Dispatch Welcome to Second Semester 1) Take out Feb calendar and figure out how many assignments are required this month. Come up with a plan of attack

DispatchWelcome to Second Semester

1)Take out Feb calendar and figure out how many assignments are required this month. Come up with a plan of attack for each assignment

2)Look at your goal for this class. What do you need to do to reach your goal?

3)AP Biology exam is Monday, May 14. Write that somewhere in your notebook

4)Write 5 things you learned from the reading that is due today (chapters 14-17)

5)Pick up your final exam. Which are your strong/weak areas? Correct at least 5 incorrect questions

Second Semester is different

•Shorter—done after May 14th (if you have no missing assignments)

•Reviews—after school (Mon) or nutrition/lunch (Tues). Review quizzes every Friday

•Need Review book

•Less labs—4 of them

•Any missing assignments have to be done before attending senior activities/AP activities

How to be successful#1 Get organized and use TIME EFFECTIVELY

#2 Do the reading

#3 Ask questions

#4 Form study groups

#5 Do all assignments including review assignments

#6 Look over notes and powerpoints

#7 Take notes in review book and make flascards

#8 Sleep and eat enough

#9 Come to office hours to retake quizzes and FRQs (learn from past mistakes)

#10 Have confidence and a positive attitude

4

Chapter 14--Chapter 14--Mendelelian Mendelelian

GeneticsGenetics

copyright cmassengale

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Gregor Johann Mendel Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884)(1822-1884)

Austrian monkAustrian monkStudied the Studied the inheritanceinheritance of of traits in traits in pea plantspea plantsDeveloped the Developed the laws of inheritancelaws of inheritanceMendel's work Mendel's work was not recognized was not recognized until the turn of until the turn of thethe 20th century 20th century


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Gregor Johann MendelGregor Johann MendelBetween Between 1856 1856 and 1863,and 1863, Mendel Mendel cultivated and cultivated and tested some tested some 28,000 pea plants28,000 pea plantsHe found that He found that the plants' the plants' offspring retained offspring retained traits of the traits of the parentsparentsCalled theCalled the “Father of “Father of Genetics"Genetics"


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Mendel stated Mendel stated that physical traits that physical traits are inherited as are inherited as “particles”“particles”Mendel did not Mendel did not know that the know that the “particles” were “particles” were actually actually Chromosomes & Chromosomes & DNADNA

____ + ____ didn’t ____ + ____ didn’t know about DNAknow about DNA

Particulate InheritanceParticulate Inheritance


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Genetic TerminologyGenetic Terminology

TraitTrait - any characteristic - any characteristic that can be passed from that can be passed from parent to offspring parent to offspring HeredityHeredity - passing of - passing of traits from parent to traits from parent to offspring offspring GeneticsGenetics - study of - study of heredity heredity


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Types of Genetic Types of Genetic CrossesCrossesMonohybrid cross Monohybrid cross - - cross cross

involving a single traitinvolving a single traite.g. flower color e.g. flower color Dihybrid crossDihybrid cross - - cross cross involving two traits involving two traits e.g. flower color & plant e.g. flower color & plant heightheight


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Punnett SquarePunnett Square

Used to help Used to help solve solve genetics genetics problemsproblems


12copyright cmassengale

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Designer Designer “Genes”“Genes”

AllelesAlleles - - two forms of a two forms of a gene gene (dominant & recessive)(dominant & recessive) DominantDominant - - stronger of two genes stronger of two genes expressed in the hybrid; expressed in the hybrid; represented byrepresented by aa capital letter (R)capital letter (R) RecessiveRecessive - - gene that shows up gene that shows up less often in a cross; represented less often in a cross; represented by aby a lowercase letter (r)lowercase letter (r)


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More TerminologyMore Terminology

