a

o f

s i g n i f i c a n c e .

I f B i s t h e

u n i t

d i s k ,

a 1

=

u l r )

a n d a 2

=

a 2 ( r ) ,

i . e . ,

t h e y a r e b o t h i n d e p e n d e n t

o f

0 ,

t h e n

t h e

e i g e n f u n c t i o n s

o f

D

a r e a g a i n

c o s n O / I V

7

a n d

s i n n O i ' J r ;

f o r

n =

1 ,

2 , *

.

F o r a r b i t r a r y

f u n c t i o n s ,

v i

=

a i

  r ,

0 ) ,

i

=

1 ,

2 , t h e b e s t

c u r r e n t s a r e ,

i n

g e n e r a l ,

n o t t r i g o n o m e t r i c

f u n c t i o n s .

A s

a

g e n e r a l

r u l e ,

l o w

( s p a t i a l )

f r e q u e n c y

c u r r e n t s

y i e l d

v o l t a g e s t h a t a r e t h e

m o s t

s e n s i t i v e

t o

c h a n g e s

i n

c o n d u c -

t i v i t y

f a r

f r o m

t h e

b o u n d a r y ,

w h i l e

h i g h - f r e q u e n c y

c u r -

r e n t s

y i e l d

v o l t a g e s s e n s i t i v e m o s t l y

t o

c h a n g e s

n e a r

t h e

b o u n d a r y .

We n e x t

p o i n t

o u t

t h a t i t

i s

p o s s i b l e

t o u s e

a s e t

o f c u r -

r e n t s

j

+

a n d j

-

t h a t

s p a n

t h e

s a m e

s p a c e

a s

t h e

b e s t

c u r -

r e n t s

j ]

a n d

1 2 b u t

w h o s e

u s e

r e s u l t s

i n

m e a n i n g l e s s

m e a -

s u r e m e n t s .

S u p p o s e

| | D j , | |

>

c

a n d

1 0 D 1 2 1 1

<

c . C h o o s e

a n a

> 0

b u t s m a l l a n d d e f i n e

j +

  a i l

±

( 1

-

() j 2 ) I ( a

2

 

( 1

-

a ) 2 ) 1 / 2

C l e a r l y ,

j

+

s p a n

t h e

s a m e

s p a c e

a s

I i

a n d

i 2

b u t

t I D j ± I I

=

[ a X I ) 2

+

  1

  X 2 ) 2 ) / a 2

+

  1

_

a Y ) 2 ) ] 1 / 2

<

e

i f

a

i s c h o s e n

s m a l l

e n o u g h .

V o l t a g e

m e a s u r e m e n t s

V ( p ;

a , ,

j

± )

a n d

V ( p ;

a 2 ,

j

+ )

d i f f e r

f r o m

e a c h

o t h e r

b y

l e s s t h a n t h e

p r e c i s i o n

E

a n d a r e

t h e r e f o r e m e a n i n g l e s s

w h i l e t h e u s e

o f

j I

  l o n e w o u l d h a v e

y i e l d e d

a

m e a n i n g f u l

m e a s u r e m e n t

i n

a t t e m p t i n g

t o

d i s -

t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n

c o n d u c t i v i t y

d i s t r i b u t i o n s .

I n

p r a c t i c e ,

o n e

a p p l i e s

c u r r e n t s t o

K e l e c t r o d e s .

T h u s ,

t h e r e

a r e

K

-

1

i n d e p e n d e n t

c u r r e n t s .

I f

t h e

m e a s u r e -

m e n t s

w e r e d o n e

w i t h

p e r f e c t p r e c i s i o n   e

=

0 )

a n y

K

-

1

i n d e p e n d e n t

c u r r e n t s

w o u l d

h a v e

t h e

s a m e

a b i l i t y

t o d i s -

t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n c o n d u c t i v i t i e s .

T h i s

e x a m p l e

s h o w s

t h a t

w h e n

t h e

p r e c i s i o n

i s

f i n i t e

  e

>

0 )

d i f f e r e n t

K

-

1

i n -

d e p e n d e n t

c u r r e n t s h a v e

d i f f e r e n t

a b i l i t i e s t o

d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n

c o n d u c t i v i t i e s .