GenotypeGenotype - - gene gene combination for a traitcombination for a trait (e.g. RR, Rr, rr) (e.g. RR, Rr, rr) PhenotypePhenotype - - the physical the physical feature resulting from a feature resulting from a genotypegenotype (e.g. red, white) (e.g. red, white)


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GenotypesGenotypesHomozygousHomozygous genotype - gene genotype - gene

combination involving 2 combination involving 2 dominant or 2 recessive genes dominant or 2 recessive genes (e.g. RR or rr);(e.g. RR or rr); also called also called pure pure HeterozygousHeterozygous genotype - gene genotype - gene combination of one dominant & combination of one dominant & one recessive allele (one recessive allele (e.g. Rr);e.g. Rr); also calledalso called hybridhybrid


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Mendel’s Pea Mendel’s Pea Plant Plant

ExperimentsExperiments


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Why peas,Why peas, Pisum Pisum sativumsativum??Can be grown in a Can be grown in a

small areasmall area Produce Produce lots of lots of offspring offspring Produce Produce purepure plants when allowed plants when allowed to to self-pollinateself-pollinate several generations several generations Can be Can be artificially artificially cross-pollinatedcross-pollinated


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Reproduction in Flowering Reproduction in Flowering PlantsPlants

Pollen contains spermPollen contains spermProduced by the stamenProduced by the stamen

Ovary contains eggsOvary contains eggsFound inside the flowerFound inside the flower

Pollen carries sperm to Pollen carries sperm to the eggs for fertilizationthe eggs for fertilization

Self-fertilizationSelf-fertilization can can occur in the same occur in the same flowerflower

Cross-fertilizationCross-fertilization can can occur between occur between flowersflowers


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Mendel’s Mendel’s Experimental Experimental

MethodsMethodsMendel Mendel hand-pollinatedhand-pollinated flowers using a flowers using a paintbrushpaintbrush

He could He could snip the snip the stamensstamens to prevent to prevent self-pollinationself-pollination

Covered each flower Covered each flower with a cloth bagwith a cloth bag

He traced traits He traced traits through the through the several several generationsgenerations


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How Mendel BeganHow Mendel BeganMendel Mendel produced produced purepure strains by strains by allowing allowing the plants the plants to to self-self-pollinatepollinate for for several several generatiogenerationsns copyright cmassengale

When he mated a round and a wrinkle pea plant he always got all round in the first generation and 3 times more round than wrinkled in

the second generation.

Why? Show work

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Eight Pea Plant TraitsEight Pea Plant Traits

Seed shapeSeed shape --- Round --- Round (R)(R) or Wrinkled or Wrinkled (r)(r)

Seed ColorSeed Color ---- Yellow ---- Yellow (Y)(Y) or Green or Green ((yy))

Pod ShapePod Shape --- Smooth --- Smooth (S)(S) or wrinkled or wrinkled ((ss))Pod ColorPod Color --- Green --- Green (G)(G) or Yellow or Yellow (g)(g)Seed Coat ColorSeed Coat Color ---Gray ---Gray (G)(G) or White or White (g)(g)Flower positionFlower position---Axial ---Axial (A)(A) or Terminal or Terminal (a)(a)Plant HeightPlant Height --- Tall --- Tall (T)(T) or Short or Short (t)(t)

Flower color Flower color --- --- Purple Purple (P)(P) or white or white ((pp))




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Mendel’s Experimental Mendel’s Experimental ResultsResults


Why did Mendel always get a 3:1 ratio?

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Did the observed ratio match the theoretical ratio?Did the observed ratio match the theoretical ratio?

The theoretical or expected ratio of The theoretical or expected ratio of plants producing round or wrinkled plants producing round or wrinkled seeds is seeds is 3 round :1 wrinkled3 round :1 wrinkled

Mendel’s observed ratio was 2.96:1Mendel’s observed ratio was 2.96:1

The discrepancy is due to The discrepancy is due to statistical statistical errorerror

The The larger the samplelarger the sample the more the more nearly the results approximate to nearly the results approximate to the theoretical ratiothe theoretical ratio


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Generation “Gap”Generation “Gap”Parental PParental P11 Generation Generation = the parental = the parental

generation in a breeding experimentgeneration in a breeding experiment..

FF11 generation generation = the first-generation = the first-generation offspring in a breeding experiment. offspring in a breeding experiment. (1st (1st filial generation)filial generation)

From breeding individuals from the PFrom breeding individuals from the P11 generationgeneration

FF22 generation generation = the second-generation = the second-generation offspring in a breeding experiment. offspring in a breeding experiment. (2nd filial generation)(2nd filial generation)

From breeding individuals from the FFrom breeding individuals from the F11 generationgeneration


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Following the Following the GenerationsGenerations

Cross 2 Cross 2 Pure Pure

PlantsPlantsTT x ttTT x tt

Results Results in all in all

HybridsHybridsTtTt

Cross 2 Cross 2 HybridsHybrids

getget3 Tall & 1 3 Tall & 1

ShortShortTT, Tt, ttTT, Tt, tt


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Law of DominanceLaw of Dominance


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Law of SegregationLaw of Segregation

During the During the formation of formation of gametesgametes (eggs or sperm), the (eggs or sperm), the two allelestwo alleles responsible for a responsible for a trait trait separateseparate from each other. from each other.

Alleles for a trait are then Alleles for a trait are then "recombined" at fertilization"recombined" at fertilization, , producing the genotype for producing the genotype for the traits of the offspringthe traits of the offspring.


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Applying the Law of Applying the Law of SegregationSegregation


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Law of Independent Law of Independent AssortmentAssortment

Alleles for Alleles for differentdifferent traits are traits are distributed to sex cells (& distributed to sex cells (& offspring) independently of offspring) independently of one another.one another.

This law can be illustrated This law can be illustrated using using dihybrid crossesdihybrid crosses..


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Dihybrid CrossDihybrid CrossA breeding experiment that tracks A breeding experiment that tracks

the the inheritance of two traitsinheritance of two traits..

Mendel’s Mendel’s “Law of Independent “Law of Independent Assortment”Assortment”

a. Each pair of alleles segregates a. Each pair of alleles segregates independentlyindependently during gamete during gamete formationformation

b. Formula: 2b. Formula: 2nn (n = # of heterozygotes) (n = # of heterozygotes)


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Question:Question:How many gametes will be How many gametes will be

produced for the following allele produced for the following allele arrangements?arrangements?

Remember:Remember: 22nn (n = # of heterozygotes) (n = # of heterozygotes)

1.1. RrYyRrYy

2.2. AaBbCCDdAaBbCCDd

3.3. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQqMmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq


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Answer:Answer:1. RrYy: 21. RrYy: 2nn = 2 = 222 = 4 gametes = 4 gametes

RY Ry rY ryRY Ry rY ry

2. AaBbCCDd: 22. AaBbCCDd: 2nn = 2 = 233 = 8 gametes = 8 gametes

ABCD ABCd AbCD AbCdABCD ABCd AbCD AbCd

aBCD aBCd abCD abCDaBCD aBCd abCD abCD

3. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq: 23. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq: 2nn = 2 = 266 = = 64 gametes64 gametes


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Dihybrid CrossDihybrid CrossTraits: Seed shape & Seed colorTraits: Seed shape & Seed colorAlleles:Alleles: R round

r wrinkled Y yellow y green

RrYy x RrYy

RY Ry rY ryRY Ry rY ry RY Ry rY ryRY Ry rY ry

All possible gamete combinationsAll possible gamete combinationscopyright cmassengale

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Dihybrid CrossDihybrid Cross

RYRY RyRy rYrY ryry

RYRY

RyRy

rYrY

ryry


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RRYY

RRYy

RrYY

RrYy

RRYy

RRyy

RrYy

Rryy

RrYY

RrYy

rrYY

rrYy

RrYy

Rryy

rrYy

rryy

Round/Yellow: 9

Round/green: 3

wrinkled/Yellow: 3

wrinkled/green: 1

9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio

RYRY RyRy rYrY ryry

RYRY

RyRy

rYrY

ryry


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Round/Yellow: 9Round/green: 3wrinkled/Yellow: 3wrinkled/green: 1

9:3:3:1


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Test CrossTest CrossA mating between an individual of A mating between an individual of unknown unknown

genotype genotype and a and a homozygous recessivehomozygous recessive individual.individual.