T h u s ,

t h e

u s e o f t h e b e s t c u r r e n t s

i s

n e c e s s a r y

i n o r d e r

t o d e c i d e

w h e t h e r t h e

c o n d u c t i v i t y

i n s i d e

t h e

b o d y

i s

d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e

f r o m

a

c o n j e c t u r e d

c o n -

d u c t i v i t y

b y

a

s y s t e m

o f f i n i t e

p r e c i s i o n .

V .

SUMMARY

A

c o n d u c t i v i t y

d i s t r i b u t i o n a

i s

i d e n t i f i a b l e

i n

a

g i v e n

c l a s s

o f

f u n c t i o n s

2

b y

m e a s u r e m e n t s

o f

p r e c i s i o n

e

i f f

i t

i s d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e

f r o m e a c h m e m b e r

o f E b y m e a s u r e -

m e n t s o f p r e c i s i o n e .

We p o i n t o u t t h a t

i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y

a c o n d u c -

t i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n

a i n E , m u c h l e s s i m a g e

i t ,

b y

a n

E C CT

s y s t e m

i f

t h i s

s y s t e m

c a n n o t d i s t i n g u i s h a

f r o m e a c h

m e m b e r o f

E .

H e n c e ,

a s y s t e m a t i c

m a n n e r i n w h i c h o n e

may

g o a b o u t d e s i g n i n g

a n ECCT

s y s t e m i s t o f i r s t s e l e c t

t h e r e s o l u t i o n

t h a t

o n e

w o u l d

l i k e

b y c h o o s i n g

t h e

c l a s s

E

t h a t

i s

t o

b e

i d e n t i f i a b l e .

S e c o n d ,

d e t e r m i n e

t h e p r e c i s i o n

o f

t h e

i n s t r u m e n t t h a t

i s n e e d e d b y

f i r s t e s t i m a t i n g t h e

s m a l l e s t

s i z e a n d c o n d u c t i v i t y v a r i a t i o n s

p o s s i b l e

i n a

m e m b e r o f E .

T h e n u s e e s t i m a t e s

s i m i l a r t o

t h o s e

g i v e n

i n

S e c t i o n

I I I t o d e t e r m i n e

t h e p r e c i s i o n

n e e d e d . F i n a l l y ,

u s e t h e

b e s t

p a t t e r n s o f c u r r e n t

d e s c r i b e d i n

S e c t i o n

I V .

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

T h e a u t h o r w o u l d

l i k e

t o

t h a n k R .

K o h n ,

M.

V o g e l i u s ,

J .

S y l v e s t e r ,

G . U h l m a n n , T . J . Y o r k e y ,

J . G . W e b s t e r ,

a n d

W.

J .

T o m p k i n s

f o r

i n f o r m i n g h i m

o f

t h e i r

w o r k a n d

m a k i n g

s o m e o f t h e i r w o r k

a v a i l a b l e

b e f o r e p u b l i c a t i o n .

He w o u l d

l i k e

t o

t h a n k t h e r e f e r e e s f o r

i n f o r m i n g

h i m

o f

t h e

r e f e r e n c e s [ 1 4 ] - [ 1 7 ]

a n d f o r p o i n t i n g

o u t t h e s i m -

i l a r i t y

b e t w e e n t h e

d e f i n i t i o n o f d i s t i n g u i s h a b i l i t y

g i v e n

h e r e a n d t h e n o t i o n

o f v i s i b i l i t y

i n [ 1 4 ] ,

[ 1 5 ] .

He w o u l d e s p e c i a l l y

l i k e t o

t h a n k D . A n g w i n a n d J .

N e w e l l f o r t h e i r c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n

d e s i g n i n g a n d c a r r y i n g

o u t

t h e

e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s i n c o n d u c t i v i t y i m a g i n g

t h a t

i n s p i r e d t h i s

w o r k .

R E F E R E N C E S

[ 1 ]

R .

E . L a n g e r ,  An i n v e r s e

p r o b l e m

i n d i f f e r e n t i a l

e q u a t i o n s ,

A m e r .

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ISAACSON:

DISTINGUISHABILITY OF

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