Example:Example: bbC__ bbC__ x x bbccbbcc

BB = brown eyesBB = brown eyesBb = brown eyesBb = brown eyesbb = blue eyesbb = blue eyes

CC = curly hairCC = curly hairCc = curly hairCc = curly haircc = straight haircc = straight hair

bCbC b___b___

bcbc


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Test CrossTest Cross

Possible results:Possible results:

bCbC b___b___

bcbc bbCc bbCc

C bCbC b___b___

bcbc bbCc bbccor

c


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Summary of Mendel’s Summary of Mendel’s lawslaws

LAWLAW PARENT PARENT CROSSCROSS OFFSPRINGOFFSPRING

DOMINANCEDOMINANCE TT x ttTT x tt tall x shorttall x short

100% Tt 100% Tt talltall

SEGREGATIONSEGREGATION Tt x TtTt x Tt tall x talltall x tall

75% tall 75% tall 25% short25% short

INDEPENDENT INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENTASSORTMENT

RrGg x RrGgRrGg x RrGg round & round & green x green x round & round & greengreen

9/16 round seeds & green 9/16 round seeds & green pods pods

3/16 round seeds & yellow 3/16 round seeds & yellow pods pods

3/16 wrinkled seeds & 3/16 wrinkled seeds & green pods green pods

1/16 wrinkled seeds & 1/16 wrinkled seeds & yellow podsyellow pods


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Incomplete DominanceIncomplete Dominanceandand

CodominanceCodominance


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Incomplete DominanceIncomplete Dominance

F1 hybrids F1 hybrids have an appearance somewhat in betweenin between the phenotypes phenotypes of the two parental varieties.

Example:Example: snapdragons (flower)snapdragons (flower)red (RR) x white (rr)

RR = red flowerRR = red flowerrr = white flower

R

R

r r


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RrRr

RrRr

RrRr

RrRr

RR

RR

rr

All Rr =All Rr = pink pink(heterozygous pink)(heterozygous pink)

produces theproduces theFF11 generation generation

r


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CodominanceCodominanceTwo allelesTwo alleles are expressed ( are expressed (multiple multiple

allelesalleles) in ) in heterozygous individualsheterozygous individuals..Example:Example: blood type blood type

1.1. type Atype A = I= IAAIIAA or I or IAAii2.2. type Btype B = I= IBBIIBB or I or IBBii3.3. type ABtype AB= I= IAAIIBB

4.4. type Otype O = ii= ii


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Codominance ProblemCodominance ProblemExample:homozygous male Type B (IBIB)

x heterozygous female Type A (IAi)

IAIB IBi

IAIB IBi

1/2 = IAIB

1/2 = IBi

IB

IA i

IB


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Another Codominance Another Codominance ProblemProblem

• Example:Example: male Type O (ii) x female type AB (IAIB)

IAi IBi

IAi IBi

1/2 = IAi1/2 = IBi

i

IA IB

i


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QuestionQuestion::If a boy has a blood type O and If a boy has a blood type O and

his sister has blood type his sister has blood type AB, AB, what are the what are the genotypes and genotypes and phenotypes of their parents?phenotypes of their parents?

boy - boy - type O (ii) type O (ii) X girl - X girl - type type AB (IAB (IAAIIBB))


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Answer:Answer:

IAIB

ii

Parents:Parents:genotypesgenotypes = IAi and IBiphenotypesphenotypes = A and B

IB

IA i

i


Sex-linked Punnets

Sex-Linked

Sex Linked—Page 2Females are________

Males are__________

NO DISEASES ARE CARRIED ON Y CHROMOSOME

Baldness (b) is also a sex-linked trait found on the X chromosome. If a woman is bald mates with a man with no history of baldness in his family, then what percent of the sons will be bald?

If fathers have the disease, the daughters are carriers

Hemophilia (h) is caused by a recessive, sex-linked gene. If a normal father mates with a carrier mother, what % of sons will

have hemophilia? What % of daughters will be carriers?

Hemophilia (h) is caused by a recessive, sex-linked gene. If a father with hemophilia mates with a normal mother, what % of sons will have hemophilia? What % of daughters will be carriers?

What if both parents are carriers?

Q2

Color blindness (c) is caused by a recessive, sex-linked gene. If a father with no colorblindness mates with a mother who is color blind, what % of sons will be color blind?

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Sex-linked Trait Sex-linked Trait ProblemProblem

Example: Eye color in fruit flies (red-eyed male) x (white-eyed female)

XRY x XrXr

Remember: the Y chromosome in males does not carry traits.

RR = red eyedRr = red eyedrr = white eyedXY = maleXX = female

XR

Xr Xr

Y


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Sex-linked Trait Solution:Sex-linked Trait Solution:

XR Xr

Xr Y

XR Xr

Xr Y

50% red eyed female

50% white eyed male

XR

Xr Xr

Y


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Female CarriersFemale Carriers


Pleiotrophy

Example: Sickle cell. A mutation in a gene causes multiple symptoms

EpistasisIn genetics, epistasis is the phenomenon where the effects of one gene

are modified by one or several other genes, which are sometimes called modifier genes.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics

Polygenic InheritancePolygenic inheritance is when a single trait is controlled by 2 or more sets

of alleles. Most human traits are polygenically inherited. Examples would be skin and eye color. This explains how you can have several different phenotypes for one trait and how parents can have offspring with eye color or skin color different from what they have.

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Genetic Practice Genetic Practice ProblemsProblems


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Breed the PBreed the P11 generation generation

tall (TT) x dwarf (tt) pea tall (TT) x dwarf (tt) pea plantsplants

T

T

t t


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Solution:Solution:

T

T

t t

Tt

Tt

Tt

Tt All Tt = tall(heterozygous tall)

produces theFF11 generation generation

tall (TT) vs. dwarf (tt) pea tall (TT) vs. dwarf (tt) pea plantsplants


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Breed the FBreed the F11 generation generation

tall (Tt) vs. tall (Tt) pea plantstall (Tt) vs. tall (Tt) pea plants

T

t

T t


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Solution:Solution:

TT

Tt

Tt

tt

T

t

T tproduces theFF22 generation generation

1/4 (25%) = TT1/2 (50%) = Tt1/4 (25%) = tt1:2:1 genotype1:2:1 genotype 3:1 phenotype3:1 phenotype

tall (Tt) x tall (Tt) pea tall (Tt) x tall (Tt) pea plantsplants


2006-2007

Human Genetic Diseases

1 2

3 4 5 6

Pedigree analysis

Pedigree analysis reveals Mendelian patterns in human inheritancedata mapped on a family tree

= male = female = male w/ trait = female w/ trait

Genetic counseling

Pedigree can help us understand the past & predict the futureThousands of genetic disorders are inherited as simple recessive

traitsfrom benign conditions to deadly diseases

albinismcystic fibrosisTay sachssickle cell anemiaPKU

Cystic fibrosis (recessive)

Primarily whites of European descent

strikes 1 in 2500 births1 in 25 whites is a carrier (Aa)

normal allele codes for a membrane protein that transports Cl- across cell membrane

defective or absent channels limit transport of Cl- & H2O across cell membrane

thicker & stickier mucus coats around cells mucus build-up in the pancreas, lungs, digestive tract & causes bacterial infections

without treatment children die before 5; with treatment can live past their late 20s

normal lung tissue

Effect on LungsChloride channeltransports salt through protein channel out of cellOsmosis: H2O follows Cl–airway

Cl–

H2O

Cl–

H2O

mucus secreting glands

bacteria & mucus build up

thickened mucus hard to secrete

normal lungs

cystic fibrosis

cells lining lungs

Cl– channel

loss of oneamino acid

delta F508

Tay-Sachs (recessive)

Primarily Jews of eastern European (Ashkenazi) descent & Cajuns (Louisiana)strikes 1 in 3600 births

100 times greater than incidence among non-Jews

non-functional enzyme fails to breakdown lipids in brain cellsfats collect in cells destroying their function symptoms begin few months

after birth seizures, blindness &

degeneration of muscle & mental performance

child usually dies before 5yo

Sickle cell anemia (recessive)

Primarily Africansstrikes 1 out of 400 African Americans

high frequency

caused by substitution of a single amino acid in hemoglobinwhen oxygen levels are low, sickle-cell hemoglobin crystallizes into long

rodsdeforms red blood cells into

sickle shapesickling creates pleiotropic

effects = cascade of other symptoms

Sickle cell anemiaSubstitution of one amino acid in polypeptide chain

hydrophilicamino acid

hydrophobic amino acid

Sickle cell phenotype

2 alleles are codominant both normal & mutant hemoglobins are synthesized in heterozygote

(Aa)50% cells sickle; 50% cells normalcarriers usually healthysickle-cell disease

triggered under blood oxygen stress

exercise

Huntington’s chorea (dominant) Dominant inheritance

repeated mutation on end of chromosome 4

mutation = CAG repeatsglutamine amino acid repeats in proteinone of 1st genes to be identified

build up of “huntingtin” protein in brain causing cell deathmemory lossmuscle tremors, jerky movements

“chorea”

starts at age 30-50 early death

10-20 years after start

1872

Testing…Would youwant toknow?

Genetics & culture

Why do all cultures have a taboo against incest?laws or cultural taboos forbidding marriages between close relatives are fairly

universal

Fairly unlikely that 2 unrelated carriers of same rare harmful recessive allele will meet & mate

but matings between close relatives increase risk“consanguineous” (same blood) matings

individuals who share a recent common ancestor are more likely to carry same recessive alleles

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Monohybrid Monohybrid CrossesCrosses


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Trait: Seed ShapeTrait: Seed Shape

Alleles: Alleles: RR – Round – Round rr – Wrinkled – Wrinkled

Cross: Cross: RoundRound seedsseeds xx Wrinkled Wrinkled seedsseeds

RRRR xx rr rr

PP11 Monohybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross

R

R

rr

Rr

RrRr

Rr

Genotype:Genotype: RrRr

PhenotypePhenotype: RoundRound

GenotypicGenotypicRatio:Ratio: All alikeAll alike

PhenotypicPhenotypicRatio:Ratio: All alike All alikecopyright cmassengale

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PP11 Monohybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross ReviewReviewHomozygous dominant x Homozygous dominant x

Homozygous recessiveHomozygous recessiveOffspringOffspring allall HeterozygousHeterozygous (hybrids)(hybrids)Offspring calledOffspring called FF11 generation generation

Genotypic & Phenotypic ratio Genotypic & Phenotypic ratio isis ALL ALIKEALL ALIKE


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Cross: Cross: RoundRound seeds seeds xx Round Round seedsseeds

RrRr xx Rr Rr

FF11 Monohybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross

R

r

rR

RR

rrRr

Rr

Genotype:Genotype: RR, Rr, RR, Rr, rrrr

PhenotypePhenotype: Round Round && wrinkled wrinkled

G.Ratio:G.Ratio: 1:2:11:2:1

P.Ratio:P.Ratio: 3:1 3:1copyright cmassengale

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FF11 Monohybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross ReviewReviewHeterozygous x heterozygousHeterozygous x heterozygousOffspring:Offspring:

25% Homozygous dominant25% Homozygous dominant RRRR50% Heterozygous50% Heterozygous RrRr25% Homozygous Recessive25% Homozygous Recessive rrrrOffspring calledOffspring called FF22 generation generationGenotypic ratio isGenotypic ratio is 1:2:11:2:1Phenotypic RatioPhenotypic Ratio is 3:1 is 3:1


92

What Do the Peas Look What Do the Peas Look Like?Like?


93

……And Now the Test And Now the Test CrossCross

Mendel then crossed a Mendel then crossed a purepure & a & a hybridhybrid from his from his FF2 2 generationgeneration

This is known as an This is known as an FF22 or test cross or test cross

There are There are twotwo possible testcrosses: possible testcrosses:Homozygous dominant x HybridHomozygous dominant x HybridHomozygous recessive x HybridHomozygous recessive x Hybrid


94



Cross: Cross: RoundRound seedsseeds xx Round Round seedsseeds

RRRR xx Rr Rr

FF22 Monohybrid Cross (1 Monohybrid Cross (1stst))

R

R

rR

RR

RrRR

Rr

Genotype:Genotype: RR, RR, RrRr

PhenotypePhenotype: RoundRound

GenotypicGenotypicRatio:Ratio: 1:11:1

PhenotypicPhenotypicRatio:Ratio: All alike All alike


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Cross: Cross: WrinkledWrinkled seedsseeds xx Round Round seedsseeds

rrrr xx Rr Rr

FF22 Monohybrid Cross (2nd) Monohybrid Cross (2nd)

r

r

rR

Rr

rrRr

rr

Genotype:Genotype: Rr, rrRr, rr

PhenotypePhenotype: Round & Round & WrinkledWrinkled

G. Ratio:G. Ratio: 1:11:1

P.Ratio:P.Ratio: 1:1 1:1copyright cmassengale

96

FF22 Monohybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross ReviewReviewHomozygous x Homozygous x

heterozygous(hybrid)heterozygous(hybrid)Offspring:Offspring:50% Homozygous 50% Homozygous RR or rrRR or rr50% Heterozygous50% Heterozygous RrRrPhenotypic RatioPhenotypic Ratio is 1:1 is 1:1Called Called Test CrossTest Cross because the because the offspring have offspring have SAMESAME genotype genotype as parentsas parents


97

Practice Your CrossesPractice Your Crosses

Work the PWork the P11, F, F11, and , and both Fboth F22 Crosses for Crosses for each of the other each of the other

Seven Pea Plant TraitsSeven Pea Plant Traits


98

Mendel’s LawsMendel’s Laws


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Results of Monohybrid Results of Monohybrid CrossesCrosses

InheritableInheritable factors or genesfactors or genes are are responsible for all heritable responsible for all heritable characteristics characteristics

PhenotypePhenotype is based on is based on GenotypeGenotype Each traitEach trait is based onis based on two genestwo genes, ,

one from the mother and the one from the mother and the other from the fatherother from the father

True-breeding individuals are True-breeding individuals are homozygous ( both alleles)homozygous ( both alleles) are are the samethe same


100

Law of DominanceLaw of Dominance

In a cross of parents that are In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traitspure for contrasting traits, , only one form of the trait will only one form of the trait will appear in the next generation.appear in the next generation.

All the offspring will be All the offspring will be heterozygous and express heterozygous and express only the only the dominant trait.dominant trait.

RR x rr RR x rr yieldsyields all Rr (round all Rr (round seeds)seeds)


Documents

Dispatch Welcome to Second Semester 1) Take out Feb calendar and figure out how many assignments are required this month. Come up with a plan of attack